Scientists Have Finally Found the Reason Behind Mysterious Radio Bursts
A discovery, published last week has created ripples among astrophysicists.
July 5, 2019, 4:58 pm explore: Buzz
Two Earth-Like 'Habitable' Planets Discovered Just 12.5 Light Years Away
The observations showed that two planets are orbiting it, both of them similar to the planets in the inner part of the Solar System.
June 20, 2019, 11:20 am explore: Buzz
Astronomers Detect Possible New Planet Orbiting Earth's Nearest Neighbour Star
Proxima Centauri, the nearest red dim dwarf star just 4.2 light years from Earth, may have a second planet orbiting it, as per recent observations.
Shouvik Das, April 16, 2019, 7:18 pm explore: Tech
Unknown Crystals Formed in Extreme Conditions can be Key to Understanding Alien Life
Magic crystals that can come together to provide unlimited celestial power would still be out of question, but the new discovery is still highly significant.
Katie Bouman, the Scientist Behind the First-Ever Black Hole Image, is Now an Internet Star
MIT graduate and scientist Katie Bouman led the creation of an algorithm that helped humanity witness the first ever image of the black hole.
Anurag Verma, April 11, 2019, 7:30 pm explore: Buzz
First Ever Blackhole Images Extraordinary Feat: Indian Scientists
In coordinated press conferences on Wednesday across the globe, researchers at The Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) — a planet scale array of eight ground-based radio telescopes forged through international collaboration — unveiled the first direct visual evidence of a supermassive blackhole and its shadow.
April 11, 2019, 5:03 pm explore: India
Sauron's Eye, Donut or Trump? All the Weird Things That the Black Hole is Reminding Twitter
As soon as the iconic image hit social media, the black hole couldn't escape the imagination of humans, who were reminded of a LOT of things by the Supermassive Black Hole.
Anurag Verma, April 11, 2019, 11:56 am explore: Buzz
First Images of Supermassive Black Hole Released, Twitter Gets Sucked Into the Void
The Supermassive Black Hole itself is 6.5 billion times the size of our sun and is located 55 lightyears away from Earth.
Shantanu David, April 10, 2019, 8:16 pm explore: Buzz
Black Hole Picture Captured For First Time, Image 'Most Direct Proof of Their Existence'
Frederic Gueth, deputy director of the Institute for Millimetric Radio Astronomy (IRAM) in Grenoble, France, talked about the ground-breaking exploit and the science behind it.
April 10, 2019, 8:08 pm explore: World
Black Hole Photograph to be Released by Event Horizon at 6:30PM Today
The first photograph of a black hole is a result of eight radio telescopes, creating in effect a virtual telescope the size of Earth.
Shouvik Das, April 10, 2019, 12:10 pm explore: Tech
In Astrophysics Milestone, First Photo of Black Hole Expected
The US National Science Foundation has scheduled a news conference in Washington to announce a 'groundbreaking result from the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) project,' an international partnership formed in 2012 to try to directly observe the immediate environment of a black hole.
April 6, 2019, 7:11 pm explore: World
After Long Wait, the World to Soon See First Picture of a Black Hole on April 10
Astronomers began speculating about these omnivorous 'dark stars' in the 1700s, and since then indirect evidence has slowly accumulated.
April 6, 2019, 8:45 am explore: World
NASA Took a Hubble Telescope Photo and Turned the Sound from Nearby Galaxies into Music. Really.
What does music from the distance between each star sound like? NASA just made a track so you could hear it.
Raka Mukherjee, March 12, 2019, 9:13 am explore: Buzz
NASA Detects Smiley in New Galaxy
Asking its followers to find the face, NASA explained that using unprecedented resolution of the Hubble's camera it was able to locate and study regions of star formation.
November 5, 2018, 2:37 pm explore: Tech
Indian, US Satellites Find Black Hole that Spins Near Maximum Possible Rates
The gravity of such a collapsing core is so strong that its entire mass is crushed into a point, according to the research accepted for publication in The Astrophysical Journal.
November 1, 2018, 12:57 pm explore: India
NASA Retires Its Planet Hunter, The Kepler Space Telescope
The telescope laid bare the diversity of planets that reside in our Milky Way galaxy, with findings indicating that distant star systems are populated with billions of planets, and even helped pinpoint the first moon known outside our solar system.
October 31, 2018, 12:09 pm explore: Tech
NASA's Chandra X-Ray Space Telescope is Back in Action
The cause of Chandra's safe mode on October 10 has now been understood and the Operations team has successfully returned the spacecraft to its normal pointing mode, according to the US space agency.
October 16, 2018, 3:23 pm explore: Tech
Trouble for Hubble: Telescope Taken Offline After Gyro Failure Leaves it 'Disoriented'
"Hubble entered safe mode after one of the three gyroscopes actively being used to point and steady the telescope failed," NASA said in a statement Monday.
October 9, 2018, 7:54 am explore: Tech
Cops Recover Foreign-made Telescopic Sights for Rifles From Naxals in Chhattisgarh
Police are investigating how the Maoists got the gadgets as according to senior police officials, even the state security forces do not have these sophisticated devices.
September 23, 2018, 7:42 pm explore: India
Hubble Space Telescope Set to Peer in to Earliest Galaxies: NASA
While the Hubble Space Telescope has already detected some of the most distant galaxies known, their numbers are small, making it hard for astronomers to determine if they represent the universe at large.
September 16, 2018, 5:18 pm explore: World


by Cristian Violatti
Theatre of Pergamon
Benh Lieu Song (CC BY-SA)
Pergamon was an ancient city located in the Anatolia region, approximately 25 kilometres from the Aegean Sea in present-day Bergama, Izmir Province of Turkey. The city had great strategic value, since it overlooked the Caicus River Valley (modern name Bakırçay) which provided access from Pergamon to the Aegean coast. Pergamon reached the height of its influence during the Hellenistic period, becoming the capital of the Attalid kings. During the Roman period the city was the first capital of the Asian province, but it eventually lost this status to local rival, Ephesus. Pergamon is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.
The Origin of Pergamon
When Alexander died in 323 BCE, his generals divided the territory he had conquered, which resulted in a power struggle between them. Around this time, Pergamon was little more than a hilltop fortress with a settlement on its southern side. Following years of unrest, the city became part of the territory controlled by Lysimachus, one of the Macedonian generals. By this time, Pergamon embraced the polis (or city-state) model of civic organization.
Lysimachus was immersed in the military conflicts following the division of Alexander's empire, and in 282 BCE, he was on his way to confront Seleucus, the ruler of the Greco-Macedonian administration of Babylon. Lysimachus left his war chest in Pergamon under the supervision of Philatauerus of Tieium, a trusted lieutenant. What Lysimachus could not foresee was that he would be killed in the battle. For Philatauerus, this was not too bad: he was now holding 9,000 talents in a fortress which had no owner. Philatauerus appropriated the money and declared his independence, but in order to avoid unnecessary risks, he wisely swore loyalty to Seleucus and Pergamon became part of the Seleucid Empire.
Under Attalus I Pergamon became the capital of the most powerful kingdom in Anatolia.
Philatauerus ruled Pergamon with considerable autonomy until his death in 263 BCE. His nephew Eumenes I became the ruler of Pergamon: by that time the city had expanded into a small kingdom. Philatauerus is usually mentioned as the founder of the ruling dynasty of Pergamon, but it was actually the ruler after Eumenes, Attalus I (r. 241-197 BCE), who was the official founder of the Attalid dynasty as he was the first one who used the title of king.
Attalus I is remembered for winning an important victory over the Galatians, a Gaulish (Celtic) tribe who came through Thrace and settled in central Anatolia during the 3rd century BCE (this was the same group addressed in the Epistle to the Galatians in the New Testament). Many communities in Anatolia had suffered Galatian attacks who even managed to penetrate the city walls of Pergamon. Attalus drove the Galatians back and defeated them. This military success was the background for the creation of the famous Dying Gaul sculpture which depicts a wounded Galatian warrior. Pergamon was now the capital of the most powerful kingdom in Anatolia.
The Dying Gaul
antmoose (CC BY-SA)
Pergamon's Zenith
Eumenes II succeeded Attalus I and he ruled Pergamon from 197 BCE to 159 BCE. In 190 BCE, the Romans expelled the Seleucids from the Anatolia region. The Romans were not interested in ruling Anatolia themselves, so Eumenes II, who at this point had already become a friend and ally of the Romans, was now made the new ruler of the territory which had belonged to the Seleucids. The Greeks denounced Eumenes as a traitor for joining the Romans against his own fellow Greeks. This new scenario did, though, turn Pergamon into a middle-ranking kingdom and Eumenes truly wealthy. Pergamon was relatively safe at this point: the Romans extended their protection over nearly all the Mediterranean coast of Asia but all of these benefits had a high cost, for now Pergamon, although a lot bigger, was a lot less independent. At this time it is not clear how large the population was, but the archaeological evidence suggests that there was room for no more than 10,000 people.
Eumenes II took the initiative to enhance Pergamon's prestige by enlarging it and turning it into a cultural capital. This was the time when the 'Great Altar' or 'Pergamon Altar' was created. Eumenes also established a centre of scholarship and research by creating a library second only to Alexandria's in terms of the number of volumes and repute of its scholars. It also had a great collection of paintings for public enjoyment.
Athena Killing a Giant
Mina Bulic (CC BY-NC-ND)
Ptolemy IV, the Greek ruler of Egypt, was not happy with the idea of another library challenging Alexandria, so he forbade the export of papyri from Egypt to prevent the development of the library in Pergamon. As a result, the authorities of Pergamon encouraged the mass production of "parchment" (treated skins of sheep and calves), which had long been used for writing purposes in the East. Parchment ended up rivalling paper as a means of communication; it was much more expensive than papyrus but also more durable. The name of Pergamon continues to live on even today in the word "parchment", which is a distortion of Pergamon ("parchment" is pergamino in Spanish and pergamena in Italian).
Pergamon Handed to Rome
During the time of Attalus III (r. 138-133 BCE), Pergamon was handed over to the Roman republic to be fully managed by the Roman people and the kingdom was transformed into the Roman province of Asia with Pergamon as its initial capital. Not everyone accepted the new Roman administration though and a number of revolts took place. The Romans, whose toleration for civic disturbance was low, eventually restored order, but Pergamon soon lost its status and the neighbouring city of Ephesus became the new provincial capital.
Under Hadrian (117-138 CE), the city was favoured by several imperial initiatives. It was granted the title of metropolis and as a result of this an ambitious building programme was carried out: massive temples, a stadium, a theatre, a huge forum, and an amphitheatre were constructed. In addition, at the city limits the shrine to Asclepius (the god of healing) was expanded into a lavish spa.
During the second half of the 3rd century CE Pergamon started to decline. Things got worse in 262 CE due to an earthquake and after that the city was sacked by the Goths. The arrival of Christianity saw further change as the buildings which had honoured the pagan gods were no longer considered desirable. Even the shrine to Asclepius that used to be visited by thousands of invalids was abandoned. Despite these changes, urban life did continue. In 611 CE the Persians overran Syria and entered Anatolia devastating most of it. The Romans finally evicted the Persians and Emperor Constants II (641-668 CE) limited himself to fortifying the acropolis. By this time, Pergamon was no more than a deteriorated ten-hectare city, a pale reflection of its former self.
Archaeology of Pergamon
The archaeological site of Pergamon has provided many fine works of Hellenistic and Roman art but perhaps the most impressive is the altar which now resides in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. The Great Altar was constructed during the reign of Eumenes II (see above) and has a surface area of some 36 by 34 metres. It is one of the most impressive works of art surviving from antiquity. The altar was constructed around a staircase and the 2.3 metres high and 120-metre long frieze is topped by a collonaded hall. Sculpted in high relief, the frieze depicts lively representations of Zeus, Artemis and other Olympian gods fighting the Giants, symbolic of the victory of order over chaos. This gigantic monument is a convincing and lasting testimony to the power and prestige that was enjoyed by this once great city.
Reconstruction of the Pergamon Altar
Raimond Spekking (CC BY-NC-SA)
Archaeologists have also been able to identify the remains of the library. Based on the study of the holes for mounting the shelving, it is estimated that the reading room alone had a storage capacity of 20,000 papyri (many were written on parchment, see above). This is believed to be just ten percent of the total for the entire library.
Alcock, S. and Osborne, R. (ed). Classical Archaeology. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.
Bahn, P. Legendary Sites of the Ancient World. Southwater, 2009.
Bahn, P. The New Penguin Dictionary of Archaeology. Penguin, 2015.
Durant, W. The Life of Greece. Simon & Schuster, 1966.
Fortson, B. Indo-European Language and Culture. Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.
Hornblower, S. and Spawforth, A. The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization. Oxford University Press, 2014.
McEvedy, C. Cities of the Classical World. Penguin Global, 2012.
Mee, C. Greek Archaeology. Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Cristian Violatti
Cristian is a public speaker and independent author with a strong passion for the human past. Inspired by the rich lessons of history, Cristian's goal is to stimulate ideas and to spark the intellectual curiosity of his audience.
Attalid Dynasty
The Attalid Dynasty ruled an empire from their capital at Pergamon...
Hellenistic Period
The Hellenistic Period is a part of the Ancient Period for the...
Conflict & Celts: The Creation of Ancient Galatia
Galatia was the most long-lasting and powerful Celtic settlement...
Ancient China produced what has become the oldest extant culture...
Between Alexander & Rome: The Hellenistic Period
The Hellenistic Period refers to the time between the death of...
Hellenistic Warfare
When Alexander the Great died in 323 BCE, he left behind an empire...
Legendary Sites of the Ancient World: An Illustrated Guide to Over 80...
Written by Bahn, Paul, published by Southwater (2009)
Systems Approach to Appropriate Technology Transfer: Proceedings of...
Written by Fleissner, P., published by Pergamon (2015)
Einstein Spaces
Written by Petrov, A. Z., published by Pergamon (2013)
Written by E. M. Lifshitz & V. B. Berestetski & L. P. Pitaevskii, published by Pergamon (1982)
The Magian Tarok: The Origins of the Tarot in the Mithraic and Hermetic...
Written by Flowers Ph.D., Stephen E., published by Inner Traditions (2019)
Pergamum - Turkey
historvius.com
pergamon.secondpage.de
Violatti, C. (2015, June 14). Pergamon. World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/pergamon/
Violatti, Cristian. "Pergamon." World History Encyclopedia. Last modified June 14, 2015. https://www.worldhistory.org/pergamon/.
Violatti, Cristian. "Pergamon." World History Encyclopedia. World History Encyclopedia, 14 Jun 2015. Web. 20 Jan 2022.
Written by Cristian Violatti, published on 14 June 2015 under the following license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.
282 BCE - 263 BCE
Philetaerus, founder of the Attalid Dynasty, governs Pergamon.
Reign of Eumenes I at Pergamon.
262 BCE
Eumenes rebels and wins against the Seleucid Antiochus I. Beginning of the Pergamon Empire.
Reign of Attalus I at Pergamon.
c. 237 BCE - 241 BCE
Attalus I of Pergamon defeats the Galatians at the headwaters of the Caioc River.
The Aegosages Celts enter Anatolia under Attalos of Pergamon.
Reign of Eumenes II at Pergamon.
Maximum extent of the Pergamon Empire after Apamea peace.
c. 188 BCE
The treaty of Apamea Kibotos. Peace and alliance is established between the Seleucid Empire and Rome joined by its allies, such as Pergamon and Rhodes. The Seleucids have to evacuate all the land and the cities from Asia Minor and to pay a huge war indemnity.
The Attalids of Pergamon are at war with Bithynia.
The Attalids of Pergamon are at war with Pontius.
Reign of Attalus II at Pergamon.
Reign of Attalus III at Pergamon.
Attalus III, the last king of Pergamon, bequeathes the whole of Pergamon to Rome.
Partner Promotion