Split (6)

train · 156k rows

application_number string	publication_number string	title string	decision string	date_produced string	date_published string	main_cpc_label string	cpc_labels string	main_ipcr_label string	ipcr_labels string	patent_number string	filing_date string	patent_issue_date string	uspc_class string	uspc_subclass string	examiner_id string	examiner_name_last string	examiner_name_first string	inventor_list string	abstract string	claims string	background string	summary string	full_description string	ipcr_label_section string	ipcr_label_class string	ipcr_label_subclass string	ipcr_label_group string	ipcr_label_subgroup string
11931825	US20080217967A1-20080911	AUTOMOTIVE VEHICLE SEAT HAVING A COMFORT SYSTEM	ACCEPTED	20080828	20080911		[]	B60N256	["B60N256"]	7578552	20071031	20090825	297	184120	64013.0	NELSON JR	MILTON	[{"inventor_name_last": "Bajic", "inventor_name_first": "Goran", "inventor_city": "Windsor", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CA"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Brennan", "inventor_name_first": "Lindy", "inventor_city": "Windsor", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CA"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Truant", "inventor_name_first": "Scott", "inventor_city": "Windsor", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CA"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Onica", "inventor_name_first": "Madalina", "inventor_city": "Windsor", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CA"}]	There is disclosed a comfort system suitable for use in a seat of an automotive vehicle. The system preferably includes an air mover in fluid communication with an open space below a trim layer of the seat for providing ventilation, heating and/or cooling to the seat occupant.	1-23. (canceled) 24. A seat for a vehicle, comprising: a) a polymeric foam cushion; b) at least one through-hole passage that extends through the cushion; c) an air-permeable trim surface disposed over the cushion at the occupant contact areas of the seat; d) a peripheral edge-sealed insert for providing an open space beneath the air-impermeable trim surface; e) a layer of the insert having a plurality of openings therein; f) an air mover in fluid communication with the open space of the insert through the through-hole passage for directing air to or through the openings of the insert layer; and g) a tubular structure that extends through the through-hole passage and attaches to the air mover. 25. The seat of claim 24, wherein the tubular structure is generally flexible and attaches to the air mover by a flange structure in mating engagement with a ring. 26. The seat of claim 25, wherein the air mover includes a thermoelectric unit. 27. The seat of claim 24, wherein the seat includes a lumbar or back support adjustment assembly. 28. The seat of claim 24, wherein the seat includes a flexible electrical heater layer. 30. The seat of claim 24, wherein the layer with openings includes a film or a textile. 31. The seat of claim 26, further including: a heater comprising a thermoelectric unit integrated with the air mover or a flexible electrical heater later, wherein the layer with openings includes a film or a textile, wherein the air mover is attached to a mounting structure for attaching the air mover to a lumbar support adjustment assembly, and wherein the cushion includes a plurality of sub-passageways having an air-impermeable barrier thereon. 32. A ventilated seat for a vehicle, comprising: a vehicle seat having a ventilated component selected from a seat component and a backrest component, at least one of which provides a seat cushion and an air permeable trim surface; a spacer layer located beneath the trim surface of the ventilated component, the a spacer layer including: a first spacer material that is adapted to permit fluid flow therethrough; and an impermeable barrier layer being generally located between the first spacer material and the trim surface, the impermeable barrier layer having holes for enabling fluid flow through the trim surface; and an air mover assembly including: a blower adapted for moving air through the spacer layer, the blower being fixedly secured to a lumbar support, wherein the air mover assembly substantially adjoins the spacer layer, and wherein the seat cushion includes an opening extending therethrough for at least assisting in providing fluid communication between the blower and the spacer layer. 33. The ventilated seat of claim 32, wherein the impermeable barrier layer is attached to the first spacer material. 34. The ventilated seat of claim 33, wherein the air mover assembly further includes thermoelectric unit or a PTC heater, or both, in communication with the blower for moving air through the spacer layer. 35. The ventilated seat of claim 34, wherein the spacer layer further includes a second spacer material that is adapted to permit fluid flow therethrough, the second spacer material being generally located between the impermeable barrier layer and the trim surface. 36. The ventilated seat of claim 35, further comprising a tubular member that is in communication with the blower, wherein the tubular member has a first portion having and arcuate profile and a second portion substantially parallel with a side edge of the seat cushion. 37. The ventilated seat of claim 36, wherein the second portion of the tubular member is at least partially disposed within the opening of the seat cushion. 38. The ventilated seat of claim 37, wherein the blower is at least partially disposed within the seat cushion. 39. A method of forming a seat for a vehicle, the method including the steps of: a) providing a polymeric foam cushion; b) forming at least one through-hole passage that extends through the cushion; c) providing an air-permeable trim surface disposed over the cushion at the occupant contact areas of the seat; d) forming a peripheral edge-sealed insert for providing an open space beneath the air-impermeable trim surface, wherein the insert includes a layer having a plurality of openings therein; and f) providing an air mover in fluid communication with the open space of the insert through the through-hole passage for directing air to or through the openings of the insert layer, wherein a tubular structure extends through the through-hole passage and attaches to the air mover to provide fluid communications therebetween.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>For many years the transportation industry has been concerned with designing seats for automotive vehicles that provide added comfort to occupants in the seats. Various innovations in providing seating comfort are discussed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,064,037; 5,921,314; 5,403,065; 6,048,024 and 6,003,950, all of which are expressly incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. In addition, other innovations in providing seating comfort are discussed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/619,171, filed Jul. 19, 2000, titled “Ventilated Seat Having a Pad Assembly and a Distribution Device”; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/755,505, filed Jan. 5, 2001, titled “Ventilated Seat”; and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/755,506, filed Jan. 5, 2001, titled “Portable Ventilated Seat”, each of which are expressly incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. In the interest of continuing such innovation, the present invention provides an improved comfort system, which is preferably suitable for employment within or as part of an automotive vehicle seat and which assists in providing comfort control to an occupant in the seat.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>According to the present invention, there is disclosed an automotive vehicle seat. The seat typically provides an open space beneath an air-permeable trim surface of the seat. Preferably, the open space is located between the trim surface and a cushion of the seat. An air mover is typically in fluid communication with the open space for moving air through the open space, the air permeable trim surface or both. In one embodiment, the air mover is conveniently mounted upon or fastened to one or more components of the seat such as a lumbar adjustment assembly (e.g., lumbar wires or other guide members) of the seat or a frame of the seat. Advantageously, such components of the seat may be a standard part of a particular seat or may be easily adaptable for supporting the air mover such that minimal costs are added to the seat. In alternative or additional embodiments, a tubular structure may assist in providing fluid communication between the air mover and the open space. Advantageously, such a tubular structure can assist in allowing the air mover to be more conveniently located relative to various seating components.	CLAIM OF PRIORITY This application is a continuation of Ser. No. 10/966,652, filed on Oct. 15, 2004, which claims benefit of provisional application Ser. No. 60/512,237 filed on Oct. 17, 2003, which are both hereby entirely incorporated by reference for all purposes. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to an automotive vehicle seat, and more particularly to an automotive vehicle seat having a comfort system configured for providing heating, cooling, ventilation, a combination thereof or the like to a passenger of the vehicle seat. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION For many years the transportation industry has been concerned with designing seats for automotive vehicles that provide added comfort to occupants in the seats. Various innovations in providing seating comfort are discussed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,064,037; 5,921,314; 5,403,065; 6,048,024 and 6,003,950, all of which are expressly incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. In addition, other innovations in providing seating comfort are discussed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/619,171, filed Jul. 19, 2000, titled “Ventilated Seat Having a Pad Assembly and a Distribution Device”; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/755,505, filed Jan. 5, 2001, titled “Ventilated Seat”; and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/755,506, filed Jan. 5, 2001, titled “Portable Ventilated Seat”, each of which are expressly incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. In the interest of continuing such innovation, the present invention provides an improved comfort system, which is preferably suitable for employment within or as part of an automotive vehicle seat and which assists in providing comfort control to an occupant in the seat. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION According to the present invention, there is disclosed an automotive vehicle seat. The seat typically provides an open space beneath an air-permeable trim surface of the seat. Preferably, the open space is located between the trim surface and a cushion of the seat. An air mover is typically in fluid communication with the open space for moving air through the open space, the air permeable trim surface or both. In one embodiment, the air mover is conveniently mounted upon or fastened to one or more components of the seat such as a lumbar adjustment assembly (e.g., lumbar wires or other guide members) of the seat or a frame of the seat. Advantageously, such components of the seat may be a standard part of a particular seat or may be easily adaptable for supporting the air mover such that minimal costs are added to the seat. In alternative or additional embodiments, a tubular structure may assist in providing fluid communication between the air mover and the open space. Advantageously, such a tubular structure can assist in allowing the air mover to be more conveniently located relative to various seating components. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The features and inventive aspects of the present invention will become more apparent upon reading the following detailed description, claims and drawings, of which the following is a brief description: FIG. 1 is a side sectional view of a portion of an exemplary seat according to the present invention; FIG. 1A is an exploded perspective view of various layers and sub-layers of an exemplary comfort system according to an aspect of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a perspective view of a portion of an exemplary air mover according to an aspect of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a perspective partially cut-away view of an exemplary insert, which may be used according to the present invention; FIG. 4 is a sectional view of the insert of FIG. 3 taken along line 4-4; FIG. 5 is a rear cut away perspective view of an exemplary backrest component with an air mover assembly and an exemplary tubular structure assembled thereto. FIG. 6 is a perspective view of an exemplary fastener, which is employed for attaching the air mover assembly to a seat. FIG. 7 is a top perspective view of another exemplary tubular structure being assembled to an exemplary partially cut away seat component of a vehicle seat. FIG. 8 is a bottom perspective view of the exemplary seat component of FIG. 7 during assembly. FIG. 9 is another bottom perspective view of the exemplary seat component of FIG. 7 after assembly. FIG. 10 is a rear perspective view of an exemplary blower assembly according to the present invention. FIG. 11 is a front perspective view of the exemplary blower assembly of FIG. 10. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention is predicated upon providing an automotive vehicle seat configured for providing heating, cooling, ventilation or a combination thereof to an occupant in the seat. The seat typically includes an open space beneath an air-permeable trim surface of the seat. Preferably, the open space is located between the trim surface and a cushion of the seat. An air mover is typically in fluid communication with the open space for moving air through the open space, the air permeable trim surface or both. In one embodiment, the air or other fluid mover is conveniently mounted upon or fastened to one or more components of the seat such as a lumbar adjustment assembly (e.g., lumbar rods or wires) of the seat or a frame of the seat. Advantageously, such components of the seat may be a standard part of a particular seat or may be easily adaptable for supporting the air mover such that minimal costs are added to the seat. In alternative or additional embodiments, a tubular structure may assist in providing fluid communication between the air mover and the open space. Advantageously, such a tubular structure can assist in allowing the air mover to be more conveniently located relative to various seating components. In other additional or alternative embodiments, the seat may include a barrier layer disposed between the trim layer of the seat and the open space. Referring to FIGS. 1 and 1A, there are illustrated portions of a seat component 10, which could be a backrest cushion component or a seat cushion component according to the present invention. The seat component 10 typically includes a seat cushion 12, a trim layer 14 and an open space 16 therebetween. In the embodiment depicted, the seat component 10 also advantageously includes a forward layer 20, which may include a barrier sub-layer, a heater sub-layer or both. In another embodiment, the layer 20 may be located between open space 16 and the seat cushion 12. As used herein, seat cushion is used to refer to both the cushion upon which the occupant sits and to the cushion against the occupant may lean, i.e. the backrest cushion. The trim layer 14 may be formed of any materials suitable for automotive vehicle seats such as cloth, perforated and non-perforated leather, combinations thereof or other like materials. In a preferred embodiment, the trim layer 14 is formed of a perforated leather having openings (e.g., through-holes) suitable for having fluid (e.g., ambient air, heated air, cooled air or a combination thereof flow therethrough. In one embodiment, the leather is tanned or otherwise treated in a manner to maintain a relatively high moisture content, reduce its thermal insulation value effectively allowing it to alter its intrinsic specific heat so that the leather maintains less thermal energy. Also, such leather may permit the number of openings in the perforated leather may be reduced or eliminated. The cushion 12 may also be formed of any material suitable for automotive vehicle seats. Exemplary materials includes foams (e.g., polymer/isocyanate foams) or other cushion materials. The cushion or cushion material include an air-impermeable barrier between the cushion and the open space. The air-impermeable barrier typically covers at least the portion of the cushion that is used by an occupant, although the barrier may be located on other portions of the cushion including on any through passages or sub-passages in the cushion. The barrier may additionally or alternatively include a coating material applied to the material of the cushion, a separate lining material that may be attached to the cushion or a space layer a chemically treated a surface of the cushion (e.g. a skin), or any combination thereof. The open space 16 may be provided in a variety of ways, but is typically provided by positioning a spacer layer 24 between the seat cushion 12 and the trim layer 14. The spacer layer 24 is typically formed of a spacer material and the spacer material may be selected from a variety of different materials. The spacer material may be provided as a variety of synthetic materials such as plastic or polymeric materials, padding and stuffing materials, lining and carrier materials, combinations thereof or the like. Preferably, the spacer material is at least partially pliable or flexible. As examples, the spacer layer may be provided as a plurality of rubber, foam, plastic or other members or fibers. The members or fibers are preferably spaced apart from each other to define the open space 16 therebetween while still being close enough together to provide cushion and support. As another example the spacer layer may be formed of a 3-dimensional spacer fabric structure or material. The particular spacer layer 24 shown is formed of polymeric (e.g., polyester) strand material that is interwoven to provide opposing honeycomb structures 28 (e.g., fabric panels), which are interconnected by several additional polymeric strand materials to provide the open space 16 between the structures 28 while still providing cushion and support. As an example, one preferred material is sold under the tradename 3MESH® and is commercially available from Müller Textil GmbH, Germany or Müller Textiles, Inc., Rhode Island, USA. As discussed, the forward layer 20, when included, can have a barrier sub-layer, a heater or heater sub-layer or both. In the embodiment depicted, the forward layer 20 includes a heater sub-layer 32, which is preferably laminated to a gas barrier sub-layer 34 (e.g., a film, a textile or otherwise) although neither are necessarily required. Various different types of heaters are suitable for incorporation into a car seat and it is contemplated that any of such heaters may be incorporated into the seat of the present invention. Such heaters typically incorporate flexible electrical heating elements that are preferably thin, flat, non-obtrusive or a combination thereof. As examples, a lay-wire heater, a carbon fiber heater, a positive thermal coefficient (PTC) heater, a thermoelectric heater or the like, which are typically supported with a backing (e.g., a cloth or fabric type backing) may be used. In a preferred embodiment, the heater sub-layer is a carbon fiber type heater with a backing (e.g., a nonwoven layer). One exemplary preferred heater is sold under the tradename CARBOTEX® and commercially available from W.E.T Automotive Systems, Inc. in Germany and/or FTG Fraser-Technik GmbH, Schleizer Strasse 56-58, D-95028 Hot/Saale, Germany. An example of such a heater is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,064,037, issued May 16, 2000, herein expressly incorporated by reference for all purposes. When included, the barrier sub-layer 34 is typically formed of a plastic or polymeric material that softens or melts upon exposure to heat to assist the sub-layer 34 in adhering to one or more other layers or sub-layers. Alternatively, the barrier sub-layer 34 may be formed of fabrics, woven materials (e.g, goretex or microfibers), nylon, foam, including closed pore foam or other materials. Preferably, the barrier sub-layer 34 is substantially impermeable to fluids and particularly air such that the sub-layer 34 can assist in forming an air barrier as will be described further herein. Dimensionally, for a film barrier sub-layer, it is preferable for the film thickness to be about 0.1 mm to about 2.0 mm thick and more preferably about 0.7 mm to about 1.0 mm thick. Of course, it is contemplated that a film sub-layer may have a variable thickness and may be outside of the aforementioned ranges. As mentioned above, gas barrier sub-layer 34 also may be located between the open space and the cushion. In this aspect, the barrier sub-layer preferably provides a barrier adapted to prevent fluid flow through or into the cushion. In another embodiment, multiple similar or different sub-layers are utilized. The forward layer 20 can also include one or more buffer sub-layers, one or more adhesives or adhesive sub-layers, one or more tape sub-layers, one or more porous foam layers or a combination thereof. Adhesive may be supplied in layers, drops or in a variety of other configurations. Preferably, the buffer layer is at least partially formed of an insulating material. In the preferred embodiment depicted, the forward layer includes two adhesive sub-layers 38, one strip of tape 40 and one buffer sub-layer 44. The adhesive sub-layers 38 are preferably formed of a hot melt adhesive although not necessarily required. The adhesive may be provided as a web or otherwise and may be continuous or non continuous (e.g., may be applied in drops, dabs or the like). The adhesive sub-layers may include polyamides, polyesters, elastomers, urethanes, olefin polymers or a combination thereof. Moreover, the adhesives may be formulated as desired for particular processing parameters or conditions. Preferably, the adhesive sub-layers are substantially free of anti-blocking solutions, blowing additives, process contaminants or the like which might interfere with adhesive performance. As an example, one suitable hot melt adhesive is commercially available as a non-woven web under the tradename SPUNFAB® from Spunfab, Ltd. 175 Muffin Lane, Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio 44223. The buffer sub-layer 44 in the embodiment depicted is a layer of gauze which is capable of protecting the heater sub-layer 32 although various alternative protective materials may be used such as cloth, fleece or the like. Optionally the buffer sub-layer 44 may include adhesive material for laminating it to other sub-layers. The tape 40, when used, is preferably tacky on two sides. It is also contemplated that the seat component 10 may include a second open space (not shown) provided between the barrier sub-layer 34 and the trim layer 14, although not required. Thus, it is contemplated that the forward layer 20 may also include a spacer layer (not shown), which may be located between the buffer sub-layer 44 and an occupant of the seat. The air-permeable layer, which may be any one of a variety of air-permeable materials (such as reticulated foam, for example) may be able to help distribute air under the occupant. It is also contemplated that such a spacer layer may be formed of any of the other materials described in relation to the other spacer layer 24. In such an embodiment, the heater sub-layer 32, when provided, may be above or below the second open space. Generally, it is contemplated that the various layers and sub-layers described above may be combined in a variety of sequences and according to a variety of protocols and technique. Thus, the order in which the various layers and sub-layers are combined and the techniques of combining should not in any way limit the present invention unless such order or techniques is specifically claimed. It is also contemplated that there may be greater or fewer layers and that each layer may include greater or fewer sub-layers. Moreover, it is contemplated that the layers may be secured between the cushion and trim layer using a variety of techniques. The layers and sub-layers discussed, may be provided by a bag-type or a peripheral edge sealed insert such as that shown in FIGS. 3 and 4. An example of such an insert is described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/434,890, filed May 9, 2003 and expressly incorporated herein by reference. Alternatively, however, the layers may be provided in a non-sealed condition or as an open edge insert as depicted in FIGS. 1 and 1A such that there is no added peripheral seal about the spacer layer 24. According to a preferred method, the sub-layers of the forward layer are each laminated to each other followed by laminating the forward layer to the spacer layer. Of course, the forward layer and the spacer layer could be laminated together at the same time that the sub-layers of the forward layer are laminated together. Referring to FIGS. 1 and 1A, the forward layer is formed according to a preferred method by feeding the various sub-layers 32, 34, 38, 44 to a laminator (e.g., a belt and roller laminator). The sub-layers 32, 34, 38, 44 are preferably fed to the laminator from rolls or otherwise and are cut to shape to form the forward layer after lamination. The forward layer 20 may be cut to nearly any desired shape or configuration. In the illustrated embodiment, the forward layer 20 is cut to be generally rectangular and to include a plurality of through-holes 48. The through-holes 48 may be arranged in a generally rectangular configuration or any other configuration and may each be substantially the same size or differently sized. In FIGS. 1A and 3, however, the through-holes 48 are shown in a preferred configuration as progressively becoming larger from one side of the forward layer to another. The through-holes 48 are optional especially for layers and sub-layers that are not located between the spacer layer and the occupant. Indeed, in some embodiments, the sub-layer, e.g. barrier sub-layer, does not have through-holes. Once the spacer layer 24 has been appropriately cut or otherwise shaped to the proper configuration, which preferably corresponds to the forward layer 20, the forward layer is laminated to the spacer layer 24. Of course, it is contemplated that the forward layer 20 and the spacer layer 24 may be laminated to each other prior to cutting the layers. In the preferred embodiment, the layers 20, 24 are laminated in a stationary lamination device at elevated temperatures such that the adhesive sub-layer 38 of the forward layer 20 adheres and attaches the forward layer 20 to the spacer layer 24 (e.g., the honeycomb structure). As such, laminating of the layers and cutting of the layers may be integrated into a single processing step. For example, it is contemplated that supplies (e.g., rolls) of each of the layers 20, 24 may be provided to a machine that laminates the layers 20, 24 together and cuts the layers 20, 24, to the desired configuration. Alternatively, such cutting may be performed by another cutting machine or device. In such an embodiment, it is contemplated that the through-holes in the forward layer 20 may be formed prior to, during or after lamination. It is also contemplated that additional cutting or laminating steps may also be employed. For example, it is contemplated that the layers, the sub-layers or both may be partially cut or shaped prior to stationary or other lamination and further cut or shaped after such lamination. During final assembly, for embodiments including the heater sub-layer 32, a wire harness or other electrical connection is preferably inserted within a pocket formed by the tape or otherwise attached to the forward layer 20. For assembly of the layers to a vehicle seat, the laminated layers are preferably connected (e.g., sewn, adhered or otherwise attached) to a portion of the seat such as the cover (e.g., a perforated leather cover) or to the cushion (e.g., foam) of the seat. In one preferred embodiment, a seat cover may be configured to include a pocket for receiving the layers. Alternatively, it is contemplated that hook and loop fasteners may be utilized to attach the layers to portions (e.g., the cover or foam cushion) of the seat. For example, a strip of hook and loop fastener may be attached (e.g., adhered) to the spacer layer and another strip of hook and loop fastener may be attached (e.g., adhered) to the foam cushion within a trench. Thus, the strips can be fastened to each other thereby attaching the layers 20, 24 to the cushion 12. The forward layer 20 is preferably closer to the outer seat cover relative to the spacer layer 24 although not necessarily required. Generally, the present invention provides for fluid communication between an air mover and the open space 16. In one embodiment, the air mover may be in direct fluid communication with the open space. In other embodiments, however, a tubular structure is provided for facilitating fluid communication between the air mover and the open space 16. It is contemplated that a variety of air movers may be employed according to the present invention. Exemplary air movers include, without limitation, blowers, fans, pumps combinations thereof or the like. Air movers of the present invention may be configured for moving heated air, cooled air, ambient air or a combination thereof. As an example, an ambient air mover might be a fan or blower that pushes or pulls air from inside the vehicle cabin through the open space of the comfort system. A heated or cooled air mover might be, for example, a blower or fan coupled with a heating and/or cooling unit (e.g., a thermoelectric heater, cooler or both) wherein the unit heats or cools air from the cabin of the vehicle prior to pushing the air through the open space of the system to the trim surface of the seat. In one embodiment, the air mover may be coupled with a heating and/or cooling unit in a single integrated component. For example a thermoelectric element may comprise on or more parts of a blower or fan, (e.g. as part of the blades). For example, as seen in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,119,463; 6,223,539; and 6,606,866, all of which are incorporated by reference. The air mover may be positioned in a variety of locations relative to the components of the seat for allowing it to move air through the open space of the system and/or for allowing it to move air through the trim layer of the seat. The air mover may be directly adjacent the open space provided by the spacer material. In such an embodiment, the air mover may be located in a recess of the occupant side of the seat cushion and may provide direct fluid communication between the open space of the system and an opening (e.g., a through-hole) in the seat cushion. Alternatively, the air mover may be located at least partially between the seat cushion component and the backrest component for providing fluid communication between the open space and the air mover, the interior of the vehicle cabin or both. In addition, the air mover may be located within the seat cushion remote from the occupant side i.e. enclosed within at least a minimal amount of seat cushion material, on the underside of the seat cushion or remote from the backrest e.g. near the front of the seat cushion. One or more structures may facilitate fluid communication between an air mover and the open space. For example, one or more passages or sub-passages may be formed within, through or on the seat cushion for forming a tubular structure that provides fluid communication between the open space and the air or other fluid mover through the opening. As discussed above, the passages may be coated or lined to improve their air-impermeability. Such passages and sub-passages may also include structures or features that reduce the collapse of the passages and sub-passages under the weight of the occupant. Typically, the passage will be centrally located, e.g. along either the front-to-back or side-to-side centerline of the cushion, so as efficiently distribute air from the air mover; however, this is not necessarily the case. This passage may be located anywhere on the seat (e.g. proximate or within a thigh bolster) such as along the front or back edges of the seat or along either side edge. The passage may also be located in any quadrant of the cushion. Alternatively, additional components may be employed to provide fluid communication between the air mover and the open space. Examples of such additional components include, without limitation, tubes or tubular structures formed of materials such as polymers, foams, fabrics, adhesives, metals, fibrous materials, combinations thereof or the like. For embodiments including a tubular structure, the tubular structure may extend behind the seat cushion, to the underside of the cushion, to a location within the cushion or elsewhere. When extending to the air or other fluid mover, the tubular structure may extend around the seat cushion, extend between two or more seat cushions or portions of seat cushions, extend through a portion or the entirety of the seat cushion (e.g. a through-hole), a combination thereof or the like. Also, more than one tubular structure may be utilized. When multiple tubular structure are utilized, one or more air or other fluid movers may be utilized and the tubular structures may be the same or different in the manner in which they extend to the air or other fluid mover. Moreover, it is contemplated that the tubular structure may be shaped as desired to assist it in extending to a desired location behind the seat cushion. For example, the extension may be arced, angled, contoured, straight or otherwise configured as it extends away from the rest of the insert. Referring to FIG. 5, there is illustrated a seat backrest component 54 having a system in accordance with the present invention. Like in FIG. 1, the system of FIG. 5 includes the spacer layer 24 for forming the open space 16 and, optionally, includes the forward layer 20. In the embodiment depicted, the spacer layer 24 overlays a forward surface 56 of a backrest cushion 60 of the backrest component 54. Of course, the layer 20, 24 may be attached to the cushion 60 or a cover or trim layer using any of the attachments disclosed herein. The system also includes a tubular structure 62 for providing fluid communication between the open space 16 and an air mover 66. As shown, the backrest cushion 60 has an opening 68 (e.g., a slot or through-hole) extending generally through the cushion 60 of the backrest component 54. In particular, the opening 68 extends through the forward surface 56 and a rearward surface 72 of the cushion 60 at a central area of the cushion 60. In the embodiment shown, the opening 68 is sized to receive the tubular structure 62 and the tubular structure 62 extends at least partially or fully into and through the opening 68 and the cushion 60 preferably substantially seals (e.g., interferingly seals, adhesively seals or otherwise seals) about an outer surface of the tubular structure 62. Alternatively, however, it is contemplated that the tubular structure 62 may not extend into the opening 68 and that the structure 62 is otherwise situated (e.g., abuttingly adhered) to form substantially fluid tight communication between the tubular structure 62 and the opening 68. The tubular structure 62 also extends behind the cushion 60 to oppose at least a portion of the rearward surface 72 of the cushion 60. In the embodiment shown, the tubular structure 62 extends to the air mover 66 (e.g., a blower or blower assembly), which is also located behind the cushion 60. As can be seen, the tubular structure 62 is generally flexible thereby allow the structure 62 to be contoured (e.g., curved or angled) to extend to and/or through the opening 68. Referring to FIGS. 7-9, there is illustrated an alternative system with a seat cushion component 78 having the spacer layer 24 for forming the open space 16 and, optionally, includes the forward layer 20 an alternative tubular structure 80 according to the present invention. As with previous systems, the tubular structure 80 can be configured in a manner similar to any of the tubular structures described herein, however, the tubular structure 80 is additionally contoured (e.g., arced or angle) or non-linear. In particular, the tubular structure 80 extends from a first end portion 84 to a second end portion 86 with a contoured (e.g., arced, angled or non-linear) portion 88 therebetween. Preferably, the contoured portion 88 arcs to allow at least the second end portion 86 to be of the tubular structure 80 to substantially coextend or become substantially parallel with a side edge 42 of a cushion 94. It should be recognized that the tubular structure 80 is naturally contoured (e.g., arced, angled or non-linear), which as used herein means that the contoured portion is contoured without external forces required to create the contoured portion. As shown in cut-away, the seat cushion 94 has an opening 98 (e.g., a slotted through-hole) extending generally through the cushion 94 of the seat cushion component 78. In particular, the opening 98 extends through a forward surface 102 and a rearward surface 104 of the cushion 94 at a side area of the cushion 94. In the embodiment shown, the opening 98 is sized to receive the tubular structure 80 and the tubular structure 80 extends at least partially or fully into and through the opening 98 and the cushion 94 preferably substantially seals (e.g., interferingly seals, adhesively seals or otherwise seals) about an outer surface of the tubular structure 80. Alternatively, however, it is contemplated that the tubular structure 80 may not extend into the opening 98 and that the structure 80 is otherwise situated (e.g., abuttingly adhered) to form substantially fluid tight communication between the tubular structure 80 and the opening 98. The tubular structure 80 also extends behind the cushion 94 to oppose at least a portion of the rearward surface 104 of the cushion 94. In the embodiment shown, the tubular structure 80 extends to an air mover 66 (e.g., a blower assembly or blower), which is also located behind the cushion 94. As an added advantage, the contoured portion 88 allows the tubular structure 80 to easily extend toward a forward edge 112 of the seat cushion 94 and/or seat cushion component 78. It should be understood, however, that such a contoured portion 88 may be configured to allow the tubular structure 80 to extend toward any desired location. It should be understood that in any of the embodiments disclosed herein, steps used to assemble the system to a seat may be carried out in any desired order. For example, the spacer material may be attached to the cushion followed by extending the tubular structure through the cushion opening. Alternatively, the tubular structure may be extended through the cushion first. Generally, the air mover (e.g., the blower or blower assembly) may be attached as needed or desired to various different components of the vehicle seat or to other portions of the vehicle depending upon the seat configuration, the vehicle configuration or both. For example, the air mover may be attached to a cushion of the seat (e.g., a seat or backrest cushion), a frame of the seat, one or more rod supports of the seat, one or more location adjustment components of the seat, one or more frame supports for the seat, combinations thereof or the like. It is also contemplated that the blower may not be attached to any components other than the tubular structure. Preferably, the air mover is attached to a component that maintains a substantially identical location with respect to a seat or backrest cushion particularly during adjustment of the cushion position or seat. Of course, it is contemplated that the location of the air mover may change relative to the seat or backrest cushion as well. It is also contemplated that the air mover may be attached to components of the seat or other portions of the vehicle with a variety of fastening mechanisms. For example, the air mover may be attached to the various components with one or more mechanical fasteners such as clips, rivets, screws, bolts, interference fit fasteners, snap fit fasteners, integral fasteners, non-integral fasteners, combinations thereof or the like. Other fasteners which may be employed include adhesives, tapes, magnets, combinations thereof or the like. Depending on the desired configuration, the one or more fasteners may be integrally formed with the air mover (e.g., the housing or other components of a blower) or the one or more fasteners may be separately formed from the air mover and attached thereto. Alternatively, a mounting structure may be attached to the air mover and the one or more fasteners may be integrally formed with the mounting structure or the one or more fasteners may be separately formed from the mounting structure and attached thereto. When used, the mounting structure may be attached to the air mover using any of the fasteners or fastening methods disclosed herein with respect to the air mover and the seat. It is also contemplated that the mounting structure may be integrally formed with one or more of the seat components discussed herein. Referring to FIGS. 10 and 11, there is illustrated one exemplary air mover or blower assembly 130 according to the present invention. The assembly 130 includes the blower 66 attached to a mounting structure 132. Of course, the blower 66 may be configured for moving heated air, cooled air, ambient air or a combination thereof. In the particular embodiment shown, the blower 66 includes a housing 136 (e.g., a plastic housing) that is attached to the mounting structure 132 with a plurality of fasteners 138 (e.g., screws). The mounting structure 132 is shown as a substantially rectangular metal plate with rounded off corners 142 and a plurality of openings 144 (e.g., through-holes) extending through the plate, one opening 144, adjacent each corner 142. Of course, it is contemplated that a variety of structures other than plates may be employed as the mounting structure and a variety of materials (e.g., plastics, fabrics or the like) may be employed for forming the structure in a variety of alternative configurations. The assembly 130, as shown in FIG. 5 also includes one or more (e.g., four) fasteners 150 attached thereto. As shown in FIG. 6, each fastener 150 includes a body portion 152 with projections 156, 158 extending therefrom for interference fitting the fastener 150 to the mounting structure 132. In the embodiment shown, each fastener 150 includes a pair of projections 156 extending from an end 162 of the fastener 156 and a conical projection 158. Preferably the pair of projections 156 and the conical projection 158 extend at least partially toward each other, although not required. Each fastener 150 also includes a fastening mechanism 166 for attaching the fastener 150, the blower assembly 130 or both to one or more components of the seat or other portions of the automotive vehicle. Preferably, the fastening mechanism 166 can be attached by interference fit, adhesion, magnetism or otherwise. In the particular embodiment depicted, the fastening mechanism 166 is a C-shaped clip configured for forming an interference fit. It is generally contemplated that the fastening mechanism may be fitted with a locking mechanism (not shown) to enhance the ability of the fastening mechanism 166 in attaching to members. In FIG. 5, the air mover assembly 130 is attached to a pair of members 170 that extend substantially parallel to the back surface 72 of the backrest cushion 60 or backrest cushion component 54. As shown, the members 170 extend substantially vertically when the backrest component 54 is in the upright position, although they may extend in a variety of directions depending upon the members 170 employed and the seat configuration. In the particular embodiment illustrated, the members 170 are cylindrical metal rods that form a portion of a lumbar or back support adjustment assembly. Preferably, the members 170 are substantially stationary relative to the backrest component 54, although this is not required. In addition to the above, it is contemplated that the air mover 66 or air mover assembly 130 might be attached to various different components of a lumbar support adjustment assembly. For example, the air mover 66 or air mover assembly 130 may be attached to plates, flexible members, fasteners, motors or other components of such an assembly. For attaching the air mover assembly 130 to the members 170, the end 162 and projections 156 of the fasteners 150 are extended through the openings 144 of the mounting structure 132 until the mounting structure 132 is interference fit between the pair of projections 156 and the conical projection 158. Also, the fastening mechanisms 166 of each of fasteners 150 are interference fit (e.g., at least partially clipped about) the members 170. As shown, the mounting structure 132 is between the members 170 and the cushion 60. In an alternative embodiment, however, the mounting structure 132 may be located on a side of the members 170 away from the cushion 60. In such an embodiment, the fasteners 150 would have to be reversed such that the fastening mechanisms 166 extend toward the cushion 60 and the air mover 66 would be located at least partially between the members 170. Advantageously, such an embodiment can provide for greater space between the air mover 66 and the cushion 60 for allowing air to flow to or from the air mover 66 more easily. Referring to FIGS. 10 and 11, the air mover assembly 130 is attached to a support frame 174 for the cushion 94. As depicted, the mounting structure 132 is attached to the support frame 174. It is contemplated, however, that the air mover 66 may be directly attached to the support frame 174 and the mounting structure 132 may be removed. Moreover, the support frame 174, particularly when molded of plastic, can be molded to specifically receive the air mover 66 and assist in its attachment thereto. Any one of the tubular structures of the present invention may be placed in fluid communication with the air movers of the present invention using a variety of different techniques, fastening mechanisms or the like. As an example, a tubular structure may be fastened (e.g., adhered, mechanically fastened, magnetized, combinations thereof or the like) to an air mover or another component to provide fluid communication. Preferably, although not required, fluid communication is established by positioning the tubular structure relative to the air mover such that the air movers can pull air from or push air into an opening (e.g., a tunnel or passage) defined by the tubular structure. According to one embodiment, the air mover 66 (e.g., the blower assembly) of FIGS. 5 and 8, is preferably attached to an attachment component 180 (e.g., a ring) of the respective tubular structures 62, 80 for placing the air mover in fluid communication with the tubular structures. Additionally, the tubular structures 62, 80 include an opening 186 (e.g., a through-hole) extending in fluid communication with an internal opening 190 (e.g., a tunnel) of the tubular structures 62, 80. At least partially surrounding the openings 62, 80 are attachment components 180, which are attached (e.g., adhered) to the tubular structures 62, 80. In the embodiment shown, and with additional reference to FIG. 2, the housing 130 includes flanges 194 suitable for snap-fitting the housing 136 to the attachment component 180. In this manner, the air mover 66 can be attached to and placed in fluid communication with the tubular structures 62, 80 and can, in turn, be placed in fluid communication with the through-holes 48 of the forward layer 20, the open space 16 of the spacer layer 24. Advantageously, the attachment component 180 and flanges 194 can provide a unique and efficient method of attaching the air mover to the tubular structure. It is contemplated however, that various other methods of attachment (e.g., fasteners, sewing, mating threaded attachments, quick connects or the like) may be used to attach the air mover to the tubular structures. It is also contemplated that the attachment component 180 and the housing 136 and flanges 194 of the air mover may be varied within the scope of the present invention. While is contemplated that any of the tubular structures may be attached to the air mover using the attachment component 180 of FIG. 2, it is also possible to design a ring, which aids in the assembly of the tubular structure to the blower. As an example, there is an attachment component 200 (e.g., a ring) illustrated in FIG. 11 having an extension 204 (e.g., a semi-circular extension) extending from the component 200 and a lip 208 located adjacent an interface of the component 200 and the extension 204. As shown, the extension 204 extends away from the ring component 200 in the same plane as the component 200 and the lip 208 extends from the extension 204 at least partially perpendicular to the plane of the attachment component 200 and the extension 204. Thus, the lip 208 is configured for extending outwardly away from any tubular structure into which the component 200 is installed. To assemble the component 200, and the tubular structure when attached to the component 200, to the air mover 130, the lip 208 can be abuttingly engaged with the housing 136 of the blower 66 adjacent an edge 212 of the housing 136. In turn, the component 200 is aligned with fasteners 220 of the air mover 66 such that the component 200 may be snap-fit to the fasteners 220 as described previously with regard to the component 180 of FIG. 2. It should be recognized that various alternative attachments other than the rings described may be employed to attach the air movers to the tubular structures. For example, attachments such as twist locks, spring locks, tabs on a ring, tabs on the air mover housing, combinations thereof or the like may be employed. It should be further recognized that the air mover, the snap ring or both can include protective equipment such as fingerguards (e.g., cross-bars) or the like. Operation In operation, the comfort system of the present invention can preferably provide heating, cooling, ventilation or a combination thereof to an occupant of a seat having the insert. In one embodiment, heating is provided by inducing electrical current (e.g., from the automotive vehicle battery) to travel through the heater sub-layer 32 such that the heater sub-layer 32 provides heat to the trim layer 14, an occupant of the seat or both. Alternatively, heating may be provided by warming or heating air (e.g., with a thermoelectric air mover) and moving the air via the air mover through one of the tubular structures 62, 80, the open space 16, the openings 48 in the forward layer 20, the opening 186 in the tubular structures and ultimately to the trim layer 14, the occupant or both. If ventilation is desired, the air mover can be operated to pull air or push air through the trim layer 14, the openings 48 in the forward layer 20, the open space 16, the openings 186 of the tubular structures 80 or a combination thereof. Such air preferably flows at least partially past the occupant of the seat and before of after flowing through the seat cover (e.g., a perforated leather seat cover or cloth seat cover) thereby providing ventilation to the occupant and providing convective heat transfer from the occupant to the flowing air. If cooling is desired, the air pushed toward the trim layer 14, the occupant or both may be cooled by cooling air (e.g., with a thermoelectric air mover) and moving the air through the tubular structures, the open space 16 or both and ultimately to the trim layer, the occupant or both. It should be understood that cooling, ventilating, heating or a combination thereof may be controlled by the control unit. In embodiment having a heater sub-layer, it may be preferable for only the heater sub-layer 32 or the ventilation or cooling system to be running at one time, however, it is contemplated that both may be operated simultaneously. Moreover, it is contemplated that both the heater sub-layer 32 and the ventilation or cooing system may be operated at various levels (e.g., 2 or more levels of output) such as by having an air mover that can operate at different levels or by having various levels of electricity flowing through or throughout the heater sub-layer 32. It is also contemplated that one or more temperature sensors (e.g., a thermostat, a thermistor or the like) may be included adjacent the heater sub-layer, the trim layer or the like. Preferably, any temperature sensors are near a seating surface of the seat closely related to (e.g., at or near) a temperature being experienced by an individual in the seat. Such temperature sensors may be in signaling communication with the control unit such that the control unit can control the air mover, the heater sub-layer or both for attaining or maintaining a desired temperature at areas adjacent the individual and/or the temperature sensor. Moreover, the control unit may be programmed with instructions for commanding the air mover, the heater layer or both to change output levels (e.g., turn on or turn off) if the temperature sensor senses a temperature above or below one or more threshold levels. An example of such programming is described in a copending patent application titled “AUTOMOTIVE VEHICLE SEATING COMFORT SYSTEM”, Ser. No. 60/428,003, filed Nov. 21, 2002 and incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. Unless stated otherwise, dimensions and geometries of the various structures depicted herein are not intended to be restrictive of the invention, and other dimensions or geometries are possible. Plural structural components can be provided by a single integrated structure. Alternatively, a single integrated structure might be divided into separate plural components. In addition, while a feature of the present invention may have been described in the context of only one of the illustrated embodiments, such feature may be combined with one or more other features of other embodiments, for any given application. It will also be appreciated from the above that the fabrication of the unique structures herein and the operation thereof also constitute methods in accordance with the present invention. The preferred embodiment of the present invention has been disclosed. A person of ordinary skill in the art would realize however, that certain modifications would come within the teachings of this invention. Therefore, the following claims should be studied to determine the true scope and content of the invention.	B	B60	B60N	2	56
11833446	US20080182009A1-20080731	Electronic device including a guest material within a layer and a process for forming the same	ACCEPTED	20080716	20080731		[]	B05D512	["B05D512", "C23C1644"]	8007590	20070803	20110830	118	300000	68020.0	EDWARDS	LAURA	[{"inventor_name_last": "LANG", "inventor_name_first": "CHARLES D.", "inventor_city": "", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "PERROTTO", "inventor_name_first": "JOSEPH ANTHONY", "inventor_city": "", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "DALY", "inventor_name_first": "THOMAS PATRICK", "inventor_city": "", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "TILTON", "inventor_name_first": "JAMES NELSON", "inventor_city": "", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "US"}]	There is provided a portable substrate carrier enclosure. The carrier enclosure has a carrier support; a displaceable cover; spacers between the support and cover; a gas inlet; and a removable lid. There is also provided an assembly and a process for depositing an air-sensitive material onto a substrate using the portable substrate carrier enclosure.	1. A portable substrate carrier enclosure comprising: a carrier support having a surface; a displaceable cover; spacers between the support and cover; and a gas inlet. 2. The carrier of claim 1, which further comprises a first gas manifold to distribute gas from the gas inlet across the surface of the carrier support. 3. The carrier of claim 2, which further comprises a second gas manifold and a gas supply line from the inlet to the second manifold. 4. The carrier of claim 1, wherein the spacers comprise bearings. 5. The carrier of claim 1, wherein the carrier support further comprising locating pins for aligning a substrate on the support. 6. The carrier of claim 1, further comprising a removable lid. 7. The carrier of claim 6, wherein the lid further comprises a valve. 8. An assembly for depositing an air sensitive material onto a substrate, said assembly comprising a portable substrate carrier enclosure comprising a carrier support; a displaceable cover; spacers between the support and cover; a gas inlet; a material deposition device having a deposition stage, said deposition stage having a leading edge, a trailing edge, and two side edges, and a stationary cover attached to the liquid deposition device over the trailing edge of the deposition stage. 9. The assembly of claim 8, comprising at least one gas curtain manifold on a side edge of the deposition stage. 10. The assembly of claim 9, comprising a gas curtain manifold on each side edge of the deposition stage. 11. A process for depositing an air sensitive material onto a substrate, said process comprising: a. providing a substrate carrier enclosure comprising: a carrier support; a displaceable cover; spacers between the support and cover; and a gas inlet; b. displacing the cover and placing the substrate on the carrier support; c. replacing the cover over the substrate on the carrier support; d. introducing an inert gas through the gas inlet at a substantially constant gas flow rate; e. partially displacing the cover to uncover a first portion of the substrate while maintaining the inert gas flow, and depositing the air sensitive material to the first portion of the substrate; f. repeating step e with 2nd through nth portions of the substrate; and g. replacing the cover over the substrate and support while maintaining the gas flow. 12. The process of claim 11, wherein the substrate carrier enclosure further comprises a removable lid, said process further comprising after step g: h. placing the lid over the support while maintaining the gas flow, sealing the lid to the support, and then discontinuing the gas flow. 13. A process for depositing an air-sensitive material onto a substrate, said process comprising: a. providing an assembly comprising a portable substrate carrier enclosure comprising a carrier support; a displaceable cover; spacers between the support and cover; a gas inlet; a material deposition device having a deposition stage, said deposition stage having a leading edge, a trailing edge, and two side edges, and a stationary cover attached to the liquid deposition device over the trailing edge of the deposition stage; b. displacing the cover and placing the substrate on the carrier support; c. replacing the cover over the substrate on the carrier support; d. introducing an inert gas through the gas inlet at a substantially constant gas flow rate; e. placing the carrier support at the leading edge of the deposition stage; f. moving the carrier support partially into the deposition stage and partially displacing the cover to uncover a first portion of the substrate in the deposition stage while maintaining the inert gas flow, and depositing the air sensitive material onto the first portion of the substrate; g. moving the carrier support further into the deposition stage and displacing the cover to uncover a second portion of the substrate in the deposition stage, while the first portion is moved past the trailing edge and under the stationary cover; h. repeating step g with 3rd through nth portions of the substrate; and i. replacing the cover over the substrate and support while maintaining the gas flow.	<SOH> BACKGROUND INFORMATION <EOH>1. Field of the Disclosure This disclosure relates in general to enclosures for depositing air-sensitive materials. 2. Description of the Related Art Electronic devices utilizing organic active materials are present in many different kinds of electronic equipment. In such devices, an organic active layer is sandwiched between two electrodes. One type of electronic device is an organic light emitting diode (“OLED”). OLEDs are promising for display applications due to their high power-conversion efficiency and low processing costs. Such displays are especially promising for battery-powered, portable electronic devices, including cell-phones, personal digital assistants, handheld personal computers, and DVD players. These applications call for displays with high information content, full color, and fast video rate response time in addition to low power consumption. Process advantages can be achieved when one or more of the organic layers in the electronic device are formed by liquid deposition. However, many of the organic materials are sensitive to oxygen and/or moisture. The typical approach to avoiding contamination during printing is to place the entire printing operation in an inert environment. This approach reduces the economic advantage of printing vs. thermal evaporation. Process upsets and equipment maintenance require long purge times to control the process environment, both for safe entry by personnel and for restarting the process. Large volumes of gas must be treated, requiring significant investment. There is a need for new processes to deposit such materials.	<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>There is provided a portable substrate carrier enclosure comprising: a carrier support; a displaceable cover; spacers between the support and cover; and a gas inlet. In some embodiments, the substrate carrier enclosure further comprises a removable lid. There is also provided an assembly for depositing an air sensitive material onto a substrate, said assembly comprising a portable substrate carrier enclosure, as described above, a material deposition device having a deposition stage, said deposition stage having a leading edge, a trailing edge, and two side edges, and a stationary cover attached to the liquid deposition device over the trailing edge of the deposition stage. In some embodiments, the assembly further comprises curtain gas manifolds on one or both of the side edges of the deposition stage. There is also provided a process for depositing an air sensitive material onto a substrate, said process comprising: a. providing a substrate carrier enclosure comprising: a carrier support; a displaceable cover; spacers between the support and cover; and a gas inlet; b. displacing the cover and placing the substrate on the carrier support; c. replacing the cover over the substrate on the carrier support; d. introducing an inert gas through the gas inlet at a substantially constant gas flow rate; e. partially displacing the cover to uncover a first portion of the substrate while maintaining the inert gas flow, and depositing the air sensitive material to the first portion of the substrate; f. repeating step e with 2 nd through n th portions of the substrate; and g. replacing the cover over the substrate and support while maintaining the gas flow. In some embodiments, the substrate carrier enclosure further comprises a removable lid and the process further comprises after step g: h. placing the lid over the support while maintaining the gas flow, sealing the lid to the support, and then discontinuing the gas flow. There is also provided a process for depositing an air-sensitive material onto a substrate, said process comprising: a. providing an assembly comprising a portable substrate carrier enclosure comprising a carrier support; a displaceable cover; spacers between the support and cover; a gas inlet; a material deposition device having a deposition stage, said deposition stage having a leading edge, a trailing edge, and two side edges, and a stationary cover attached to the liquid deposition device over the trailing edge of the deposition stage; b. displacing the cover and placing the substrate on the carrier support; c. replacing the cover over the substrate on the carrier support; d. introducing an inert gas through the gas inlet at a substantially constant gas flow rate; e. placing the carrier support at the leading edge of the deposition stage; f. moving the carrier support partially into the deposition stage and partially displacing the cover to uncover a first portion of the substrate in the deposition stage while maintaining the inert gas flow, and depositing the air sensitive material onto the first portion of the substrate; g. moving the carrier support further into the deposition stage and displacing the cover to uncover a second portion of the substrate in the deposition stage, while the first portion is moved past the trailing edge and under the stationary cover; h. repeating step g with 3 rd through n th portions of the substrate; and i. replacing the cover over the substrate and support while maintaining the gas flow. The foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention, as defined in the appended claims.	CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application claims the benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C. 119(e) from provisional U.S. application Ser. No. 60/835,583, filed Aug. 4, 2006, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. BACKGROUND INFORMATION 1. Field of the Disclosure This disclosure relates in general to enclosures for depositing air-sensitive materials. 2. Description of the Related Art Electronic devices utilizing organic active materials are present in many different kinds of electronic equipment. In such devices, an organic active layer is sandwiched between two electrodes. One type of electronic device is an organic light emitting diode (“OLED”). OLEDs are promising for display applications due to their high power-conversion efficiency and low processing costs. Such displays are especially promising for battery-powered, portable electronic devices, including cell-phones, personal digital assistants, handheld personal computers, and DVD players. These applications call for displays with high information content, full color, and fast video rate response time in addition to low power consumption. Process advantages can be achieved when one or more of the organic layers in the electronic device are formed by liquid deposition. However, many of the organic materials are sensitive to oxygen and/or moisture. The typical approach to avoiding contamination during printing is to place the entire printing operation in an inert environment. This approach reduces the economic advantage of printing vs. thermal evaporation. Process upsets and equipment maintenance require long purge times to control the process environment, both for safe entry by personnel and for restarting the process. Large volumes of gas must be treated, requiring significant investment. There is a need for new processes to deposit such materials. SUMMARY There is provided a portable substrate carrier enclosure comprising: a carrier support; a displaceable cover; spacers between the support and cover; and a gas inlet. In some embodiments, the substrate carrier enclosure further comprises a removable lid. There is also provided an assembly for depositing an air sensitive material onto a substrate, said assembly comprising a portable substrate carrier enclosure, as described above, a material deposition device having a deposition stage, said deposition stage having a leading edge, a trailing edge, and two side edges, and a stationary cover attached to the liquid deposition device over the trailing edge of the deposition stage. In some embodiments, the assembly further comprises curtain gas manifolds on one or both of the side edges of the deposition stage. There is also provided a process for depositing an air sensitive material onto a substrate, said process comprising: a. providing a substrate carrier enclosure comprising: a carrier support; a displaceable cover; spacers between the support and cover; and a gas inlet; b. displacing the cover and placing the substrate on the carrier support; c. replacing the cover over the substrate on the carrier support; d. introducing an inert gas through the gas inlet at a substantially constant gas flow rate; e. partially displacing the cover to uncover a first portion of the substrate while maintaining the inert gas flow, and depositing the air sensitive material to the first portion of the substrate; f. repeating step e with 2nd through nth portions of the substrate; and g. replacing the cover over the substrate and support while maintaining the gas flow. In some embodiments, the substrate carrier enclosure further comprises a removable lid and the process further comprises after step g: h. placing the lid over the support while maintaining the gas flow, sealing the lid to the support, and then discontinuing the gas flow. There is also provided a process for depositing an air-sensitive material onto a substrate, said process comprising: a. providing an assembly comprising a portable substrate carrier enclosure comprising a carrier support; a displaceable cover; spacers between the support and cover; a gas inlet; a material deposition device having a deposition stage, said deposition stage having a leading edge, a trailing edge, and two side edges, and a stationary cover attached to the liquid deposition device over the trailing edge of the deposition stage; b. displacing the cover and placing the substrate on the carrier support; c. replacing the cover over the substrate on the carrier support; d. introducing an inert gas through the gas inlet at a substantially constant gas flow rate; e. placing the carrier support at the leading edge of the deposition stage; f. moving the carrier support partially into the deposition stage and partially displacing the cover to uncover a first portion of the substrate in the deposition stage while maintaining the inert gas flow, and depositing the air sensitive material onto the first portion of the substrate; g. moving the carrier support further into the deposition stage and displacing the cover to uncover a second portion of the substrate in the deposition stage, while the first portion is moved past the trailing edge and under the stationary cover; h. repeating step g with 3rd through nth portions of the substrate; and i. replacing the cover over the substrate and support while maintaining the gas flow. The foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention, as defined in the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Embodiments are illustrated in the accompanying figures to improve understanding of concepts as presented herein. FIG. 1 includes an exploded view of a substrate carrier enclosure. FIG. 2 includes a drawing of a stationary cover. Skilled artisans appreciate that objects in the figures are illustrated for simplicity and clarity and have not necessarily been drawn to scale. For example, the dimensions of some of the objects in the figures may be exaggerated relative to other objects to help to improve understanding of embodiments. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Many aspects and embodiments have been described above and are merely exemplary and not limiting. After reading this specification, skilled artisans appreciate that other aspects and embodiments are possible without departing from the scope of the invention. Other features and benefits of any one or more of the embodiments will be apparent from the following detailed description, and from the claims. The detailed description first addresses Definitions and Clarification of Terms followed by the Substrate Carrier Enclosure, the Assembly, the Process, Organic Light-Emitting Diodes, and finally Examples. 1. Definitions and Clarification of Terms Before addressing details of embodiments described below, some terms are defined or clarified. The term “air-sensitive” when referring to a material, is intended to mean that the performance of the material is negatively affected by the presence of oxygen and/or moisture. The term “substrate” is intended to mean a workpiece that can be either rigid or flexible and may be include one or more layers of one or more materials. The materials can include, but are not limited to, glass, polymer or other organic materials, metal, or ceramic materials or combinations thereof. The term “deposition” is intended to include any conventional deposition technique, including vapor deposition, liquid deposition (continuous and discontinuous techniques), and thermal transfer. As used herein, the terms “comprises,” “comprising,” “includes,” “including,” “has,” “having” or any other variation thereof, are intended to cover a non-exclusive inclusion. For example, a process, method, article, or apparatus that comprises a list of elements is not necessarily limited to only those elements but may include other elements not expressly listed or inherent to such process, method, article, or apparatus. Further, unless expressly stated to the contrary, “or” refers to an inclusive or and not to an exclusive or. For example, a condition A or B is satisfied by any one of the following: A is true (or present) and B is false (or not present), A is false (or not present) and B is true (or present), and both A and B are true (or present). Also, use of “a” or “an” are employed to describe elements and components described herein. This is done merely for convenience and to give a general sense of the scope of the invention. This description should be read to include one or at least one and the singular also includes the plural unless it is obvious that it is meant otherwise. Group numbers corresponding to columns within the Periodic Table of the elements use the “New Notation” convention as seen in the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 81st Edition (2000-2001). Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of embodiments of the present invention, suitable methods and materials are described below. All publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety, unless a particular passage is cited In case of conflict, the present specification, including definitions, will control. In addition, the materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting. To the extent not described herein, many details regarding specific materials, processing acts, and circuits are conventional and may be found in textbooks and other sources within the organic light-emitting diode display, photodetector, photovoltaic, and semiconductive member arts. 2. Substrate Carrier Enclosure The portable substrate carrier enclosure comprises: a carrier support; a displaceable cover; spacers between the support and cover; a gas inlet; and an optional removable lid. The support is a planar, base material on which the substrate can be placed and carried. The support can be made of any stable material, including, but not limited to glass, polymer, metal or ceramic materials or combinations thereof. The term “stable” is intended to mean that the material does not interact with the substrate or the environment in which it is used. The support may have some flexibility, but, in general, the support is essentially rigid. The dimensions of the support are largely determined by liquid deposition equipment with which it will be used. In some embodiments, the support has a thickness of at least 1 mm; in some embodiments, at least 1 cm. The displaceable cover is an essentially planar base material which overlies the support. By “displaceable” it is meant that the cover can be moved in a direction parallel to the plane of the support, resulting in areas of the support being uncovered. In some embodiments, the cover is moveable along the length of the support. The cover can be made of any stable material, including, but not limited to glass, polymer, metal or ceramic materials or combinations thereof. The cover may have some flexibility, but, in general, the cover is essentially rigid. The dimensions of the cover are slightly smaller than those of the support. In some embodiments, the cover has a thickness of at least 1 mm; in some embodiments, at least 1 cm. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the cover is transparent. The spacers are present to separate the cover from the support. Any type of spacer may be used so long as it allows for the moving of the cover relative to the support. In some embodiments, the spacers are bearings. In some embodiments, there are four bearings as spacers. In some embodiments, the clearance between the displaceable cover and the support is designed to provide a controlled rate of gas egress from the surface of the support. The gas inlet allows for an inert gas to be introduced into the carrier and to flow across the support. Any conventional gas inlet, such as a nozzle, can be used. The gas inlet is connected to a source of inert gas. Examples of inert gases include, but are not limited to, nitrogen, helium, and argon. In some embodiments, the substrate carrier enclosure further comprises a removable lid. The optional lid, when attached, completely encloses at least a portion of the upper surface of the carrier support. The lid engages or substantially engages the support to enclose at least a portion of the upper surface of the carrier support protect the enclosed substrate during transport. The lid includes a base having at its periphery a band member perpendicular or substantially perpendicular and contiguous to the base. The base is typically planar but is not so limited, and can be dome-shaped for example. The band engages with the support, and may be sized to seat or reside in the support. Optionally the lid may include a handle on the base to aid in handling. The base and band member may be made of the same or different materials. The lid is held in place on the support using any conventional means, such as screws. Alternatively, the lid may include on the band a fastening device or member that temporarily couples the cover to the support. The lid can be made of any stable material, including, but not limited to glass, polymer, metal or ceramic materials or combinations thereof. The lid may have some flexibility, but, in general, the lid is essentially rigid. The base of the lid has an area and planar shape that is the same or substantially the same as an area and shape of the structure that is protected. In some embodiments, the carrier further comprises a first gas manifold to distribute the gas from the gas inlet across the surface of the carrier support. In some embodiments, the carrier comprises more than one manifold to distribute the inert gas. The gas supply is controllable, and can be different to each manifold. In some embodiments, the carrier comprises first and second gas manifolds. The first gas manifold is at one end of the support and the second gas manifold is at the opposite end. A gas supply line is present to supply inert gas from the gas inlet to the second gas manifold. In these embodiments, gas flows across the support from both ends of the carrier, providing better control of the environment over the support. In some embodiments, the carrier further comprises locating pins on the support. The locating pins can be used for precisely locating the substrate on the carrier support. The locating pins may be fixed in place, or movable parallel to the surface of the carrier for centering and orienting the substrate. In some embodiments, the carrier further comprises movable lift pins for elevating the substrate above the surface of the carrier. The lift pins allow a robotic arm to reach under the substrate. The lift pins may also be locating pins, thereby including the functionality of precisely locating the substrate on the carrier support. In some embodiments, the lid further comprises a valve. The lid can be placed over the support and attached with the valve open, while the gas is flowing. In this way the pressure within the enclosed support is maintained approximately the same. Once the lid is attached, the gas flow can be turned off and the valve closed. An exploded view of one example of a portable substrate carrier and enclosure is shown in FIG. 1. A substrate 100 is on the upper surface of a carrier support 200. The support further comprises end-stops 210. A displaceable cover 300 has an opaque portion 310 and a transparent portion 320. The opaque portion will be placed on a framework 330. The transparent portion will be placed in the opening of the opaque portion. The cover further comprises end pieces 340. These are designed to contact end-stops 210 when the cover is moving across the support, and prevent it from moving completely off the support. Spacers 400 are positioned to move along a track 410, which will be attached to the outer edges of the support 200. Gas inlets 500 will be attached to the support at positions 510. The optional lid 600 is attached to the support by screws 610. 3. Assembly The assembly for applying an air sensitive material onto a substrate comprises: a portable substrate carrier enclosure, as described above, a material deposition device having a deposition stage, said deposition stage having a leading edge, a trailing edge, and two side edges, and a stationary cover attached to the deposition device over the trailing edge of the deposition stage. The material deposition device can be any device capable of depositing the air-sensitive material in the desired pattern. In some embodiments, the device is a liquid deposition device and the air-sensitive material is deposited as a liquid. The term “liquid” is intended to include single liquid materials and combinations of liquid materials, and these may be solutions, dispersions, suspensions and emulsions. Liquid deposition techniques include continuous and discontinuous techniques. Continuous deposition techniques which can be used with the substrate carrier described herein, include but are not limited to, gravure coating, curtain coating, slot-die coating, spray coating, and continuous nozzle coating. Discontinuous deposition techniques include, but are not limited to, ink jet printing, gravure printing, and screen printing. The deposition device includes a deposition stage. This is the area in which the deposition takes place. It may constitute the major portion of the overall device, or only a small portion. The stage may be of any shape. In some embodiments, the deposition stage is essentially rectangular. The deposition stage has a leading edge and a trailing edge. The substrate carrier with the substrate is moved first to the leading edge of the deposition stage, moved across the stage, and then moved beyond the stage past the trailing edge. The deposition stage further has two side edges. In some embodiments, the side edges are essentially perpendicular to the leading and trailing edges. A stationary cover is attached to the deposition device over the trailing edge of the deposition stage. By “stationary” it is meant that the cover does not move relative to the deposition device. It may be detachable or may be attached permanently to the device. The stationary cover is positioned so that it is over the substrate carrier as it exits the deposition stage from the trailing edge. In some embodiments, the stationary cover is positioned so that the separation distance between the stationary cover and the carrier support is substantially the same as the separation distance between the displaceable cover on the carrier and the carrier support. One example of a stationary cover is shown in FIG. 2. The stationary cover 700 is attached to a deposition device by supports 710. The substrate carrier is passed underneath the stationary cover. In some embodiments, the assembly further includes inert gas curtain manifolds on one or both sides of the deposition stage. These help to control the environment over the deposition stage. 4. Process The process for depositing an air sensitive material onto a substrate comprises: a. providing a substrate carrier comprising: a carrier support; a displaceable cover; spacers between the support and cover; a gas inlet; and an optional removable lid; b. removing the lid, if present, displacing the cover and placing the substrate on the carrier support; c. replacing the cover over the substrate on the carrier support; d. introducing an inert gas through the gas inlet at a substantially constant gas flow rate; e. partially displacing the cover to uncover a first portion of the substrate while maintaining the inert gas flow, and depositing the air sensitive material to the first portion of the substrate; f. repeating step e with 2nd through nth portions of the substrate; and g. optionally placing the lid over the support while maintaining the gas flow, sealing the lid to the support, and then discontinuing the gas flow. The carrier substrate and enclosure is opened to allow the placement of the substrate onto the carrier support. The lid, if present, is removed and the cover is displaced so that the support is accessible. In some embodiments, the substrate is placed in a specific position on the support by aligning it with locating pins or other alignment marks. The cover is then replaced over the support and substrate. The portable substrate carrier containing the substrate can then be moved to the equipment where the deposition of the air-sensitive material will be carried out. In some embodiments the liquid containing the air-sensitive material is deposited by ink jet printing. In some embodiments the liquid containing the air-sensitive material is deposited by continuous nozzle coating. An inert gas is introduced through the gas inlet at a substantially constant gas flow rate. In some embodiments, there is more than one gas inlet, and gas is introduced into all of them. The gas flow rate for each inlet may be the same or different, however the gas flow rates remain substantially constant so that the environment between the carrier support and carrier cover remains substantially constant. In some embodiments, the substrate carrier with the substrate, is then passed through the deposition stage. For example, it may be passed under the ink jet print head(s). In order to allow deposition of the air-sensitive material onto the substrate, the carrier cover is partially displaced in the deposition stage to uncover just a first portion of the substrate. The air-sensitive material is applied in the desired pattern over the first portion of the substrate. The carrier is then advanced and the cover displaced to uncover a second portion of the substrate. The air-sensitive material is applied in the desired pattern over the second portion of the substrate. This is repeated for the 3rd, 4th . . . and nth portions of the substrate, where the first through nth portions represent the total area of the substrate on which the air-sensitive material is to be deposited. After the air-sensitive material has been deposited on the nth portion of the substrate, the carrier cover is replaced over the substrate and support. The gas flow is maintained. When a stationary cover is present on the deposition device, each portion of the substrate is covered by the stationary cover after deposition. For example, when the second portion of the substrate is uncovered for deposition, the first portion is advanced beyond the deposition stage past the trailing edge so that it is covered by the stationary cover. Thus each portion of the substrate is first covered by the carrier cover, it is uncovered while the air-sensitive material is deposited, and then it is covered by the stationary cover. The combination of the stationary cover and the displaceable carrier cover creates an aperture having a fixed width under which the substrate is moved. Having a fixed aperture width results in a more constant flow rate over the substrate surface. When one or more gas curtain manifolds are present on the side edges of the deposition stage, an inert gas is introduced into these in order to further control the environment during deposition. In some embodiments, after deposition a lid is then placed over the support and secure in place, again while the gas flow is maintained. If the lid has a gas valve, it is open while the gas flow is on. The gas flow is then discontinued and the gas valve on the lid is closed. The substrate carrier enclosure can then be moved to different equipment for further processing, as desired. In an automated process the optional lid may not be required. In this case the substrate can be transported to a subsequent processing stop in the substrate carrier enclosure. It can then be removed in an inert environment for further processing. In this instance the gas flow may optionally be continued to protect the substrate. In some embodiments, a second air-sensitive material is deposited on the substrate using the same deposition equipment. In this case, carrier cover is replaced and the deposition process begun again. The carrier lid, if present, is not applied until all of the substrate is to be moved to different equipment. 4. Organic Light-Emitting Diodes One type of device which can be made using the substrate carrier enclosure described herein is an organic light-emitting diode (“OLED”). An OLED includes the following layers, in order: an anode; one or more hole injection/transport layers to facilitate the injection and transport of holes from the anode layer; an electroluminescent layer; one or more optional electron injection/transport layers; and a cathode layer. A supporting member can be present adjacent the anode or the cathode. The supporting member is frequently present adjacent the anode. Materials that are useful for the various layers in OLEDs are well known. In most full color OLEDs, the device has three sets of subpixel areas. The electroluminescent layer is divided into first subpixel areas comprising a first electroluminescent material, second subpixel areas comprising a second electroluminescent material, and third subpixel areas comprising a third electroluminescent material. Upon the application of a voltage across the device, first subpixel areas emit light of a first color, second subpixel areas emit light of a second color, and third subpixel areas emit light of a third color. In some embodiments, the substrate carrier enclosure described herein is used for the deposition one or more of the hole injection/transport layers. In some embodiments, the substrate carrier enclosure is used for the deposition of one or more of the electroluminescent materials. In some embodiments, the substrate carrier enclosure described herein is used for the deposition one or more of the electron injection/transport layers. EXAMPLES The concepts described herein will be further described in the following examples, which do not limit the scope of the invention described in the claims. Example 1 Example 1 demonstrates the use of a portable substrate carrier enclosure for the deposition of an air-sensitive cyclometalated iridium complex. Such complexes have been described in, for example, Grushin et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,670,645. A passive matrix display was prepared using a portable substrate carrier as described herein. The display was formed on a glass sheet 152 mm×152 mm in size, having a layer of indium tin oxide using standard OLED processes. A hole injection layer comprised of polypyrrole complexed with a fluorinated sulfonic acid polymer was coated over the entire sheet and dried at 130 deg C. to a thickness of 180 nanometers. A hole transport layer comprised of crosslinkable hole transport polymer was coated onto the hole injection layer, over the entire layer, and cured at 200 deg C. to a thickness of 20 nanometers. This assembly was the substrate on which an air-sensitive material was to be deposited. The substrate was placed in the substrate enclosure shown in FIG. 1, and clamped via vacuum to the traveling stage of a continuous nozzle printer (Dai Nippon Screen). The enclosure was purged with nitrogen at a flow rate of 15 scfh. The enclosure was moved forward to the leading edge of the deposition stage where the nozzle printing occurs. The displaceable cover was moved back to uncover a first portion of the substrate. An emissive ink comprising an electroluminescent cyclometalated iridium complex in a mixture of toluene and 3,4-dimethylanisole was printed onto the hole transport layer of the first portion. The carrier was moved forward and the displaceable cover moved back further to uncover a second portion of the substrate. At the same time, the first portion of the substrate was moved under a stationary cover attached to the printing equipment. This process was repeated until all portions of the substrate had been printed. The substrate carrier was then moved back from the deposition stage while replacing the displaceable cover over the carrier support. The removable lid was then placed over the support, the gas flow was discontinued, and the lid valve close. The portable carrier enclosure containing the printed substrate was then moved to a nitrogen glove box where further processing took place. The display panel was baked at 105 C for 30 minutes under nitrogen. A cathode comprising 20 nanometers of tetrakis(8-hydroxyquinoline)zirconium, 1.5 nanometers of LiF, and 350 nanometers of aluminum was deposited. The display was encapsulated with a glass lid and epoxy. Note that not all of the activities described above in the general description or the examples are required, that a portion of a specific activity may not be required, and that one or more further activities may be performed in addition to those described. Still further, the order in which activities are listed are not necessarily the order in which they are performed. In the foregoing specification, the concepts have been described with reference to specific embodiments. However, one of ordinary skill in the art appreciates that various modifications and changes can be made without departing from the scope of the invention as set forth in the claims below. Accordingly, the specification and figures are to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense, and all such modifications are intended to be included within the scope of invention. Benefits, other advantages, and solutions to problems have been described above with regard to specific embodiments. However, the benefits, advantages, solutions to problems, and any feature(s) that may cause any benefit, advantage, or solution to occur or become more pronounced are not to be construed as a critical, required, or essential feature of any or all the claims. It is to be appreciated that certain features are, for clarity, described herein in the context of separate embodiments, may also be provided in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, various features that are, for brevity, described in the context of a single embodiment, may also be provided separately or in any subcombination. Further, reference to values stated in ranges include each and every value within that range.	B	B05	B05D	5	12
11862174	US20080179696A1-20080731	Micromechanical Device with Microfluidic Lubricant Channel	ACCEPTED	20080716	20080731		[]	H01L2984	["H01L2984"]	7932569	20070926	20110426	257	415000	99963.0	PERT	EVAN	[{"inventor_name_last": "Chen", "inventor_name_first": "Dongmin", "inventor_city": "Saratoga", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Worley", "inventor_name_first": "William Spencer", "inventor_city": "Half Moon Bay", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Chen", "inventor_name_first": "Hung-Nan", "inventor_city": "Kaohsiung Hsien", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "TW"}]	A micromechanical device assembly includes a micromechanical device enclosed within a processing region and a lubricant channel formed through an interior wall of the processing region and in fluid communication with the processing region. Lubricant is injected into the lubricant channel via capillary forces and held therein via surface tension of the lubricant against the internal surfaces of the lubrication channel. The lubricant channel containing the lubricant provides a ready supply of fresh lubricant to prevent stiction from occurring between interacting components of the micromechanical device disposed within the processing region.	1. A device assembly, comprising: a micromechanical device enclosed within a processing region; and a lubricant channel formed through at least one interior wall of the processing region to be in fluid communication with the processing region, wherein a substantial length of the lubricant channel extends into said at least one interior wall to be completely enclosed thereby. 2. The device assembly of claim 1, wherein a volume of the lubricant channel is between about 0.1 nanoliter and about 1000 nanoliters. 3. The device assembly of claim 2, wherein a lubricant is disposed in the lubricant channel. 4. The device assembly of claim 1, wherein a hydraulic diameter of the lubricant channel is less than about 1 mm, and a length of the lubricant channel is substantially larger than a hydraulic diameter of the lubricant channel. 5. The device assembly of claim 1, further comprising a channel inlet in fluid communication with the lubricant channel, wherein the channel inlet is formed through an external surface of the device assembly. 6. The device assembly of claim 5, further comprising a plug disposed in the channel inlet proximate the external surface of the device assembly. 7. The device assembly of claim 1, further comprising a particle filter disposed in the lubricant channel. 8. The device assembly of claim 7, wherein the particle filter comprises a plurality of obstructions formed on an interior surface of the lubricant channel. 9. The device assembly of claim 1, wherein first and second lubricant channels are formed respectively through different interior walls of the processing region to be in fluid communication with the processing region. 10. The device assembly of claim 9, wherein lubricants are disposed in the first and second lubricant channels, and the lubricant disposed in the first lubricant channel is different from the lubricant disposed in the second lubricant channel. 11. A device assembly, comprising: a micromechanical device enclosed within a processing region; and a lubricant channel formed on at least one interior wall of the processing region, wherein the lubricant channel is in fluid communication with the processing region along the entire length thereof, and the lubricant channel is configured so that a lubricant for the micromechanical device is held within the lubricant channel via surface tension of the lubricant against internal surfaces of the lubrication channel. 12. The device assembly of claim 11, wherein a width of the lubricant channel is 10 μm to 800 μm and a depth of the lubricant channel is 10 μm to 200 μm. 13. The device assembly of claim 12, wherein a volume of the lubricant channel is between about 0.1 nanoliter and about 1000 nanoliters, and a hydraulic diameter of the lubricant channel is less than about 1 mm. 14. The device assembly of claim 11, further comprising another lubricant channel formed through at least one interior wall of the processing region to be in fluid communication with the processing region, wherein a substantial length of said another lubricant channel extends into said at least one interior wall to be completely enclosed thereby. 15. The device assembly of claim 11, wherein first and second lubricant channels are formed on at least one interior wall of the processing region, wherein each of the first and second lubricant channels are in fluid communication with the processing region along the entire length thereof. 16. A packaged micromechanical device, comprising: a lid, a base, and an interposer that define a processing region for a micromechanical device; a micromechanical device disposed within the processing region; and a lubricant channel formed through at least one interior wall of the processing region and in fluid communication with the processing region, wherein the lubricant channel is configured so that a lubricant for the micromechanical device is held within the lubricant channel via surface tension of the lubricant against internal surfaces of the lubrication channel. 17. The packaged micromechanical device of claim 16, wherein an epoxy layer is interposed between the lid and the interposer and between the interposer and the base. 18. The packaged micromechanical device of claim 17, wherein the lubricant channel extends into said at least one interior wall to be completely enclosed thereby. 19. The packaged micromechanical device of claim 18, further comprising a cap disposed in the lubricant channel proximate an opening of the lubricant channel into the processing region. 20. The packaged micromechanical device of claim 19, wherein the cap comprises a material that becomes porous in response to optical radiation or heating. 21. The packaged micromechanical device of claim 17, further comprising another lubricant channel formed on at least one interior wall of the processing region, wherein said another lubricant channel is in fluid communication with the processing region along the entire length thereof. 22. The packaged micromechanical device of claim 16, wherein the lid and the interposer are frit- or eutectic-bonded, and the interposer and the base are frit- or eutectic-bonded 23. The packaged micromechanical device of claim 22, further comprising a channel inlet in fluid communication with the lubricant channel, wherein the channel inlet is formed through an external surface of the device. 24. The packaged micromechanical device of claim 23, further comprising a plug disposed in the channel inlet proximate the external surface of the device. 25. The packaged micromechanical device of claim 16, wherein the lubricant channel is formed in the base.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention Embodiments of the present invention relate generally to micro-electro-mechanical and nano-electro-mechanical systems and more specifically to such systems having one or more microfluidic lubricant channels. 2. Description of the Related Art As is well known, atomic level and microscopic level forces between device components become far more critical as devices become smaller. Problems related to these types of forces are quite prevalent with micromechanical devices, such as micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) and nano-electro-mechanical systems (NEMS). In particular, “stiction” forces created between moving parts that come into contact with one another, either intentionally or accidentally, during operation are a common problem with micromechanical devices. Stiction-type failures occur when the interfacial attraction forces created between moving parts that come into contact with one another exceed restoring forces. As a result, the surfaces of these parts either permanently or temporarily adhere to each other, causing device failure or malfunction. Stiction forces are complex surface phenomena that generally include capillary forces, Van der Waal's forces and electrostatic attraction forces. As used herein, the term “contact” refers generally to any interaction between two surfaces and is not limited to the actual physical touching of the surfaces. Some examples of typical micromechanical devices are RF switches, optical modulators, microgears, accelerometers, worm gears, transducers, fluid nozzles, gyroscopes, and other similar devices or actuators. It should be noted that the term “MEMS device” is used hereafter to generally describe a micromechanical device, and to cover both MEMS and NEMS devices discussed above. Stiction is especially problematic in devices such as the RF switch, optical modulator, microgears, and other actuators. Various elements in these devices often interact with each other during operation at frequencies between a few hertz (Hz) and a few gigahertz (GHz). Various analyses have shown that, without adding some form of lubrication to these types of devices to reduce stiction and wear between component surfaces, product lifetimes may range from only a few contacts to a few thousand contacts, which is generally well below a commercially viable lifetime. Consequently, one of the biggest challenges facing the MEMS and NEMS industries is the long-term reliability of contacting microstructures in the face of stiction. Several techniques to address stiction between two contacting surfaces have been discussed in various publications. One such technique is to texture the contact surfaces (e.g., via micro patterning or laser patterning) to reduce the overall adhesion force by reducing the effective contact area. Another such technique involves selecting specific materials from which the contacting surfaces are made to lower the surface energy, reduce charging, or contact potential difference between components. Moreover, some prior references have suggested the insertion of a lubricant into the region around the interacting devices to reduce the chance of stiction-related failures. Such a lubricant often times is in a solid or liquid state, depending on the properties of the material, and the temperature and pressure or environment in which the lubricant is placed. In general, the terms a “solid” lubricant or a “liquid” lubricant is a lubricant that is in a solid or liquid state under ambient conditions, i.e., room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Some prior art references describe a lubricant as being in a “vapor” state. These references use the term vapor phase lubricant to generally describe a mixture of components that contain a carrier gas (e.g., nitrogen) and a vaporized second component that is a solid or liquid at temperatures and pressures near ambient conditions (e.g., STP). In most conventional applications, the solid or liquid lubricant remains in a solid or liquid state at temperatures much higher than room temperature and pressures much lower than atmospheric pressure conditions. Examples of typical lubricants that are solid or liquid at ambient conditions and temperatures well above ambient temperature can be found in references such as U.S. Pat. No. 6,930,367. Such prior art lubricants include dichlorodimethylsilane (“DDMS”), octadecyltrichlorosilane (“OTS”), perfluoroctyltrichlorsilane (“PFOTCS”), perfluorodecanoic acid (“PFDA”), perfluorodecyl-trichlorosilane (“FDTS”), perfluoro polyether (“PFPE”) and/or fluoroalkylsilane (“FOTS”), that are deposited on various interacting components by use of a vapor deposition process, such as atmospheric chemical vapor deposition (APCVD), low pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD), plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), or other similar deposition processes. The technique of forming the low-surface energy organic passivation layer on the surface of a MEMS component is commonly referred to in the art as “vapor lubricant” coating. One serious draw back to using a low-surface energy organic passivation layer, such as self-assembled monolayer (SAM) coatings, is that they typically are on the order of one monolayer thick. Generally, these types of coatings have a very limited usable lifetime, since they are easily damaged or displaced due to impact or wear created by the interaction of the various moving components. This inevitably happens in MEMS devices with contacting surfaces that are subject to frequent contact in use and a large number of contacts during the product lifetime, such as in light modulators and RF switches. Without some way to reliably restore or repair the damaged coatings, stiction occurs, and device failure results. As shown in FIG. 1A , one approach for lubricating MEMS components is to provide a getter 110 within the package 100 (that includes a base 111 , a lid 104 , and a seal 106 ) in which an array of MEMS devices 108 resides. FIG. 1B illustrates one conventional package 120 that contains a MEMS device 108 and a getter 110 positioned within the head space 124 of the package 120 . The package 120 also contains a package substrate 128 , window 126 and spacer ring 125 . These two configurations are further described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,843,936 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,979,893, respectively. These conventional devices employ some type of reversibly-absorbing getter to store the lubricant molecules in zeolite crystals or the internal volume of a micro-tube. In these designs, a supply of lubricant is maintained in the getter 110 , and an amount of lubricant needed to lubricate the MEMS device 108 is discharged during normal operation. However, adding the reversibly absorbing getter, or reservoirs, to retain the liquid lubricants increases package size and packaging complexity and adds steps to the fabrication process, all of which increase piece-part cost as well as the overall manufacturing cost of MEMS or NEMS devices. Thus, forming a device that uses these techniques generally requires a number of labor-intensive and costly processing steps, such as mixing the getter material, applying the getter material to the device-containing package, curing the getter material, conditioning or activating the getter material, and then sealing the MEMS device and the getter within the sealed package. Particles, moisture, and other contaminants found in our everyday atmospheric environment deleteriously effect device yield of a MEMS fabrication process and the average lifetime of a MEMS device. In an effort to prevent contamination during fabrication, the multiple process steps used to form a MEMS device are usually completed in an ultra-high grade clean room environment, e.g., class 10 or better. Due to the high cost required to produce and maintain a class 10 or better clean room environment, the more MEMS device fabrication steps that require such a clean room environment, the more expensive the MEMS device is to make. Therefore, there is a need to create a MEMS device fabrication process that reduces the number of processing steps that require an ultra-high grade clean room environment. As noted above, in an effort to isolate the MEMS components from the everyday atmospheric environment, MEMS device manufacturers typically enclose the MEMS device within a device package so that a sealed environment is formed around the MEMS device. Conventional device packaging processes commonly require the lubricating materials that are contained within the MEMS device package be exposed to high temperatures during the MEMS device package sealing processes, particularly wafer level hermetic packaging. Typically, conventional sealing processes, such as glass frit bonding or eutectic bonding, require that the MEMS device, lubricants, and other device components are heated to temperatures between about 250° C. to 450° C. These high-bonding temperatures severely limit the type of lubricants that can be used in a device package and also cause the lubricant to evaporate away or break down after a prolonged period of exposure. In addition, lubricant that has evaporated during high temperature bonding processes can later re-condense onto and contaminate sealing surfaces. Therefore, there is also a need for a MEMS device package-fabricating process that eliminates or minimizes the exposure of lubricants to high temperatures during the device fabrication process.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention generally relates to a micromechanical device that has an improved usable lifetime due to the presence of one or more channels that contain and deliver a lubricant that can reduce the likelihood of stiction occurring between the various moving parts of the device. A device assembly according to an embodiment of the invention includes a micromechanical device enclosed within a processing region and a lubricant channel formed through at least one interior wall of the processing region to be in fluid communication with the processing region, wherein a substantial length of the lubricant channel extends into said at least one interior wall to be completely enclosed thereby. The volume of the lubricant channel may be between 0.1 nanoliter and 1000 nanoliters. The hydraulic diameter of the lubricant channel may be less than about 1 mm, and a length of the lubricant channel is substantially larger than a hydraulic diameter of the lubricant channel. A device assembly according to another embodiment of the invention comprises a micromechanical device enclosed within a processing region and a lubricant channel formed on at least one interior wall of the processing region, wherein the lubricant channel is in fluid communication with the processing region along the entire length thereof, and the lubricant channel is configured so that a lubricant for the micromechanical device is held within the lubricant channel via surface tension of the lubricant against internal surfaces of the lubrication channel. Embodiments of the invention also provide a packaged micromechanical device that includes a lid, a base, and an interposer that define a processing region for a micromechanical device, a micromechanical device disposed within the processing region, and a lubricant channel formed through at least one interior wall of the processing region and in fluid communication with the processing region, wherein the lubricant channel is configured so that a lubricant for the micromechanical device is held within the lubricant channel via surface tension of the lubricant against internal surfaces of the lubrication channel. An epoxy layer may be interposed between the lid and the interposer and between the interposer and the base. Typically, a channel inlet that is in fluid communication with the lubrication channel is formed through an exterior wall of the micromechanical device assembly or package. Lubricant is injected into the lubrication channel through this channel inlet. However, when an epoxy layer is used, the lubricant may be injected into the lubricant channel prior to the sealing of the package and the channel inlet becomes no longer necessary. One advantage of the invention is that a reservoir of a lubricating material is formed within a device package so that an amount of “fresh” lubricating material can be delivered to areas where stiction may occur. In one aspect, the lubricating material is contained in one or more microchannels that are adapted to evenly deliver a mobile lubricant to interacting areas of the MEMS device. In another aspect, different lubricant materials can be brought into the device in a sequential manner via one channel, or contained concurrently in separate channels. Consequently, the lubricant delivery techniques described herein more reliably and cost effectively prevent stiction-related device failures relative to conventional lubricant delivery schemes.	CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/847,831, filed Sep. 27, 2006, entitled “Method of Sealing a Microfluidic Lubricant Channel Formed in a Micromechanical Device,” which is herein incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention Embodiments of the present invention relate generally to micro-electro-mechanical and nano-electro-mechanical systems and more specifically to such systems having one or more microfluidic lubricant channels. 2. Description of the Related Art As is well known, atomic level and microscopic level forces between device components become far more critical as devices become smaller. Problems related to these types of forces are quite prevalent with micromechanical devices, such as micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) and nano-electro-mechanical systems (NEMS). In particular, “stiction” forces created between moving parts that come into contact with one another, either intentionally or accidentally, during operation are a common problem with micromechanical devices. Stiction-type failures occur when the interfacial attraction forces created between moving parts that come into contact with one another exceed restoring forces. As a result, the surfaces of these parts either permanently or temporarily adhere to each other, causing device failure or malfunction. Stiction forces are complex surface phenomena that generally include capillary forces, Van der Waal's forces and electrostatic attraction forces. As used herein, the term “contact” refers generally to any interaction between two surfaces and is not limited to the actual physical touching of the surfaces. Some examples of typical micromechanical devices are RF switches, optical modulators, microgears, accelerometers, worm gears, transducers, fluid nozzles, gyroscopes, and other similar devices or actuators. It should be noted that the term “MEMS device” is used hereafter to generally describe a micromechanical device, and to cover both MEMS and NEMS devices discussed above. Stiction is especially problematic in devices such as the RF switch, optical modulator, microgears, and other actuators. Various elements in these devices often interact with each other during operation at frequencies between a few hertz (Hz) and a few gigahertz (GHz). Various analyses have shown that, without adding some form of lubrication to these types of devices to reduce stiction and wear between component surfaces, product lifetimes may range from only a few contacts to a few thousand contacts, which is generally well below a commercially viable lifetime. Consequently, one of the biggest challenges facing the MEMS and NEMS industries is the long-term reliability of contacting microstructures in the face of stiction. Several techniques to address stiction between two contacting surfaces have been discussed in various publications. One such technique is to texture the contact surfaces (e.g., via micro patterning or laser patterning) to reduce the overall adhesion force by reducing the effective contact area. Another such technique involves selecting specific materials from which the contacting surfaces are made to lower the surface energy, reduce charging, or contact potential difference between components. Moreover, some prior references have suggested the insertion of a lubricant into the region around the interacting devices to reduce the chance of stiction-related failures. Such a lubricant often times is in a solid or liquid state, depending on the properties of the material, and the temperature and pressure or environment in which the lubricant is placed. In general, the terms a “solid” lubricant or a “liquid” lubricant is a lubricant that is in a solid or liquid state under ambient conditions, i.e., room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Some prior art references describe a lubricant as being in a “vapor” state. These references use the term vapor phase lubricant to generally describe a mixture of components that contain a carrier gas (e.g., nitrogen) and a vaporized second component that is a solid or liquid at temperatures and pressures near ambient conditions (e.g., STP). In most conventional applications, the solid or liquid lubricant remains in a solid or liquid state at temperatures much higher than room temperature and pressures much lower than atmospheric pressure conditions. Examples of typical lubricants that are solid or liquid at ambient conditions and temperatures well above ambient temperature can be found in references such as U.S. Pat. No. 6,930,367. Such prior art lubricants include dichlorodimethylsilane (“DDMS”), octadecyltrichlorosilane (“OTS”), perfluoroctyltrichlorsilane (“PFOTCS”), perfluorodecanoic acid (“PFDA”), perfluorodecyl-trichlorosilane (“FDTS”), perfluoro polyether (“PFPE”) and/or fluoroalkylsilane (“FOTS”), that are deposited on various interacting components by use of a vapor deposition process, such as atmospheric chemical vapor deposition (APCVD), low pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD), plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), or other similar deposition processes. The technique of forming the low-surface energy organic passivation layer on the surface of a MEMS component is commonly referred to in the art as “vapor lubricant” coating. One serious draw back to using a low-surface energy organic passivation layer, such as self-assembled monolayer (SAM) coatings, is that they typically are on the order of one monolayer thick. Generally, these types of coatings have a very limited usable lifetime, since they are easily damaged or displaced due to impact or wear created by the interaction of the various moving components. This inevitably happens in MEMS devices with contacting surfaces that are subject to frequent contact in use and a large number of contacts during the product lifetime, such as in light modulators and RF switches. Without some way to reliably restore or repair the damaged coatings, stiction occurs, and device failure results. As shown in FIG. 1A, one approach for lubricating MEMS components is to provide a getter 110 within the package 100 (that includes a base 111, a lid 104, and a seal 106) in which an array of MEMS devices 108 resides. FIG. 1B illustrates one conventional package 120 that contains a MEMS device 108 and a getter 110 positioned within the head space 124 of the package 120. The package 120 also contains a package substrate 128, window 126 and spacer ring 125. These two configurations are further described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,843,936 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,979,893, respectively. These conventional devices employ some type of reversibly-absorbing getter to store the lubricant molecules in zeolite crystals or the internal volume of a micro-tube. In these designs, a supply of lubricant is maintained in the getter 110, and an amount of lubricant needed to lubricate the MEMS device 108 is discharged during normal operation. However, adding the reversibly absorbing getter, or reservoirs, to retain the liquid lubricants increases package size and packaging complexity and adds steps to the fabrication process, all of which increase piece-part cost as well as the overall manufacturing cost of MEMS or NEMS devices. Thus, forming a device that uses these techniques generally requires a number of labor-intensive and costly processing steps, such as mixing the getter material, applying the getter material to the device-containing package, curing the getter material, conditioning or activating the getter material, and then sealing the MEMS device and the getter within the sealed package. Particles, moisture, and other contaminants found in our everyday atmospheric environment deleteriously effect device yield of a MEMS fabrication process and the average lifetime of a MEMS device. In an effort to prevent contamination during fabrication, the multiple process steps used to form a MEMS device are usually completed in an ultra-high grade clean room environment, e.g., class 10 or better. Due to the high cost required to produce and maintain a class 10 or better clean room environment, the more MEMS device fabrication steps that require such a clean room environment, the more expensive the MEMS device is to make. Therefore, there is a need to create a MEMS device fabrication process that reduces the number of processing steps that require an ultra-high grade clean room environment. As noted above, in an effort to isolate the MEMS components from the everyday atmospheric environment, MEMS device manufacturers typically enclose the MEMS device within a device package so that a sealed environment is formed around the MEMS device. Conventional device packaging processes commonly require the lubricating materials that are contained within the MEMS device package be exposed to high temperatures during the MEMS device package sealing processes, particularly wafer level hermetic packaging. Typically, conventional sealing processes, such as glass frit bonding or eutectic bonding, require that the MEMS device, lubricants, and other device components are heated to temperatures between about 250° C. to 450° C. These high-bonding temperatures severely limit the type of lubricants that can be used in a device package and also cause the lubricant to evaporate away or break down after a prolonged period of exposure. In addition, lubricant that has evaporated during high temperature bonding processes can later re-condense onto and contaminate sealing surfaces. Therefore, there is also a need for a MEMS device package-fabricating process that eliminates or minimizes the exposure of lubricants to high temperatures during the device fabrication process. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention generally relates to a micromechanical device that has an improved usable lifetime due to the presence of one or more channels that contain and deliver a lubricant that can reduce the likelihood of stiction occurring between the various moving parts of the device. A device assembly according to an embodiment of the invention includes a micromechanical device enclosed within a processing region and a lubricant channel formed through at least one interior wall of the processing region to be in fluid communication with the processing region, wherein a substantial length of the lubricant channel extends into said at least one interior wall to be completely enclosed thereby. The volume of the lubricant channel may be between 0.1 nanoliter and 1000 nanoliters. The hydraulic diameter of the lubricant channel may be less than about 1 mm, and a length of the lubricant channel is substantially larger than a hydraulic diameter of the lubricant channel. A device assembly according to another embodiment of the invention comprises a micromechanical device enclosed within a processing region and a lubricant channel formed on at least one interior wall of the processing region, wherein the lubricant channel is in fluid communication with the processing region along the entire length thereof, and the lubricant channel is configured so that a lubricant for the micromechanical device is held within the lubricant channel via surface tension of the lubricant against internal surfaces of the lubrication channel. Embodiments of the invention also provide a packaged micromechanical device that includes a lid, a base, and an interposer that define a processing region for a micromechanical device, a micromechanical device disposed within the processing region, and a lubricant channel formed through at least one interior wall of the processing region and in fluid communication with the processing region, wherein the lubricant channel is configured so that a lubricant for the micromechanical device is held within the lubricant channel via surface tension of the lubricant against internal surfaces of the lubrication channel. An epoxy layer may be interposed between the lid and the interposer and between the interposer and the base. Typically, a channel inlet that is in fluid communication with the lubrication channel is formed through an exterior wall of the micromechanical device assembly or package. Lubricant is injected into the lubrication channel through this channel inlet. However, when an epoxy layer is used, the lubricant may be injected into the lubricant channel prior to the sealing of the package and the channel inlet becomes no longer necessary. One advantage of the invention is that a reservoir of a lubricating material is formed within a device package so that an amount of “fresh” lubricating material can be delivered to areas where stiction may occur. In one aspect, the lubricating material is contained in one or more microchannels that are adapted to evenly deliver a mobile lubricant to interacting areas of the MEMS device. In another aspect, different lubricant materials can be brought into the device in a sequential manner via one channel, or contained concurrently in separate channels. Consequently, the lubricant delivery techniques described herein more reliably and cost effectively prevent stiction-related device failures relative to conventional lubricant delivery schemes. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS So that the manner in which the above recited features of the present invention can be understood in detail, a more particular description of the invention, briefly summarized above, may be had by reference to embodiments, some of which are illustrated in the appended drawings. It is to be noted, however, that the appended drawings illustrate only typical embodiments of this invention and are therefore not to be considered limiting of its scope, for the invention may admit to other equally effective embodiments. FIG. 1A schematically illustrates a cross-sectional view of a prior art device package containing a getter. FIG. 1B schematically illustrates a cross-sectional view of another prior art device package containing a getter. FIG. 2A illustrates a cross-sectional view of a device package assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2B schematically illustrates a cross-sectional view of a single mirror assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2C schematically illustrates a cross-sectional view of a single mirror assembly in a deflected state, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3A illustrates a cross-sectional plan view of a device package assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIGS. 3B and 3C illustrate close-up views of a partial section and a lubricant channel in FIG. 3A, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3D illustrates a lubricant channel that has a volume of lubricant disposed therein to provide a ready supply of lubricant to a processing region, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3E illustrates a cross-sectional plan view of a device package assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3F illustrates a cross-sectional plan view of a device package assembly having channels inside the processing region of the device package assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3G illustrates a cross-sectional plan view of a device package assembly having lubricant-containing channels on an interior wall of the processing region, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIGS. 4A-C illustrate process sequences for forming a MEMS device package that includes lubrication channels, according to embodiments of the invention. FIGS. 5A-5P illustrate the various states of one or more of the components of a MEMS device package after performing each step in the process sequences illustrated in FIGS. 4A, 4B and 4C. FIG. 6A illustrates a cross-sectional plan view of a device package assembly after performing multiple steps in the process sequence illustrated in FIG. 4A, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIGS. 6B and 6C illustrate a channel inlet formed into a lubricant channel, according to embodiments of the invention. FIG. 6D illustrates a cross-sectional plan view of a device package assembly after a lubricant has been drawn into a lubricant channel, according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 6E illustrates a cap is installed over a channel inlet to seal a lubricant channel, according to an embodiment of the invention. FIGS. 6F and 6G illustrate methods of sealing a lubricant channel using an IR laser, according to embodiments of the invention. FIG. 7A illustrates a cross-sectional plan view of a device package assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 7B illustrates a close-up of a partial section view of a device package assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 7C illustrates a close-up of a partial section view of a device package assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention; FIG. 7D illustrates a close-up of a partial section view illustrated in FIG. 7C, according to one embodiment of the invention; FIG. 7E illustrates a close-up of a partial section view of a device package assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention; FIG. 8 illustrates a close-up of a partial section view of a device package assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 9A and 9B illustrate a close-up of a partial section view of a device package assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 10A is a plan view of a MEMS device package having a lubricant channel formed with a particle trap, according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 10B is a plan view of a MEMS device package having a lubricant channel formed with a non-linear particle trap, according to an embodiment of the invention. For clarity, identical reference numbers have been used, where applicable, to designate identical elements that are common between figures. It is contemplated that features of one embodiment may be incorporated in other embodiments without further recitation. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present invention generally relates to a micromechanical device that has an improved usable lifetime due to the presence of one or more channels that contain and deliver a lubricant that can reduce the likelihood of stiction occurring between the various moving parts of the device. Embodiments of the present invention include an enclosed device package, and a method of forming the same, where the enclosed device package has one or more lubricant-containing channels for delivering lubricant to a MEMS device disposed within the enclosed region of the device package. The one or more lubricant-containing channels act as a ready supply of fresh lubricant to prevent stiction between interacting components of the device disposed within the enclosed region of the device package. This supply of fresh lubricant may also be used to replenish damaged lubricants (worn-off, broken down, etc.) between various contacting surfaces. In one example, aspects of this invention may be especially useful for fabricating micromechanical devices, such as MEMS devices, NEMS devices, or other similar thermal or fluidic devices. In one embodiment, the amount and type of lubricant disposed within the channel is selected so that fresh lubricant can readily diffuse or be transported in a gas or vapor phase to all areas of the processing region to reduce the chances of stiction-related failure. In another embodiment, the lubricant and the surfaces of walls of the processing region, in particular the wettability of the surfaces, are selected so that fresh lubricant is transported in a liquid phase onto surfaces of walls of the processing region via capillary forces, and subsequently released to the internal region of the device as molecules or molecular vapor. One of skill in the art recognizes that the term lubricant, as used herein, is intended to describe a material adapted to provide lubrication, anti-stiction, and/or anti-wear properties to contact surfaces. In addition, the term lubricant, as used herein, is generally intended to describe a lubricant that is in a liquid, vapor and/or gaseous state during the operation and storage of a MEMS device. Aspects of the present invention take advantage of characteristics of the microfluidics. In particular, microchannels or lubricant channels are configured in view of the lubricant material to be used so that capillary forces can be used to manipulate liquid lubricants into one or more lubricant channels that are in fluid communication with a process region of a MEMS device. The lubricant channel has at least two types of applications. The first application is to serve as a storage for the lubricants for lifetime use of the MEMS device. The second application is to provide a controllable way to deliver lubricants into the process region in a well-controller manner. In certain cases, simple external mechanical pressure from a pipette or a pump, for example, may be used alone, or in conjunction with the capillary forces to manipulate liquid lubricants into the lubricant channels. Overview of Exemplary System In an effort to prevent contamination from affecting the longevity of MEMS or NEMS components, these devices are typically enclosed within an environment that is isolated from external contamination, such as particles, moisture, or other foreign material. FIG. 2A illustrates a cross-sectional view of a typical MEMS device package 230 that contains a MEMS device 231 enclosed within a processing region 234 formed between a lid 232, interposer 235 and a base 233. Typically, the lid 232, interposer 235 and base 233 are all hermetically or non-hermetically sealed so that the components within the processing region 234 are isolated from external contamination that may interfere with the use of the device. FIG. 2B illustrates a representative micromechanical device that may be formed within the MEMS device 231 of FIG. 2A, which is used herein to describe various embodiments of the invention. The device shown in FIG. 2B schematically illustrates a cross-sectional view of a single mirror assembly 101 contained in a spatial light modulator (SLM). One should note that the MEMS device shown in FIG. 2B is not intended in any way to limit the scope of the invention described herein, since one skilled in the art would appreciate that the various embodiments described herein could be used in other MEMS, NEMS, larger scale actuators or sensors, or other comparable devices that experience stiction or other similar problems. While the discussion below specifically discusses the application of one or more of the various embodiments of the invention using a MEMS or NEMS type of device, these configurations also are not intended to be limiting as to the scope of the invention. In general, a single mirror assembly 101 may contain a mirror 102, base 103, and a flexible member 107 that connects the mirror 102 to the base 103. The base 103 is generally provided with at least one electrode (elements 106A or 106B) formed on a surface 105 of the base 103. The base 103 can be made of any suitable material that is generally mechanically stable and can be formed using typical semiconductor processing techniques. In one aspect, the base 103 is formed from a semiconductor material, such as a silicon-containing material, and is processed according to standard semiconductor processing techniques. Other materials may be used in alternative embodiments of the invention. The electrodes 106A, 106B can be made of any materials that conduct electricity. In one aspect, the electrodes 106A, 106B are made of a metal (e.g., aluminum, titanium) deposited on the surface 105 of the base 103 and etched to yield desired shape. A MEMS device of this type is described in the commonly assigned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/901,706, filed Jul. 28, 2004. The mirror 102 generally contains a reflective surface 102A and a mirror base 102B. The reflective surface 102A is generally formed by depositing a metal layer, such as aluminum or other suitable material, on the mirror base 102B. The mirror 102 is attached to the base 103 by a flexible member 107. In one aspect, the flexible member 107 is a cantilever spring that is adapted to bend in response to an applied force and to subsequently return to its original shape after removal of the applied force. In one embodiment, the base 103 is fabricated from a first single piece of material, and the flexible member 107 and the mirror base 102B are fabricated from a second single piece of material, such as single crystal silicon. Importantly, the use of any device configuration that allows the surface of one component (e.g., mirror 102) to contact the surface of another component (e.g., base 103) during device operation, thereby leading to stiction-related problems, generally falls within the scope of the invention. For example, a simple cantilever beam that pivots about a hinge in response to an applied force such that one end of the cantilever beam contacts another surface of the device is within the scope of the invention. In one aspect, one or more optional landing pads (elements 104A and 104B in FIG. 2B) are formed on the surface 105 of the base 103. The landing pads are formed, for example, by depositing a metal layer containing aluminum, titanium nitride, tungsten or other suitable materials. In other configurations, the landing pads may be made of silicon (Si), polysilicon (poly-Si), silicon nitride (SiN), silicon carbide (SiC), diamond like carbon (DLC), copper (Cu), titanium (Ti) and/or other suitable materials. FIG. 2C illustrates the single mirror assembly 101 in a distorted state due to the application of an electrostatic force FE created by applying a voltage VA between the mirror 102 and the electrode 106A using a power supply 112. As shown in FIG. 2C, it is often desirable to bias a landing pad (e.g., elements 104A) to the same potential as the mirror 102 to eliminate electrical breakdown and electrical static charging in the contacting area relative to mirror 102. During typical operation, the single mirror assembly 101 is actuated such that the mirror 102 contacts the landing pad 104A to ensure that a desired angle is achieved between the mirror 102 and the base 103 so that incoming optical radiation “A” is reflected off the surface of the mirror 102 in a desired direction “B.” The deflection of the mirror 102 towards the electrode 106A due to the application of voltage VA creates a restoring force (e.g., moment), due to the bending of the flexible member 107. The magnitude of the restoring force is generally defined by the physical dimensions and material properties of the flexible member 107, and the magnitude of distortion experienced by the flexible member 107. The maximum restoring force is typically limited by the torque applied by the electrostatic force FE that can be generated by the application of the maximum allowable voltage VA. To assure contact between the mirror 102 and the landing pad 104A the electrostatic force FE must be greater than the maximum restoring force. As the distance between the mirror 102 and the landing pad 104A decreases, the interaction between the surfaces of these components generally creates one or more stiction forces that acts on the mirror 102. When the stiction forces equal or exceed the restoring force, device failure results, since the mirror 102 is prevented from moving to a different position when the electrostatic force generated by voltage VA is removed or reduced. As previously described herein, stiction forces are complex surface phenomena that generally include three major components. The first is the so-called “capillary force” that is created at the interface between a liquid and a solid due to an intermolecular force imbalance at the surface of a liquid (e.g., Laplace pressure differences) that generates an adhesive-type attractive force. Capillary force interaction in MEMS and NEMS devices usually occurs when a thin layer of liquid is trapped between the surfaces of two contacting components. A typical example is the water vapor in the ambient. The second major component of stiction forces is the Van der Waal's force, which is a basic quantum mechanical intermolecular force that results when atoms or molecules come very close to one another. When device components contact one another, Van der Waal's forces arise from the polarization induced in the atoms of one component by the presence of the atoms of the second component. When working with very planar structures, such as those in MEMS and NEMS devices, these types of stiction forces can be significant due to the size of the effective contact area. The third major component of stiction forces is the electrostatic force created by the coulombic attraction between trapped charges found in the interacting components. Device Package Configurations FIG. 3A is a plan view of the MEMS device package 230 illustrated in FIG. 2A having a microfluidic channel or lubricant channel 301 formed in the MEMS device package 230. For clarity, MEMS device package 230 is illustrated with a partial section 391 of lid 232 removed. The lubricant channel 301 is a microchannel, i.e., a conduit with a hydraulic diameter of a few micrometers to less than about 1 mm, and may be formed in any one of the walls that enclose the processing region 234. In one embodiment, as shown in FIG. 3A, the lubricant channel 301 is formed in the interposer 235 just below the lid 232. Alternatively, lubricant channel 301 may be formed in the lid 232 or in the base 233 of MEMS device package 230. In one embodiment, the lubricant channel 301 extends from an interior surface 235B of one of the walls that encloses the processing region 234 to a channel inlet 302 (see FIG. 3B). The channel inlet 302 penetrates an exterior surface 235A to allow the introduction of one or more lubricants into the lubricant channel 301. In alternative embodiments, the lubricant channel 301 does not extend to an exterior surface (see FIG. 5L) and may be formed on one of the walls that enclose the processing region 234 (see FIG. 3G). To prevent ingress of particles, moisture, and other contamination into the processing region 234 and lubricant channel 301 from the outside environment, lubricant channel 301 is configured so that it is sealed from the outside environment. In one embodiment, channel inlet 302 is sealed with a closure 302A after a lubricant (not shown for clarity) is introduced into lubricant channel 301, as illustrated in FIG. 3B. Methods for forming closure 302A to seal channel inlet 302 according to this embodiment are described below in conjunction with FIGS. 6F and 6G. In another embodiment, a cap 304 is positioned over the channel inlet 302 after lubricant channel 301 is filled with lubricant, as shown in FIG. 3C. The cap 304 may be a polymer, such as epoxy or silicone, or other solid material that is bonded to the exterior surface 235A using conventional sealing techniques. In one aspect, cap 304 is a plug of material that is positioned inside the channel inlet 302 after lubricant channel 301 is filled with lubricant. The plug of material sealing channel inlet 302 may be an indium metal plug, which may be applied as a molten solder droplet to channel inlet 302 without the use of flux, a potential contaminant. This is because indium alloys with silicon and therefore wets exterior surface 235A and channel inlet 302. The plug of material sealing channel inlet 302 may also include a hydrophobic, high-vacuum grease, such as Krytox®. The lubricant channel 301 is adapted to contain a desired amount of a lubricant (not shown) that vaporizes or diffuses into the processing region 234 over time. The rate at which the lubricant migrates into the processing region is affected by a number of factors, including the geometry of the lubricant channel 301, lubricant molecular weight, bond strength of the lubricant to processing region surfaces (e.g., via physisorption, chemisorption), capillary force created by the surface tension of the lubricant against internal surfaces of the lubrication channel 301, lubricant temperature, and pressure of the volume contained within the processing region 234. In one embodiment, lubricant channel 301 is adapted to contain a volume of lubricant between about 0.1 nanoliters (nl) and about 1000 nl. Referring to FIG. 3B, the volume of the lubricant channel 301 is defined by the formed length times the cross-sectional area of the lubricant channel 301. The length of the lubricant channel 301 is the channel length extending from the exterior surface 235A to the interior surface 235B, i.e., the sum of the length of segments A, B and C, as shown in FIG. 3B. The channel length is between 10 micrometers to 1 mm. In one aspect, the cross-section of lubricant channel 301 is rectangular and the cross-sectional area (not shown) is defined by the depth (not shown) and the width W of the lubricant channel 301. In one embodiment, the width W of the lubricant channel 301 is between about 10 micrometers (μm) and about 800 μm and the depth is between about 10 micrometers (μm) and about 200 μm. The cross-section of the lubricant channel 301 need not be square or rectangular, and can be any desirable shape without varying from the basic scope of the invention. FIG. 3D illustrates a lubricant channel 301 that has a volume of lubricant 505 disposed therein to provide a ready supply of lubricant to the processing region 234. During normal operation of the MEMS device 231, molecules of the lubricant tend to migrate to all areas within the processing region 234. The continual migration of the lubricant 505 to the areas of the MEMS device 231 where stiction may occur is useful to prevent stiction-related failures at contact regions between two interacting MEMS components. As lubricant molecules breakdown at the contact regions and/or adsorb onto other surfaces within the processing region 234 during operation of the MEMS device 231, fresh lubricant molecules from lubricant channel 301 replace the broken-down or adsorbed lubricant molecules, thereby allowing the lubricant 505 in the lubricant channel 301 to act as a lubricant reservoir. The movement or migration of molecules of the lubricant 505 is generally performed by two transport mechanisms. The first mechanism is a surface diffusion mechanism, where the lubricant molecules diffuse across the internal surfaces of processing region 234 to reach the contact region between two interacting MEMS components. In one aspect, the lubricant 505 is selected for good diffusivity over the surfaces contained within the processing region 234. The second mechanism is a vapor phase, or gas phase, migration of the lubricant 505 stored in lubricant channel 301 to the contact region between two interacting MEMS components. In one aspect, the lubricant 505 stored in the lubricant channels 301 of the device package is selected so that molecules of lubricant 505 desorb from these areas and enter into the process region 234 as a vapor or gas. During operation of the device, the lubricant molecules reach an equilibrium partial pressure within processing region 234 and then, in a vapor or gaseous state, migrate to an area between the interacting surfaces of process region 234 and MEMS device 231. Since these two types of transport mechanisms aid in the build-up of a lubricant layer, thereby reducing the interaction of moving MEMS components, the act of delivering lubricant to an exposed region of the MEMS device is generally referred to hereafter as “replenishment” of the lubricant layer, and a lubricant delivered by either transport mechanism is referred to as a “mobile lubricant.” Generally, a sufficient amount of replenishing lubricant molecules are stored inside the lubricant channel 301 so that the sufficient lubricant molecules are available to prevent stiction-induced failures at the interacting areas of the MEMS device during the entire life cycle of the product. In one embodiment, illustrated in FIG. 3E, the size of the lubricant channel 301 is selected and the internal surface 234A is selectively treated, so that the surface tension of a liquid lubricant 505 against the surfaces of the lubricant channel 301 and the internal surface 234A causes the lubricant 505 to be drawn from a position outside of the MEMS device package 230 into lubricant channel 301 and then into the processing region 234. In this way, the lubricant channel 301 acts as a liquid injection system that allows the user to deliver an amount of the lubricant 505 into the processing region 234, by use of capillary forces created when the lubricant 505 contacts the walls of the lubricant channel 301. In one example, the cross-section of lubricant channel 301 is rectangular, and the width of the lubricant channel 301 is between about 100 micrometers (μm) and about 600 μm, and the depth is between about 100 μm±50 μm. When in use, capillary forces can deliver an amount of lubricant 505 to the processing region 234 that is smaller or larger than the volume of the lubricant channel 301. In this configuration it may be possible to sequentially deliver different volumes of two or more different lubricants through the same lubricant channel 301. Alternatively, a first lubricant may be transmitted through the lubricant channel 301 and then a second lubricant is retained in the lubricant channel 301 in a subsequent step. In another embodiment, the lubricant 505 is selected so that a portion of the lubricant 505 vaporizes to form a vapor or gas within the processing region during normal operation of the device. In cases where the MEMS device is a spatial light modulator (SLM), typical device operating temperatures may be in a range between about 0° C. and about 70° C. The ability of the lubricant to form a vapor or gas is dependent on lubricant equilibrium partial pressure, which varies as a function of the temperature of the lubricant, the pressure of the region surrounding the lubricant, lubricant bond strength to internal surfaces of the processing region 234, and lubricant molecular weight. In another embodiment, the lubricant 505 is selected due to its ability to rapidly diffuse along the surfaces within the processing region 234. In this embodiment, internal surfaces 234B of the processing region 234 and/or the lubricant channel 301 may be treated to act as wetting surfaces for the lubricant 505, as illustrated in FIG. 3F. In this way, the lubricant 505 is brought into processing region 234 in a liquid form to act as a reservoir of mobile lubricant for MEMS device package 230 throughout the MEMS device lifetime. To prevent interference with contact surfaces within the processing region 234, selected areas of internal surfaces 234C of processing region 234 may be treated to act as non-wetting surfaces for the lubricant 505. In this way, a liquid reservoir of mobile lubricant is formed in processing region 234 with no danger of interfering with components of MEMS device 231. In one aspect, channels or grooves 234D are formed in one or more internal surfaces of the processing region 234 to better retain lubricant 505, as shown in FIG. 3G. In another embodiment, the lubricant 505 is adapted to operate at a temperature that is within an extended operating temperature range, which is between about 0° C. and about 70° C. In yet another embodiment, the lubricant is selected so that it will not decompose when the device is exposed to temperatures that may be experienced during a typical MEMS or NEMS packaging process, i.e., between about −30° C. and about 400° C. Examples of lubricants 505 that may be disposed within a lubricant channel 301 and used to prevent stiction of the interacting components within a MEMS device are perfluorinated polyethers (PFPE), self assembled monolayer (SAM) or other liquid lubricants. Some known types of PFPE lubricants are Y or Z type lubricants (e.g., Fomblin® Z25) available from Solvay Solexis, Inc. of Thorofare, N.J., Krytoxe from DuPont, and Demnum® from Daikin Industries, LTD. Examples of SAM include dichlorodimethylsilane (“DDMS”), octadecyltrichlorosilane (“OTS”), perfluoroctyltrichlorsilane (“PFOTCS”), perfluorodecyl-trichlorosilane (“FDTS”), fluoroalkylsilane (“FOTS”). In alternative embodiments, it may be desirable to modify the properties of the surfaces within the lubricant channel 301 to change the lubricant bond strength to surfaces with the internal region 305, shown in FIG. 3B, of the lubricant channel 301. For example, it may be desirable to coat the surfaces of the lubricant channel 301 with an organic passivating material, such as a self-assembled-monolayer (SAM). Useful SAM materials include, but are not limited to, organosilane type compounds such as octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS), perfluorodecyltrichlorosilane (FDTS). The surfaces of the lubricant channel 301 may also be modified by exposing them to microwaves, UV light, thermal energy, or other forms of electromagnetic radiation to alter the properties of the surface of the lubricant channel 301. As noted above, conventional techniques that require the addition of a reversibly absorbing getter to MEMS device package to retain a lubricant substantially increase the device package size and the complexity of forming the device, and also add steps to the fabrication process. Such device package designs have an increased piece-part cost and an increased overall manufacturing cost, due to the addition of extra getter components. Therefore, by disposing a mobile lubricant in a lubricant channel formed in or on one or more of the walls enclosing the processing region, an inexpensive and reliable MEMS device can be formed. The use of the lubricant channel 301 eliminates the need for a reversibly adsorbing getter and thus reduces the device package size, the manufacturing cost, and the piece-part cost. The embodiments described herein also improve device reliability by reducing the likelihood that during operation additional components positioned within the processing region, such as getter materials, contact the moving or interacting MEMS components within the device package. Lubricant Channel Formation Process According to embodiments of the invention, a lubricant channel similar to lubricant channel 301 of MEMS device package 230 can be formed in one or more of the walls of an enclosure containing a MEMS or any other stiction-sensitive device. Typically, MEMS devices are enclosed in a MEMS device package 230, as illustrated above in FIG. 2A, using a chip-level or wafer-level packaging process. An example of a chip-level packaging process can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 5,936,758 and U.S. Patent Publication No. 20050212067. The process sequence discussed below can also be applied to wafer-level hermetic packaging, in which a plurality of MEMS devices are packaged simultaneously by aligning and assembling a number of silicon and glass wafers into a stack. For example, a plurality of MEMS device packages substantially similar to MEMS device 230 may be formed via wafer-level hermetic packaging by using a base 233 from which the MEMS device packages 230 will be formed. A plurality of MEMS devices 231 may be formed on the base 233 or individually bonded to the base 233. The sealed MEMS devices 230 can be formed by bonding the base 233, an interposer wafer, and a glass wafer. The individual MEMS device packages are then formed by singulating the bonded wafer stack by dicing, laser cutting or other methods of die separation. The remaining packaging assembly and testing processes following wafer-level hermetic packaging and die singulation do not require an ultra-high clean room environment and hence reduce the overall packaging cost to manufacture a device. In addition, embodiments of the invention described below have a particular advantage over conventional MEMS device packaging processes, since they eliminate the requirement that the MEMS device lubricant be exposed to a high temperature during the steps used to form the sealed processing region 234. While the discussion below focuses on a wafer-level packaging method, the techniques and general process sequence need not be limited to this type of manufacturing process. Therefore, the embodiments of the invention described herein are not intended to limit the scope of the present invention. Examples of MEMS device packages and processes of forming the MEMS device packages that may benefit from one or more embodiments of the invention described herein are further described in the following commonly assigned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/693,323, Attorney Docket No. 021713-000300, filed Oct. 24, 2003, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/902,659, Attorney Docket No. 021713-001000, filed Jul. 28, 2004, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/008,483, Attorney Docket No. 021713-001300, filed Dec. 8, 2004. FIG. 4A illustrates a process sequence 400 for forming a MEMS device package 230 that includes lubrication channels 301, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIGS. 5A-5F illustrate the various states of one or more of the components of the MEMS device package 230 after each step of process sequence 400 has been performed. FIG. 5A is a cross-sectional view of a wafer 235C that may be used to form the multiple MEMS device packages 230, as shown in FIG. 5F. The wafer 235C may be formed from a material such as silicon (Si), a metal, a glass material, a plastic material, a polymer material, or other suitable material. Referring now to FIGS. 4A and 5B, in step 450, conventional patterning, lithography and dry etch techniques are used to form the lubricant channels 301 and the optional depressions 401 on a top surface 404 of the wafer 235C. The depth D of the lubricant channels 301 and the depressions 401 are set by the time and etch rate of the conventional dry etching process performed on the wafer 235C. It should be noted that the lubricant channels 301 and depressions 401 may be formed by other conventional etching, ablation, or other manufacturing techniques without varying from the scope of the basic invention. Referring now to FIGS. 4A and 5C, in step 452, conventional patterning, lithography and dry etch techniques are used to remove material from the back surface 405 through the base wall 403 of the depressions 401 to form a through hole 402 that defines the interior surface 235B. Interior surface 235B, together with the lid 232 and the base 233 (shown in FIGS. 5E-5F), defines processing region 234 of MEMS device package 230. The process of removing material from the wafer 235C to form the through hole 402 may also be performed by conventional etching, ablation, or other similar manufacturing techniques. Alternatively, the wafer 235C may be formed with the through holes 402 in a previous step. In step 454, as shown in FIGS. 4A and 5D, the lid 232 is bonded to the top surface 404 of the wafer 235C to enclose the lubricant channels 301 and cover one end of each through hole 402. Typical bonding processes may include anodic bonding (e.g., an electrolytic process), eutectic bonding, fusion bonding, covalent bonding, and/or glass frit fusion bonding processes. In one embodiment, the lid 232 is a display grade glass material (e.g., Corning® Eagle 2000™) and the wafer 235C is a silicon-containing material, and the lid 232 is bonded to the wafer 235C by use of a conventional anodic bonding technique. Typically the temperature of one or more of the components in the MEMS device package reaches between about 350° C. and about 450° C. during a conventional anodic bonding process. Additional information related to the anodic bonding process is provided in the commonly assigned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/028,946, filed on Jan. 3, 2005, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. In step 456, as shown in FIGS. 4A and 5E, the base 233, which has a plurality of MEMS devices 231 mounted thereon, is bonded to the back surface 405 of the wafer 235C to form an enclosed processing region 234 in which the MEMS device 231 resides. Typically, the base 233 is bonded to the wafer 235C using an anodic bonding (e.g., an electrolytic process), eutectic bonding, fusion bonding, covalent bonding, and/or glass frit fusion bonding process. In one embodiment, the base 233 is a silicon-containing substrate and wafer 235C is a silicon-containing wafer, and base 233 is bonded to the wafer 235C using a glass frit bonding process. Typically, the temperature of at least one or more of the components in the MEMS device package reaches a temperature between about 350° C. and about 450° C. during a glass frit bonding process. Additional information related to the glass frit bonding process is provided in the commonly assigned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/028,946, filed on Jan. 3, 2005, which has been incorporated by reference in its entirety. Referring now to FIGS. 4A and 5F, in step 458, the wafer stack consisting of base 233, wafer 235C, and lid 232, is separated by use of a conventional dicing technique to form multiple MEMS device packages 230. The excess or scrap material 411, which is left over after the dicing process, may then be discarded. As part of step 458, conventional wire bonding and testing can be performed on the formed MEMS device to assure viability thereof and prepare the MEMS device for use in a system that may utilize the MEMS device package 230. Other dicing techniques can also be used to first expose the bond pads to allow wafer level probing and die sorting, followed by a full singulation. FIG. 6A is a plan view of a MEMS device package 230 having a partially formed lubricant channel 301 that may be formed using process steps 450 through step 458 shown in FIG. 4A. For clarity, MEMS device package 230 is illustrated with a partial section 601 of lid 232 removed. As shown, the lubricant channel 301 is only partially formed in the interposer 235 so that the end of the lubricant channel 301 proximate the exterior surface 235A is blocked by an excess interposer material 501 having a material thickness 502. In general, the material thickness 502 can be relatively thin to allow for easy removal of the excess interposer material 501 and may be about 10 micrometers (μm) to about 1 mm in thickness. In this configuration, the lubricant channel 301 is formed to extend from the exit port 303, which penetrates the interior surface 235B, to the opposing end, which is blocked by the excess interposer material 501. In this way, the processing region 234 remains sealed until the excess interposer material 501 is removed for injection of lubricant into the lubricant channel 301 during step 460 of FIG. 4A as described below. In step 460 of the process sequence 400, a channel inlet 302 is formed into the lubricant channel 301, as illustrated in FIGS. 6B and 6C. The channel inlet 302 may be formed by a step of puncturing the excess interposer material 501, as illustrated in FIG. 6B. Alternatively, the channel inlet 302 may be formed by performing a conventional abrasive, grinding, or polishing technique to remove substantially all of the excess interposer material 501 to expose the lubricant channel 301, as illustrated in FIG. 6C. In one aspect, it may be desirable to clean and remove any particles from the lubricant channel 301 created when the excess interposer material is removed to assure that particles cannot make their way into the processing region 234. Because the precision with which the excess interposer material 501 of the MEMS device package 230 can be removed is limited, a thickness control aperture 503 may be formed proximate the lubricant channel 301 during the formation of lubricant channel 301, as shown in FIG. 6A. During the process step of 458, materials on the right side of the aperture 503 is removed to expose the aperture 503. The presence of thickness control aperture 503 allows for a variation 504 (see FIG. 6A) in the removal of excess interposer material 501 without affecting material thickness 502. In one embodiment, as illustrated in FIG. 6B, the channel inlet 302 is created by delivering energy, such as a laser pulse or an electron-beam pulse, to drill a hole through the excess interposer material 501 and into the lubricant channel 301. Laser drilling of channel inlet 302 may be performed using a short-pulse laser, such as an ultraviolet (UV) laser, or a long-pulse laser, such as an infra-red (IR) laser or constant (CW) laser. For example, when excess interposer material 501 is a silicon-containing material and material thickness 502 is about 100 to 200 μm thick, a Rofin 20E/SHG 532 nm Q-switch laser may be used. In this case, average power setting for the drilling process is between about 1.0 and about 2.5 W, approximately 3000 to 6000 pulses are used (depending on the exact thickness and composition of excess interposer material 501), Q switch frequency is less than about 15000 Hz, and pulse width is between about 6 ns and 18 ns. Alternatively, an IR laser may be used for laser drilling to form channel inlet 302, such as a 20 W fiber laser having a laser wavelength of 1.06 μm. In this case, between about 2,000 and 10,000 pulses are delivered, depending on the exact value of material thickness 502, and the pulses are delivered at a frequency between 25 kHz and 40 kHz. It is believed that the use of an IR laser versus a UV laser will reduce the number of particles produced during the drilling process due to the higher absorption of the energy at these wavelengths, which causes the heated material to form a liquid that will tend to adhere to the internal surfaces of the lubricant channel 301. Therefore, use of an IR laser can result in significant reduction in particulate contamination formed in the lubricant channel 301 and/or the processing region 234. The inventors have also determined that particle generation during IR laser drilling can be minimized by optimizing settings of the laser. For example, when excess interposer material 501 is a silicon-containing material and material thickness 502 is about 100 to 200 μm thick, particle generation can also be minimized by adjusting the IR laser to form channel inlet 302 with a diameter between about 10 μm and about 30 μm. In addition, to minimize oxidation of the excess interposer material 501 during the laser drilling of step 460, the laser drilling process may be performed in an oxygen-free environment. For example, step 460 may take place in a chamber filled with an inert gas, e.g., nitrogen, or a noble gas, e.g., argon. Alternatively, the inert gas or noble gas may be used as a localized purge gas shield. In one embodiment, the processing region 234 is filled with a gas during the formation of MEMS device package 230 to a pressure that is greater than atmospheric pressure so that any particles created during the removal of the excess interposer material 501 are urged away from the processing region 234 by the escaping gas. In one aspect, the processing region 234 is filled with a gas to a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure during step 456, i.e., the process of bonding the base 233 to the back surface 405 of the wafer 235C. In this case, the environment in which step 456 is performed is maintained at a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure so that higher than atmospheric pressure gas is trapped in the processing region 234 when fully formed. The gas retained in the processing region 234 may be an inert gas, such as nitrogen or argon. In another embodiment, the device is placed in an o-ring sealed container with a transparent wall to allow the penetration of a UV or IR laser beam. The container is evacuated to a vacuum pressure in the millitorr regime prior to laser drilling to form channel inlet 302. The large pressure difference between the processing region 234 and the evacuated chamber further suppress the ingress of particles produced by laser drilling into the lubricant channel 301 during the formation of channel inlet 302. The container and the device are subsequently back-filled with desired gases, such as dry nitrogen or argon, prior to removing the device from the sealed container. Referring to FIG. 4A, in step 461, one or more lubricants are introduced into lubricant channel 301. As noted above in conjunction with FIG. 3E, lubricant channel 301 and channel inlet 302 may be configured so that capillary force draws the lubricant 505 into lubricant channel 301A, as illustrated in FIG. 6D. Hence, lubricant channel 301 may be filled with the lubricant 505 by placing a suitable quantity of lubricant 505 adjacent the channel inlet 302 on the exterior surface 235A with a syringe, pipette, or other similar device. Referring to FIG. 4A, in step 462, channel inlet 302 is sealed to isolate the lubricant channel 301, the processing region 234, and the lubricant 505 disposed therein from the environment external to the MEMS device package 230. In one embodiment, a cap 304 is installed over the channel inlet 302 to seal lubricant channel 301, as illustrated in FIG. 6E. The composition of cap 304 is described above in conjunction with FIG. 3C. In another embodiment, a spot welding method, such as laser welding, may be used to seal channel inlet 302. In one aspect, a long-pulse laser or continuous laser, such as an IR laser, is used for this process. To minimize production costs, an IR laser substantially similar to the laser used in step 460, i.e., the step of forming channel inlet 302 through excess interposer material 501, may also be used in step 462, i.e., the step of sealing lubricant channel 301. For example, when excess interposer material 501 is a silicon-containing material and channel inlet 302 has a diameter of between about 10 μm and about 30 μm, a Rofin StarWeld 40 having a laser wavelength of 1.06 μm may be used in single pulse mode to seal channel inlet 302 with a pulse width of about 1 ms, an energy of between about 0.1 and 0.6 J, and a spot size between about 100 μm and 400 μm. FIG. 6F illustrates a method of sealing lubricant channel 301 according to one embodiment, using an IR laser, wherein a laser is used to heat an area that is adjacent to the channel inlet 302, and thus some of the excess interposer material 501 is melted and is pushed over channel inlet 302. In this embodiment, a weld puddle 520 is formed on the exterior surface 235A with an IR or other long-pulse laser, and a portion 521 of the weld puddle 520 is displaced over channel inlet 302, thereby sealing lubricant channel 301. FIG. 6G illustrates another method of sealing lubricant channel 301 with an IR laser according to an embodiment, wherein one or more laser pulses are used to heat areas on the exterior surface 235A to create one or more seals 522 inside the lubricant channel 301. In this embodiment, one or more weld puddles 523 are formed in a sealing region 524 with sufficient energy to seal the lubricant channel 301 internally as shown. The geometry of lubricant channel 301 may be configured in weld region 524 to ensure that weld puddles 523 completely seal lubricant channel 301 from the ambient environment. For example, the portion of lubricant channel 301 corresponding to the location of weld puddles 523 may be positioned closer to exterior surface 235A and/or may be formed substantially narrower than the remaining portions of lubricant channel 301. Using weld puddles 523 to seal lubricant channel 301 as illustrated in FIG. 6G can minimize the amount of oxidized material that is contained in the seal. FIG. 4B illustrates a process sequence 410 for forming a MEMS device package 230 that contains a lubricant channel 301, according to one embodiment of the invention. Steps 450 and 452 in process sequence 410 are substantially the same as steps 450 and 452 in process sequence 400, and are described above in conjunction with FIGS. 4A, 5A, 5B, and 5C. Referring now to FIG. 4B, in step 494, a lid 432 with a plurality of channel inlets 302 is aligned with and bonded to the top surface 404 of the wafer 235C to enclose the lubricant channels 301 and cover one end of each through hole 402, as illustrated in FIG. 5G. FIG. 5G is a cross-sectional view of the wafer 235C and the lid 432 after bonding. Step 494 is substantially similar to step 454 of process sequence 410, except that the lid 432 includes a plurality of channel inlets 302 positioned to align with a portion of each lubricant channel 301 formed in the wafer 235C. Alternatively, the channel inlets 302 may be formed in the lid 432 after the lid 432 is bonded to the wafer 235C. In this case, the channel inlets 302 may be formed via lithographic, ablation, and/or etching techniques commonly known and used in the art. In either case, formation or alignment of the channel inlets 302 is part of the wafer-level process. As noted above, wafer-level processes generally reduce the cost to manufacture a device compared to chip-level processes. In step 496, as shown in FIGS. 4B and 5H, the base 233, which has a plurality of MEMS devices 231 mounted thereon, is bonded to the back surface 405 of the wafer 235C to form an enclosed processing region 234 in which the MEMS device 231 resides. Step 496 is substantially similar to step 456 of process sequence 400 in FIG. 4A. In step 498, as shown in FIGS. 4B and 5I, lubricant 505 is introduced into each lubricant channel 301 in a wafer-level process. In this embodiment, it is not necessary to dice the wafer stack consisting of the base 233, the wafer 235C, and the lid 232 into multiple MEMS device packages 230 prior to introducing the lubricant 505 into lubricant channels 301. Instead, a suitable quantity of the lubricant 505 may be placed adjacent to each opening in the channel inlet 302 on the upper surface 432A of the lid 432 by use of a syringe, pipette, or other similar device, and using capillary forces draw the lubricant 505 into each lubricant channel 301. In this way, the number of chip-level fabrication steps required to produce the MEMS device packages 230 is minimized. In step 499, as shown in FIGS. 4B and 5J, each channel inlet 302 is sealed to isolate the lubricant channels 301, the processing regions 234, and the lubricant 505 disposed therein from the environment external to the MEMS device package 230. Step 499 of process sequence 410 is substantially similar to step 462 of process sequence 400, except that in step 499 a wafer-level rather than chip-level process is used, thereby further reducing the number of chip-level fabrication steps required to produce the MEMS device packages 230. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 5J, the lubrication channels 301 have been sealed using laser welding, wherein a portion of the weld puddle formed on the upper surface 432A by an energy source (e.g., laser) is displaced to seal lubricant channel 301. Alternatively, the seal can be achieved by epoxy, eutectic solder, glass frit or other typical sealing materials. In step 458, as shown in FIGS. 4B and 5K, the wafer stack consisting of base 233, wafer 235C, and lid 232, is separated by use of a conventional dicing technique to form multiple MEMS device packages 230. Step 458 of process sequence 410 is substantially the same as step 458 in process sequence 400, and is described above in conjunction with FIGS. 4A and 5F. The excess or scrap material 411, which is left over after the dicing process, may then be discarded. As part of step 458, conventional wire bonding and testing can be performed on the formed MEMS device to assure viability thereof and prepare the MEMS device for use in a system that may utilize the MEMS device package 230. Other dicing techniques can also be used to first expose the bond pads to allow wafer level probing and die sorting, followed by a full singulation. FIG. 5L illustrates a cross-sectional plan view of the device package assembly 230, where channel inlet 302 is formed in the lid 432 and does not penetrate exterior surface 235A, according to this embodiment of the invention. FIG. 4C illustrates a process sequence 420 for forming a MEMS device package 230 that contains a lubricant channel 301 and a removable lubricant plug, according to one embodiment of the invention. Steps 450 and 452 in process sequence 420 are substantially the same as steps 450 and 452 in process sequence 400, and are described above in conjunction with FIGS. 4A, 5A, 5B, and 5C. Referring now to FIG. 4C, in step 484, the base 233, which has a plurality of MEMS devices 231 mounted thereon, is aligned with and bonded to the back surface 405 of the wafer 235C with an epoxy layer 506, as illustrated in FIG. 5M. FIG. 5M is a cross-sectional view of the wafer 235C and the base 233 partially forming processing region 234 after bonding. The epoxy bonding process of step 484 is a low temperature process compared to anodic bonding, eutectic bonding, fusion bonding, covalent bonding, and/or glass frit fusion bonding. A lubricant plug 508 is also formed in each lubricant channel 301 as shown, to separate the processing region 234 from the lubricant channel 301. As described above, lubricant plug 508 may be a polymer, such as a photoresist, that converts to a porous material when exposed to UV or other wavelengths of radiation. Alternatively, lubricant plug 508 may be a polymer or other heat-sensitive material that breaks down or otherwise changes physical properties when exposed to heat. In step 486, as shown in FIGS. 4C and 5N, one or more lubricants are introduced into lubricant channel 301. Because in this process step lubricant channel 301 is an open channel, capillary force is not necessary to draw the lubricant 505 into lubricant channel 301. Lubricant plug 508 prevents lubricant 505 from entering processing region 234. In step 487, as shown in FIGS. 4C and 5O, a lid 432 is aligned with and bonded to the top surface 404 of the wafer 235C with a second epoxy layer 507, as illustrated in FIG. 5O. FIG. 5O is a cross-sectional view of the wafer 235C, the base 233, and the lid 432 after bonding with the second epoxy layer 507. Bonding the lid 432 onto the top surface 404 encloses the lubricant channels 301 and the lubricant 505 contained therein, and completes the processing region 234 in which the MEMS device 231 resides. In step 488, as shown in FIGS. 4C and 5P, the seal of lubricant plug 508 is broken or physically altered to allow lubricant 505 into processing region 234. The removal process may involve exposure to UV radiation directed through lid 232 or exposure to heat. In step 458, as shown in FIG. 4C, the wafer stack consisting of base 233, wafer 235C, and lid 232, is separated by use of a conventional dicing technique to form multiple MEMS device packages 230. Step 458 is described above in conjunction with FIGS. 4A and 5F. In an alternative embodiment, the lubricant channel 301 is formed so that the contents of the lubricant channel 301 can be viewed through an optically transparent wall that encloses the processing region, such as the lid 232. In this configuration, the lubricant channel 301 is formed in the lid 232 or the interposer 235, so that the contents of the lubricant channel 301 can be viewed through the optically transparent lid 232. This configuration is useful since it allows the user to inspect the contents of the lubricant channel 301 to see how much lubricant 505 is left in the lubricant channel 301 so that corrective measures can be taken if necessary. In another embodiment, control over the quantity of lubricant introduced into the lubricant channel 301 and the processing region 234 is improved by diluting the lubricant with another liquid prior to insertion of the lubricant into the MEMS device package 230. In some applications, accurate and repeatable delivery of the quantity of lubricant into the lubricant channel 301 is important. Too much lubricant can supersaturate the processing region 234 with lubricant vapor, resulting in condensed lubricant droplets that can produce stiction-related failures at contact regions between interacting MEMS components. Too little lubricant can shorten the lifetime of the MEMS device 231 contained in the MEMS device package 230. However, the volume of lubricant required for the MEMS device package 230 can be as little as on the order of nanoliters, and accurate volumetric delivery of liquids is only known for liquid volumes one or more orders of magnitude greater than this. The inventors have determined that by diluting the lubricant in another liquid, the volume of liquid introduced into the MEMS device package 230 can be increased significantly, e.g., ten times, or 100 times, without increasing the quantity of lubricant introduced into the MEMS device package 230. In one aspect of this embodiment, the lubricant is diluted with a significantly larger volume of solvent having a lower vapor pressure than the lubricant. After sealing the lubricant-solvent solution in lubricant channel 301, the MEMS device package 230 undergoes a bake-out and pump-down process to remove the solvent as overpressure causes vaporized solvent molecules to diffuse out of the MEMS package 230. In another aspect of this embodiment, the lubricant is mixed with a significantly larger volume of a liquid that has a higher vapor pressure than the lubricant and is at least slightly miscible with the lubricant. After sealing the combined lubricant and higher vapor pressure liquid in lubricant channel 301, the MEMS device package is baked-out at a temperature higher than the vaporization temperature of the lubricant, e.g., 200° C., and lower than the vaporization temperature of the higher vapor pressure liquid, e.g., 600° C. In this way the lubricant is activated, i.e., vaporized and allowed to diffuse into the processing region 234, while the miscible liquid containing the lubricant remains in place in the lubricant channel 301. One advantage of the embodiments of the invention described herein relates to the general sequence and timing of delivering the lubricant 505 to the formed MEMS device package 230. In general, one or more embodiments of the invention described herein provide a sequence in which the lubricant 505 is delivered into the processing region after all high temperature MEMS device packaging processes have been performed, e.g., anodic bonding and glass frit bonding. This sequence reduces or prevents the premature release or breakdown of the lubricant that occurs during such high temperature bonding processes, which reach temperatures of 250° C. to 450° C. The ability to place the lubricant 505 into the lubricant channel 301 and processing region 234 after performing the high temperature bonding steps allows one to select a lubricant material that would degrade at the typical bonding temperatures and/or reduce the chances that the lubricant material will breakdown or be damaged during the MEMS device forming process. One skilled in the art will also appreciate that a lubricant channel 301 formed in a MEMS device package using a chip-level packaging process versus a wafer-level packaging process benefits from the delivery of the lubricant 505 after the MEMS device package sealing processes (e.g., anodic bonding, TIG welding, e-beam welding) are performed. Another advantage of the embodiments of the invention described herein relate to the reduced number of processing steps required to form a MEMS device package and the reduced number of steps that need to be performed in a clean room environment. Conventional MEMS device fabrication processes that utilize a reversibly absorbing getter require the additional steps of 1) bonding the getter material to a surface of the lid or other component prior to forming a sealed MEMS device package, and 2) heating the package to activate the getter device. The removal of these steps reduces the number of process sequence steps that need to performed in a clean room environment and thus reduces the cost of forming the MEMS device. The presence of the conventional reversibly absorbing getter also limits the temperature at which the MEMS device package can be hermetically sealed, especially for wafer-level processing. Lubricant Channel Configurations While the preceding discussion only illustrates a MEMS device package that has a single lubricant channel to deliver the lubricant material to the processing region 234, it may be advantageous to form a plurality of lubricant channels 301 having different geometric characteristics and positions within the MEMS device package 230 to better distribute the mobile lubricant within the MEMS package. It is also contemplated that geometrical features may be advantageously incorporated into a lubricant channel to act as particle filters or particle traps. The geometric attributes of each lubricant channel can be used to deliver differing amounts of mobile lubricants at different stages of the products lifetime. FIG. 7A is a cross-sectional plan view of a MEMS device package 230 that has multiple lubricant channels 301A-301C that are formed having differing lengths, shapes and volumes. In one aspect, it is desirable to uniformly distribute the lubricant channels, such as lubricant channels 301A and 301B, in different areas of the MEMS device package 230 so that the distribution of lubricant molecules from the lubricant channels is relatively uniform throughout the MEMS device package. This is particularly beneficial to device with large die dimensions. In one case, the length of the lubricant channels 301A and 301C may be adjusted to reduce the manufacturing cost or optimize the volume of lubricant contained within the lubricant channel. In one embodiment, it may be desirable to form a plurality of lubricant channels that each deliver or contain a different lubricant material having different lubricating properties and/or migration properties. In one embodiment, a first type of mobile lubricant molecule could be transported through or stored in the lubricant channel 301A and a second type of mobile lubricant molecule could be transported through or stored in the lubricant channel 301B, where the first and second mobile lubricant molecules each have different equilibrium partial pressures during normal operation of the device and/or each lubricant has a different migration rate throughout the package. In another embodiment, first and second type of mobile lubricant molecules are introduced into the processing region 234, where the first type of mobile lubricant molecule is selected for its bonding properties to the internal surfaces of the processing region 234 and the second type of mobile lubricant molecule is selected for its bonding properties to the first type of mobile lubricant molecule. In this way, the first type of lubricant molecule is introduced into the processing region 234 via one or more lubricant channels to form a uniform monolayer on internal surfaces of the processing region 234. The second type of mobile lubricant molecule is then introduced into the processing region 234 via one or more lubricant channels to form one or more monolayers on the first lubricant. The multiple monolayers of mobile lubricant molecules then serve as a lubricant reservoir throughout the life of the MEMS device. In one aspect, it may be desirable to tailor the geometry, volume, and surface roughness of the lubricant channels described herein to correspond to the type of lubricant processed within them. FIG. 7B is a cross-sectional view of a wall containing two lubricant channels 301D and 301E that have an exit port 303A or 303B that have a differing geometry to control the rate of lubricant migrating into the processing region. As shown, it may be desirable to have a first lubricant channel 301D that has an exit port 303A with a small cross-sectional area to reduce the diffusion and/or effusion of lubricant into the processing region 234, and a second lubricant channel 301E that has an exit port 303B that has a large cross-sectional area to allow for a rapid diffusion and/or effusion of lubricant into the processing region 234. When these two configurations are used in conjunction with each other, the second lubricant channel 301E can be used to rapidly saturate the surfaces within the processing region 234 during the startup of the MEMS device. However, the first lubricant channel 301D can be used to slowly deliver fresh lubricant to the processing region 234 throughout the life of the device. FIGS. 7C and 7D illustrate another embodiment of a lubricant channel 301F that contains a filter region 605 that contains a plurality of obstructions 601 that are used to minimize the influx of particles of a certain size into the processing region 234 from the environment outside the MEMS device package 230. The obstructions 601 are generally configured to have a desired length 603, width 604 and height (not shown, i.e., into the page) and have a desired spacing 602 between each of the obstructions 601, and thus act as a filter to prevent the influx of particles of a certain size into the processing region 234. The obstructions 601 may be formed in the lubricant channel 301F using conventional patterning, lithography and dry etch techniques during the process of forming the lubricant channel 301F. In one embodiment, the width W of lubricant channel 301F and the orientation of the obstructions 601 disposed in the lubricant channel 301F are configured to maximize the influx of the lubricant into the processing region. In another embodiment, the width W of lubricant channel 301F and the orientation of the obstructions 601 disposed therein are configured to control the flow of the lubricant. Generally, it is desirable to select the number and orientation of the obstructions 601, and the spacing 602 and depth (not shown; i.e., into the page of FIG. 7D) of the spaces between the obstructions 601 so that a particle of desired size is unable to pass into the processing region 234. In one embodiment, the obstructions 601 have a length between about 50 μm and about 200 μm, a width between about 1 μm and about 50 μm, and the spacing 602 is between about 1 μm and about 20 μm. In this embodiment, particles as small as 1 μm in size can be prevented from entering processing region 234. In one aspect, the depth of the spacings 602 may be the same as the depth of the channel. In another embodiment, the lubricant channel 301G contains a number of arrays of obstructions 601 that are staggered relative to each other along a portion of the length of the lubricant channel 301G. In this configuration, particles having a dimension smaller than the clearance of the filter, i.e., spacing 602, can also be blocked efficiently. In another embodiment, multiple groups of obstructions 601, or multiple filter regions 605, are placed in different areas of the lubricant channel to further prevent particles from entering the processing region of the formed device. For example, as shown in FIG. 7C, it may be desirable to have one filter region 605A near the inlet of the lubricant channel to collect particles that may enter from outside of the MEMS device package and another filter region 605B positioned in the lubricant channel near the processing region that acts as a final filtration device before entering the processing region 234. FIG. 7E is a cross-sectional view of a wall containing two lubricant channels that have differing exit port configurations that may be useful to enhance the distribution or delivery of the lubricant to the processing region 234. In one embodiment, a lubricant channel 301G has multiple outlets (e.g., exit ports 303C-303D) that are adapted to improve the rate of delivery of the lubricant to the processing region and/or improve the distribution of lubricant to different areas of the processing region. In another embodiment, the lubricant channel 301H has a large exit port 303E that acts a nozzle, which promotes the delivery of lubricant to the processing region 234. In another embodiment, as shown in FIG. 8, the temperature of the lubricant contained in the lubricant channel 301 may be controlled using a resistive element 921 and a temperature controller 922 for more controlled delivery of the lubricant. In this configuration, the controller 922 is adapted to deliver a desired amount of power to the resistive elements 921 to control the temperature of the lubricant disposed in the lubricant channel 301, and thus control the rate of lubricant migration to the processing region 234. In another aspect, the resistive element 921 is mounted on the exterior surface 235A of one of the walls that encloses the processing region 234, to facilitate control of lubricant temperature within the lubricant channel 301. In one aspect, the resistive element 921 is a metal foil that is deposited on a surface of one of the walls that encloses the processing region 234. One should note that the migration rate of the lubricant from the lubricant channel 301 is strongly dependent on the temperature of the lubricant, since vaporization and diffusion are both thermally activated processes. In one embodiment, a volume of gas 901 (FIG. 8) may be purposely injected into the lubricant channel 301 prior to covering the channel inlet 302 with the cap 304 to provide a buffer and a temperature-compensating mechanism that controls the rate of delivery to the processing region 234. In this configuration, the volume of gas 901 expands as the temperature increases, which causes the lubricant disposed in the lubricant channel 301 to be pushed towards the exit port 303, and retract when the temperature in the lubricant channel 301 drops. In one embodiment, where the lubricant is a viscous liquid and/or has a strong adhesion to internal surfaces of the lubricant channel 301, the volume of gas 901 may be added at a pressure that is slightly higher than the pressure in the processing region 234. This allows the gas to slowly deliver the lubricant to the processing region as the volume of gas expands to compensate for the pressure difference. In one embodiment, as shown in FIG. 9A, a cap 304A may be inserted at the exit port 303 to isolate the lubricant channel 301 from the processing region 234, until it is desirable to remove the cap 304A to allow the lubricant 505 to enter the processing region 234. In one aspect, the cap 304A is a polymer, such as a photoresist, that remains in place over the exit port 303 until it is exposed to some form of optical radiation or heating that induces a phase separation or change of the physical properties of the material contained in the cap 304, thereby converting cap 304A into a porous material. This configuration is especially useful in configurations in which the lubricant channel 301 is positioned adjacent to a lid 232 (see FIGS. 2A and 6B) formed from an optically transparent material that passes the desired wavelength of light to break down the material of cap 304A. In another embodiment, the cap 304A is adapted to breakdown at an elevated temperature. This configuration allows the encapsulation of a desired quantity of lubricant in the lubricant channel 301 prior to bonding the device substrate with a lower temperature sealing method, e.g., epoxy sealing. Release of the lubricant can be initiated any time after the sealing process is completed. In one embodiment, at least a portion of the lubricant channel 301 and a MEMS device element 950 are formed on the base 233 as illustrated in FIG. 9B. The remainder of lubricant channel 301 may be formed in a wall of an interposer 235, as shown, or entirely in base 233. The MEMS device element 950 is disposed proximate the portion of lubricant channel 301 formed in base 233 so that a portion 951 of the MEMS device element 950 can be actuated to cover the exit port 303 of the lubricant channel 301. The MEMS device element 950 can be formed in base 233 at the same time that MEMS device 231 is formed. In this configuration, the MEMS device element 950 can be externally actuated by a power supply 112 to cover or expose the exit port 303 so that the MEMS device element 950 acts as a valve that can regulate the flow of lubricant material from the lubricant channel 301. The portion 951 may pivot (see “P” in FIG. 9B) to cover the exit port 303 by use of a bias applied by the power supply 112. In one embodiment, a lubricant channel contained in a wall that encloses the processing region of a MEMS package includes one or more geometrical features that serve as particle traps, as illustrated in FIGS. 10A and 10B. FIG. 10A is a plan view of a MEMS device package 1030 having a lubricant channel 1001 formed with a particle trap 1002, according to an embodiment of the invention. For clarity, MEMS device package 1030 is illustrated with a partial section 1091 of the lid 232 removed. As shown, lubricant channel 1001 is formed in the interposer 235 and extends from the exterior surface 235A to the interior surface 235B of the interposer 235. The lubricant channel 1001 is substantially similar to the lubricant channel 301, described above, except that the lubricant channel 1001 is formed with the particle trap 1002. The particle trap 1002 is a cavity formed in fluid communication with the internal region 305 of the lubricant channel 1001 and positioned opposite the channel inlet 302. Because of the placement of the particle trap 1002, a substantial portion of particles urged into the internal region 305 when the channel inlet 302 is formed by a material removal or other similar process will be collected inside the particle trap 1002. This is particularly true when a laser drilling process is used to form channel inlet 302. As shown, particle trap 1002 is a dead space, i.e., a “dead end” volume that is not a part of the fluid passage between the exterior surface 235A and the interior surface 235B of the interposer 235. Therefore, particles collected in the particle trap 1002 are not carried into the processing region 234 inside the MEMS device package 1030 when lubricant is introduced into the lubricant channel 1001 via the channel inlet 302. To further reduce the number of particles carried into the processing region 234, particle trap 1002 may also be configured to reduce the number of particles generated in internal region 305 when laser drilling is used to form channel inlet 302. The inventors have determined that a laser beam can blaze surfaces of internal region 305 during laser drilling, producing particles. An internal surface 1003 of internal region 305 can be ablated by the drilling laser after channel inlet 302 is formed and prior to laser shut-off. To minimize the number of particles produced by ablation of the surface 1003 by the drilling laser, the particle trap 1002 may be configured so that the surface 1003 is positioned away from the focal point 1004 of the drilling laser. Focal point 1004, which is indicated by the intersection of rays 1006 and 1007, is substantially coincident with the channel inlet 302. By positioning the surface 1003 away from the focal point 1004 and the channel inlet 302, the energy density of the penetrating laser beam is reduced when incident on the surface 1003. It is believed that by so doing, fewer particles are formed in internal region 305. It is also believed that particles that are present in internal region 305 are generally fused onto surface 1003 and other internal surfaces, and are therefore immobile particles that cannot be carried into processing region 234. FIG. 10B is a plan view of a MEMS device package 1031 having a lubricant channel 1011 formed with a non-linear particle trap 1009, according to an embodiment of the invention. In this embodiment, the lubricant channel 1011 is substantially similar to the lubricant channel 1001 in FIG. 10A, except that the lubricant channel 1011 is formed with the non-linear particle trap 1009. In this embodiment, the non-linear particle trap 1009 positions a surface 1013 a distance from the focal point 1004 of the penetrating laser beam and further isolates particles collected in non-linear particle trap 1009 from the fluid passage between the exterior surface 235A and the interior surface 235B of the interposer 235. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 10B, non-linear particle trap 1009 is configured with a single 90° bend, but it is contemplated that non-linear particle trap 1009 may also be configured with one or more bends of greater than or less than 90° to collect particles formed during the formation of the channel inlet 302. Lubricant Removal Steps In one embodiment, it is desirable to connect a pump (not shown) to the channel inlet 302 (shown in FIG. 6B) so that it can be used to evacuate the processing region to remove one or more of the mobile lubricants and/or dilutent contained therein. In this case the pump may be used to evacuate the processing region to a sufficient pressure to cause the lubricant to vaporize and thus be swept from the device package. In another embodiment, it may be desirable to connect a gas source (not shown) to one injection port (e.g., element 301A in FIG. 7A) and then remove a cap (e.g., element 304 in FIG. 7A) from another injection port (e.g., element 301B in FIG. 7A) so that gas delivered from the gas source can be used to sweep out any used or degraded lubricant material. In either case, these types of techniques can be used to remove old and/or degraded lubricant material so that new lubricant material can be added to the processing region, using the methods described above, to extend the life of the MEMS device. While the foregoing is directed to embodiments of the present invention, other and further embodiments of the invention may be devised without departing from the basic scope thereof, and the scope thereof is determined by the claims that follow.	H	H01	H01L	29	84
11658419	US20090202470A1-20090813	Phosphonate Analogs of Hiv Inhibitor Compounds	ACCEPTED	20090729	20090813		[]	A61K3820	["A61K3820", "C07H1919", "A61K317076", "A61P3118", "A61P3112", "C07H1920"]	8318701	20071119	20121127	514	081000	57788.0	BERCH	MARK	[{"inventor_name_last": "Boojamra", "inventor_name_first": "Constantine G.", "inventor_city": "San Francisco", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Lin", "inventor_name_first": "Kuei-Ying", "inventor_city": "Sunnyvale", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Mackman", "inventor_name_first": "Richard L.", "inventor_city": "Millbrae", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Markevitch", "inventor_name_first": "David Y.", "inventor_city": "Los Angeles", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Petrakosvsky", "inventor_name_first": "Oleg V.", "inventor_city": "San Mateo", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Ray", "inventor_name_first": "Adrian S.", "inventor_city": "Redwood City", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Zhang", "inventor_name_first": "Lijun", "inventor_city": "Los Altos Hills", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]	The invention is related to phosphorus substituted anti-viral inhibitory compounds, compositions containing such compounds, and therapeutic methods that include the administration of such compounds, as well as to processes and intermediates useful for preparing such compounds.	1. A compound, including enantiomers thereof, of Formula 1A, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, wherein: A0 is A1, A2, or A3; A1 is A2 is A3 is: Y1 is independently O, S, N(Rx), N(O)(Rx), N(ORx), N(O)(ORx), or N(N(Rx)(Rx)); Y2 is independently a bond, Y3, N(Rx), N(O)(Rx), N(ORx), N(O)(ORx), N(N(Rx)(Rx)), —S(O)M2—, or —S(O)M2—S(O)M2—; Y3 is O, S(O)M2, S, or C(R2)2; Rx is independently H, R1, R2, W3, a protecting group, or the formula: wherein: Ry is independently H, W3, R2 or a protecting group; R1 is independently H or alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms; R2 and R2a are independently H, R1, R3, or R4 wherein each R4 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups or, when taken together at a carbon atom, two R2 groups form a ring of 3 to 8 and the ring may be substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; R3 is R3a, R3b, R3c, R3d, or R3c, provided that when R3 is bound to a heteroatom, then R3 is R3c or R3d; R3a is R3e, —CN, N3 or —NO2; R3b is (═Y1); R3c is -Rx, —N(Rx)(Rx), —SRx, —S(O)Rx, —S(O)2Rx, —S(O)(ORx), —S(O)2(ORx), —OC(Y1)Rx, C(Y1)ORx, —OC(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)), —SC(Y1)Rx, —SC(Y1)ORx, —SC(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)), —N(Rx)C(Y1)Rx, —N(Rx)C(Y1)ORx, or —N(Rx)C(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)); R3d is C(Y1)Rx, —C(Y1)ORx or —C(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)); R3e is F, Cl, Br or I; R4 is an alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms, alkenyl of 2 to 18 carbon atoms, or alkynyl of 2 to 18 carbon atoms; R5 is H or R4, wherein each R4 is substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; W3 is W4 or W5; W4 is R5, —C(Y1)R5, —C(Y1)W5, —SOM2R5, or —SOM2W5; W5 is carbocycle or heterocycle wherein W5 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R2 groups; W6 is W3 independently substituted with 1, 2, or 3 A3 groups; M2 is 0, 1 or 2; M12a is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; M12b is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; M1a, M1c, and M1d are independently 0 or 1; and M12c is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; provided that the compound of Formula 1A is not of the structure 556-E.6 or its ethyl diester. 2. The compound of claim 1 wherein R2a is selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl 3. The compound of claim 1 wherein R2a is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, alkyl, azido, cyano, or haloalkyl. 4. The compound of claim 1 wherein R2 is selected from selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl. 5. The compound of claim 1 that has the formula 1B 6. The compound of claim 1 that has the formula 1C 7. The compound of claim 1 that has the formula 1D 8. The compound of claim 1 that has the formula 1E 9. The compound of claim 1 that has the formula 1F 10. The compound of claim 1 that has the formula 1G 11. The compound of claim 1 that has the formula 1H 12. The compound of claim 1 that has the formula 1I wherein: Y4 is N or C(R3). 13. The compound of claim 1 that has the formula 1J 14. The compound of claim 1 wherein R2a is halo, alkyl, azido, cyano, or haloalkyl. 15. The compound of claim 1 wherein Rx is a naturally occurring amino acid. 16. A compound, enantiomers thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof that is of the general structure of formula I wherein B is Base; Z is O, S, or C(Rk)2; R3e is F, Cl, Br or I; A6k —CH2P(Yk)(A5k)(Yk2A5k), —CH2p(Yk)(A5k)(A5k), or —CH2P(Yk)(Yk2A5k)(Yk2A5k), optionally substituted with Rk; A5k is H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted with Rk; Yk is O or S; Yk2 is O, N(Rk), or S; and each R2 and R2a is independently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl; and each Rk is independently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl; provided that the compound of Formula 1A is not of the structure 556-E.6 or its ethyl diester. 17. The compound of claim 16 wherein R2a is selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl 18. The compound of claim 16 wherein R2a is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, alkyl, azido, cyano, or haloalkyl. 19. The compound of claim 1 selected from: a) Formula 1A wherein A0 is A3; b) Formula 1A wherein A0 is c) Formula 1A wherein: A0 is and each R2 and R2a is H; d) Formula 1A wherein: A3 is R3 is —N(Rx)(Rx); each R2 and R2a is H. e) Formula 1A wherein: A0 is and each R2 and R2a is H. 20. The compound of claim 1, wherein A3 is of the formula: wherein: Y2b is O or N(R2); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. 21. The compound of claim 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: 22. The compound of claim 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: wherein the phenyl carbocycle is substituted with 0, 1, 2, or 3 R2 groups. 23. The compound of claim 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: wherein the phenyl carbocycle is substituted with 0, 1, 2, or 3 R2 groups. 24. The compound of claim 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: 25. The compound of claim 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: wherein: Y1a is O or S; Y2b is O or N(R2); and Y2c is O, N(Ry) or S; and each R2 and R2a is independently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl. 26. The compound of claim 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: wherein each R is independently H or alkyl. 27. The compound of claim 1 which is isolated and purified. 28. A compound of formula MBF I, or prodrugs, solvates, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or esters thereof wherein each K1 and K2 are independently selected from the group consisting of A5k and Yk2A5k; Yk2 is O, N(Rk), or S; B is Base; A5k is H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted with Rk; and Rk is independently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl; provided that when B is adenine, then both K1 and K2 are not simultaneously both —OH or —OEt. 29. The compound of claim 28 wherein B is selected form the group consisting of 2,6-diaminopurine, guanine, adenine, cytosine, 5-fluoro-cytosine, monodeaza, and monoaza analogues thereof. 30. The compound of claim 28 wherein MBF I is of the formula 31. The compound of claim 1 wherein B is selected from the group consisting of adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil, thymine, 7-deazaadenine, 7-deazaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaadenine, inosine, nebularine, nitropyrrole, nitroindole, 2-aminopurine, 2-amino-6-chloropurine, 2,6-diaminopurine, hypoxanthine, pseudouridine, pseudocytosine, pseudoisocytosine, 5-propynylcytosine, isocytosine, isoguanine, 7-deazaguanine, 2-thiopyrimidine, 6-thioguanine, 4-thiothymine, 4-thiouracil, O6-methylguanine, N6-methyladenine, O4-methylthymine, 5,6-dihydrothymine, 5,6-dihydrouracil, 4-methylindole, substituted triazole, and pyrazolo[3,4-D]pyrimidine. 32. The compound of claim 1 wherein B is selected form the group consisting of adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil, thymine, 7-deazaadenine, 7-deazaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaadenine, aminopurine, 2-amino-6-chloropurine, 2,6-diaminopurine, and 7-deazaguanine. 33. The compound of claim 1 that is selected from Table Y. 34. The compound of claim 28 wherein K1 and K2 are selected from Table 100 TABLE 100 K1 K2 Ester Ala OPh cPent Ala OCH2CF3 Et Ala OPh 3-furan-4H Ala OPh cBut Phe(B) OPh Et Phe(A) OPh Et Ala(B) OPh Et Phe OPh sBu(S) Phe OPh cBu Phe OCH2CF3 iBu Ala(A) OPh Et Phe OPh sBu(R) Ala(B) OPh CH2cPr Ala(A) OPh CH2cPr Phe(B) OPh nBu Phe(A) OPh nBu Phe OPh CH2cPr Phe OPh CH2cBu Ala OPh 3-pent ABA(B) OPh Et ABA(A) OPh Et Ala OPh CH2cBu Met OPh Et Pro OPh Bn Phe(B) OPh iBu Phe(A) OPh iBu Phe OPh iPr Phe OPh nPr Ala OPh CH2cPr Phe OPh Et Ala OPh Et ABA OPh nPent Phe Phe nPr Phe Phe Et Ala Ala Et CHA OPh Me Gly OPh iPr ABA OPh nBu Phe OPh allyl Ala OPh nPent Gly OPh iBu ABA OPh iBu Ala OPh nBu CHA CHA Me Phe Phe Allyl ABA ABA nPent Gly Gly iBu Gly Gly iPr Phe OPh iBu Ala OPh nPr Phe OPh nBu ABA OPh nPr ABA OPh Et Ala Ala Bn Phe Phe nBu ABA ABA nPr ABA ABA Et Ala Ala nPr Ala OPh iPr Ala OPh Bn Ala Ala nBu Ala Ala iBu ABA ABA nBu ABA ABA iPr Ala OPh iBu ABA OPh Me ABA OPh iPr ABA ABA iBu wherein Ala represents L-alanine, Phe represents L-phenylalanine, Met represents L-methionine, ABA represents (S)-2-aminobutyric acid, Pro represents L-proline, CHA represents 2-amino-3-(S)cyclohexylpropionic acid, Gly represents glycine; K1 or K2 amino acid carboxyl groups are esterified as denoted in the ester column, wherein cPent is cyclopentane ester; Et is ethyl ester, 3-furan-4H is the (R) tetrahydrofuran-3-yl ester; cBut is cyclobutane ester; sBu(S) is the (S) secButyl ester; sBu(R) is the (R) secButyl ester; iBu is isobutyl ester; CH2cPr is methylcyclopropane ester, nBu is n-butyl ester; CH2cBu is methylcyclobutane ester; 3-pent is 3-pentyl ester; nPent is nPentyl ester; iPr is isopropyl ester, nPr is nPropyl ester; allyl is allyl ester; Me is methyl ester; Bn is Benzyl ester; and wherein A or B in parentheses denotes one stereoisomer at phosphorus, with the least polar isomer denoted as (A) and the more polar as (B). 35. A compound of formula B, and the salts and solvates thereof. wherein: A3 is: Y1 is independently O, S, N(Rx), N(O)(Rx), N(ORx), N(O)(ORx), or N(N(Rx)(Rx)); Y2 is independently a bond, O, N(Rx), N(O)(Rx), N(ORx), N(O)(ORx), N(N(Rx)(Rx)), —S(O)M2—, or —S(O)M2—S(O)M2—; and when Y2 joins two phosphorous atoms Y2 can also be C(R2)(R2); Rx is independently H, R1, R2, W3, a protecting group, or the formula: wherein: Ry is independently H, W3, R2 or a protecting group; R1 is independently H or alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms; R2 and R2a are independently H, R1, R3, or R4 wherein each R4 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups or taken together at a carbon atom, two R2 groups form a ring of 3 to 8 carbons and the ring may be substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; R3 is R3a, R3b, R3c or R3d, provided that when R3 is bound to a heteroatom, then R3 is R3c or R3d; R3a is F, Cl, Br, I, —CN, N3 or —NO2; R3b is Y1; R3c is -Rx, —N(Rx)(Rx), —SRx, —S(O)Rx, —S(O)2Rx, —S(O)(ORx), —S(O)2(ORx), —OC(Y1)Rx, —OC(Y1)ORx, —OC(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)), —SC(Y1)Rx, —SC(Y1)ORx, —SC(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)), —N(Rx)C(Y1)Rx, —N(Rx)C(Y1)ORx, or —N(Rx)C(Y1)((Rx)(Rx)); R3d is —C(Y1)Rx, —C(Y1)ORx or —C(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)); R4 is an alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms, alkenyl of 2 to 18 carbon atoms, or alkynyl of 2 to 18 carbon atoms; R5 is R4 wherein each R4 is substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; W3 is W4 or W5; W4 is R5, —C(Y1)R5, —C(Y1)W5, —SOM2R5, or —SOM2W5; W5 is carbocycle or heterocycle wherein W5 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R2 groups; W6 is W3 independently substituted with 1, 2, or 3 A3 groups; M2 is 0, 1 or 2; M12a is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; M12b is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; M1a, M1c, and M1d are independently 0 or 1; and M12c is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; wherein A3 is not —O—CH2—P(O)(OH)2 or —O—CH2—P(O)(OEt)2. 36. The compound of claim 35 wherein m2 is 0, Y1 is O, Y2 is O, M12b and M12a are 1, one Y3 is —ORx where Rx is W3 and the other Y3 is N(H)Rx where Rx is 37. The compound of claim 36 wherein the terminal Ry of Rx is selected from the group of esters in Table 100. 38. The compound of claim 36 wherein the terminal Ry of Rx is a C1-C8 normal, secondary, tertiary or cyclic alkylene, alkynylene or alkenylene. 39. The compound of claim 36 wherein the terminal Ry of Rx is a heterocycle containing 5 to 6 ring atoms and 1 or 2 N, O and/or S atoms in the ring. 40. The compound of claim 1 having the formula XX: 41. The compound of claim 1 having the formula XXX: 42. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a pharmaceutical excipient and an antivirally-effective amount of the compound of claim 1. 43. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 32 that further comprises a second active ingredient. 44. A combination comprising the compound of claim 1 and one or more antivirally active ingredients. 45. The combination of claim 44 wherein one or more of the active ingredients is selected from Table 98. 46. The combination of claim 45 wherein one of the active ingredients is selected from the group consisting of Truvada, Viread, Emtriva, d4T, Sustiva, or Amprenavir antiviral compounds. 47. The combination of claim 44 wherein one or more of the active ingredients is selected from Table 99. 48. The combination of claim 47 wherein one of the active ingredients is selected from the group consisting of Truvada, Viread, Emtriva, d4T, Sustiva, or Amprenavir antiviral compounds. 49. The combination of claim 46 for use in medical therapy. 50. The combination of claim 48 for use in medical therapy. 51. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 42 for use in medical therapy. 52. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 43 for use in medical therapy 53. The compound of claim 1 for use in antiretroviral or antihepadinaviral treatment. 54. A method of preparing the compound of claim 1 according to the Examples or Schemes. 55. Use of a compound of claim 1 for preparing a medicament for treating HIV or a HIV associated disorder. 56. A method of therapy for treating HIV or HIV-associated disorders with the compound of claim 1. 57. A method of treating disorders associated with HIV, said method comprising administering to an individual infected with, or at risk for HIV infection, a pharmaceutical composition which comprises a therapeutically effective amount of the compound of any of claims 1-28. 58. A compound of Table Y, provided the compound is not or its ethyl diester.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>AIDS is a major public health problem worldwide. Although drugs targeting HIV viruses are in wide use and have shown effectiveness, toxicity and development of resistant strains have limited their usefulness. Assay methods capable of determining the presence, absence or amounts of HIV viruses are of practical utility in the search for inhibitors as well as for diagnosing the presence of HIV. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and related disease is a major public health problem worldwide. The retrovirus human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), a member of the primate lentivirus family (DeClercq E (1994) Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 724:438-456; Barre-Sinoussi F (1996) Lancet, 348:31-35), is generally accepted to be the causative agent of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) Tarrago et al. FASEB Journal 1994, 8:497-503). AIDS is the result of repeated replication of HIV-1 and a decrease in immune capacity, most prominently a fall in the number of CD4+ lymphocytes. The mature virus has a single stranded RNA genome that encodes 15 proteins (Frankel et al. (1998) Annual Review of Biochemistry, 67:1-25; Katz et al. (1994) Annual Review of Biochemistry, 63:133-173), including three key enzymes: (i) protease (Prt) (von der Helm K (1996) Biological Chemistry, 377:765-774); (ii) reverse transcriptase (RT) (Hottiger et al. (1996) Biological Chemistry Hoppe - Seyler, 377:97-120), an enzyme unique to retroviruses; and (iii) integrate (Asante et al. (1999) Advances in Virus Research 52:351-369; Wlodawer A (1999) Advances in Virus Research 52:335-350; Esposito et al. (1999) Advances in Virus Research 52:319-333). Protease is responsible for processing the viral precursor polyproteins, integrase is responsible for the integration of the double stranded DNA form of the viral genome into host DNA and RT is the key enzyme in the replication of the viral genome. In viral replication, RT acts as both an RNA- and a DNA-dependent DNA polymerase, to convert the single stranded RNA genome into double stranded DNA. Since virally encoded Reverse Transcriptase (RT)-mediates specific reactions during the natural reproduction of the virus, inhibition of HIV RT is an important therapeutic target for treatment of HIV infection and related disease. Sequence analysis of the complete genomes from several infective and non-infective HIV-isolates has shed considerable light on the make-up of the virus and the types of molecules that are essential for its replication and maturation to an infective species. The HIV protease is essential for the processing of the viral gag and gag-pol polypeptides into mature virion proteins. L. Ratner, et al., Nature, 313:277-284 (1985); L. H. Pearl and W. R. Taylor, Nature, 329:351 (1987). HIV exhibits the same gag/pol/env organization seen in other retroviruses. L. Ratner, et al., above; S. Wain-Hobson, et al., Cell, 40:9-17 (1985); R. Sanchez-Pescador, et al., Science, 227:484-492 (1985); and M. A. Muesing, et al., Nature, 313:450-458 (1985). Drugs approved in the United States for AIDS therapy include nucleoside inhibitors of RT (Smith et al (1994) Clinical Investigator, 17:226-243), protease inhibitors and non-nucleoside RT inhibitors (NNRTI), (Johnson et al (2000) Advances in Internal Medicine, 45 (1-40; Porche D J (1999) Nursing Clinics of North America, 34:95-112). Inhibitors of HIV protease are useful to limit the establishment and progression of infection by therapeutic administration as well as in diagnostic assays for HIV. Protease inhibitor drugs approved by the FDA include: saquinavir (Invirase®, Fortovase®, Hoffman-La Roche, EP-00432695 and EP-00432694) ritonavir (Norvir®, Abbott Laboratories) indinavir (Crixivan®, Merck & Co.) nelfinavir (Viracept®, Pfizer) amprenavir (Agenerase®, GlaxoSmithKline, Vertex Pharmaceuticals) lopinavir/ritonavir (Kaletra®, Abbott Laboratories) Experimental protease inhibitor drugs include: fosamprenavir (GlaxoSmithKline, Vertex Pharmaceuticals) tipranavir (Boehringer Ingelheim) atazanavir (Bristol-Myers Squibb). There is a need for anti-HIV therapeutic agents, i.e. drugs having improved antiviral and pharmacokinetic properties with enhanced activity against development of HIV resistance, improved oral bioavailability, greater potency and extended effective half-life in vivo. New HIV antivirals should be active against mutant HIV strains, have distinct resistance profiles, fewer side effects, less complicated dosing schedules, and orally active. In particular, there is a need for a less onerous dosage regimen, such as one pill, once per day. Although drugs targeting HIV RT are in wide use and have shown effectiveness, particularly when employed in combination, toxicity and development of resistant strains have limited their usefulness. Combination therapy of HIV antivirals has proven to be highly effective in suppressing viral replication to unquantifiable levels for a sustained period of time. Also, combination therapy with RT and other HIV inhibitors have shown synergistic effects in suppressing HIV replication. Unfortunately, many patients currently fail combination therapy due to the development of drug resistance, non-compliance with complicated dosing regimens, pharmacokinetic interactions, toxicity, and lack of potency. Therefore, there is a need for new HIV RT inhibitors that are synergistic in combination with other HIV inhibitors. Improving the delivery of drugs and other agents to target cells and tissues has been the focus of considerable research for many years. Though many attempts have been made to develop effective methods for importing biologically active molecules into cells, both in vivo and in vitro, none has proved to be entirely satisfactory. Optimizing the association of the inhibitory drug with its intracellular target, while minimizing intercellular redistribution of the drug, e.g. to neighboring cells, is often difficult or inefficient. Most agents currently administered to a patient parenterally are not targeted, resulting in systemic delivery of the agent to cells and tissues of the body where it is unnecessary, and often undesirable. This may result in adverse drug side effects, and often limits the dose of a drug (e.g., cytotoxic agents and other anti-cancer or anti-viral drugs) that can be administered. By comparison, although oral administration of drugs is generally recognized as a convenient and economical method of administration, oral administration can result in either (a) uptake of the drug through the cellular and tissue barriers, e.g. blood/brain, epithelial, cell membrane, resulting in undesirable systemic distribution, or (b) temporary residence of the drug within the gastrointestinal tract. Accordingly, a major goal has been to develop methods for specifically targeting agents to cells and tissues. Benefits of such treatment includes avoiding the general physiological effects of inappropriate delivery of such agents to other cells and tissues, such as uninfected cells. Intracellular targeting may be achieved by methods and compositions which allow accumulation or retention of biologically active agents inside cells.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides novel compounds with HIV activity, i.e. novel human retroviral RT inhibitors. Therefore, the compounds of the invention may inhibit retroviral RT and thus inhibit the replication of the virus. They are useful for treating human patients infected with a human retrovirus, such as human immunodeficiency virus (strains of HIV-1 or HIV-2) or human T-cell leukemia viruses (HTLV-I or HTLV-II) which results in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and/or related diseases. The present invention includes novel phosphonate HIV RT inhibitor compounds and phosphonate analogs of known approved and experimental protease inhibitors. The compounds of the invention optionally provide cellular accumulation as set forth below. The present invention relates generally to the accumulation or retention of therapeutic compounds inside cells. The invention is more particularly related to attaining high concentrations of phosphonate-containing molecules in HIV infected cells. Intracellular targeting may be achieved by methods and compositions which allow accumulation or retention of biologically active agents inside cells. Such effective targeting may be applicable to a variety of therapeutic formulations and procedures. Compositions of the invention include new RT compounds having at least one phosphonate group. The invention includes all known approved and experimental protease inhibitors with at least one phosphonate group. In one aspect, the invention includes compounds; including enantiomers thereof, of Formula 1A, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, wherein:	This non-provisional application claims the benefit of Provisional Application No. 60/591,811, filed Jul. 27, 2004, and all of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates generally to compounds with antiviral activity and more specifically with anti-HIV properties. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION AIDS is a major public health problem worldwide. Although drugs targeting HIV viruses are in wide use and have shown effectiveness, toxicity and development of resistant strains have limited their usefulness. Assay methods capable of determining the presence, absence or amounts of HIV viruses are of practical utility in the search for inhibitors as well as for diagnosing the presence of HIV. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and related disease is a major public health problem worldwide. The retrovirus human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), a member of the primate lentivirus family (DeClercq E (1994)Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 724:438-456; Barre-Sinoussi F (1996) Lancet, 348:31-35), is generally accepted to be the causative agent of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) Tarrago et al. FASEB Journal 1994, 8:497-503). AIDS is the result of repeated replication of HIV-1 and a decrease in immune capacity, most prominently a fall in the number of CD4+ lymphocytes. The mature virus has a single stranded RNA genome that encodes 15 proteins (Frankel et al. (1998) Annual Review of Biochemistry, 67:1-25; Katz et al. (1994) Annual Review of Biochemistry, 63:133-173), including three key enzymes: (i) protease (Prt) (von der Helm K (1996) Biological Chemistry, 377:765-774); (ii) reverse transcriptase (RT) (Hottiger et al. (1996) Biological Chemistry Hoppe-Seyler, 377:97-120), an enzyme unique to retroviruses; and (iii) integrate (Asante et al. (1999) Advances in Virus Research 52:351-369; Wlodawer A (1999) Advances in Virus Research 52:335-350; Esposito et al. (1999) Advances in Virus Research 52:319-333). Protease is responsible for processing the viral precursor polyproteins, integrase is responsible for the integration of the double stranded DNA form of the viral genome into host DNA and RT is the key enzyme in the replication of the viral genome. In viral replication, RT acts as both an RNA- and a DNA-dependent DNA polymerase, to convert the single stranded RNA genome into double stranded DNA. Since virally encoded Reverse Transcriptase (RT)-mediates specific reactions during the natural reproduction of the virus, inhibition of HIV RT is an important therapeutic target for treatment of HIV infection and related disease. Sequence analysis of the complete genomes from several infective and non-infective HIV-isolates has shed considerable light on the make-up of the virus and the types of molecules that are essential for its replication and maturation to an infective species. The HIV protease is essential for the processing of the viral gag and gag-pol polypeptides into mature virion proteins. L. Ratner, et al., Nature, 313:277-284 (1985); L. H. Pearl and W. R. Taylor, Nature, 329:351 (1987). HIV exhibits the same gag/pol/env organization seen in other retroviruses. L. Ratner, et al., above; S. Wain-Hobson, et al., Cell, 40:9-17 (1985); R. Sanchez-Pescador, et al., Science, 227:484-492 (1985); and M. A. Muesing, et al., Nature, 313:450-458 (1985). Drugs approved in the United States for AIDS therapy include nucleoside inhibitors of RT (Smith et al (1994) Clinical Investigator, 17:226-243), protease inhibitors and non-nucleoside RT inhibitors (NNRTI), (Johnson et al (2000) Advances in Internal Medicine, 45 (1-40; Porche D J (1999) Nursing Clinics of North America, 34:95-112). Inhibitors of HIV protease are useful to limit the establishment and progression of infection by therapeutic administration as well as in diagnostic assays for HIV. Protease inhibitor drugs approved by the FDA include: saquinavir (Invirase®, Fortovase®, Hoffman-La Roche, EP-00432695 and EP-00432694) ritonavir (Norvir®, Abbott Laboratories) indinavir (Crixivan®, Merck & Co.) nelfinavir (Viracept®, Pfizer) amprenavir (Agenerase®, GlaxoSmithKline, Vertex Pharmaceuticals) lopinavir/ritonavir (Kaletra®, Abbott Laboratories) Experimental protease inhibitor drugs include: fosamprenavir (GlaxoSmithKline, Vertex Pharmaceuticals) tipranavir (Boehringer Ingelheim) atazanavir (Bristol-Myers Squibb). There is a need for anti-HIV therapeutic agents, i.e. drugs having improved antiviral and pharmacokinetic properties with enhanced activity against development of HIV resistance, improved oral bioavailability, greater potency and extended effective half-life in vivo. New HIV antivirals should be active against mutant HIV strains, have distinct resistance profiles, fewer side effects, less complicated dosing schedules, and orally active. In particular, there is a need for a less onerous dosage regimen, such as one pill, once per day. Although drugs targeting HIV RT are in wide use and have shown effectiveness, particularly when employed in combination, toxicity and development of resistant strains have limited their usefulness. Combination therapy of HIV antivirals has proven to be highly effective in suppressing viral replication to unquantifiable levels for a sustained period of time. Also, combination therapy with RT and other HIV inhibitors have shown synergistic effects in suppressing HIV replication. Unfortunately, many patients currently fail combination therapy due to the development of drug resistance, non-compliance with complicated dosing regimens, pharmacokinetic interactions, toxicity, and lack of potency. Therefore, there is a need for new HIV RT inhibitors that are synergistic in combination with other HIV inhibitors. Improving the delivery of drugs and other agents to target cells and tissues has been the focus of considerable research for many years. Though many attempts have been made to develop effective methods for importing biologically active molecules into cells, both in vivo and in vitro, none has proved to be entirely satisfactory. Optimizing the association of the inhibitory drug with its intracellular target, while minimizing intercellular redistribution of the drug, e.g. to neighboring cells, is often difficult or inefficient. Most agents currently administered to a patient parenterally are not targeted, resulting in systemic delivery of the agent to cells and tissues of the body where it is unnecessary, and often undesirable. This may result in adverse drug side effects, and often limits the dose of a drug (e.g., cytotoxic agents and other anti-cancer or anti-viral drugs) that can be administered. By comparison, although oral administration of drugs is generally recognized as a convenient and economical method of administration, oral administration can result in either (a) uptake of the drug through the cellular and tissue barriers, e.g. blood/brain, epithelial, cell membrane, resulting in undesirable systemic distribution, or (b) temporary residence of the drug within the gastrointestinal tract. Accordingly, a major goal has been to develop methods for specifically targeting agents to cells and tissues. Benefits of such treatment includes avoiding the general physiological effects of inappropriate delivery of such agents to other cells and tissues, such as uninfected cells. Intracellular targeting may be achieved by methods and compositions which allow accumulation or retention of biologically active agents inside cells. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides novel compounds with HIV activity, i.e. novel human retroviral RT inhibitors. Therefore, the compounds of the invention may inhibit retroviral RT and thus inhibit the replication of the virus. They are useful for treating human patients infected with a human retrovirus, such as human immunodeficiency virus (strains of HIV-1 or HIV-2) or human T-cell leukemia viruses (HTLV-I or HTLV-II) which results in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and/or related diseases. The present invention includes novel phosphonate HIV RT inhibitor compounds and phosphonate analogs of known approved and experimental protease inhibitors. The compounds of the invention optionally provide cellular accumulation as set forth below. The present invention relates generally to the accumulation or retention of therapeutic compounds inside cells. The invention is more particularly related to attaining high concentrations of phosphonate-containing molecules in HIV infected cells. Intracellular targeting may be achieved by methods and compositions which allow accumulation or retention of biologically active agents inside cells. Such effective targeting may be applicable to a variety of therapeutic formulations and procedures. Compositions of the invention include new RT compounds having at least one phosphonate group. The invention includes all known approved and experimental protease inhibitors with at least one phosphonate group. In one aspect, the invention includes compounds; including enantiomers thereof, of Formula 1A, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, wherein: A0 is A1, A2, or A3; A1 is A2 is A3 is: Y1 is independently O, S, N(Rx), N(O)(Rx), N(ORx), N(O)(ORx), or N(N(Rx)(Rx)); Y2 is independently a bond, Y3, N(Rx), N(O)(Rx), N(ORx), N(O)(ORx), N(N(Rx)(Rx)), —S(O)M2—, or —S(O)M2—S(O)M2—; Y3 is O, S(O)M2, S, or C(R2)2; Rx is independently H, R1, R2, W3, a protecting group, or the formula: wherein: Ry is independently H, W3, R2 or a protecting group; R1 is independently H or alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms; R2 and R2a are independently H, R1, R3, or R4 wherein each R4 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups or, when taken together at a carbon atom, two R2 groups form a ring of 3 to 8 and the ring may be substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; R3 is R3a, R3b, R3c, R3d, or R3e, provided that when R3 is bound to a heteroatom, then R3 is R3c or R3d; R3a is R3e, —CN, N3 or —NO2; R3b is (═Y1); R3c is -Rx, —N(Rx)(Rx), —SRx, —S(O)Rx, —S(O)2Rx, —S(O)(ORx), —S(O)2(ORx), —OC(Y1)Rx, —OC(Y1)ORx, —OC(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)), —SC(Y1)Rx, —SC(Y1)ORx, —SC(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)), N(Rx)C(Y1)Rx, —N(Rx)C(Y1)ORx, or —N(Rx)C(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)); R3d is —C(Y)Rx, —C(Y1)ORx or —C(Y)(N(Rx)(Rx)); R3c is F, Cl, Br or I; R4 is an alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms, alkenyl of 2 to 18 carbon atoms, or alkynyl of 2 to 18 carbon atoms; R5 is H or R4, wherein each R4 is substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; W3 is W4 or W5; W4 is R5, —C(Y1)R5, —C(Y1)W5, —SOM2R5, or —SOM2W5; W5 is carbocycle or heterocycle wherein W5 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R2 groups; W6 is W3 independently substituted with 1, 2, or 3 A3 groups; M2 is 0, 1 or 2; M12a is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; M12b is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; M1a, M1c, and M1d are independently 0 or 1; and M12c is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; provided that the compound of Formula 1A is not of the structure 556-E.6 or its ethyl diester. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS Reference will now be made in detail to certain embodiments of the invention, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying structures and formulas. While the invention will be described in conjunction with the enumerated embodiments, it will be understood that they are not intended to limit the invention to those embodiments. On the contrary, the invention is intended to cover all alternatives, modifications, and equivalents, which may be included within the scope of the present invention as defined by the embodiments. DEFINITIONS Unless stated otherwise, the following terms and phrases as used herein are intended to have the following meanings: When tradenames are used herein, applicants intend to independently include the tradename product and the active pharmaceutical ingredient(s) of the tradename product. “Base” is a term of art in the nucleoside and nucleotide fields. It is frequently abbreviated as “B.” Within the context of the present invention, “Base” or “B” mean, without limitation, at least those bases know to the ordinary artisan or taught in the art. Exemplary definitions 1) to 10) below are illustrative. Preferable “Bases” or “Bs” include purines, more preferably purines of 1) to 10) below. More preferably yet, “Base” or “B” means the purines of 4) to 10) below. Most preferably “Base” or “B” means 10) below. In embodiments of this invention, Base or B is a group having structure (1) below wherein R2c is halo, NH2, R2b or H; R2b is —(R9)m1(X)m4(R9)m2(X)m5(R9)m3(N(R2c)2)n; X independently is O or S; M1-m3 independently are 0-1; M4-m5 independently are 0-1 n is 0-2; R9 independently is unsubstituted C1-C15 alkyl, C2-C15 alkenyl, C6-C15 arylalkenyl, C6-C15 arylalkynyl, C2-C15 alkynyl, C1-C6-alkylamino-C1-C6 alkyl, C5-C15 aralkyl, C6-C15 heteroaralkyl, C5-C6 aryl or C2-C6 heterocycloalkyl, or said groups optionally substituted with 1 to 3 of halo, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, OH, ═O, haloalkyl, CN, R10 or N3; R10 independently is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C15 alkyl, C2-C15 alkenyl, C6-C15 arylalkenyl, C6-C15 arylalkynyl, C2-C15 alkynyl, C1-C6-alkylamino-C1-C6 alkyl, C5-C15 aralkyl, C6-C15 heteroaralkyl, C5-C6 aryl, —C(O)R9, —C(O)OR9 and C2-C6 heterocycloalkyl, optionally both R10 of N(R10)2 are joined together with N to form a saturated or unsaturated C5-C6 heterocycle containing one or two N heteroatoms and optionally an additional O or S heteroatom, and the foregoing R10 groups which are substituted with 1 to 3 of halo, alkoxy, alkythio, nitro, OH, ═O, haloalkyl, CN or N3; and Z is N or C(R3), provided that the heterocyclic nucleus varies from purine by no more than two Z. Alkyl, alkynyl and alkenyl groups in the formula (1) groups are normal, secondary, tertiary or cyclic. Ordinarily, n is 1, m1 is 0 or 1, R9 is C1-C3 alkyl, R2b is H, m2-m5 are all 0; one or two R10 groups are not H; R10 is C1-C6 alkyl (including C3-C6 cycloalkyl, particularly cyclopropyl), and one R10 is H. If Z is C(R3) at the 5 and/or 7 positions, R3 is halo, usually fluoro. The compounds of this invention are noteworthy in their ability to act effectively against HIV which bears resistance mutations in the polymerase gene, in particular, HIV which is resistant to tenofovir, FTC and other established anti-HIV agents. 1) B is a Heterocyclic Amine Base. In the specification “Heterocyclic amine base” is defined as a monocyclic, bicyclic, or polycyclic ring system comprising one or more nitrogens. For example, B includes the naturally-occurring heterocycles found in nucleic acids, nucleotides and nucleosides, and analogs thereof. 2) B is Selected from the Group Consisting of wherein: U, G, and J are each independently CH or N; D is N, CH, C—CN, C—NO2, C—C1-3alkyl, C—NHCONH2, C—CONT11T11, C—CSNT11T11, C—COOT11, C—C(═NH)NH2, C-hydroxy, C—C1-3 alkoxy, C-amino, C—C1-4alkylamino, C-di(C1-4alkyl)amino, C-halogen, C-(1,3-oxazol-2-yl), C-(1,3thiazol-2-yl), or C-(imidazol-2-yl); wherein alkyl is unsubstituted or substituted with one to three groups independently selected from halogen, amino, hydroxy, carboxy, and C1-3 alkoxy; E is N or CT5; W is O or S; T1 is H, C1-6alkyl, C2-6alkenyl, C2-6alkynyl, C1-4alkylamino, CF3, or halogen; T2 is H, OH, SH, NH2, C1-4alkylamino, di(C1-4alkyl)amino, C3-6 cycloalkylamino, halo, C1-4alkyl, C1-4alkoxy, or CF3; T3 is H, amino, C1-4alkylamino, C3-6 cycloalkylamino, or di(C1-4alkyl)amino; T4 is H, halo, CN, carboxy, C1-4alkyloxycarbonyl, N3, amino, C1-4alkylamino, di(C1-4alkyl)amino, hydroxy, C1-6alkoxy, C1-6alkylthio, C1-6alkylsulfonyl, or (C1-4alkyl)0-2aminomethyl; T5 is independently H or C1-6alkyl; and T6 is H, CF3, C1-4alkyl, amino, C1-4alkylamino, C3-6cycloalkylamino, or di(C1-4alkyl)amino; 3). B is Selected from wherein: T10 is H, OH, F, Cl, Br, I, OT17, SH, ST17, NH2, or NHT18; T11 is N, CF, CCl, CBr, CI, CT19, CST19, or COT19; T12 is N or CH; T13 is N, CH, CCN, CCF3, CC≡≡CH or CC(O)NH2; T14 is H, OH, NH2, SH, SCH3, SCH2CH3, SCH2C≡CH, SCH2CH═CH2, SC3H7, NH(CH3), N(CH3)2, NH(CH2CH3), N(CH2CH3)2, NH(CH2C≡CH), NH(CH2 CH═CH2), NH(C3H7) or halogen (F, Cl, Br or I); T15 is H, OH, F, Cl, Br, I, SCH3, SCH2CH3, SCH2C≡CH, SCH2CH═CH2, SC3H7, OT17, NH2, or NHT18; and T16 is O, S or Se. T17 is C1-6alkyl (including CH3, CH2CH3, CH2C≡CH, CH2CH═CH2, and C3H7); T18 is C1-6alkyl (including CH3, CH2CH3, CH2C≡CH, CH2CH═CH2, and C3H7); T19 is H, C1-9alkyl, C2-9alkenyl, C2-9alkynyl or C7-9aryl-alkyl unsubstituted or substituted by OH, O, N, F, Cl, Br or I (including CH3, CH2CH3, CH═CH2, CH═CHBr, CH2CH2Cl, CH2CH2F, CH2C≡CH, CH2CH═CH2, C3H7, CH2OH, CH2OCH3, CH2OC2H5, CH2OC≡CH, CH2OCH2CH═CH2, CH2C3H7, CH2CH2OH, CH2CH2OCH3, CH2CH2OC2H5, CH2CH2OC≡CH, CH2CH2OCH2CH═CH2, CH2CH2OC3H7; 4) B is adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil, thymine, 7-deazaadenine, 7-deazaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaadenine, inosine, nebularine, nitropyrrole, nitroindole, 2-aminopurine, 2-amino-6-chloropurine, 2,6-diaminopurine, hypoxanthine, pseudouridine, pseudocytosine, pseudoisocytosine, 5-propynylcytosine, isocytosine, isoguanine, 7-deazaguanine, 2-thiopyrimidine, 6-thioguanine, 4-thiothymine, 4-thiouracil, O6-methylguanine, N6-methyladenine, O4-methylthymine, 5,6-dihydrothymine, 5,6-dihydrouracil, 4-methylindole, or pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine; 5) B is hypoxanthine, inosine, thymine, uracil, xanthine, an 8-aza derivative of 2-aminopurine, 2,6-diaminopurine, 2-amino-6-chloropurine, hypoxanthine, inosine or xanthine; a 7-deaza-8-aza derivative of adenine, guanine, 2-aminopurine, 2,6-diaminopurine, 2-amino-6-chloropurine, hypoxanthine, inosine or xanthine; a 1-deaza derivative of 2-aminopurine, 2,6-diaminopurine, 2-amino-6-chloropurine, hypoxanthine, inosine or xanthine; a 7-deaza derivative of 2-aminopurine, 2,6-diaminopurine, 2-amino-6-chloropurine, hypoxanthine, inosine or xanthine; a 3-deaza derivatives of 2-aminopurine, 2,6-diaminopurine, 2-amino-6-chloropurine, hypoxanthine, inosine or xanthine; 6-azacytosine; 5-fluorocytosine, 5-chlorocytosine; 5-iodocytosine; 5-bromocytosine; 5-methylcytosine; 5-bromovinyluracil; 5-fluorouracil; 5-chlorouracil; 5-iodouracil; 5-bromouracil; 5-trifluoromethyluracil; 5-methoxymethyluracil; 5-ethynyluracil; or 5-propynyluracil 6) B is a guanyl, 3-deazaguanyl, 1-deazaguanyl, 8-azaguanyl, 7-deazaguanyl, adenyl, 3-deazaadenyl, 1-dezazadenyl, 8-azaadenyl, 7-deazaadenyl, 2,6-diaminopurinyl, 2-aminopurinyl, 6-chloro-2-aminopurinyl 6-thio-2-aminopurinyl, cytosinyl, 5-halocytosinyl, or 5-(C1-C3alkyl)cytosinyl. 7) B is wherein T7 and T8 are each independently O or S and T9 is H, amino, hydroxy, Cl, or Br. 8) B is thymine, adenine, uracil, a 5-halouracil, a 5-alkyluracil, guanine, cytosine, a 5-halocytosine, a 5-alkylcytosine, or 2,6-diaminopurine. 9) B is guanine, cytosine, uracil, or thymine. 10) B is adenine. “Bioavailability” is the degree to which the pharmaceutically active agent becomes available to the target tissue after the agent's introduction into the body. Enhancement of the bioavailability of a pharmaceutically active agent can provide a more efficient and effective treatment for patients because, for a given dose, more of the pharmaceutically active agent will be available at the targeted tissue sites. The terms “phosphonate” and “phosphonate group” include functional groups or moieties within a molecule that comprises a phosphorous that is 1) single-bonded to a carbon, 2) double-bonded to a heteroatom, 3) single-bonded to a heteroatom, and 4) single-bonded to another heteroatom, wherein each heteroatom can be the same or different. The terms “phosphonate” and “phosphonate group” also include functional groups or moieties that comprise a phosphorous in the same oxidation state as the phosphorous described above, as well as functional groups or moieties that comprise a prodrug moiety that can separate from a compound so that the compound retains a phosphorous having the characteriatics described above. For example, the terms “phosphonate” and “phosphonate group” include phosphonic acid, phosphonic monoester, phosphonic diester, phosphonamidate, and phosphonthioate functional groups. In one specific embodiment of the invention, the terms “phosphonate” and “phosphonate group” include functional groups or moieties within a molecule that comprises a phosphorous that is 1) single-bonded to a carbon, 2) double-bonded to an oxygen, 3) single-bonded to an oxygen, and 4) single-bonded to another oxygen, as well as functional groups or moieties that comprise a prodrug moiety that can separate from a compound so that the compound retains a phosphorous having such characteriatics. In another specific embodiment of the invention, the terms “phosphonate” and “phosphonate group” include functional groups or moieties within a molecule that comprises a phosphorous that is 1) single-bonded to a carbon, 2) double-bonded to an oxygen, 3) single-bonded to an oxygen or nitrogen, and 4) single-bonded to another oxygen or nitrogen, as well as functional groups or moieties that comprise a prodrug moiety that can separate from a compound so that the compound retains a phosphorous having such characteriatics. The term “prodrug” as used herein refers to any compound that when administered to a biological system generates the drug substance, i.e. active ingredient, as a result of spontaneous chemical reaction(s), enzyme catalyzed chemical reaction(s), photolysis, and/or metabolic chemical reaction(s). A prodrug is thus a covalently modified analog or latent form of a therapeutically-active compound. “Prodrug moiety” refers to a labile functional group which separates from the active inhibitory compound during metabolism, systemically, inside a cell, by hydrolysis, enzymatic cleavage, or by some other process (Bundgaard, Hans, “Design and Application of Prodrugs” in A Textbook of Drug Design and Development (1991), P. Krogsgaard-Larsen and H. Bundgaard, Eds. Harwood Academic Publishers, pp. 113-191). Enzymes which are capable of an enzymatic activation mechanism with the phosphonate prodrug compounds of the invention include, but are not limited to, amidases, esterases, microbial enzymes, phospholipases, cholinesterases, and phosphases. Prodrug moieties can serve to enhance solubility, absorption and lipophilicity to optimize drug delivery, bioavailability and efficacy. A prodrug moiety may include an active metabolite or drug itself. Exemplary prodrug moieties include the hydrolytically sensitive or labile acyloxymethyl esters —CH2C(═O)R9 and acyloxymethyl carbonates —CH2C(═O)OR9 where R9 is C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 substituted alkyl, C6-C20 aryl or C6-C20 substituted aryl. The acyloxyalkyl ester was first used as a prodrug strategy for carboxylic acids and then applied to phosphates and phosphonates by Farquhar et al. (1983) J. Pharm. Sci. 72: 324; also U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,816,570, 4,968,788, 5,663,159 and 5,792,756. Subsequently, the acyloxyalkyl ester was used to deliver phosphonic acids across cell membranes and to enhance oral bioavailability. A close variant of the acyloxyalkyl ester, the alkoxycarbonyloxyalkyl ester (carbonate), may also enhance oral bioavailability as a prodrug moiety in the compounds of the combinations of the invention. An exemplary acyloxymethyl ester is pivaloyloxymethoxy, (POM) —CH2C(═O)C(CH3)3. An exemplary acyloxymethyl carbonate prodrug moiety is pivaloyloxymethylcarbonate (POC) —CH2C(═O)OC(CH3)3. The phosphonate group may be a phosphonate prodrug moiety. The prodrug moiety may be sensitive to hydrolysis, such as, but not limited to a pivaloyloxymethyl carbonate (POC) or POM group. Alternatively, the prodrug moiety may be sensitive to enzymatic potentiated cleavage, such as a lactate ester or a phosphonamidate-ester group. Aryl esters of phosphorus groups, especially phenyl esters, are reported to enhance oral bioavailability (De Lombaert et al. (1994) J. Med. Chem. 37: 498). Phenyl esters containing a carboxylic ester ortho to the phosphate have also been described (Khamnei and Torrence, (1996) J. Med. Chem. 39:4109-4115). Benzyl esters are reported to generate the parent phosphonic acid. In some cases, substituents at the ortho- or para-position may accelerate the hydrolysis. Benzyl analogs with an acylated phenol or an alkylated phenol may generate the phenolic compound through the action of enzymes, e.g., esterases, oxidases, etc., which in turn undergoes cleavage at the benzylic C—O bond to generate the phosphoric acid and the quinone methide intermediate. Examples of this class of prodrugs are described by Mitchell et al. (1992) J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. II 2345; Glazier WO 91/19721. Still other benzylic prodrugs have been described containing a carboxylic ester-containing group attached to the benzylic methylene (Glazier WO 91/19721). Thio-containing prodrugs are reported to be useful for the intracellular delivery of phosphonate drugs. These proesters contain an ethylthio group in which the thiol group is either esterified with an acyl group or combined with another thiol group to form a disulfide. Deesterification or reduction of the disulfide generates the free thio intermediate which subsequently breaks down to the phosphoric acid and episulfide (Puech et al. (1993) Antiviral Res., 22: 155-174; Benzaria et al. (1996) J. Med. Chem. 39: 4958). Cyclic phosphonate esters have also been described as prodrugs of phosphorus-containing compounds (Erion et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,312,662). “Protecting group” refers to a moiety of a compound that masks or alters the properties of a functional group or the properties of the compound as a whole. Chemical protecting groups and strategies for protection/deprotection are well known in the art. See e.g., Protective Groups in Organic Chemistry, Theodora W. Greene, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1991. Protecting groups are often utilized to mask the reactivity of certain functional groups, to assist in the efficiency of desired chemical reactions, e.g., making and breaking chemical bonds in an ordered and planned fashion. Protection of functional groups of a compound alters other physical properties besides the reactivity of the protected functional group, such as the polarity, lipophilicity (hydrophobicity), and other properties which can be measured by common analytical tools. Chemically protected intermediates may themselves be biologically active or inactive. Protected compounds may also exhibit altered, and in some cases, optimized properties in vitro and in vivo, such as passage through cellular membranes and resistance to enzymatic degradation or sequestration. In this role, protected compounds with intended therapeutic effects may be referred to as prodrugs. Another function of a protecting group is to convert the parental drug into a prodrug, whereby the parental drug is released upon conversion of the prodrug in vivo. Because active prodrugs may be absorbed more effectively than the parental drug, prodrugs may possess greater potency in vivo than the parental drug. Protecting groups are removed either in vitro, in the instance of chemical intermediates, or in vivo, in the case of prodrugs. With chemical intermediates, it is not particularly important that the resulting products after deprotection, e.g., alcohols, be physiologically acceptable, although in general it is more desirable if the products are pharmacologically innocuous. Any reference to any of the compounds of the invention also includes a reference to a physiologically acceptable salt thereof. Examples of physiologically acceptable salts of the compounds of the invention include salts derived from an appropriate base, such as an alkali metal (for example, sodium), an alkaline earth (for example, magnesium), ammonium and NX4+ (wherein X is C1-C4 alkyl). Physiologically acceptable salts of an hydrogen atom or an amino group include salts of organic carboxylic acids such as acetic, benzoic, lactic, fumaric, tartaric, maleic, malonic, malic, isethionic, lactobionic and succinic acids; organic sulfonic acids, such as methanesulfonic, ethanesulfonic, benzenesulfonic and p-toluenesulfonic acids; and inorganic acids, such as hydrochloric, sulfuric, phosphoric and sulfamic acids. Physiologically acceptable salts of a compound of an hydroxy group include the anion of said compound in combination with a suitable cation such as Na+ and NX4+ (wherein X is independently selected from H or a C1-C4 alkyl group). For therapeutic use, salts of active ingredients of the compounds of the invention will be physiologically acceptable, i.e. they will be salts derived from a physiologically acceptable acid or base. However, salts of acids or bases which are not physiologically acceptable may also find use, for example, in the preparation or purification of a physiologically acceptable compound. All salts, whether or not derived form a physiologically acceptable acid or base, are within the scope of the present invention. “Alkyl” is C1-C18 hydrocarbon containing normal, secondary, tertiary or cyclic carbon atoms. Examples are methyl (Me, —CH3), ethyl (Et, —CH2CH3), 1-propyl (n-Pr, n-propyl, —CH2CH2CH3), 2-propyl (i-Pr, i-propyl, —CH(CH3)2), 1-butyl (n-Bu, n-butyl, —CH2CH2CH2CH3), 2-methyl-1-propyl (i-Bu, i-butyl, —CH2CH(CH3)2), 2-butyl (s-Bu, s-butyl, —CH(CH3)CH2CH3), 2-methyl-2-propyl (t-Bu, t-butyl, —C(CH3)3), 1-pentyl (n-pentyl, —CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3), 2-pentyl (—CH(CH3)CH2CH2CH3), 3-pentyl (—CH(CH2CH3)2), 2-methyl-2-butyl (—C(CH3)2CH2CH3), 3-methyl-2-butyl (—CH(CH3)CH(CH3)2), 3-methyl-1-butyl (—CH2CH2CH(CH3)2), 2-methyl-1-butyl (—CH2CH(CH3)CH2CH3), 1-hexyl (—CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3), 2-hexyl (—CH(CH3)CH2CH2CH2CH3), 3-hexyl (—CH(CH2CH3)(CH2CH2CH3)), 2-methyl-2-pentyl (—C(CH3)2CH2CH2CH3), 3-methyl-2-pentyl (—CH(CH3)CH(CH3)CH2CH3), 4-methyl-2-pentyl (—CH(CH3)CH2CH(CH3)2), 3-methyl-3-pentyl (—C(CH3)(CH2CH3)2), 2-methyl-3-pentyl (—CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)2), 2,3-dimethyl-2-butyl (—C(CH3)2CH(CH3)2), 3,3-dimethyl-2-butyl (—CH(CH3)C(CH3)3. “Alkenyl” is C2-C18 hydrocarbon containing normal, secondary, tertiary or cyclic carbon atoms with at least one site of unsaturation, i.e. a carbon-carbon, sp2 double bond. Examples include, but are not limited to, ethylene or vinyl (—CH═CH2), allyl (—CH2CH═CH2), cycloperitenyl (—C5H7), and 5-hexenyl (—CH2CH2CH2CH2CH—CH2). “Alkynyl” is C2-C18 hydrocarbon containing normal, secondary, tertiary or cyclic carbon atoms with at least one site of unsaturation, i.e. a carbon-carbon, sp triple bond. Examples include, but are not limited to, acetylenic (—C≡CH) and propargyl (—CH2C≡CH), “Alkylene” refers to a saturated, branched or straight chain or cyclic hydrocarbon radical of 1-18 carbon atoms, and having two monovalent radical centers derived by the removal of two hydrogen atoms from the same or two different carbon atoms of a parent alkane. Typical alkylene radicals include, but are not limited to, methylene (—CH2—) 1,2-ethyl (—CH2CH2—), 1,3-propyl (—CH2CH2CH2—), 1,4-butyl (—CH2CH2CH2CH2—), and the like. “Alkenylene” refers to an unsaturated, branched or straight chain or cyclic hydrocarbon radical of 2-18 carbon atoms, and having two monovalent radical centers derived by the removal of two hydrogen atoms from the same or two different carbon atoms of a parent alkene. Typical alkenylene radicals include, but are not limited to, 1,2-ethylene (—CH═CH—). “Alkynylene” refers to an unsaturated, branched or straight chain or cyclic hydrocarbon radical of 2-18 carbon atoms, and having two monovalent radical centers derived by the removal of two hydrogen atoms from the same or two different carbon atoms of a parent alkyne. Typical alkynylene radicals include, but are not limited to, acetylene (—C≡C—), propargyl (—CH2C≡C—), and 4-pentynyl (—CH2CH2CH2C≡CH—). “Aryl” means a monovalent aromatic hydrocarbon radical of 6-20 carbon atoms derived by the removal of one hydrogen atom from a single carbon atom of a parent aromatic ring system. Typical aryl groups include, but are not limited to, radicals derived from benzene, substituted benzene, naphthalene, anthracene, biphenyl, and the like. “Arylalkyl” refers to an acyclic alkyl radical in which one of the hydrogen atoms bonded to a carbon atom, typically a terminal or sp3 carbon atom, is replaced with an aryl radical. Typical arylalkyl groups include, but are not limited to, benzyl, 2-phenylethan-1-yl, naphthylmethyl, 2-naphthylethan-1-yl, naphthobenzyl, 2-naphthophenylethan-1-yl and the like. The arylalkyl group comprises 6 to 20 carbon atoms, e.g., the alkyl moiety, including alkanyl, alkenyl or alkynyl groups, of the arylalkyl group is 1 to 6 carbon atoms and the aryl moiety is 5 to 14 carbon atoms. “Substituted alkyl”, “substituted aryl”, and “substituted arylalkyl” mean alkyl, aryl, and arylalkyl respectively, in which one or more hydrogen atoms are each independently replaced with a non-hydrogen substituent. Typical substituents include, but are not limited to, -X, -R, —O—, —OR, —SR, —S−, —NR2, —NR3, ═NR, —CX3, —CN, —OCN, —SCN, —N═C═O, —NCS, —NO, —NO2, ═N2, —N3, NC(═O)R, —C(═O)R, —C(═O)NRR—S(═O)2O−, —S(═O)2OH, —S(═O)R, —OS(═O)2OR, —S(═O)2NR, —S(═O)R, —OP(═O)O2RR, —P(═O)O2RR—P(═O)(O—)2, —P(═O)(OH)2, —C(═O)R, —C(═O)X, —C(S)R, —C(O)OR, —C(O)O−, —C(S)OR, —C(O)SR, —C(S)SR, —C(O)NRR, —C(S)NRR, —C(NR)NRR, where each X is independently a halogen: F, Cl, Br, or I; and each R is independently —H, alkyl, aryl, heterocycle, protecting group or prodrug moiety. Alkylene, alkenylene, and alkynylene groups may also be similarly substituted. “Heterocycle” as used herein includes by way of example and not limitation these heterocycles described in Paquette, Leo A.; Principles of Modern Heterocyclic Chemistry (W. A. Benjamin, New York, 1968), particularly Chapters 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, and 9; The Chemistry of Heterocyclic Compounds, A Series of Monographs” (John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1950 to present), in particular Volumes 13, 14, 16, 19, and 28; and J. Am. Chem. Soc. (1960) 82:5566. In one specific embodiment of the invention “heterocycle” includes a “carbocycle” as defined herein, wherein one or more (e.g. 1, 2, 3, or 4) carbon atoms have been replaced with a heteroatom (e.g. O, N, or S). Examples of heterocycles include by way of example and not limitation pyridyl, dihydroypyridyl, tetrahydropyridyl (piperidyl), thiazolyl, tetrahydrothiophenyl, sulfur oxidized tetrahydrothiophenyl, pyrimidinyl, furanyl, thienyl, pyrrolyl, pyrazolyl, imidazolyl, tetrazolyl, benzofuranyl, thianaphthalenyl, indolyl, indolenyl, quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl, benzimidazolyl, piperidinyl, 4-piperidonyl, pyrrolidinyl, 2-pyrrolidonyl, pyrrolinyl, tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydroquinolinyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl, decahydroquinolinyl, octahydroisoquinolinyl, azocinyl, triazinyl, 6H-1,2,5-thiadiazinyl, 2H,6H-1,5,2-dithiazinyl, thienyl, thianthrenyl, pyranyl, isobenzofuranyl, chromenyl, xanthenyl, phenoxathinyl, 2H-pyrrolyl, isothiazolyl, isoxazolyl, pyrazinyl, pyridazinyl, indolizinyl, isoindolyl, 3H-indolyl, 1H-indazoly, purinyl, 4H-quinolizinyl, phthalazinyl, naphthyridinyl, quinoxalinyl, quinazolinyl, cinnolinyl, pteridinyl, 4aH-carbazolyl, carbazolyl, β-carbolinyl, phenanthridinyl, acridinyl, pyrimidinyl, phenanthrolinyl, phenazinyl, phenothiazinyl, furazanyl, phenoxazinyl, isochromanyl, chromanyl, imidazolidinyl, imidazolinyl, pyrazolidinyl, pyrazolinyl, piperazinyl, indolinyl, isoindolinyl, quinuclidinyl, morpholinyl, oxazolidinyl, benzotriazolyl, benzisoxazolyl, oxindolyl, benzoxazolinyl, isatinoyl, and bis-tetrahydrofuranyl: By way of example and not limitation, carbon bonded heterocycles are bonded at position 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 of a pyridine, position 3, 4, 5, or 6 of a pyridazine, position 2, 4, 5, or 6 of a pyrimidine, position 2, 3, 5, or 6 of a pyrazine, position 2, 3, 4, or 5 of a furan, tetrahydrofuran, thiofuran, thiophene, pyrrole or tetrahydropyrrole, position 2, 4, or 5 of an oxazole, imidazole or thiazole, position 3, 4, or 5 of an isoxazole, pyrazole, or isothiazole, position 2 or 3 of an aziridine, position 2, 3, or 4 of an azetidine, position 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8 of a quinoline or position 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8 of an isoquinoline. Still more typically, carbon bonded heterocycles include 2-pyridyl, 3-pyridyl, 4-pyridyl, 5-pyridyl, 6-pyridyl, 3-pyridazinyl, 4-pyridazinyl, 5-pyridazinyl, 6-pyridazinyl, 2-pyrimidinyl, 4-pyrimidinyl, 5-pyrimidinyl, 6-pyrimidinyl, 2-pyrazinyl, 3-pyrazinyl, 5-pyrazinyl, 6-pyrazinyl, 2-thiazolyl, 4-thiazolyl, or 5-thiazolyl. By way of example and not limitation, nitrogen bonded heterocycles are bonded at position 1 of an aziridine, azetidine, pyrrole, pyrrolidine, 2-pyrroline, 3-pyrroline, imidazole, imidazolidine, 2-imidazoline, 3-imidazoline, pyrazole, pyrazoline, 2-pyrazoline, 3-pyrazoline, piperidine, piperazine, indole, indoline, 1H-indazole, position 2 of a isoindole, or isoindoline, position 4 of a morpholine, and position 9 of a carbazole, or β-carboline. Still more typically, nitrogen bonded heterocycles include 1-aziridyl, 1-azetedyl, 1-pyrrolyl, 1-imidazolyl, 1-pyrazolyl, and 1-piperidinyl. “Carbocycle” refers to a saturated, unsaturated or aromatic ring having 3 to 7 carbon atoms as a monocycle, 7 to 12 carbon atoms as a bicycle, and up to about 20 carbon atoms as a polycycle. Monocyclic carbocycles have 3 to 6 ring atoms, still more typically 5 or 6 ring atoms. Bicyclic carbocycles have 7 to 12 ring atoms, e.g., arranged as a bicyclo [4,5], [5,5], [5,6] or [6,6] system, or 9 or 10 ring atoms arranged as a bicyclo [5,6] or [6,6] system. Examples of monocyclic carbocycles include cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, 1-cyclopent-1-enyl, 1-cyclopent-2-enyl, 1-cyclopent-3-enyl, cyclohexyl, 1-cyclohex-1-enyl, 1-cyclohex-2-enyl, 1-cyclohex-3-enyl, phenyl, spiryl and naphthyl. “Linker” or “link” refers to a chemical moiety comprising a covalent bond or a chain or group of atoms that covalently attaches a phosphonate group to a drug. Linkers include portions of substituents A1 and A3, which include moieties such as: repeating units of alkyloxy (e.g., polyethylenoxy, PEG, polymethyleneoxy) and alkylamino (e.g., polyethyleneamino, Jeffamine™); and diacid ester and amides including succinate, succinamide, diglycolate, malonate, and caproamide. The term “chiral” refers to molecules which have the property of non-superimposability of the mirror image partner, while the term “achiral” refers to molecules which are superimposable on their mirror image partner. The term “stereoisomers” refers to compounds which have identical chemical constitution, but differ with regard to the arrangement of the atoms or groups in space. “Diastereomer” refers to a stereoisomer with two or more centers of chirality and whose molecules are not mirror images of one another. Diastereomers have different physical properties, e.g., melting points, boiling points, spectral properties, and reactivities. Mixtures of diastereomers may separate under high resolution analytical procedures such as electrophoresis and chromatography. “Enantiomers” refer to two stereoisomers of a compound which are non-superimposable mirror images of one another. The term “treatment” or “treating,” to the extent it relates to a disease or condition includes preventing the disease or condition from occurring, inhibiting the disease or condition, eliminating the disease or condition, and/or relieving one or more symptoms of the disease or condition. Stereochemical definitions and conventions used herein generally follow S. P. Parker, Ed., McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Chemical Terms (1984) McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York; and Eliel, E. and Wilen, S., Stereochemistry of Organic Compounds (1994) John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. Many organic compounds exist in optically active forms, i.e., they have the ability to rotate the plane of plane-polarized light. In describing an optically active compound, the prefixes D and L or R and S are used to denote the absolute configuration of the molecule about its chiral center(s). The prefixes d and l or (+) and (−) are employed to designate the sign of rotation of plane-polarized light by the compound, with (−) or l meaning that the compound is levorotatory. A compound prefixed with (+) or d is dextrorotatory. For a given chemical structure, these stereoisomers are identical except that they are mirror images of one another. A specific stereoisomer may also be referred to as an enantiomer, and a mixture of such isomers is often called an enantiomeric mixture. A 50:50 mixture of enantiomers is referred to as a racemic mixture or a racemate, which may occur where there has been no stereoselection or stereospecificity in a chemical reaction or process. The terms “racemic mixture” and “racemate” refer to an equimolar mixture of two enantiomeric species, devoid of optical activity. Protecting Groups In the context of the present invention, protecting groups include prodrug moieties and chemical protecting groups. Protecting groups are available, commonly known and used, and are optionally used to prevent side reactions with the protected group during synthetic procedures, i.e. routes or methods to prepare the compounds of the invention. For the most part the decision as to which groups to protect, when to do so, and the nature of the chemical protecting group “PG” will be dependent upon the chemistry of the reaction to be protected against (e.g., acidic, basic, oxidative, reductive or other conditions) and the intended direction of the synthesis. The PG groups do not need to be, and generally are not, the same if the compound is substituted with multiple PG. In general, PG will be used to protect functional groups such as carboxyl, hydroxyl, thio, or amino groups and to thus prevent side reactions or to otherwise facilitate the synthetic efficiency. The order of deprotection to yield free, deprotected groups is dependent upon the intended direction of the synthesis and the reaction conditions to be encountered, and may occur in any order as determined by the artisan. Various functional groups of the compounds of the invention may be protected. For example, protecting groups for —OH groups (whether hydroxyl, carboxylic acid, phosphonic acid, or other functions) include “ether- or ester-forming groups”. Ether- or ester-forming groups are capable of functioning as chemical protecting groups in the synthetic schemes set forth herein. However, some hydroxyl and thio protecting groups are neither ether- nor ester-forming groups, as will be understood by those skilled in the art, and are included with amides, discussed below. A very large number of hydroxyl protecting groups and amide-forming groups and corresponding chemical cleavage reactions are described in Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis, Theodora W. Greene (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New. York, 1991, ISBN 0-471-62301-6) (“Greene”). See also Kocienski, Philip J.; Protecting Groups (Georg Thieme Verlag Stuttgart, New York, 1994), which is incorporated by reference in its entirety herein. In particular Chapter 1, Protecting Groups: An Overview, pages 1-20, Chapter 2, Hydroxyl Protecting Groups, pages 21-94, Chapter 3, Diol Protecting Groups, pages 95-117, Chapter 4, Carboxyl Protecting Groups, pages 118-154, Chapter 5, Carbonyl Protecting Groups, pages 155-184. For protecting groups for carboxylic acid, phosphonic acid, phosphonate, sulfonic acid and other protecting groups for acids see Greene as set forth below. Such groups include by way of example and not limitation, esters, amides, hydrazides, and the like. Ether- and Ester-Forming Protecting Groups Ester-forming groups include: (1) phosphonate ester-forming groups, such as phosphonamidate esters, phosphorothioate esters, phosphonate esters, and phosphon-bis-amidates; (2) carboxyl ester-forming groups, and (3) sulphur ester-forming groups, such as sulphonate, sulfate, and sulfinate. The optional phosphonate moieties of the compounds of the invention may or may not be prodrug moieties, i.e. they may or may be susceptible to hydrolytic or enzymatic cleavage or modification. Certain phosphonate moieties are stable under most or nearly all metabolic conditions. For example, a dialkylphosphonate, where the alkyl groups are two or more carbons, may have appreciable stability in vivo due to a slow rate of hydrolysis. Within the context of phosphonate prodrug moieties, a large number of structurally-diverse prodrugs have been described for phosphonic acids (Freeman and Ross in Progress in Medicinal Chemistry 34: 112-147 (1997) and are included within the scope of the present invention. An exemplary phosphonate ester-forming group is the phenyl carbocycle in substructure A3 having the formula: wherein R1 may be H or C1-C12 alkyl; m1 is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8, and the phenyl carbocycle is substituted with 0 to 3 R2 groups. Where Y1 is O, a lactate ester is formed, and where Y1 is N(R2), N(OR2) or N(N(R2)2, a phosphonamidate ester results. In its ester-forming role, a protecting group typically is bound to any acidic group such as, by way of example and not limitation, a —CO2H or —C(S)OH group, thereby resulting in —CO2Rx where Rx is defined herein. Also, Rx for example includes the enumerated ester groups of WO 95/07920. Examples of protecting groups, include: C3-C12 heterocycle (described above) or aryl. These aromatic groups optionally are polycyclic or monocyclic. Examples include phenyl, spiryl, 2- and 3-pyrrolyl, 2- and 3-thienyl, 2- and 4-imidazolyl, 2-, 4- and 5-oxazolyl, 3- and 4-isoxazolyl, 2-, 4- and 5-thiazolyl, 3-, 4- and 5-isothiazolyl, 3- and 4-pyrazolyl, 1-, 2-, 3- and 4-pyridinyl, and 1-, 2-, 4- and 5-pyrimidinyl, C3-C12 heterocycle or aryl substituted with halo, R1, R1—O—C1-C12 alkylene, C1-C12 alkoxy, CN, NO2, OH, carboxy, carboxyester, thiol, thioester, C1-C12 haloalkyl (1-6 halogen atoms), C2-C12 alkenyl or C2-C12 alkynyl. Such groups include 2-, 3- and 4-alkoxyphenyl (C1-C12 alkyl), 2-, 3- and 4-methoxyphenyl, 2-, 3- and 4-ethoxyphenyl, 2,3-, 2,4-, 2,5-, 2,6-, 3,4- and 3,5-diethoxyphenyl, 2- and 3-carboethoxy-4-hydroxyphenyl, 2- and 3-ethoxy-4-hydroxyphenyl, 2- and 3-ethoxy-5-hydroxyphenyl, 2- and 3-ethoxy-6-hydroxyphenyl, 2-, 3- and 4-O-acetylphenyl, 2-, 3- and 4-dimethylaminophenyl, 2-, 3- and 4-methylmercaptophenyl, 2-, 3- and 4-halophenyl (including 2-, 3- and 4-fluorophenyl and 2-, 3- and 4-chlorophenyl), 2,3-, 2,4-, 2,5-, 2,6-, 3,4- and 3,5-dimethylphenyl, 2,3-, 2,4-, 2,5-, 2,6-, 3,4- and 3,5-biscarboxyethylphenyl, 2,3-, 2,4-, 2,5-, 2,6-, 3,4- and 3,5-dimethoxyphenyl, 2,3-, 2,4-, 2,5-, 2,6-, 3,4- and 3,5-dihalophenyl (including 2,4-difluorophenyl and 3,5-difluorophenyl), 2-, 3- and 4-haloalkylphenyl (1 to 5 halogen atoms, C1-C12 alkyl including 4-trifluoromethylphenyl), 2-, 3- and 4-cyanophenyl, 2-, 3- and 4-nitrophenyl, 2-, 3- and 4-haloalkylbenzyl (1 to 5 halogen atoms, C1-C12 alkyl including 4-trifluoromethylbenzyl and 2-, 3- and 4-trichloromethylphenyl and 2-, 3- and 4-trichloromethylphenyl), 4-N-methylpiperidinyl, 3-N-methylpiperidinyl, 1-ethylpiperazinyl, benzyl, alkylsalicylphenyl (C1-C4 alkyl, including 2-, 3- and 4-ethylsalicylphenyl), 2-,3- and 4-acetylphenyl, 1,8-dihydroxynaphthyl (—C10H6—OH) and aryloxy ethyl [C6-C9 aryl (including phenoxy ethyl)], 2,2′-dihydroxybiphenyl, 2-, 3- and 4-N,N-dialkylaminophenol, —C6H4CH2—N(CH3)2, trimethoxybenzyl, triethoxybenzyl, 2-alkyl pyridinyl (C1-4 alkyl); C8 esters of 2-carboxyphenyl; and C1-C4 alkylene-C3-C6 aryl (including benzyl, —CH2-pyrrolyl, —CH2-thienyl, —CH2-imidazolyl, —CH2-oxazolyl, —CH2-isoxazolyl, —CH2-thiazolyl, —CH2-isothiazolyl, —CH2-pyrazolyl, —CH2-pyridinyl and —CH2-pyrimidinyl) substituted in the aryl moiety by 3 to 5 halogen atoms or 1 to 2 atoms or groups selected from halogen, C1-C12 alkoxy (including methoxy and ethoxy), cyano, nitro, OH, C1-C12 haloalkyl (1 to 6 halogen atoms; including —CH2CCl3), C1-C12 alkyl (including methyl and ethyl), C2-C12 alkenyl or C2-C12 alkynyl; alkoxy ethyl [C1-C6 alkyl including —CH2—CH2—O—CH3 (methoxy ethyl)]; alkyl substituted by any of the groups set forth above for aryl, in particular OH or by 1 to 3 halo atoms (including —CH3, —CH(CH3)2, —C(CH3)3, —CH2CH3, —(CH2)2CH3, —(CH2)3CH3, —(CH2)4CH3, —(CH2)5CH3, —CH2CH2F, —CH2CH2Cl, —CH2CF3, and —CH2CCl3); —N-2-propylmorpholino, 2,3-dihydro-6-hydroxyindene, sesamol, catechol monoester, —CH2—C(O)—N(R1)2, —CH2—S(O)(R1), —CH2—S(O)2(R1), —CH2—CH(OC(O)CH2R1)—CH2(OC(O)CH2R1), cholesteryl, enolpyruvate (HOOC—C(═CH2)—), glycerol; a 5 or 6 carbon monosaccharide, disaccharide or oligosaccharide (3 to 9 monosaccharide residues); triglycerides such as α-D-β-diglycerides (wherein the fatty acids composing glyceride lipids generally are naturally occurring saturated or unsaturated C6-26, C6-18 or C6-10 fatty acids such as linoleic, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, palmitoleic, linolenic and the like fatty acids) linked to acyl of the parental compounds herein through a glyceryl oxygen of the triglyceride; phospholipids linked to the carboxyl group through the phosphate of the phospholipid; phthalidyl (shown in FIG. 1 of Clayton et al., Antimicrob. Agents Chemo. (1974) 5(6):670-671); cyclic carbonates such as (5-Rd-2-oxo-1,3-dioxolen-4-yl)methyl esters (Sakamoto et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull. (1984) 32(6)2241-2248) where Rd is R1, R4 or aryl; and The hydroxyl groups of the compounds of this invention optionally are substituted with one of groups III, IV or V disclosed in WO 94/21604, or with isopropyl. Table A lists examples of protecting group ester moieties that for example can be bonded via oxygen to —C(O)O— and —P(O)(O—)2 groups. Several amidates also are shown, which are bound directly to —C(O)— or —P(O)2. Esters of structures 1-5, 8-10 and 16, 17, 19-22 are synthesized by reacting the compound herein having a free hydroxyl with the corresponding halide (chloride or acyl chloride and the like) and N,N-dicyclohexyl-N-morpholine carboxamidine (or another base such as DBU, triethylamine, CsCO3, N,N-dimethylaniline and the like) in DMF (or other solvent such as acetonitrile or N-methylpyrrolidone). When the compound to be protected is a phosphonate, the esters of structures 5-7, 11, 12, 21, and 23-26 are synthesized by reaction of the alcohol or alkoxide salt (or the corresponding amines in the case of compounds such as 13, 14 and 15) with the monochlorophosphonate or dichlorophosphonate (or another activated phosphonate). TABLE A 1. —CH2—C(O)—N(R1)2* 10. —CH2—O—C(O)—C(CH3)3 2. —CH2—S(O)(R1) 11. —CH2—CCl3 3. —CH2—S(O)2(R1) 12. —C6H5 4. —CH2—O—C(O)—CH2—C6H5 13. —NH—CH2—C(O)O—CH2CH3 5. 3-cholesteryl 14. —N(CH3)—CH2—C(O)O—CH2CH3 6. 3-pyridyl 15. —NHR1 7. N-ethylmorpholino 16. —CH2—O—C(O)—C10H15 8. —CH2—O—C(O)—C6H5 17. —CH2—O—C(O)—CH(CH3)2 9. —CH2—O—C(O)—CH2CH3 18. —CH2—C#H(OC(O)CH2R1)—CH2— —(OC(O)CH2R1)* 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. # - chiral center is (R), (S) or racemate. Other esters that are suitable for use herein are described in EP 632048. Protecting groups also includes “double ester” forming profunctionalities such as —CH2OC(O)OCH3, —CH2SCOCH3, —CH2OCON(CH3)2, or alkyl- or aryl-acyloxyalkyl groups of the structure —CH(R1 or W5)O((CO)R37) or —CH(R1 or W5)((CO)OR38) (linked to oxygen of the acidic group) wherein R37 and R38 are alkyl, aryl, or alkylaryl groups (see U.S. Pat. No. 4,968,788). Frequently R37 and R38 are bulky groups such as branched alkyl, ortho-substituted aryl, meta-substituted aryl, or combinations thereof, including normal, secondary, iso- and tertiary alkyls of 1-6 carbon atoms. An example is the pivaloyloxymethyl group. These are of particular use with prodrugs for oral administration. Examples of such useful protecting groups are alkylacyloxymethyl esters and their derivatives, including—CH(CH2CH2OCH3)OC(O)C(CH3)3, —CH2OC(O)C10H15, —CH2OC(O)C(CH3)3, —CH(CH2OCH3)OC(O)C(CH3)3, —CH(CH(CH3)2)OC(O)C(CH3)3, —CH2OC(O)CH2CH(CH3)2, —CH2OC(O)C6H11, —CH2OC(O)C6H5, —CH2OC(O)C10H15, —CH2OC(O)CH2CH3, —CH2OC(O)CH(CH3)2, —CH2OC(O)C(CH3)3 and —CH2OC(O)CH2C6H5. In some embodiments the protected acidic group is an ester of the acidic group and is the residue of a hydroxyl-containing functionality. In other embodiments, an amino compound is used to protect the acid functionality. The residues of suitable hydroxyl or amino-containing functionalities are set forth above or are found in WO 95/07920. Of particular interest are the residues of amino acids, amino acid esters, polypeptides, or aryl alcohols. Typical amino acid, polypeptide and carboxyl-esterified amino acid residues are described on pages 11-18 and related text of WO 95/07920 as groups L1 or L2. WO 95/07920 expressly teaches the amidates of phosphonic acids, but it will be understood that such amidates are formed with any of the acid groups set forth herein and the amino acid residues set forth in WO 95/07920. Typical esters for protecting acidic functionalities are also described in WO 95/07920, again understanding that the same esters can be formed with the acidic groups herein as with the phosphonate of the '920 publication. Typical ester groups are defined at least on WO 95/07920 pages 89-93 (under R31 or R35), the table on page 105, and pages 21-23 (as R). Of particular interest are esters of unsubstituted aryl such as phenyl or arylalkyl such benzyl, or hydroxy-, halo-, alkoxy-, carboxy- and/or alkylestercarboxy-substituted-aryl or alkylaryl, especially phenyl, ortho-ethoxyphenyl, or C1-C4 alkylestercarboxyphenyl (salicylate C1-C12 alkylesters). The protected acidic groups, particularly when using the esters or amides of WO 95/07920, are useful as prodrugs for oral administration. However, it is not essential that the acidic group be protected in order for the compounds of this invention to be effectively administered by the oral route. When the compounds of the invention having protected groups, in particular amino acid amidates or substituted and unsubstituted aryl esters are administered systemically or orally they are capable of hydrolytic cleavage in vivo to yield the free acid. One or more of the acidic hydroxyls are protected. If more than one acidic hydroxyl is protected then the same or a different protecting group is employed, e.g., the esters may be different or the same, or a mixed amidate and ester may be used. Typical hydroxy protecting groups described in Greene (pages 14-118) include substituted methyl and alkyl ethers, substituted benzyl ethers, silyl ethers, esters including sulfonic acid esters, and carbonates. For example: Ethers (methyl, t-butyl, allyl); Substituted Methyl Ethers (Methoxymethyl, Methylthiomethyl, t-Butylthiomethyl, (Phenyldimethylsilyl)methoxymethyl, Benzyloxymethyl, p-Methoxybenzyloxymethyl, (4-Methoxyphenoxy)methyl, Guaiacolmethyl, t-Butoxymethyl, 4-Pentenyloxymethyl, Siloxymethyl, 2-Methoxyethoxymethyl, 2,2,2-Trichloroethoxymethyl, Bis(2-chloroethoxy)methyl, 2-(Trimethylsilyl)ethoxymethyl, Tetrahydropyranyl, 3-Bromotetrahydropyranyl, Tetrahydropthiopyranyl, 1-Methoxycyclohexyl, 4-Methoxytetrahydropyranyl, 4-Methoxytetrahydrothiopyranyl, 4-Methoxytetrahydropthiopyranyl S,S-Dioxido, 1-[(2-Chloro-4-methyl)phenyl]-4-methoxypiperidin-4-yl, 1,4-Dioxan-2-yl, Tetrahydrofuranyl, Tetrahydrothiofuranyl, 2,3,3a,4,5,6,7,7a-Octahydro-7,8,8-trimethyl-4,7-methanobenzofuran-2-yl)); Substituted Ethyl Ethers (1-Ethoxyethyl, 1-(2-Chloroethoxy)ethyl, 1-Methyl-1-methoxyethyl, 1-Methyl-1-benzyloxyethyl, 1-Methyl-1-benzyloxy-2-fluoroethyl, 2,2,2-Trichloroethyl, 2-Trimethylsilylethyl, 2-(Phenylselenyl)ethyl, p-Chlorophenyl, p-Methoxyphenyl, 2,4-Dinitrophenyl, Benzyl); Substituted Benzyl Ethers (p-Methoxybenzyl, 3,4-Dimethoxybenzyl, o-Nitrobenzyl, p-Nitrobenzyl, p-Halobenzyl, 2,6-Dichlorobenzyl, p-Cyanobenzyl, p-Phenylbenzyl, 2- and 4-Picolyl, 3-Methyl-2-picolyl N-Oxido, Diphenylmethyl, p,p′-Dinitrobenzhydryl, 5-Dibenzosuberyl, Triphenylmethyl, α-Naphthyldiphenylmethyl, p-methoxyphenyldiphenylmethyl, Di(p-methoxyphenyl)phenylmethyl, Tri(p-methoxyphenyl)methyl, 4-(4′-Bromophenacyloxy)phenyldiphenylmethyl, 4,4′,4″-Tris(4,5-dichlorophthalimidophenyl)methyl, 4,4′,4″-Tris(levulinoyloxyphenyl)methyl, 4,4′,4″-Tris(benzoyloxyphenyl)methyl, 3-(Imidazol-1-ylmethyl)bis(4′,4″-dimethoxyphenyl)methyl, 1,1-Bis(4-methoxyphenyl)-1′-pyrenylmethyl, 9-Anthryl, 9-(9-Phenyl)xanthenyl, 9-(9-Phenyl-10-oxo)anthryl, 1,3-Benzodithiolan-2-yl, Benzisothiazolyl S,S-Dioxido); Silyl Ethers (Trimethylsilyl, Triethylsilyl, Triisopropylsilyl, Dimethylisopropylsilyl, Diethylisopropylsilyl, Dimethylthexylsilyl, t-Butyldimethylsilyl, t-Butyldiphenylsilyl, Tribenzylsilyl, Tri-p-xylylsilyl, Triphenylsilyl, Diphenylmethylsilyl, t-Butylmethoxyphenylsilyl); Esters (Formate, Benzoylformate, Acetate, Choroacetate, Dichloroacetate, Trichloroacetate, Trifluoroacetate, Methoxyacetate, Triphenylmethoxyacetate, Phenoxyacetate, p-Chlorophenoxyacetate, p-poly-Phenylacetate, 3-Phenylpropionate, 4-Oxopentanoate (Levulinate), 4,4-(Ethylenedithio)pentanoate, Pivaloate, Adamantoate, Crotonate, 4-Methoxycrotonate, Benzoate, p-Phenylbenzoate, 2,4,6-Trimethylbenzoate (Mesitoate)); Carbonates (Methyl, 9-Fluorenylmethyl, Ethyl, 2,2,2-Trichloroethyl, 2-(Trimethylsilyl)ethyl, 2-(Phenylsulfonyl)ethyl, 2-(Triphenylphosphonio)ethyl, Isobutyl, Vinyl, Allyl, p-Nitrophenyl, Benzyl, p-Methoxybenzyl, 3,4-Dimethoxybenzyl, o-Nitrobenzyl, p-Nitrobenzyl, S-Benzyl Thiocarbonate, 4-Ethoxy-1-naphthyl, Methyl Dithiocarbonate); Groups With Assisted Cleavage (2-Iodobenzoate, 4-Azidobutyrate, 4-Nitro-4-methylpentanoate, o-(Dibromomethyl)benzoate, 2-Formylbenzenesulfonate, 2-(Methylthiomethoxy)ethyl Carbonate, 4-(Methylthiomethoxy)butyrate, 2-(Methylthiomethoxymethyl)benzoate); Miscellaneous Esters (2,6-Dichloro-4-methylphenoxyacetate, 2,6-Dichloro-4-(1,1,3,3 tetramethylbutyl)phenoxyacetate, 2,4-Bis(1,1-dimethylpropyl)phenoxyacetate, Chlorodiphenylacetate, Isobutyrate, Monosuccinate, (E)-2-Methyl-2-butenoate (Tigloate), o-(Methoxycarbonyl)benzoate, p-poly-Benzoate, α-Naphthoate, Nitrate, Alkyl N,N,N′,N′-Tetramethylphosphorodiamidate, N-Phenylcarbamate, Borate, Dimethylphosphinothioyl, 2,4-Dinitrophenylsulfenate); and Sulfonates (Sulfate, Methanesulfonate (Mesylate), Benzylsulfonate, Tosylate). Typical 1,2-diol protecting groups (thus, generally where two OH groups are taken together with the protecting functionality) are described in Greene at pages 118-142 and include Cyclic Acetals and Ketals (Methylene, Ethylidene, 1-t-Butylethylidene, 1-Phenylethylidene, (4-Methoxyphenyl)ethylidene, 2,2,2-Trichloroethylidene, Acetonide (Isopropylidene), Cyclopentylidene, Cyclohexylidene, Cycloheptylidene, Benzylidene, p-Methoxybenzylidene, 2,4-Dimethoxybenzylidene, 3,4-Dimethoxybenzylidene, 2-Nitrobenzylidene); Cyclic Ortho Esters (Methoxymethylene, Ethoxymethylene, Dimethoxymethylene, 1-Methoxyethylidene, 1-Ethoxyethylidine, 1,2-Dimethoxyethylidene, α-Methoxybenzylidene, 1-(N,N-Dimethylamino)ethylidene Derivative, α-(N,N-Dimethylamino)benzylidene Derivative, 2-Oxacyclopentylidene); Silyl Derivatives (Di-t-butylsilylene Group, 1,3-(1,1,3,3-Tetraisopropyldisiloxanylidene), and Tetra-t-butoxydisiloxane-1,3-diylidene), Cyclic Carbonates, Cyclic Boronates, Ethyl Boronate and Phenyl Boronate. More typically, 1,2-diol protecting groups include those shown in Table B, still more typically, epoxides, acetonides, cyclic ketals and aryl acetals. TABLE B wherein R9 is C1-C6 alkyl. Amino Protecting Groups Another set of protecting groups include any of the typical amino protecting groups described by Greene at pages 315-385. They include: Carbamates: (methyl and ethyl, 9-fluorenylmethyl, 9(2-sulfo)fluorenylmethyl, 9-(2,7-dibromo)fluorenylmethyl, 2,7-di-t-butyl-[9-(10,10-dioxo-10,10,10,10-tetrahydrothioxanthyl)]methyl, 4-methoxyphenacyl); Substituted Ethyl: (2,2,2-trichoroethyl, 2-trimethylsilylethyl, 2-phenylethyl, 1-(1-adamantyl)-1-methyl ethyl, 1,1-dimethyl-2-haloethyl, 1,1-dimethyl-2,2-dibromoethyl, 1,1-dimethyl-2,2,2-trichloroethyl, 1-methyl-1-(4-biphenylyl)ethyl, 1-(3,5-di-t-butylphenyl)-1-methylethyl, 2-(2′- and 4′-pyridyl)ethyl, 2-(N,N-dicyclohexylcarboxamido)ethyl, t-butyl, 1-adamantyl, vinyl, allyl, 1-isopropylallyl, cinnamyl, 4-nitrocinnamyl, 8-quinolyl, N-hydroxypiperidinyl, alkyldithio, benzyl, p-methoxybenzyl, p-nitrobenzyl, p-bromobenzyl, p-chlorobenzyl, 2,4-dichlorobenzyl, 4-methylsulfinylbenzyl, 9-anthrylmethyl, diphenylmethyl); Groups With Assisted Cleavage: (2-methylthioethyl, 2-methylsulfonylethyl, 2-(p-toluenesulfonyl)ethyl, [2-(1,3-dithianyl)]methyl, 4-methylthiophenyl, 2,4-dimethylthiophenyl, 2-phosphonioethyl, 2-triphenylphosphonioisopropyl, 1,1-dimethyl-2-cyanoethyl, m-choro-p-acyloxybenzyl, p-(dihydroxyboryl)benzyl, 5-benzisoxazolylmethyl, 2-(trifluoromethyl)-6-chromonylmethyl); Groups Capable of Photolytic Cleavage: (m-nitrophenyl, 3,5-dimethoxybenzyl, o-nitrobenzyl, 3,4-dimethoxy-6-nitrobenzyl, phenyl(o-nitrophenyl)methyl); Urea-Type Derivatives (phenothiazinyl-(10)-carbonyl, N′-p-toluenesulfonylaminocarbonyl, N′-phenylaminothiocarbonyl); Miscellaneous Carbamates: (t-amyl, S-benzyl thiocarbamate, p-cyanobenzyl, cyclobutyl, cyclohexyl, cyclopentyl, cyclopropylmethyl, p-decyloxybenzyl, diisopropylmethyl, 2,2-dimethoxycarbonylvinyl, o-(N,N-dimethylcarboxamido)benzyl, 1,1-dimethyl-3-(N,N-dimethylcarboxamido)propyl, 1,1-dimethylpropynyl, di(2-pyridyl)methyl, 2-furanylmethyl, 2-Iodoethyl, Isobornyl, Isobutyl, Isonicotinyl, p-(p′-Methoxyphenylazo)benzyl, 1-methylcyclobutyl, 1-methylcyclohexyl, 1-methyl-1-cyclopropylmethyl, 1-methyl-1-(3,5-dimethoxyphenyl)ethyl, 1-methyl-1-(p-phenylazophenyl)ethyl, 1-methyl-1-phenylethyl, 1-methyl-1-(4-pyridyl)ethyl, phenyl, p-(phenylazo)benzyl, 2,4,6-tri-t-butylphenyl, 4-(trimethylammonium)benzyl, 2,4,6-trimethylbenzyl); Amides: (N-formyl, N-acetyl, N-choroacetyl, N-trichoroacetyl, N-trifluoroacetyl, N-phenylacetyl, N-3-phenylpropionyl, N-picolinoyl, N-3-pyridylcarboxamide, N-benzoylphenylalanyl, N-benzoyl, N-p-phenylbenzoyl); Amides With Assisted Cleavage: (N-o-nitrophenylacetyl, N-o-nitrophenoxyacetyl, N-acetoacetyl, (N′-dithiobenzyloxycarbonylamino)acetyl, N-3-(p-hydroxyphenyl)propionyl, N-3-(o-nitrophenyl)propionyl, N-2-methyl-2-(o-nitrophenoxy)propionyl, N-2-methyl-2-(o-phenylazophenoxy)propionyl, N-4-chlorobutyryl, N-3-methyl-3-nitrobutyryl, N-o-nitrocinnamoyl, N-acetylmethionine, N-o-nitrobenzoyl, N-o-(benzoyloxymethyl)benzoyl, 4,5-diphenyl-3-oxazolin-2-one); Cyclic Imide Derivatives: (N-phthalimide, N-dithiasuccinoyl, N-2,3-diphenylmaleoyl, N-2,5-dimethylpyrrolyl, N-1,1,4,4-tetramethyldisilylazacyclopentane adduct, 5-substituted 1,3-dimethyl-1,3,5-triazacyclohexan-2-one, 5-substituted 1,3-dibenzyl-1,3-5-triazacyclohexan-2-one, 1-substituted 3,5-dinitro-4-pyridonyl); N-Alkyl and N-Aryl Amines: (N-methyl, N-allyl, N-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxy]methyl, N-3-acetoxypropyl, N-(1-isopropyl-4-nitro-2-oxo-3-pyrrolin-3-yl), Quaternary Ammonium Salts, N-benzyl, N-di(4-methoxyphenyl)methyl, N-5-dibenzosuberyl, N-triphenylmethyl, N-(4-methoxyphenyl)diphenylmethyl, N-9-phenylfluorenyl, N-2,7-dichloro-9-fluorenylmethylene, N-ferrocenylmethyl, N-2-picolylamine N,-oxide); Imine Derivatives: (N-1,1-dimethylthiomethylene, N-benzylidene, N-p-methoxybenzylidene, N-diphenylmethylene, N-[(2-pyridyl)mesityl]methylene, N,(N′,N-dimethylaminomethylene, N,N′-isopropylidene, N-p-nitrobenzylidene, N-salicylidene, N-5-chlorosalicylidene, N-(5-chloro-2-hydroxyphenyl)phenylmethylene, N-cyclohexylidene); Enamine Derivatives: (N-(5,5-dimethyl-3-oxo-1-cyclohexenyl)); N-Metal Derivatives (N-borane derivatives, N-diphenylborinic acid derivatives, N-[phenyl(pentacarbonylchromium- or -tungsten)]carbenzyl, N-copper or N-zinc chelate); N—N Derivatives: (N-nitro, N-nitroso, N-oxide); N—P Derivatives: (N-diphenylphosphinyl, N-dimethylthiophosphinyl, N-diphenylthiophosphinyl, N-dialkyl phosphoryl, N-dibenzyl phosphoryl, N-diphenyl phosphoryl); N—Si Derivatives, N—S Derivatives, and N-Sulfenyl Derivatives: (N-benzenesulfenyl, N-o-nitrobenzenesulfenyl, N-2,4-dinitrobenzenesulfenyl, N-pentachlorobenzenesulfenyl, N-2-nitro-4-methoxybenzenesulfenyl, N-triphenylmethylsulfenyl, N-3-nitropyridinesulfenyl); and N-sulfonyl Derivatives (N-p-toluenesulfonyl, N-benzenesulfonyl, N-2,3,6-trimethyl-4-methoxybenzenesulfonyl, N-2,4,6-trimethoxybenzenesulfonyl, N-2,6-dimethyl-4-methoxybenzenesulfonyl, N-pentamethylbenzenesulfonyl, N-2,3,5,6,-tetramethyl-4-methoxybenzenesulfonyl, N-4-methoxybenzenesulfonyl, N-2,4,6-trimethylbenzenesulfonyl, N-2,6-dimethoxy-4-methylbenzenesulfonyl, N-2,2,5,7,8-pentamethylchroman-6-sulfonyl, N-methanesulfonyl, N-β-trimethylsilyethanesulfonyl, N-9-anthracenesulfonyl, N-4-(4′,8′-dimethoxynaphthylmethyl)benzenesulfonyl, N-benzylsulfonyl, N-trifluoromethylsulfonyl, N-phenacylsulfonyl). More typically, protected amino groups include carbamates and amides, still more typically, —NHC(O)R1 or —N═CR1N(R1)2. Another protecting group, also useful as a prodrug for amino or —NH(R5), is: See for example Alexander, J. et al. (1996) J. Med. Chem. 39:480-486. Amino Acid and Polypeptide Protecting Group and Conjugates An amino acid or polypeptide protecting group of a compound of the invention has the structure R15NHCH(R16)C(O)—, where R15 is H, an amino acid or polypeptide residue, or R5, and R16 is defined below. R16 is lower alkyl or lower alkyl (C1-C6) substituted with amino, carboxyl, amide, carboxyl ester, hydroxyl, C6-C7 aryl, guanidinyl, imidazolyl, indolyl, sulfhydryl, sulfoxide, and/or alkylphosphate. R10 also is taken together with the amino acid α N to form a proline residue (R10=—CH2)3—). However, R10 is generally the side group of a naturally-occurring amino acid such as H, —CH3, —CH(CH3)2, —CH2—CH(CH3)2, —CHCH3—CH2—CH3, —CH2—C6H5, —CH2CH2—S—CH3, —CH2OH, —CH(OH)—CH3, —CH2—SH, —CH2—C6H4OH, —CH2—CO—NH2, —CH2—CH2—CO—NH2, —CH2—COOH, —CH2—CH2—COOH, —(CH2)4—NH2 and —(CH2)3—NH—C(NH2)—NH2. R10 also includes 1-guanidinoprop-3-yl, benzyl, 4-hydroxybenzyl, imidazol-4-yl, indol-3-yl, methoxyphenyl and ethoxyphenyl. Another set of protecting groups include the residue of an amino-containing compound, in particular an amino acid, a polypeptide, a protecting group, —NHSO2R, NHC(O)R, —N(R)2, NH2 or —NH(R)(H), whereby for example a carboxylic acid is reacted, i.e. coupled, with the amine to form an amide, as in C(O)NR2. A phosphonic acid may be reacted with the amine to form a phosphonamidate, as in —P(O)(OR)(NR2). In general, amino acids have the structure R17C(O)CH(R16)NH—, where R17 is —OH, —OR, an amino acid or a polypeptide residue. Amino acids are low molecular weight compounds, on the order of less than about 1000 MW and which contain at least one amino or imino group and at least one carboxyl group. Generally the amino acids will be found in nature, i.e., can be detected in biological material such as bacteria or other microbes, plants, animals or man. Suitable amino acids typically are alpha amino acids, i.e. compounds characterized by one amino or imino nitrogen atom separated from the carbon atom of one carboxyl group by a single substituted or unsubstituted alpha carbon atom. Of particular interest are hydrophobic residues such as mono- or di-alkyl or aryl amino acids, cycloalkylamino acids and the like. These residues contribute to cell permeability by increasing the partition coefficient of the parental drug. Typically, the residue does not contain a sulfhydryl or guanidino substituent. Naturally-occurring amino acid residues are those residues found naturally in plants, animals or microbes, especially proteins thereof. Polypeptides most typically will be substantially composed of such naturally-occurring amino acid residues. These amino acids are glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, serine, threonine, cysteine, methionine, glutamic acid, aspartic acid, lysine, hydroxylysine, arginine, histidine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, proline, asparagine, glutamine and hydroxyproline. Additionally, unnatural amino acids, for example, valanine, phenylglycine and homoarginine are also included. Commonly encountered amino acids that are not gene-encoded may also be used in the present invention. All of the amino acids used in the present invention may be either the D- or L-optical isomer. In addition, other peptidomimetics are also useful in the present invention. For a general review, see Spatola, A. F., in Chemistry and Biochemistry of Amino Acids, Peptides and Proteins, B. Weinstein, eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, p. 267 (1983). When protecting groups are single amino acid residues or polypeptides they optionally are substituted at R3 of substituents A1, A2 or A3 in a compound of the invention. These conjugates are produced by forming an amide bond between a carboxyl group of the amino acid (or C-terminal amino acid of a polypeptide for example). Similarly, conjugates are formed between R3 and an amino group of an amino acid or polypeptide. Generally, only one of any site in the parental molecule is amidated with an amino acid as described herein, although it is within the scope of this invention to introduce amino acids at more than one permitted site. Usually, a carboxyl group of R3 is amidated with an amino acid. In general, the α-amino or α-carboxyl group of the amino acid or the terminal amino or carboxyl group of a polypeptide are bonded to the parental functionalities, i.e., carboxyl or amino groups in the amino acid side chains generally are not used to form the amide bonds with the parental compound (although these groups may need to be protected during synthesis of the conjugates as described further below). With respect to the carboxyl-containing side chains of amino acids or polypeptides it will be understood that the carboxyl group optionally will be blocked, e.g., by R1, esterified with R5 or amidated. Similarly, the amino side chains R16 optionally will be blocked with R1 or substituted with R5. Such ester or amide bonds with side chain amino or carboxyl groups, like the esters or amides with the parental molecule, optionally are hydrolyzable in vivo or in vitro under acidic (pH <3) or basic (pH >10) conditions. Alternatively, they are substantially stable in the gastrointestinal tract of humans but are hydrolyzed enzymatically in blood or in intracellular environments. The esters or amino acid or polypeptide amidates also are useful as intermediates for the preparation of the parental molecule containing free amino or carboxyl groups. The free acid or base of the parental compound, for example, is readily formed from the esters or amino acid or polypeptide conjugates of this invention by conventional hydrolysis procedures. When an amino acid residue contains one or more chiral centers, any of the D, L, meso, threo or erythro (as appropriate) racemates, scalemates or mixtures thereof may be used. In general, if the intermediates are to be hydrolyzed non-enzymatically (as would be the case where the amides are used as chemical intermediates for the free acids or free amines), D isomers are useful. On the other hand, L isomers are more versatile since they can be susceptible to both non-enzymatic and enzymatic hydrolysis, and are more efficiently transported by amino acid or dipeptidyl transport systems in the gastrointestinal tract. Examples of suitable amino acids whose residues are represented by Rx or Ry include the following: Glycine; Aminopolycarboxylic acids, e.g., aspartic acid, β-hydroxyaspartic acid, glutamic acid, β-hydroxyglutamic acid, β-methylaspartic acid, β-methylglutamic acid, β,β-dimethylaspartic acid, γ-hydroxyglutamic acid, β,γ-dihydroxyglutamic acid, β-phenylglutamic acid, γ-methyleneglutamic acid, 3-aminoadipic acid, 2-aminopimelic acid, 2-aminosuberic acid and 2-aminosebacic acid; Amino acid amides such as glutamine and asparagine; Polyamino- or polybasic-monocarboxylic acids such as arginine, lysine, β-aminoalanine, γ-aminobutyrine, ornithine, citruline, homoarginine, homocitrulline, hydroxylysine, allohydroxylsine and diaminobutyric acid; Other basic amino acid residues such as histidine; Diaminodicarboxylic acids such as α,α′-diaminosuccinic acid, α,α′-diaminoglutaric acid, α,α′-diaminoadipic acid, α,α′-diaminopimelic acid, α,α′-diamino-β-hydroxypimelic acid, α,α′-diaminosuberic acid, α,α′-diaminoazelaic acid, and α,α′-diaminosebacic acid; imino acids such as proline, hydroxyproline, allohydroxyproline, Δ-methylproline, pipecolic acid, 5-hydroxypipecolic acid, and azetidine-2-carboxylic acid; A mono- or di-alkyl (typically C1-C8 branched or normal) amino acid such as alanine, valine, leucine, allylglycine, butyrine, norvaline, norleucine, heptyline, α-methylserine, α-amino-α-methyl-γ-hydroxyvaleric acid, α-amino-α-methyl-δ-hydroxyvaleric acid, α-amino-α-methyl-ε-hydroxycaproic acid, isovaline, α-methylglutamic acid, α-aminoisobutyric acid, α-aminodiethylacetic acid, α-aminodiisopropylacetic acid, α-aminodi-n-propylacetic acid, α-aminodiisobutylacetic acid, α-aminodi-n-butylacetic acid, α-aminoethylisopropylacetic acid, α-amino-n-propylacetic acid, α-aminodiisoamyacetic acid, α-methylaspartic acid, α-methylglutamic acid, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid, isoleucine, alloisoleucine, tert-leucine, β-methyltryptophan and α-amino-β-ethyl-β-phenylpropionic acid; β-phenylserinyl; Aliphatic α-amino-β-hydroxy acids such as serine, β-hydroxyleucine, β-hydroxynorleucine, β-hydroxynorvaline, and α-amino-β-hydroxystearic acid; α-Amino, α-, γ-, δ- or ε-hydroxy acids such as homoserine, δ-hydroxynorvaline, γ-hydroxynorvaline and ε-hydroxynorleucine residues; canavine and canaline; γ-hydroxyornithine; 2-hexosaminic acids such as D-glucosaminic acid or D-galactosaminic acid; α-Amino-β-thiols such as penicillamine, β-thiolnorvaline or β-thiolbutyrine; Other sulfur containing amino acid residues including cysteine; homocystine, β-phenylmethionine, methionine, S-allyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide, 2-thiolhistidine, cystathionine, and thiol ethers of cysteine or homocysteine; Phenylalanine, tryptophan and ring-substituted α-amino acids such as the phenyl- or cyclohexylamino acids α-aminophenylacetic acid, α-aminocyclohexylacetic acid and α-amino-β-cyclohexylpropionic acid; phenylalanine analogues and derivatives comprising aryl, lower alkyl, hydroxy, guanidino, oxyalkylether, nitro, sulfur or halo-substituted phenyl (e.g., tyrosine, methyltyrosine and o-chloro-, p-chloro-, 3,4-dichloro, o-, m- or p-methyl-, 2,4,6-trimethyl-, 2-ethoxy-5-nitro-, 2-hydroxy-5-nitro- and p-nitro-phenylalanine); furyl-, thienyl-, pyridyl-, pyrimidinyl-, purinyl- or naphthyl-alanines; and tryptophan analogues and derivatives including kynurenine, 3-hydroxykynurenine, 2-hydroxytryptophan and 4-carboxytryptophan; α-Amino substituted amino acids including sarcosine (N-methylglycine), N-benzylglycine, N-methylalanine, N-benzylalanine, N-methylphenylalanine, N-benzylphenylalanine, N-methylvaline and N-benzylvaline; and α-Hydroxy and substituted α-hydroxy amino acids including serine, threonine, allothreonine, phosphoserine and phosphothreonine. Polypeptides are polymers of amino acids in which a carboxyl group of one amino acid monomer is bonded to an amino or imino group of the next amino acid monomer by an amide bond. Polypeptides include dipeptides, low molecular weight polypeptides (about 1500-5000 MW) and proteins. Proteins optionally contain 3, 5, 10, 50, 75, 100 or more residues, and suitably are substantially sequence-homologous with human, animal, plant or microbial proteins. They include enzymes (e.g., hydrogen peroxidase) as well as immunogens such as KLH, or antibodies or proteins of any type against which one wishes to raise an immune response. The nature and identity of the polypeptide may vary widely. The polypeptide amidates are useful as immunogens in raising antibodies against either the polypeptide (if it is not immunogenic in the animal to which it is administered) or against the epitopes on the remainder of the compound of this invention. Antibodies capable of binding to the parental non-peptidyl compound are used to separate the parental compound from mixtures, for example in diagnosis or manufacturing of the parental compound. The conjugates of parental compound and polypeptide generally are more immunogenic than the polypeptides in closely homologous animals, and therefore make the polypeptide more immunogenic for facilitating raising antibodies against it. Accordingly, the polypeptide or protein may not need to be immunogenic in an animal typically used to raise antibodies, e.g., rabbit, mouse, horse, or rat, but the final product conjugate should be immunogenic in at least one of such animals. The polypeptide optionally contains a peptidolytic enzyme cleavage site at the peptide bond between the first and second residues adjacent to the acidic heteroatom. Such cleavage sites are flanked by enzymatic recognition structures, e.g., a particular sequence of residues recognized by a peptidolytic enzyme. Peptidolytic enzymes for cleaving the polypeptide conjugates of this invention are well known, and in particular include carboxypeptidases. Carboxypeptidases digest polypeptides by removing C-terminal residues, and are specific in many instances for particular C-terminal sequences. Such enzymes and their substrate requirements in general are well known. For example, a dipeptide (having a given pair of residues and a free carboxyl terminus) is covalently bonded through its α-amino group to the phosphorus or carbon atoms of the compounds herein. In embodiments where W1 is phosphonate it is expected that this peptide will be cleaved by the appropriate peptidolytic enzyme, leaving the carboxyl of the proximal amino acid residue to autocatalytically cleave the phosphonoamidate bond. Suitable dipeptidyl groups (designated by their single letter code) are AA, AR, AN, AD, AC, AE, AQ, AG, AH, AI, AL, AK, AM, AF, AP, AS, AT, AW, AY, AV, RA, RR, RN, RD, RC, RE, RQ, RG, RH, RI, RL, RK, RM, RF, RP, RS, RT, RW, RY, RV, NA, NR, NN, ND, NC, NE, NQ, NG, NH, NI, NL, NK, NM, NF, NP, NS, NT, NR, NY, NV, DA, DR, DN, DD, DC, DE, DQ, DG, DH, DI, DL, DK, DM, DF, DP, DS, DT, DW, DY, DV, CA, CR, CN, CD, CC, CE, CQ, CG, CH, Cl, CL, CK, CM, CF, CP, CS, CT, CW, CY, CV, EA, ER, EN, ED, EC, EE, EQ, EG, EH, EI, EL, EK, EM, EF, EP, ES, ET, EW, EY, EV, QA, QR, QN, QD, QC, QE, QQ, QG, QH, QI, QL, QK, QM, QF, QP, QS, QT, QW, QY, QV, GA, GR, GN, GD, OC, GE, GQ, GG, GH, GI, GL, GK, GM, GF, GP, GS, GT, GW, GY, GV, HA, HR, HN, HD, HC, HE, HQ, HG, HH, HI, HL, HK, HM, HF, HP, HS, HT, HW, HY, HV, IA, IR, IN, ID, IC, IE, IQ, IG, IH, II, IL, IK, IM, IF, IP, IS, IT, IW, IY, IV, LA, LR, LN, LD, LC, LE, LQ, LG, LH, LI, LL, LK, LM, LF, LP, LS, LT, LW, LY, LV, KA, KR, KN, KD, KC, KE, KQ, KG, KH, KI, KL, KK, KM, KF, KP, KS, KT, KW, KY, KV, MA, MR, MN, MD, MC, ME, MQ, MG, MH, MI, ML, MK, MM, MF, MP, MS, MT, MW, MY, MV, FA, FR, FN, FD, FC, FE, FQ, FG, FH, FI, FL, FK, FM, FF, FP, FS, FT, FW, FY, FV, PA, PR, PN, PD, PC, PE, PQ, PG, PH, PI, PL, PK, PM, PF, PP, PS, PT, PW, PY, PV, SA, SR, SN, SD, SC, SE, SQ, SG, SH, SI, SL, SK, SM, SF, SP, SS, ST, SW, SY, SV, TA, TR, TN, TD, TC, TE, TQ, TG, TH, TI, TL, TK, TM, TF, TP, TS, TT, TW, TY, TV, WA, WR, WN, WD, WC, WE, WQ, WG, WH, WI, WL, WK, WM, WF, WP, WS, WT, WW, WY, WV, YA, YR, YN, YD, YC, YE, YQ, YG, YH, YI, YL, YK, YM, YF, YP, YS, YT, YW, YY, YV, VA, VR, VN, VD, VC, VE, VQ, VG, VH, VI, VL, VK, VM, VF, VP, VS, VT, VW, VY and VV. Tripeptide residues are also useful as protecting groups. When a phosphonate is to be protected, the sequence —X4-pro-X5 (where X4 is any amino acid residue and X5 is an amino acid residue, a carboxyl ester of proline, or hydrogen) will be cleaved by luminal carboxypeptidase to yield X4 with a free carboxyl, which in turn is expected to autocatalytically cleave the phosphonoamidate bond. The carboxy group of X5 optionally is esterified with benzyl. Dipeptide or tripeptide species can be selected on the basis of known transport properties and/or susceptibility to peptidases that can affect transport to intestinal mucosal or other cell types. Dipeptides and tripeptides lacking an α-amino group are transport substrates for the peptide transporter found in brush border membrane of intestinal mucosal cells (Bai, J. P. F., (1992) Pharm Res. 9:969-978). Transport competent peptides can thus be used to enhance bioavailability of the amidate compounds. Di- or tripeptides having one or more amino acids in the D configuration are also compatible with peptide transport and can be utilized in the amidate compounds of this invention. Amino acids in the D configuration can be used to reduce the susceptibility of a di- or tripeptide to hydrolysis by proteases common to the brush border such as aminopeptidase N. In addition, di- or tripeptides alternatively are selected on the basis of their relative resistance to hydrolysis by proteases found in the lumen of the intestine. For example, tripeptides or polypeptides lacking asp and/or glu are poor substrates for aminopeptidase A, di- or tripeptides lacking amino acid residues on the N-terminal side of hydrophobic amino acids (leu, tyr, phe, val, trp) are poor substrates for endopeptidase, and peptides lacking a pro residue at the penultimate position at a free carboxyl terminus are poor substrates for carboxypeptidase P. Similar considerations can also be applied to the selection of peptides that are either relatively resistant or relatively susceptible to hydrolysis by cytosolic, renal, hepatic, serum or other peptidases. Such poorly cleaved polypeptide amidates are immunogens or are useful for bonding to proteins in order to prepare immunogens. SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION Specific values described for radicals, substituents, and ranges, as well as specific embodiments of the invention described herein, are for illustration only; they do not exclude other defined values or other values within defined ranges. In one specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: and W5a is a carbocycle or a heterocycle where W5a is independently substituted with 0 or 1 R2 groups. A specific value for M12a is 1. In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: wherein W5a is a carbocycle independently substituted with 0 or 1 R2 groups; In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(R2); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: wherein W5a is a carbocycle independently substituted with 0 or 1 R2 groups; In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: wherein W5a is a carbocycle or heterocycle where W5a is independently substituted with 0 or 1 R2 groups. In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(R2); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. In another specific embodiment of the invention A2 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A2 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention M12b is 1. In another specific embodiment of the invention M12b is 0, Y2 is a bond and W5 is a carbocycle or heterocycle where W5 is optionally and independently substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R2 groups. In another specific embodiment of the invention A2 is of the formula: wherein W5a is a carbocycle or heterocycle where W5a is optionally and independently substituted with 1,-2, or 3 R2 groups. In another specific embodiment of the invention M12a is 1. In another specific embodiment of the invention A2 is selected from phenyl, substituted phenyl, benzyl, substituted benzyl, pyridyl and substituted pyridyl. In another specific embodiment of the invention A2 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A2 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention M12b is 1. In a specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y1a is O or S; and Y2a is O, N(Rx) or S. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(Rx). In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(Rx); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(Rx); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. In another specific embodiment of the invention M12d is 1. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention W5 is a carbocycle. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention W5 is phenyl. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y1a is O or S; and Y2a is O, N(Rx) or S. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(Rx). In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(Rx); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. In another specific embodiment of the invention R1 is H. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein the phenyl carbocycle is substituted with 0, 1, 2, or 3 R2 groups. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y1a is O or S; and Y2a is O, N(R2) or S. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y1a is O or S; Y2b is O or N(R2); and Y2c is O, N(Ry) or S. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y1a is O or S; Y2b is O or N(R2); Y2d is O or N(Ry); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(R2); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(R2). In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y1a is O or S; and Y2a is O, N(R2) or S. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y1a is O or S; Y2b is O or N(R2); and Y2c O, N(Ry) or S. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y1a is O or S; Y2b is O or N(R2); Y2d is O or N(Ry); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(R2); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(R2). In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein: Y2b is O or N(Rx); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein the phenyl carbocycle is substituted with 0, 1, 2, or 3 R2 groups. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein the phenyl carbocycle is substituted with 0, 1, 2, or 3 R2 groups. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In a specific embodiment of the invention A0 is of the formula: wherein each R is independently (C1-C6)alkyl. In a specific embodiment of the invention Rx is independently H, R1, W3, a protecting group, or the formula: wherein: Ry is independently H, W3, R2 or a protecting group; R1 is independently H or alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms; R2 is independently H, R1, R3 or R4 wherein each R4 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups or taken together at a carbon atom, two R2 groups form a ring of 3 to 8 carbons and the ring may be substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; wherein R3 is as defined herein. In a specific embodiment of the invention Rx is of the formula: wherein Y1a is O or S; and Y2c is O, N(Ry) or S. In a specific embodiment of the invention Rx is of the formula: wherein Y1a is Q or S; and Y2d is O or N(Ry). In a specific embodiment of the invention Rx is of the formula: In a specific embodiment of the invention Ry is hydrogen or alkyl of 1 to 10 carbons. In a specific embodiment of the invention Rx is of the formula: In a specific embodiment of the invention Rx is of the formula: In a specific embodiment of the invention Rx is of the formula: In a specific embodiment of the invention Y1 is O or S In a specific embodiment of the invention Y2 is O, N(Ry) or S. In one specific embodiment of the invention Rx is a group of the formula: wherein: m1a, m1b, m1c, m1d and m1e are independently 0 or 1; m12c is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; Ry is H, W3, R2 or a protecting group; wherein W3, R2, Y1 and Y2 are as defined herein; provided that: if m1a, m12c, and m1d are 0, then m1b, m1c and m1e are 0; if m1a and m12c are 0 and m1d is not 0, then m1b and m1c are 0; if m1a and m1d are 0 and m12c is not 0, then m1b and at least one of m1c and m1e are 0; if m1a is 0 and m12c and m1d are not 0, then m1b is 0; if m12c and m1d are 0 and m1a is not 0, then at least two of m1b, m1c and m1e are 0; if m12c is 0 and m1a and m1d are not 0, then at least one of m1b and m1c are 0; and if m1d is 0 and m1a and m12c are not 0, then at least one of m1c and m1e are 0. In compounds of the invention W5 carbocycles and W5 heterocycles may be independently substituted with 0 to 3 R2 groups. W5 may be a saturated, unsaturated or aromatic ring comprising a mono- or bicyclic carbocycle or heterocycle. W5 may have 3 to 10 ring atoms, e.g., 3 to 7 ring atoms. The W5 rings are saturated when containing 3 ring atoms, saturated or mono-unsaturated when containing 4 ring atoms, saturated, or mono- or di-unsaturated when containing 5 ring atoms, and saturated, mono- or di-unsaturated, or aromatic when containing 6 ring atoms. A W5 heterocycle may be a monocycle having 3 to 7 ring members (2 to 6 carbon atoms and 1 to 3 heteroatoms selected from N, O, P, and S) or a bicycle having 7 to 10 ring members (4 to 9 carbon atoms and 1 to 3 heteroatoms selected from N, O, P, and S). W5 heterocyclic monocycles may have 3 to 6 ring atoms (2 to 5 carbon atoms and 1 to 2 heteroatoms selected from N, O, and S); or 5 or 6 ring atoms (3 to 5 carbon atoms and 1 to 2 heteroatoms selected from N and S). W5 heterocyclic bicycles have 7 to 10 ring atoms (6 to 9 carbon atoms and 1 to 2 heteroatoms selected from N, O, and S) arranged as a bicyclo [4,5], [5,5], [5,6], or [6,6] system; or 9 to 10 ring atoms (8 to 9 carbon atoms and 1 to 2 hetero atoms selected from N and S) arranged as a bicyclo [5,6] or [6,6] system. The W5 heterocycle may be bonded to Y2 through a carbon, nitrogen, sulfur or other atom by a stable covalent bond. W5 heterocycles include for example, pyridyl, dihydropyridyl isomers, piperidine, pyridazinyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrazinyl, s-triazinyl, oxazolyl, imidazolyl, thiazolyl, isoxazolyl, pyrazolyl, isothiazolyl, furanyl, thiofuranyl, thienyl, and pyrrolyl. W5 also includes, but is not limited to, examples such as: W5 carbocycles and heterocycles may be independently substituted with 0 to 3 R2 groups, as defined above. For example, substituted W5 carbocycles include: Examples of substituted phenyl carbocycles include: Linking Groups and Linkers The invention provides conjugates that comprise an HIV inhibiting compound that is optionally linked to one or more phosphonate groups either directly (e.g. through a covalent bond) or through a linking group (i.e. a linker). The nature of the linker is not critical provided it does not interfere with the ability of the phosphonate containing compound to function as a therapeutic agent. The phosphonate or the linker can be linked to the compound (e.g. a compound of formula A) at any synthetically feasible position on the compound by removing a hydrogen or any portion of the compound to provide an open valence for attachment of the phosphonate or the linker. In one embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker (which can be designated “L”) can include all or a portions of the group A0, A1, A2, or W3 described herein. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker has a molecular weight of from about 20 daltons to about 400 daltons. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker has a length of about 5 angstroms to about 300 angstroms. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker separates the DRUG and a P(═Y1) residue by about 5 angstroms to about 200 angstroms, inclusive, in length. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker is a divalent, branched or unbranched, saturated or unsaturated, hydrocarbon chain, having from 2 to 25 carbon atoms, wherein one or more (e.g. 1, 2, 3, or 4) of the carbon atoms is optionally replaced by (—O—), and wherein the chain is optionally substituted on carbon with one or more (e.g. 1, 2, 3, or 4) substituents selected from (C1-C6)alkoxy, (C3-C6)cycloalkyl, (C1-C6)alkanoyl, (C1-C6)alkanoyloxy, (C1-C6)alkoxycarbonyl, (C1-C6)alkylthio, azido, cyano, nitro, halo, hydroxy, oxo (═O), carboxy, aryl, aryloxy, heteroaryl, and heteroaryloxy. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker is of the formula W-A wherein A is (C1-C24)alkyl, (C2-C24)alkenyl, (C2-C24)alkynyl, (C3-C8)cycloalkyl, (C6-C10)aryl or a combination thereof, wherein W is —N(R)C(═O)—, —C(═O)N(R)—, —OC(═O)—, —C(═O)O—, —O—, —S—, —S(O)—, —S(O)2—, —N(R)—, —C(═O)—, or a direct bond; wherein each R is independently H or (C1-C6)alkyl. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker is a divalent radical formed from a peptide. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker is a divalent radical formed from an amino acid. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker is a divalent radical formed from poly-L-glutamic acid, poly-L-aspartic acid, poly-L-histidine, poly-L-ornithine, poly-L-serine, poly-L-threonine, poly-L-tyrosine, poly-L-leucine, poly-L-lysine-L-phenylalanine, poly-L-lysine or poly-L-lysine-L-tyrosine. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker is of the formula W—(CH2)n wherein, n is between about 1 and about 10; and W is —N(R)C(═O)—, —C(═O)N(R)—, —OC(═O)—, —C(═O)O—, —O—, —S—, —S(O)—, —S(O)2—, —C(═O)—, —N(R)—, or a direct bond; wherein each R is independently H or (C1-C6)alkyl. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker is methylene, ethylene, or propylene. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker is attached to the phosphonate group through a carbon atom of the linker. Intracellular Targeting The optionally incorporated phosphonate group of the compounds of the invention may cleave in vivo in stages after they have reached the desired site of action, i.e. inside a cell. One mechanism of action inside a cell may entail a first cleavage, e.g. by esterase, to provide a negatively-charged “locked-in” intermediate. Cleavage of a terminal ester grouping in a compound of the invention thus affords an unstable intermediate which releases a negatively charged “locked in” intermediate. After passage inside a cell, intracellular enzymatic cleavage or modification of the phosphonate or prodrug compound may result in an intracellular accumulation of the cleaved or modified compound by a “trapping” mechanism. The cleaved or modified compound may then be “locked-in” the cell by a significant change in charge, polarity, or other physical property change which decreases the rate at which the cleaved or modified compound can exit the cell, relative to the rate at which it entered as the phosphonate prodrug. Other mechanisms by which a therapeutic effect are achieved may be operative as well. Enzymes which are capable of an enzymatic activation mechanism with the phosphonate prodrug compounds of the invention include, but are not limited to, amidases, esterases, microbial enzymes, phospholipases, cholinesterases, and phosphatases. From the foregoing, it will be apparent that many different drugs can be derivatized in accord with the present invention. Numerous such drugs are specifically mentioned herein. However, it should be understood that the discussion of drug families and their specific members for derivatization according to this invention is not intended to be exhaustive, but merely illustrative. HIV-Inhibitory Compounds The compounds of the invention include those with HIV-inhibitory activity. The compounds of the inventions optionally bear one or more (e.g. 1, 2, 3, or 4) phosphonate groups, which may be a prodrug moiety. The term “HIV-inhibitory compound” includes those compounds that inhibit HIV. Typically, compounds of the invention have a molecular weight of from about 400 amu to about 10,000 amu; in a specific embodiment of the invention, compounds have a molecular weight of less than about 5000 amu; in another specific embodiment of the invention, compounds have a molecular weight of less than about 2500 amu; in another specific embodiment of the invention, compounds have a molecular weight of less than about 1000 amu; in another specific embodiment of the invention, compounds have a molecular weight of less than about 800 amu; in another specific embodiment of the invention, compounds have a molecular weight of less than about 600 amu; and in another specific embodiment of the invention, compounds have a molecular weight of less than about 600 amu and a molecular weight of greater than about 400 amu. The compounds of the invention also typically have a logD(polarity) less than about 5. In one embodiment the invention provides compounds having a logD less than about 4; in another one embodiment the invention provides compounds having a logD less than about 3; in another one embodiment the invention provides compounds having a logD greater than about −5; in another one embodiment the invention provides compounds having a logD greater than about −3; and in another one embodiment the invention provides compounds having a logD greater than about 0 and less than about 3. Selected substituents within the compounds of the invention are present to a recursive degree. In this context, “recursive substituent” means that a substituent may recite another instance of itself. Because of the recursive nature of such substituents, theoretically, a large number may be present in any given embodiment. For example, Rx contains a Ry substituent. Ry can be R2, which in turn can be R3. If R3 is selected to be R3c, then a second instance of Rx can be selected. One of ordinary skill in the art of medicinal chemistry understands that the total number of such substituents is reasonably limited by the desired properties of the compound intended. Such properties include, by of example and not limitation, physical properties such as molecular weight, solubility or log P, application properties such as activity against the intended target, and practical properties such as ease of synthesis. By way of example and not limitation, W3, R1 and R3 are all recursive substituents in certain embodiments. Typically, each of these may independently occur 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or 0, times in a given embodiment. More typically, each of these may independently occur 12 or fewer times in a given embodiment. More typically yet, W3 will occur 0 to 8 times, Ry will occur 0 to 6 times and R3 will occur 0 to 10 times in a given embodiment. Even more typically, W3 will occur 0 to 6 times, Ry will occur 0 to 4 times and R3 will occur 0 to 8 times in a given embodiment. Recursive substituents are an intended aspect of the invention. One of ordinary skill in the art of medicinal chemistry understands the versatility of such substituents. To the degree that recursive substituents are present in an embodiment of the invention, the total number will be determined as set forth above. Whenever a compound described herein is substituted with more than one of the same designated group, e.g., “R1” or “R6a”, then it will be understood that the groups may be the same or different, i.e., each group is independently selected. Wavy lines indicate the site of covalent bond attachments to the adjoining groups, moieties, or atoms. In one embodiment of the invention, the compound is in an isolated and purified form. Generally, the term “isolated and purified” means that the compound is substantially free from biological materials (e.g. blood, tissue, cells, etc.). In one specific embodiment of the invention, the term means that the compound or conjugate of the invention is at least about 50 wt. % free from biological materials; in another specific embodiment, the term means that the compound or conjugate of the invention is at least about 75 wt. % free from biological materials; in another specific embodiment, the term means that the compound or conjugate of the invention is at least about 90 wt. % free from biological materials; in another specific embodiment, the term means that the compound or conjugate of the invention is at least about 98 wt. % free from biological materials; and in another embodiment, the term means that the compound or conjugate of the invention is at least about 99 wt. % free from biological materials. In another specific embodiment, the invention provides a compound or conjugate of the invention that has been synthetically prepared (e.g., ex vivo). Cellular Accumulation In one embodiment, the invention is provides compounds capable of accumulating in human PBMC (peripheral blood mononuclear cells). PBMC refer to blood cells having round lymphocytes and monocytes. Physiologically, PBMC are critical components of the mechanism against infection. PBMC may be isolated from heparinized whole blood of normal healthy donors or buffy coats, by standard density gradient centrifugation and harvested from the interface, washed (e.g. phosphate-buffered saline) and stored in freezing medium. PBMC may be cultured in multi-well plates. At various times of culture, supernatant may be either removed for assessment, or cells may be harvested and analyzed (Smith R. et al (2003) Blood 102(7):2532-2540). The compounds of this embodiment may further comprise a phosphonate or phosphonate prodrug. More typically, the phosphonate or phosphonate prodrug can have the structure A3 as described herein. Typically, compounds of the invention demonstrate improved intracellular half-life of the compounds or intracellular metabolites of the compounds in human PBMC when compared to analogs of the compounds not having the phosphonate or phosphonate prodrug. Typically, the half-life is improved by at least about 50%, more typically at least in the range 50-100%, still more typically at least about 100%, more typically yet greater than about 100%. In one embodiment of the invention the intracellular half-life of a metabolite of the compound in human PBMCs is improved when compared to an analog of the compound not having the phosphonate or phosphonate prodrug. In such embodiments, the metabolite may be generated intracellularly, e.g. generated within human PBMC. The metabolite may be a product of the cleavage of a phosphonate prodrug within human PBMCs. The optionally phosphonate-containing phosphonate prodrug may be cleaved to form a metabolite having at least one negative charge at physiological pH. The phosphonate prodrug may be enzymatically cleaved within human PBMC to form a phosphonate having at least one active hydrogen atom of the form P—OH. Stereoisomers The compounds of the invention may have chiral centers, e.g., chiral carbon or phosphorus atoms. The compounds of the invention thus include racemic mixtures of all stereoisomers, including enantiomers, diastereomers, and atropisomers. In addition, the compounds of the invention include enriched or resolved optical isomers at any or all asymmetric, chiral atoms. In other words, the chiral centers apparent from the depictions are provided as the chiral isomers or racemic mixtures. Both racemic and diastereomeric mixtures, as well as the individual optical isomers isolated or synthesized, substantially free of their enantiomeric or diastereomeric partners, are all within the scope of the invention. The racemic mixtures are separated into their individual, substantially optically pure isomers through well-known techniques such as, for example, the separation of diastereomeric salts formed with optically active adjuncts, e.g., acids or bases followed by conversion back to the optically active substances. In most instances, the desired optical isomer is synthesized by means of stereospecific reactions, beginning with the appropriate stereoisomer of the desired starting material. The compounds of the invention can also exist as tautomeric isomers in certain cases. All though only one delocalized resonance structure may be depicted, all such forms are contemplated within the scope of the invention. For example, ene-amine tautomers can exist for purine, pyrimidine, imidazole, guanidine, amidine, and tetrazole systems and all their possible tautomeric forms are within the scope of the invention. Salts and Hydrates The compositions of this invention optionally comprise salts of the compounds herein, especially pharmaceutically acceptable non-toxic salts containing, for example, Na+, Li+, K+, Ca+2 and Mg+2. Such salts may include those derived by combination of appropriate cations such as alkali and alkaline earth metal ions or ammonium and quaternary amino ions with an acid anion moiety, typically a carboxylic acid. Monovalent salts are preferred if a water soluble salt is desired. Metal salts typically are prepared by reacting the metal hydroxide with a compound of this invention. Examples of metal salts which are prepared in this way are salts containing Li+, Na+, and K+. A less soluble metal salt can be precipitated from the solution of a more soluble salt by addition of the suitable metal compound. In addition, salts may be formed from acid addition of certain organic and inorganic acids, e.g., HCl, HBr, H2SO4, H3PO4 or organic sulfonic acids, to basic centers, typically amines, or to acidic groups. Finally, it is to be understood that the compositions herein comprise compounds of the invention in their un-ionized, as well as zwitterionic form, and combinations with stoichiometric amounts of water as in hydrates. Also included within the scope of this invention are the salts of the parental compounds with one or more amino acids. Any of the amino acids described above are suitable, especially the naturally-occurring amino acids found as protein components, although the amino acid typically is one bearing a side chain with a basic or acidic group, e.g., lysine, arginine or glutamic acid, or a neutral group such as glycine, serine, threonine, alanine, isoleucine, or leucine. Methods of Inhibition of HIV Another aspect of the invention relates to methods of inhibiting the activity of HIV comprising the step of treating a sample suspected of containing HIV with a composition of the invention. Compositions of the invention may act as inhibitors of HIV, as intermediates for such inhibitors or have other utilities as described below. The inhibitors will generally bind to locations on the surface or in a cavity of the liver. Compositions binding in the liver may bind with varying degrees of reversibility. Those compounds binding substantially irreversibly are ideal candidates for use in this method of the invention. Once labeled, the substantially irreversibly binding compositions are useful as probes for the detection of HIV. Accordingly, the invention relates to methods of detecting NS3 in a sample suspected of containing HIV comprising the steps of: treating a sample suspected of containing HIV with a composition comprising a compound of the invention bound to a label; and observing the effect of the sample on the activity of the label. Suitable labels are well known in the diagnostics field and include stable free radicals, fluorophores, radioisotopes, enzymes, chemiluminescent groups and chromogens. The compounds herein are labeled in conventional fashion using functional groups such as hydroxyl or amino. Within the context of the invention samples suspected of containing HIV include natural or man-made materials such as living organisms; tissue or cell cultures; biological samples such as biological material samples (blood, serum, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, tears, sputum, saliva, tissue samples, and the like); laboratory samples; food, water, or air samples; bioproduct samples such as extracts of cells, particularly recombinant cells synthesizing a desired glycoprotein; and the like. Typically the sample will be suspected of containing HIV. Samples can be contained in any medium including water and organic solvent/water mixtures. Samples include living organisms such as humans, and man made materials such as cell cultures. The treating step of the invention comprises adding the composition of the invention to the sample or it comprises adding a precursor of the composition to the sample. The addition step comprises any method of administration as described above. If desired, the activity of HIV after application of the composition can be observed by any method including direct and indirect methods of detecting HIV activity. Quantitative, qualitative, and semiquantitative methods of determining HIV activity are all contemplated. Typically one of the screening methods described above are applied, however, any other method such as observation of the physiological properties of a living organism are also applicable. Many organisms contain HIV. The compounds of this invention are useful in the treatment or prophylaxis of conditions associated with HIV activation in animals or in man. However, in screening compounds capable of inhibiting HIV it should be kept in mind that the results of enzyme assays may not correlate with cell culture assays. Thus, a cell based assay should be the primary screening tool. Screens for HIV Inhibitors Compositions of the invention are screened for inhibitory activity against HIV by any of the conventional techniques for evaluating enzyme activity. Within the context of the invention, typically compositions are first screened for inhibition of HIV in vitro and compositions showing inhibitory activity are then screened for activity in vivo. Compositions having in vitro Ki (inhibitory constants) of less then about 5×10−6 M, typically less than about 1×10−7 M and preferably less than about 5×10−8 M are preferred for in vivo use. Useful in vitro screens have been described in detail. Pharmaceutical Formulations The compounds of this invention are formulated with conventional carriers and excipients, which will be selected in accord with ordinary practice. Tablets will contain excipients, glidants, fillers, binders and the like. Aqueous formulations are prepared in sterile form, and when intended for delivery by other than oral administration generally will be isotonic. All formulations will optionally contain excipients such as those set forth in the Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients (1986). Excipients include ascorbic acid and other antioxidants, chelating agents such as EDTA, carbohydrates such as dextrin, hydroxyalkylcellulose, hydroxyalkylmethylcellulose, stearic acid and the like. The pH of the formulations ranges from about 3 to about 11, but is ordinarily about 7 to 10. While it is possible for the active ingredients to be administered alone it may be preferable to present them as pharmaceutical formulations. The formulations, both for veterinary and for human use, of the invention comprise at least one active ingredient, as above defined, together with one or more acceptable carriers therefor and optionally other therapeutic ingredients. The carrier(s) must be “acceptable” in the sense of being compatible with the other ingredients of the formulation and physiologically innocuous to the recipient thereof. The formulations include those suitable for the foregoing administration routes. The formulations may conveniently be presented in unit dosage form and may be prepared by any of the methods well known in the art of pharmacy. Techniques and formulations generally are found in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences (Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa.). Such methods include the step of bringing into association the active ingredient with the carrier which constitutes one or more accessory ingredients. In general the formulations are prepared by uniformly and intimately bringing into association the active ingredient with liquid carriers or finely divided solid carriers or both, and then, if necessary, shaping the product. Formulations of the present invention suitable for oral administration may be presented as discrete units such as capsules, cachets or tablets each containing a predetermined amount of the active ingredient; as a powder or granules; as a solution or a suspension in an aqueous or non-aqueous liquid; or as an oil-in-water liquid emulsion or a water-in-oil liquid emulsion. The active ingredient may also be administered as a bolus, electuary or paste. A tablet is made by compression or molding, optionally with one or more accessory ingredients. Compressed tablets may be prepared by compressing in a suitable machine the active ingredient in a free-flowing form such as a powder or granules, optionally mixed with a binder, lubricant, inert diluent, preservative, surface active or dispersing agent. Molded tablets may be made by molding in a suitable machine a mixture of the powdered active ingredient moistened with an inert liquid diluent. The tablets may optionally be coated or scored and optionally are formulated so as to provide slow or controlled release of the active ingredient therefrom. For administration to the eye or other external tissues e.g., mouth and skin, the formulations are preferably applied as a topical ointment or cream containing the active ingredient(s) in an amount of, for example, 0.075 to 20% w/w (including active ingredient(s) in a range between 0.1% and 20% in increments of 0.1% w/w such as 0.6% w/w, 0.7% w/w, etc.), preferably 0.2 to 15% w/w and most preferably 0.5 to 10% w/w. When formulated in an ointment, the active ingredients may be employed with either a paraffinic or a water-miscible ointment base. Alternatively, the active ingredients may be formulated in a cream with an oil-in-water cream base. If desired, the aqueous phase of the cream base may include, for example, at least 30% w/w of a polyhydric alcohol, i.e. an alcohol having two or more hydroxyl groups such as propylene glycol, butane 1,3-diol, mannitol, sorbitol, glycerol and polyethylene glycol (including PEG 400) and mixtures thereof. The topical formulations may desirably include a compound which enhances absorption or penetration of the active ingredient through the skin or other affected areas. Examples of such dermal penetration enhancers include dimethyl sulphoxide and related analogs. The oily phase of the emulsions of this invention may be constituted from known ingredients in a known manner. While the phase may comprise merely an emulsifier (otherwise known as an emulgent), it desirably comprises a mixture of at least one emulsifier with a fat or an oil or with both a fat and an oil. Preferably, a hydrophilic emulsifier is included together with a lipophilic emulsifier which acts as a stabilizer. It is also preferred to include both an oil and a fat. Together, the emulsifier(s) with or without stabilizer(s) make up the so-called emulsifying wax, and the wax together with the oil and fat make up the so-called emulsifying ointment base which forms the oily dispersed phase of the cream formulations. Emulgents and emulsion stabilizers suitable for use in the formulation of the invention include Tween® 60, Span® 80, cetostearyl alcohol, benzyl alcohol, myristyl alcohol, glyceryl mono-stearate and sodium lauryl sulfate. The choice of suitable oils or fats for the formulation is based on achieving the desired cosmetic properties. The cream should preferably be a non-greasy, non-staining and washable product with suitable consistency to avoid leakage from tubes or other containers. Straight or branched chain, mono- or dibasic alkyl esters such as di-isoadipate, isocetyl stearate, propylene glycol diester of coconut fatty acids, isopropyl myristate, decyl oleate, isopropyl palmitate, butyl stearate, 2-ethylhexyl palmitate or a blend of branched chain esters known as Crodamol CAP may be used, the last three being preferred esters. These may be used alone or in combination depending on the properties required. Alternatively, high melting point lipids such as white soft paraffin and/or liquid paraffin or other mineral oils are used. Pharmaceutical formulations according to the present invention comprise one or more compounds of the invention together with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers or excipients and optionally other therapeutic agents. Pharmaceutical formulations containing the active ingredient may be in any form suitable for the intended method of administration. When used for oral use for example, tablets, troches, lozenges, aqueous or oil suspensions, dispersible powders or granules, emulsions, hard or soft capsules, syrups or elixirs may be prepared. Compositions intended for oral use may be prepared according to any method known to the art for the manufacture of pharmaceutical compositions and such compositions may contain one or more agents including sweetening agents, flavoring agents, coloring agents and preserving agents, in order to provide a palatable preparation. Tablets containing the active ingredient in admixture with non-toxic pharmaceutically acceptable excipient which are suitable for manufacture of tablets are acceptable. These excipients may be, for example, inert diluents, such as calcium or sodium carbonate, lactose, lactose monohydrate, croscarmellose sodium, povidone, calcium or sodium phosphate; granulating and disintegrating agents, such as maize starch, or alginic acid; binding agents, such as cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, starch, gelatin or acacia; and lubricating agents, such as magnesium stearate, stearic acid or talc. Tablets may be uncoated or may be coated by known techniques including microencapsulation to delay disintegration and adsorption in the gastrointestinal tract and thereby provide a sustained action over a longer period. For example, a time delay material such as glyceryl monostearate or glyceryl distearate alone or with a wax may be employed. Formulations for oral use may be also presented as hard gelatin capsules where the active ingredient is mixed with an inert solid diluent, for example calcium phosphate or kaolin, or as soft gelatin capsules wherein the active ingredient is mixed with water or an oil medium, such as peanut oil, liquid paraffin or olive oil. Aqueous suspensions of the invention contain the active materials in admixture with excipients suitable for the manufacture of aqueous suspensions. Such excipients include a suspending agent, such as sodium carboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcelluose, sodium alginate, polyvinylpyrrolidone, gum tragacanth and gum acacia, and dispersing or wetting agents such as a naturally occurring phosphatide (e.g., lecithin), a condensation product of an alkylene oxide with a fatty acid (e.g., polyoxyethylene stearate), a condensation product of ethylene oxide with a long chain aliphatic alcohol (e.g., heptadecaethyleneoxycetanol), a condensation product of ethylene oxide with a partial ester derived from a fatty acid and a hexitol anhydride (e.g., polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate). The aqueous suspension may also contain one or more preservatives such as ethyl or n-propyl p-hydroxy-benzoate, one or more coloring agents, one or more flavoring agents and one or more sweetening agents, such as sucrose or saccharin. Oil suspensions may be formulated by suspending the active ingredient in a vegetable oil, such as arachis oil, olive oil, sesame oil or coconut oil, or in a mineral oil such as liquid paraffin. The oral suspensions may contain a thickening agent, such as beeswax, hard paraffin or cetyl alcohol. Sweetening agents, such as those set forth above, and flavoring agents may be added to provide a palatable oral preparation. These compositions may be preserved by the addition of an antioxidant such as ascorbic acid. Dispersible powders and granules of the invention suitable for preparation of an aqueous suspension by the addition of water provide the active ingredient in admixture with a dispersing or wetting agent, a suspending agent, and one or more preservatives. Suitable dispersing or wetting agents and suspending agents are exemplified by those disclosed above. Additional excipients, for example sweetening, flavoring and coloring agents, may also be present. The pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may also be in the form of oil-in-water emulsions. The oily phase may be a vegetable oil, such as olive oil or arachis oil, a mineral oil, such as liquid paraffin, or a mixture of these. Suitable emulsifying agents include naturally-occurring gums, such as gum acacia and gum tragacanth, naturally occurring phosphatides, such as soybean lecithin, esters or partial esters derived from fatty acids and hexitol anhydrides, such as sorbitan monooleate, and condensation products of these partial esters with ethylene oxide, such as polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate. The emulsion may also contain sweetening and flavoring agents. Syrups and elixirs may be formulated with sweetening agents, such as glycerol, sorbitol or sucrose. Such formulations may also contain a demulcent, a preservative, a flavoring or a coloring agent. The pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may be in the form of a sterile injectable preparation, such as a sterile injectable aqueous or oleaginous suspension. This suspension may be formulated according to the known art using those suitable dispersing or wetting agents and suspending agents which have been mentioned above. The sterile injectable preparation may also be a sterile injectable solution or suspension in a non-toxic parenterally acceptable diluent or solvent, such as a solution in 1,3-butane-diol or prepared as a lyophilized powder. Among the acceptable vehicles and solvents that may be employed are water, Ringer's solution and isotonic sodium chloride solution. In addition, sterile fixed oils may conventionally be employed as a solvent or suspending medium. For this purpose any bland fixed oil may be employed including synthetic mono- or diglycerides. In addition, fatty acids such as oleic acid may likewise be used in the preparation of injectables. The amount of active ingredient that may be combined with the carrier material to produce a single dosage form will vary depending upon the host treated and the particular mode of administration. For example, a time-release formulation intended for oral administration to humans may contain approximately 1 to 1000 mg of active material compounded with an appropriate and convenient amount of carrier material which may vary from about 5 to about 95% of the total compositions (weight:weight). The pharmaceutical composition can be prepared to provide easily measurable amounts for administration. For example, an aqueous solution intended for intravenous infusion may contain from about 3 to 500 μg of the active ingredient per milliliter of solution in order that infusion of a suitable volume at a rate of about 30 mL/hr can occur. Formulations suitable for administration to the eye include eye drops wherein the active ingredient is dissolved or suspended in a suitable carrier, especially an aqueous solvent for the active ingredient. The active ingredient is preferably present in such formulations in a concentration of 0.5 to 20%, advantageously 0.5 to 10% particularly about 1.5% w/w. Formulations suitable for topical administration in the mouth include lozenges comprising the active ingredient in a flavored basis, usually sucrose and acacia or tragacanth; pastilles comprising the active ingredient in an inert basis such as gelatin and glycerin, or sucrose and acacia; and mouthwashes comprising the active ingredient in a suitable liquid carrier. Formulations for rectal administration may be presented as a suppository with a suitable base comprising for example cocoa butter or a salicylate. Formulations suitable for intrapulmonary or nasal administration have a particle size for example in the range of 0.1 to 500 microns (including particle sizes in a range between 0.1 and 500 microns in increments microns such as 0.5, 1, 30 microns, 35 microns, etc.), which is administered by rapid inhalation through the nasal passage or by inhalation through the mouth so as to reach the alveolar sacs. Suitable formulations include aqueous or oily solutions of the active ingredient. Formulations suitable for aerosol or dry powder administration may be prepared according to conventional methods and may be delivered with other therapeutic agents such as compounds heretofore used in the treatment or prophylaxis of conditions associated with HIV activity. Formulations suitable for vaginal administration may be presented as pessaries, tampons, creams, gels, pastes, foams or spray formulations containing in addition to the active ingredient such carriers as are known in the art to be appropriate. Formulations suitable for parenteral administration include aqueous and non-aqueous sterile injection solutions which may contain anti-oxidants, buffers, bacteriostats and solutes which render the formulation isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient; and aqueous and non-aqueous sterile suspensions which may include suspending agents and thickening agents. The formulations are presented in unit-dose or multi-dose containers, for example sealed ampoules and vials, and may be stored in a freeze-dried (lyophilized) condition requiring only the addition of the sterile liquid carrier, for example water for injection, immediately prior to use. Extemporaneous injection solutions and suspensions are prepared from sterile powders, granules and tablets of the kind previously described. Preferred unit dosage formulations are those containing a daily dose or unit daily sub-dose, as herein above recited, or an appropriate fraction thereof, of the active ingredient. It should be understood that in addition to the ingredients particularly mentioned above the formulations of this invention may include other agents conventional in the art having regard to the type of formulation in question, for example those suitable for oral administration may include flavoring agents. The invention further provides veterinary compositions comprising at least one active ingredient as above defined together with a veterinary carrier therefor. Veterinary carriers are materials useful for the purpose of administering the composition and may be solid, liquid or gaseous materials which are otherwise inert or acceptable in the veterinary art and are compatible with the active ingredient. These veterinary compositions may be administered orally, parenterally or by any other desired route. Compounds of the invention can also be formulated to provide controlled release of the active ingredient to allow less frequent dosing or to improve the pharmacokinetic or toxicity profile of the active ingredient. Accordingly, the invention also provided compositions comprising one or more compounds of the invention formulated for sustained or controlled release. Effective dose of active ingredient depends at least on the nature of the condition being treated, toxicity, whether the compound is being used prophylactically (lower doses), the method of delivery, and the pharmaceutical formulation, and will be determined by the clinician using conventional dose escalation studies. It can be expected to be from about 0.0001 to about 100 mg/kg body weight per day. Typically, from about 0.01 to about 10 mg/kg body weight per day. More typically, from about 0.01 to about 5 mg/kg body weight per day. More typically, from about 0.05 to about 0.5 mg/kg body weight per day. For example, the daily candidate dose for an adult human of approximately 70 kg body weight will range from 1 mg to 1000 mg, preferably between 5 mg and 500 mg, and may take the form of single or multiple doses. Routes of Administration One or more compounds of the invention (herein referred to as the active ingredients) are administered by any route appropriate to the condition to be treated. Suitable routes include oral, rectal, nasal, topical (including buccal and sublingual), vaginal and parenteral (including subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous, intradermal, intrathecal and epidural), and the like. It will be appreciated that the preferred route may vary with for example the condition of the recipient. An advantage of the compounds of this invention is that they are orally bioavailable and can be dosed orally. Combination Therapy The compounds of the invention may be employed in combination with other therapeutic agents for the treatment or prophylaxis of the infections or conditions indicated above. Examples of such further therapeutic agents include agents that are effective for the treatment or prophylaxis of viral, parasitic or bacterial infections or associated conditions or for treatment of tumors or related conditions include 3′-azido-3′-deoxythymidine (zidovudine, AZT), 2′-deoxy-3′-thiacytidine (3TC), 2′,3′-dideoxy-2′,3′-didehydroadenosine (D4A), 2′,3′-dideoxy-2′,3′-didehydrothymidine (D4T), carbovir (carbocyclic 2′,3′-dideoxy-2′,3′-didehydroguanosine) 3′-azido-2′,3′-dideoxyuridine, 5-fluorothymidine, (E)-5-(2-bromovinyl)-2′-deoxyuridine (BVDU), 2-chlorodeoxyadenosine, 2-deoxycoformycin, 5-fluorouracil, 5-fluorouridine, 5-fluoro-2′-deoxyuridine, 5-trifluoromethyl-2′-deoxyuridine, 6-azauridine, 5-fluoroorotic acid, methotrexate, triacetyluridine, 1-(2′-deoxy-2′-fluoro-1-β-arabinosyl)-5-iodocytidine (FIAC), tetrahydro-imidazo(4,5,1-jk)-(1,4)-benzodiazepin-2(1H)-thione (TIBO), 2′-nor-cyclicGMP, 6-methoxypurine arabinoside (ara-M), 6-methoxypurine arabinoside 2′-O-valerate, cytosine arabinoside (ara-C), 2′,3′-dideoxynucleosides such as 2′,3′-dideoxycytidine (ddC), 2′,3′-dideoxyadenosine (ddA) and 2′,3′-dideoxyinosine (ddI), acyclic nucleosides such as acyclovir, penciclovir, famciclovir, ganciclovir, HPMPC, PMEA, PMEG, PMPA, PMPDAP, FPMPA, HPMPA, HPMPDAP, (2R,5R)-9->tetrahydro-5-(phosphonomethoxy)-2-furanyladenine, (2R,5R)-1->tetrahydro-5-(phosphonomethoxy)-2-furanylthymine, other antivirals including ribavirin (adenine arabinoside), 2-thio-6-azauridine, tubercidin, aurintricarboxylic acid, 3-deazaneoplanocin, neoplanocin, rimantidine, adamantine, and foscamet (trisodium phosphonoformate), antibacterial agents including bactericidal fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin, pefloxacin and the like), aminoglycoside bactericidal antibiotics (streptomycin, gentarnicin, amicacin and the like) β-lactamase inhibitors (cephalosporins, penicillins and the like), other antibacterials including tetracycline, isoniazid, rifampin, cefoperazone, claithromycin and azithromycin, antiparasite or antifungal agents including pentamidine (1,5-bis(4′-aminophenoxy)pentane), 9-deaza-inosine, sulfamethoxazole, sulfadiazine, quinapyramine, quinine, fluconazole, ketoconazole, itraconazole, Amphotericin B, 5-fluorocytosine, clotrimazole, hexadecylphosphocholine and nystatin, renal excretion inhibitors such as probenicid, nucleoside transport inhibitors such as dipyridamole, dilazep and nitrobenzylthioinosine, immunomodulators such as FK506, cyclosporin A, thymosin α-1, cytokines including TNF and TGF-β, interferons including IFN-α, IFN-β, and IFN-γ, interleukins including various interleukins, macrophage/granulocyte colony stimulating factors including GM-CSF, G-CSF, M-CSF, cytokine antagonists including anti-TNF antibodies, anti-interleukin antibodies, soluble interleukin receptors, protein kinase C inhibitors and the like. In addition, the therapeutic agents disclosed in Tables 98 and 99 directed to HIV may be used in combination with compounds of the present invention. For example, Table 98 discloses exemplary HIV/AIDS therapeutics, and Table 99 discloses Exemplary HIV Antivirals with their corresponding U.S. patent numbers. TABLE 98 Exemplary HIV/AIDS Therapeutics Code Generic Brand Therapeutic Mechanism of Action Highest Phase Name Name Name Group Group Organization Launched- AZT Azidothymidine AZTEC Anti-HIV Agents Reverse GlaxoSmithKline 1987 BW-A509U Zidovudine Retrovir Transcriptase (Originator) Cpd S Inhibitors Launched- NSC- Dideoxycytidine Hivid Anti-HIV Agents Reverse National Cancer 1992 606170 Transcriptase Institute (US) Inhibitors (Originator) Ro-24- Zalcitabine Roche 2027/000 Ro-242027 ddC ddCyd Launched- BMY-27857 Sanilvudine Zerit Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Bristol-Myers 1994 Transcriptase Squibb Inhibitors (Originator) DTH Stavudine Chemical INSERM Delivery (Originator) Systems d4T ddeThd Launched- BMY-40900 Didanosine Videx Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Bristol-Myers 1991 Transcriptase Squibb Inhibitors (Originator) DDI Dideoxyinosine Bristol-Myers Squibb (Orphan Drug) NSC- 612049 d2I ddIno Launched- rIL-2 Aldesleukin Macrolin Anti-HIV Agents IL-2 Chiron 1989 (Originator) rhIL-2 Recombinant Proleukin Breast Cancer Nat. Inst. Allergy interleukin-2 Therapy & Infectious Dis. Immunostimulants Leukemia Therapy Melanoma Therapy Myelodysplastic Syndrome Therapy Myeloid Leukemia Therapy Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Therapy Renal Cancer Therapy Launched- R-56 Saquinavir Fortovase Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Chugai 1995 mesilate Inhibitors Pharmaceutical (Originator) Ro-31- Invirase Chugai 8959/003 Pharmaceutical (Orphan Drug) Fortovase Roche (soft gel (Originator) capsules) Launched- Human Alferon Anti- Guangdong 1989 leukocyte LDO Cytomegalovirus interferon alpha Drugs Interferon alfa-n3 Alferon N Anti-HIV Agents HemispheRx (human Gel leukocyte derived) Alferon N Anti-Hepatitis C Interferon Injection Virus Drugs Sciences (Originator) Altemol Anti-Papilloma Virus Drugs Cellferon Antiviral Drugs Genital Warts, Treatment for Multiple Sclerosis, Agents for Oncolytic Drugs Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), Treatment of Treatment of Female Sexual Dysfunction Launched- BI-RG-587 Nevirapine Viramune Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Boehringer 1996 Transcriptase Ingelheim Inhibitors (Originator) BIRG-0587 Nippon Boehringer Ingelheim Roxane Launched- 1592U89 Abacavir Ziagen Anti-HIV Agents Reverse GlaxoSmithKline 1999 sulfate sulfate Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors GlaxoSmithKline (Orphan Drug) Phase I/II CD4-IgG CD4- AIDS Medicines Genentech Immunoadhesin (Originator) rCD4-IgG Recombinant Immunomodulators Nat. Inst. Allergy CD4- & Infectious Dis. immunoglobulin G Recombinant soluble CD4- immunoglobulin G Launched- (−)-BCH-189 Lamivudine 3TC Agents for Liver Reverse GlaxoSmithKline 1995 Cirrhosis Transcriptase (−)-SddC Epivir Anti-HIV Agents Inhibitors Shire BioChem (Originator) 3TC Epivir- Anti-Hepatitis B HBV Virus Drugs GG-714 Heptodin GR- Heptovir 109714X BCH-790 Lamivir (fomer code) Zeffix Zefix Phase II KNI-272 Kynostatin-272 Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Japan Energy Inhibitors (Originator) NSC- 651714 Launched- (−)-FTC Emtricitabine Coviracil Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Emory University 2003 Transcriptase (Originator) 524W91 Emtriva Anti-Hepatitis B Inhibitors Gilead Virus Drugs BW- Japan Tobacco 524W91 Launched- U-90152S Delavirdine Rescriptor Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Agouron 1997 mesilate Transcriptase Pfizer Inhibitors (Originator) Pfizer (Orphan Drug) Pre-Registered AG-1661 HIV-1 Remune AIDS Vaccines Immune Immunogen Response (Originator) RG-83894 Roemmers RG-83894- Trinity Medical 103 Group Launched- L-735524 Indinavir sulfate Crixivan Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Banyu 1996 Inhibitors MK-639 Merck & Co. (Originator) Phase I phAZT Azidothymidine Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Russian phosphonate Transcriptase Academy of Inhibitors Sciences (Originator) Nicavir Phosphazid Phase II NSC- (+)-Calanolide A Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Advanced Life 675451 Transcriptase Sciences Inhibitors NSC-664737 Calanolide A Treatment of Sarawak (racemate) Tuberculosis MediChem US Department of Health & Human Services (Originator) Phase II 5A8 Anti-HIV Agents Anti-CD4 Biogen Idec (Originator) Hu-5A8 Humanized Tanox Monoclonal Antibodies TNX-355 Viral Entry Inhibitors Launched- 141W94 Amprenavir Agenerase Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease GlaxoSmithKline 1999 KVX-478 Prozei Inhibitors Kissei VX-478 Vertex (Originator) Launched- DMP-266 Efavirenz Stocrin Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Banyu 1998 Transcriptase Inhibitors L-743726 Sustiva Banyu (Orphan Drug) L-743725 Bristol-Myers ((+)- Squibb enantiomer) (Originator) L-741211 (racemate) Launched- A-84538 Ritonavir Norvir Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Abbott 1996 Inhibitors (Originator) ABT-538 Dainippon Pharmaceutical Launched- AG-1343 Nelfinavir Viracept Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Agouron 1997 mesilate Inhibitors (Originator) LY-312857 Japan Tobacco AG-1346 Mitsubishi (free base) Pharma Roche Phase III PRO-2000 Anti-HIV Agents Viral Entry Indevus Inhibitors PRO-2000/5 Microbicides Medical Research Council Paligent (Originator) Phase III Gd-Tex Gadolinium Xcytrin Anti-HIV Agents National Cancer texaphyrin Institute GdT2B2 Motexafin Antineoplastic Pharmacyclics gadolinium Enhancing (Originator) Agents PCI-0120 Brain Cancer Therapy Glioblastoma MultiformeTherapy Head and Neck Cancer Therapy Lung Cancer Therapy Lymphocytic Leukemia Therapy Multiple Myeloma Therapy Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Therapy Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Therapy Radiosensitizers Renal Cancer Therapy Solid Tumors Therapy Launched- DP-178 Enfuvirtide Fuzeon Anti-HIV Agents Viral Fusion Duke University 2003 Inhibitors (Originator) R-698 Pentafuside Roche T-20 Trimeris (Originator) Phase II BC-IL Buffy coat MultiKine AIDS Medicines Cel-Sci interleukins (Originator) Cancer University of Immunotherapy Maryland Cervical Cancer Therapy Head and Neck Cancer Therapy Prostate Cancer Therapy Phase II FP-21399 Anti-HIV Agents Viral Fusion EMD Lexigen Inhibitors (Originator) Fuji Photo Film (Originator) Phase II AXD-455 Semapimod Anti-HIV Agents Deoxyhypusine Axxima hydrochloride Synthase Inhibitors CNI-1493 Antipsoriatics Mitogen- Cytokine Activated PharmaSciences Protein Kinase (MAPK) Inhibitors Inflammatory Nitric Oxide Picower Institute Bowel Disease, Synthase for Medical Agents for Inhibitors Research (Originator) Pancreatic Disorders, Treatment of Renal Cancer Therapy Phase II ALVAC AIDS Vaccines ANRS MN120 TMGMP ALVAC Merck & Co. vCP205 vCP205 Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Sanofi Pasteur (Originator) Virogenetics (Originator) Walter Reed Army Institute Phase I/II CY-2301 Theradigm- AIDS Vaccines Epimmune HIV (Originator) EP HIV-1090 DNA Vaccines IDM EP-1090 Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. National Institutes of Health Phase II CD4-IgG2 Anti-HIV Agents Viral Entry Epicyte Inhibitors PRO-542 Formatech GTC Biotherapeutics Progenics (Originator) Phase I UC-781 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Biosyn Transcriptase Inhibitors Microbicides Cellegy Uniroyal (Originator) University of Pittsburgh (Originator) Preclinical ProVax AIDS Vaccines Progenics (Originator) Phase II ACH- Elvucitabine Anti-HIV Agents DNA Achillion 126443 Polymerase Inhibitors L-D4FC Anti-Hepatitis B Reverse Vion Virus Drugs Transcriptase Inhibitors beta-L-Fd4C Yale University (Originator) Preclinical CV-N Cyanovirin N Anti-HIV Agents Viral Entry Biosyn Inhibitors Microbicides National Cancer Institute (US) (Originator) Launched- PNU- Tipranavir Aptivus Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Boehringer 2005 140690 Inhibitors Ingelheim U-140690 Pfizer (Originator) PNU- 140690E (diNa salt) Phase I/II ADA Azodicarbonamide Anti-HIV Agents National Cancer Institute (US) (Originator) NSC- Rega Institute for 674447 Medical Research (Originator) Launched- Bis(POC)PM Tenofovir Viread AIDS Medicines Reverse Gilead 2001 PA disoproxil Transcriptase (Originator) fumarate Inhibitors GS-4331-05 Anti-HIV Agents Japan Tobacco Japan Tobacco (Orphan Drug) Phase II PA-457 Anti-HIV Agents Viral Biotech Maturation Research Inhibitors Laboratories (Originator) YK-FH312 Panacos University North Carolina, Chapel Hill (Originator) ViroLogic Phase II SP-01 Anticort Anti-HIV Agents HMG-CoA Altachem Reductase mRNA Expression Inhibitors SP-01A Oncolytic Drugs Viral Entry Georgetown Inhibitors University (Originator) Samaritan Pharmaceuticals Launched- BMS-232632- Atazanavir Reyataz Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Bristol-Myers 2003 05 sulfate Inhibitors Squibb CGP-73547 Bristol-Myers Squibb (Orphan Drug) BMS-232632 Novartis (free base) (Originator) Launched- AZT/3TC Lamivudine/Zidovudine Combivir Anti-HIV Agents Reverse GlaxoSmithKline 1997 Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors Zidovudine/Lamivudine Phase III AIDSVAX AIDS Vaccines Genentech B/B (Originator) AIDSVAX Nat. Inst. Allergy gp120 B/B & Infectious Dis. VaxGen Phase II (−)-BCH- Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Avexa 10652 Transcriptase (−)-dOTC Inhibitors Shire Pharmaceuticals (Originator) AVX-754 BCH-10618 SPD-754 Phase II D-D4FC Reverset Anti-HIV Agents DNA Bristol-Myers Polymerase Squibb Inhibitors (Originator) DPC-817 Reverse Incyte Transcriptase Inhibitors RVT Pharmasset beta-D- D4FC Phase I/II VIR-201 AIDS Vaccines Virax (Originator) Preclinical DDE-46 Anti-HIV Agents Antimitotic Paradigm Drugs Pharmaceuticals WHI-07 Oncolytic Drugs Apoptosis Parker Hughes Inducers Institute (Originator) Vaginal Caspase 3 Spermicides Activators Caspase 8 Activators Caspase 9 Activators Microtubule inhibitors Preclinical HI-113 Sampidine Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Parker Hughes Transcriptase Institute Inhibitors (Originator) STAMP Stampidine d4T- pBPMAP Preclinical WHI-05 Anti-HIV Agents Paradigm Pharmaceuticals Vaginal Parker Hughes Spermicides Institute (Originator) Preclinical 1F7 Anti-HIV Agents Murine ImmPheron Monoclonal CTB-1 Anti-Hepatitis C Antibodies Immune Network Virus Drugs MAb 1F7 InNexus Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center (Originator) University of British Columbia IND Filed MDI-P Anti-HIV Agents Dana-Farber Cancer Institute Antibacterial Medical Drugs Discoveries (Originator) Asthma Therapy Cystic Fibrosis, Treatment of Septic Shock, Treatment of Phase I PA-14 Anti-HIV Agents Anti-CD195 Epicyte (CCR5) PRO-140 Humanized Progenics Monoclonal (Originator) Antibodies Viral Entry Protein Design Inhibitors Labs Phase II EpiBr Immunitin Anti-HIV Agents Colthurst (Originator) HE-2000 Inactivin Anti-Hepatitis B Edenland Virus Drugs Anti-Hepatitis C Hollis-Eden Virus Drugs (Originator) Antimalarials Cystic Fibrosis, Treatment of Immunomodulators Treatment of Tuberculosis Phase II ALVAC AIDS Vaccines ANRS vCP1452 vCP1452 Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Sanofi Pasteur (Originator) Virogenetics (Originator) Phase II (±)-FTC Racivir Anti-HIV Agents Pharmasset (Originator) PSI-5004 Anti-Hepatitis B Virus Drugs Phase III Cellulose Female Viral Entry Polydex sulfate Contraceptives Inhibitors (Originator) Ushercell Microbicides Phase I SF-2 rgp120 AIDS Vaccines Chiron (Originator) rgp120 SF-2 Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Phase I MIV-150 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Medivir Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors Microbicides Population Council Phase I/II Cytolin Anti-HIV Agents Anti- Amerimmune CD11a/CD18 (Originator) (LFA-1) Murine Cytodyn Monoclonal Antibodies Phase III 10D1 mAb Anti-HIV Agents Anti-CD152 Bristol-Myers (CTLA-4) Squibb Anti-CTLA-4 Breast Cancer Human Medarex MAb Therapy Monoclonal (Originator) Antibodies MDX-010 Head and Neck Medarex Cancer Therapy (Orphan Drug) MDX- Melanoma National Cancer CTLA4 Therapy Institute MDX-101 Prostate Cancer (formerly) Therapy Renal Cancer Therapy Phase II/III 1018-ISS AIDS Medicines Oligonucleotides Dynavax (Originator) ISS-1018 Antiallergy/Antiasthmatic Gilead Drugs Drugs for Sanofi Pasteur Allergic Rhinitis Immunomodulators Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Therapy Vaccine adjuvants Phase I/II HGTV43 Stealth Anti-HIV Agents Enzo (Originator) Vector Gene Delivery Systems Phase II R-147681 Dapivirine Anti-HIV Agents Reverse IPM Transcriptase Inhibitors TMC-120 Microbicides Janssen (Originator) Tibotec (Originator) Phase II DPC-083 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Bristol-Myers Transcriptase Squibb Inhibitors (Originator) Launched- Lamivudine/zidovudine/ Trizivir Anti-HIV Agents GlaxoSmithKline 2000 abacavir (Originator) sulfate Launched- 908 Fosamprenavir Lexiva Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease GlaxoSmithKline 2003 calcium Inhibitors (Originator) GW- Telzir Chemical Vertex 433908G Delivery (Originator) Systems GW-433908 (free acid) VX-175 (free acid) Phase I DNA HIV AIDS Vaccines GlaxoSmithKline vaccine PowderJect HIV PowderMed DNA vaccine (Originator) Phase III PC-515 Carraguard Microbicides Population Council (Originator) Phase II R-165335 Etravirine Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Janssen Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors TMC-125 Tibotec (Originator) Preclinical SP-1093V Anti-HIV Agents DNA McGill University Polymerase Inhibitors Reverse Supratek Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors Phase III AIDSVAX AIDS Vaccines Genentech B/E (Originator) AIDSVAX VaxGen gp120 B/E Walter Reed Army Institute Launched- ABT-378/r Lopinavir/ritonavir Kaletra Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Abbott 2000 Inhibitors (Originator) ABT- Severe Acute Gilead 378/ritonavir Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), Treatment of Phase I BCH-13520 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Shire Transcriptase Pharmaceuticals Inhibitors (Originator) SPD-756 Phase I/II BAY-50- Adargileukin Anti-HIV Agents IL-2 Bayer 4798 alfa Immunomodulators (Originator) Oncolytic Drugs Phase I 204937 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse GlaxoSmithKline Transcriptase Inhibitors MIV-210 Anti-Hepatitis B Medivir Virus Drugs (Originator) Phase III BufferGel Microbicides Johns Hopkins University (Originator) Vaginal National Spermicides Institutes of Health ReProtect (Originator) Phase I Ad5-FLgag AIDS Vaccines Merck & Co. (Originator) Ad5-gag DNA Vaccines Phase III ALVAC AIDS Vaccines Nat. Inst. Allergy E120TMG & Infectious Dis. ALVAC Sanofi Pasteur vCP1521 (Originator) vCP1521 Virogenetics (Originator) Walter Reed Army Institute Phase II MVA-BN AIDS Vaccines Bavarian Nordic Nef (Originator) MVA-HIV-1 LAI-nef MVA-nef Phase I DNA/MVA Multiprotein AIDS Vaccines Emory University SHIV-89.6 DNA/MVA (Originator) vaccine GeoVax Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Phase II MVA.HIVA AIDS Vaccines Impfstoffwerk Dessau-Tornau GmbH (Originator) International AIDS Vaccine Initiative Uganda Virus Research Institute University of Oxford Phase I LFn-p24 HIV-Therapore AIDS Vaccines Avant vaccine (Originator) Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Walter Reed Army Institute Phase III C31G Glyminox Oramed Anti-HIV Agents Biosyn (Originator) SAVVY Antibacterial Cellegy Drugs Antifungal Agents Microbicides Treatment of Opportunistic Infections Vaginal Spermicides Phase I BRI-7013 VivaGel Microbicides Biomolecular Research Institute (Originator) SPL-7013 Starpharma Phase I/II SDS Sodium dodecyl Invisible Anti-HIV Agents Universite Laval sulfate Condom (Originator) SLS Sodium lauryl Anti-Herpes sulfate Simplex Virus Drugs Antiviral Drugs Microbicides Vaginal Spermicides Phase I/II 2F5 Anti-HIV Agents Human Epicyte Monoclonal Antibodies Viral Entry Polymun Inhibitors (Originator) Universitaet Wien (Originator) Phase I AK-671 Ancriviroc Anti-HIV Agents Chemokine Schering-Plough CCR5 (Originator) Antagonists SCH- Viral Entry 351125 Inhibitors SCH-C Schering C Phase I DNA/PLG AIDS Vaccines Chiron microparticles (Originator) DNA Vaccines Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Phase I AAV2-gag- AIDS Vaccines International PR-DELTA- AIDS Vaccine RT Initiative tgAAC-09 DNA Vaccines Targeted Genetics (Originator) tgAAC09 AAV Phase I AVX-101 AIDS Vaccines AlphaVax (Originator) AVX-101 DNA Vaccines Nat. Inst. Allergy VEE & Infectious Dis. Phase I gp160 AIDS Vaccines ANRS MN/LAI-2 Sanofi Pasteur (Originator) Walter Reed Army Institute Preclinical THPB 2-OH-propyl- Trappsol Anti-HIV Agents Cyclodextrin beta- HPB Technologies cyclodextrin Development O-(2- (Originator) Hydroxypropyl)- beta- cyclodextrin Preclinical MPI-49839 Anti-HIV Agents Myriad Genetics (Originator) Phase I BMS- Anti-HIV Agents Viral Entry Bristol-Myers 378806 Inhibitors Squibb BMS-806 (Originator) Phase I T-cell HIV AIDS Vaccines Hadassah Vaccine Medical Organization (Originator) Weizmann Institute of Science Phase III TMC-114 Darunavir Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Johnson & Inhibitors Johnson UIC-94017 Tibotec (Originator) University of Illinois (Originator) Preclinical MV-026048 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Medivir Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors Roche Preclinical K5-N, OS(H) Anti-HIV Agents Angiogenesis Glycores 2000 Inhibitors Microbicides Viral Fusion San Raffaele Inhibitors Scientific Institute Oncolytic Drugs Universita degli Studi di Bari (Originator) Universita degli Studi di Brescia (Originator) Phase III UK-427857 Maraviroc Anti-HIV Agents Chemokine Pfizer CCR5 (Originator) Antagonists Viral Entry Inhibitors Phase I BILR-355 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Boehringer Transcriptase Ingelheim Inhibitors (Originator) BILR-355- BS Launched- Abacavir Epzicom Anti-HIV Agents Reverse GlaxoSmithKline 2004 sulfate/lamivudine Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors Kivexa Preclinical DermaVir AIDS Vaccines Genetic Immunity (Originator) DNA Vaccines Research Institute Genetic Human Ther. Phase I/II 2G12 Anti-HIV Agents Human Epicyte Monoclonal Antibodies Viral Entry Polymun Inhibitors (Originator) Universitaet Wien (Originator) Phase I L- Anti-HIV Agents HIV Integrase Merck & Co. 000870810 Inhibitors (Originator) L-870810 Phase I L-870812 Anti-HIV Agents HIV Integrase Merck & Co. Inhibitors (Originator) Phase I VRX-496 Anti-HIV Agents University of Pennsylvania Antisense VIRxSYS Therapy (Originator) Preclinical SAMMA Microbicides Viral Entry Mount Sinai Inhibitors School of Medicine (Originator) Rush University Medical Center (Originator) Phase I Ad5gag2 AIDS Vaccines Merck & Co. (Originator) MRKAd5 Nat. Inst. Allergy HIV-1 gag & Infectious Dis. MRKAd5gag Sanofi Pasteur Phase I BG-777 Anti- Virocell Cytomegalovirus (Originator) Drugs Anti-HIV Agents Anti-Influenza Virus Drugs Antibacterial Drugs Immunomodulators Preclinical Sulphonated Contraceptives Panjab Hesperidin Microbicides University (Originator) Phase II 695634 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse GlaxoSmithKline Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors GW-5634 GW-695634 Phase II GW-678248 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse GlaxoSmithKline Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors GW-8248 Preclinical R-1495 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Medivir Transcriptase Inhibitors Roche Preclinical SMP-717 Anti- Reverse Advanced Life Cytomegalovirus Transcriptase Sciences Drugs Inhibitors (Originator) Anti-HIV Agents Phase I/II AMD-070 Anti-HIV Agents Chemokine AnorMED CXCR4 (SDF- (Originator) 1) Antagonists Viral Entry Nat. Inst. Allergy Inhibitors & Infectious Dis. National Institutes of Health Preclinical TGF-alpha Anti-HIV Agents Centocor Antiparkinsonian Kaleidos Pharma Drugs National Cancer Institute (US) (Originator) National Institutes of Health (Originator) Phase II 873140 Anti-HIV Agents Chemokine GlaxoSmithKline CCR5 Antagonists AK-602 Viral Entry Ono (Originator) Inhibitors GW-873140 ONO-4128 Phase I TAK-220 Anti-HIV Agents Chemokine Takeda CCR5 (Originator) Antagonists Viral Entry Inhibitors Launched V-1 Immunitor AIDS Vaccines Immunitor (Originator) Treatment of AIDS-Associated Disorders Phase I TAK-652 Anti-HIV Agents Chemokine Takeda CCR5 (Originator) Antagonists Viral Entry Inhibitors IND Filed R15K BlockAide/ Anti-HIV Agents Viral Entry Adventrx CR Inhibitors Pharmaceuticals M. D. Anderson Cancer Center (Originator) Phase II R-278474 Rilpivirine Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Janssen Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors TMC-278 Preclinical KPC-2 Anti-HIV Agents Kucera Pharmaceutical (Originator) Preclinical INK-20 Anti-HIV Agents Kucera Pharmaceutical (Originator) Chemical Delivery Systems Phase I CCR5 mAb Anti-HIV Agents Anti-CD195 Human Genome (CCR5) Sciences (Originator) CCR5mAb004 Human Monoclonal Antibodies Viral Entry Inhibitors Preclinical MIV-170 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Medivir Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors Phase I DP6-001 HIV DNA AIDS Vaccines Advanced vaccine BioScience DNA Vaccines CytRx University of Massachusetts (Originator) Phase II AG-001859 Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Pfizer Inhibitors (Originator) AG-1859 Phase I/II GTU- AIDS Vaccines FIT Biotech MultiHIV (Originator) DNA Vaccines International AIDS Vaccine Initiative Preclinical EradicAide AIDS Vaccines Adventrx Pharmaceuticals M. D. Anderson Cancer Center (Originator) Launched- Tenofovir Truvada Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Gilead 2004 disoproxil Transcriptase (Originator) fumarate/emtricitabine Inhibitors Japan Tobacco Preclinical BlockAide/VP Anti-HIV Agents Viral Entry Adventrx Inhibitors Pharmaceuticals (Originator) Preclinical TPFA Thiovir Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Adventrx Transcriptase Pharmaceuticals Inhibitors Cervical Cancer National Cancer Therapy Institute Genital Warts, University of Treatment for Southern California (Originator) Phase I/II MetX MetaboliteX Anti-HIV Agents Tripep (Originator) alpha-HGA Preclinical NV-05A Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Idenix Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors Phase I/II IR-103 AIDS Vaccines Immune Response Preclinical MX-100 Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Pharmacor Inhibitors (Originator) PL-100 Procyon Biopharma (Originator) ViroLogic Phase I Anti-HIV Agents Fresenius (Originator) Gene Therapy Georg-Speyer- Haus (Originator) Phase I SCH-D Anti-HIV Agents Chemokine Schering-Plough CCR5 (Originator) Antagonists Sch-417690 Viral Entry Inhibitors Preclinical ImmunoVex- AIDS Vaccines BioVex HIV (Originator) Phase I CYT-99-007 Anti-HIV Agents Cytheris (Originator) rhIL-7 Immunomodulators Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. National Cancer Institute Phase I recombinant o- AIDS Vaccines Chiron gp140/MF59 (Originator) adjuvant Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Phase II BMS- Anti-HIV Agents Viral Entry Bristol-Myers 488043 Inhibitors Squibb (Originator) Preclinical KP-1212 Anti-HIV Agents Koronis (Originator) SN-1212 Preclinical AMD-887 Anti-HIV Agents Chemokine AnorMED CCR5 (Originator) Antagonists Viral Entry Inhibitors Phase I KP-1461 Anti-HIV Agents Koronis (Originator) SN-1461 Chemical Delivery Systems Preclinical DES-10 Anti-HIV Agents AusAm Biotechnologies (Originator) Anti-Herpes National Virus Drugs Institutes of Health Preclinical APP-069 Anti-HIV Agents Aphios (Originator) Preclinical PC-815 MIV- Anti-HIV Agents Medivir 150/Carraguard (Originator) MIV-150/PC- Microbicides Population 515 Council (Originator) Preclinical FGI-345 Anti-HIV Agents Functional Genetics (Originator) Preclinical RPI-MN Anti-HIV Agents Nutra Pharma (Originator) ReceptoPharm (Originator) Preclinical Tenofovir Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Bristol-Myers disoproxil Transcriptase Squibb fumarate/emtricitabine/ Inhibitors (Originator) efavirenz Gilead (Originator) Merck & Co. (Originator) Preclinical MVA-BN HIV AIDS Vaccines Bavarian Nordic Polytope (Originator) Preclinical MVA-BN HIV AIDS Vaccines Bavarian Nordic Multiantigen (Originator) Preclinical PBS-119 Immunostimulants Phoenix Biosciences (Originator) Phase II HIV-1 Tat Toxoid AIDS Vaccines Neovacs vaccine Tat Toxoid Sanofi Pasteur vaccine Univ. Maryland Biotechnology Institute Phase III TNP Thymus nuclear Anti-HIV Agents Viral Genetics VGV-1 protein Phase I VCR-ADV- AIDS Vaccines GenVec 014 (Originator) VRC- Nat. Inst. Allergy HIVADV014- & Infectious Dis. 00-VP Preclinical SP-010 Anti-HIV Agents Georgetown University (Originator) SP-10 Cognition Samaritan Disorders, Pharmaceuticals Treatment of Phase I/II GS-9137 Anti-HIV Agents HIV Integrase Gilead Inhibitors JTK-303 Japan Tobacco (Originator) Phase I/II RNA-loaded AIDS Vaccines Argos dendritic cell Cancer Vaccines Therapeutics vaccine (Originator) Melanoma Therapy Renal Cancer Therapy Phase I IFN-alpha Antiferon AIDS Vaccines Neovacs kinoid (Originator) Systemic Lupus Sanofi Pasteur Erythematosus, Agents for Vaccines Phase II DNA.HIVA AIDS Vaccines International AIDS Vaccine Initiative HIVA DNA Vaccines ML Laboratories (Originator) Uganda Virus Research Institute University of Oxford Phase I DEBIO-025 Anti-HIV Agents Debiopharm (Originator) UNIL-025 Anti-Hepatitis C Virus Drugs Ischemic Stroke, Treatment of Preclinical HIV vaccine AIDS Vaccines Bema Biotech (Originator) MV-HIV vaccine Phase I 825780 DNA Vaccines GlaxoSmithKline (Originator) Viral Vaccines Phase I C-1605 AIDS Medicines Merck & Co. (Originator) Phase I ADMVA AIDS Vaccines Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center Impfstoffwerk Dessau-Tornau GmbH (Originator) International AIDS Vaccine Initiative Preclinical BL-1050 AIDS Medicines BioLineRx Hebrew University (Originator) Yissum Phase I CAP Cellulose Microbicides Viral Entry New York Blood acetate Inhibitors Center phthalate Vaginal Spermicides Preclinical QR-437 Anti-HIV Agents Quigley Pharma (Originator) Phase II MRKAd5 AIDS Vaccines Merck & Co. HIV-1 (Originator) gag/pol/nef MRKAd5 Nat. Inst. Allergy HIV-1 & Infectious Dis. trivalent MRKAd5gag/ pol/nef Preclinical CarryVac- AIDS Vaccines Tripep HIV (Originator) Vaccine Research Institute of San Diego Preclinical HIV-RAS AIDS Medicines Tripep (Originator) Preclinical PL-337 Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Procyon Inhibitors Biopharma (Originator) Phase I DNA-C AIDS Vaccines EuroVacc Foundation DNA-HIV-C Universitaet Regensburg (Originator) Phase II Lipo-5 AIDS Vaccines ANRS INSERM (Originator) Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Sanofi Pasteur (Originator) Phase I Lipo-6T AIDS Vaccines ANRS INSERM (Originator) Sanofi Pasteur (Originator) Phase I EnvPro AIDS Vaccines St. Jude Children's Res. Hosp. (Originator) Phase I TCB-M358 AIDS Vaccines Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Therion (Originator) Phase I TBC-M335 AIDS Vaccines Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Therion (Originator) Phase I TBC-F357 AIDS Vaccines Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Therion (Originator) Phase I TBC-F349 AIDS Vaccines Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Therion (Originator) Phase I TBC- AIDS Vaccines Nat. Inst. Allergy M358/TBC- & Infectious Dis. M355 Therion (Originator) Phase I TBC- AIDS Vaccines Nat. Inst. Allergy F357/TBC- & Infectious Dis. F349 Therion (Originator) Phase I HIV CTL Multiepitope CTL AIDS Vaccines Nat. Inst. Allergy MEP peptide vaccine & Infectious Dis. Wyeth Pharmaceuticals (Originator) Phase I VRC-DNA- AIDS Vaccines National 009 Institutes of Health (Originator) VRC- DNA Vaccines HIVDNA009- 00-VP Preclinical REP-9 Anti-HIV Agents Oligonucleotides REPLICor (Originator) Antiviral Drugs Preclinical PPL-100 Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Procyon Inhibitors Biopharma (Originator) Chemical Delivery Systems Phase I/II BI-201 Anti-HIV Agents Human BioInvent Monoclonal (Originator) Antibodies TABLE 99 Exemplary HIV Antivirals and Patent Numbers Ziagen (Abacavir sulfate, U.S. Pat. No. 5,034,394) Epzicom (Abacavir sulfate/lamivudine, U.S. Pat. No. 5,034,394) Hepsera (Adefovir dipivoxil, U.S. Pat. No. 4,724,233) Agenerase (Amprenavir, U.S. Pat. No. 5,646,180) Reyataz (Atazanavir sulfate, U.S. Pat. No. 5,849,911) Rescriptor (Delavirdine mesilate, U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,142) Hivid (Dideoxycytidine; Zalcitabine, U.S. Pat. No. 5,028,595) Videx (Dideoxyinosine; Didanosine, U.S. Pat. No. 4,861,759) Sustiva (Efavirenz, U.S. Pat. No. 5,519,021) Emtriva (Emtricitabine, U.S. Pat. No. 6,642,245) Lexiva (Fosamprenavir calcium, U.S. Pat. No. 6,436,989) Virudin; Triapten; Foscavir (Foscarnet sodium, U.S. Pat. No. 6,476,009) Crixivan (Indinavir sulfate, U.S. Pat. No. 5,413,999) Epivir (Lamivudine, U.S. Pat. No. 5 047,407) Combivir (Lamivudine/Zidovudine, U.S. Pat. No. 4,724,232) Aluviran (Lopinavir) Kaletra (Lopinavir/ritonavir, U.S. Pat. No. 5,541,206) Viracept (Nelfinavir mesilate, U.S. Pat. No. 5,484,926) Viramune (Nevirapine, U.S. Pat. No. 5,366,972) Norvir (Ritonavir, U.S. Pat. No. 5,541,206) Invirase; Fortovase (Saquinavir mesilate, U.S. Pat. No. 5,196,438) Zerit (Stavudine, U.S. Pat. No. 4,978,655) Truvada (Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate/emtricitabine, U.S. Pat. No. 5,210,085) Aptivus (Tipranavir) Retrovir (Zidovudine; Azidothymidine, U.S. Pat. No. 4,724,232) Metabolites of the Compounds of the Invention Also falling within the scope of this invention are the in vivo metabolic products of the compounds described herein. Such products may result for example from the oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis, amidation, esterification and the like of the administered compound, primarily due to enzymatic processes. Accordingly, the invention includes compounds produced by a process comprising contacting a compound of this invention with a mammal for a period of time sufficient to yield a metabolic product thereof. Such products typically are identified by preparing a radiolabelled (e.g., C14 or H3) compound of the invention, administering it parenterally in a detectable dose (e.g., greater than about 0.5 mg/kg) to an animal such as rat, mouse, guinea pig, monkey, or to man, allowing sufficient time for metabolism to occur (typically about 30 seconds to 30 hours) and isolating its conversion products from the urine, blood or other biological samples. These products are easily isolated since they are labeled (others are isolated by the use of antibodies capable of binding epitopes surviving in the metabolite). The metabolite structures are determined in conventional fashion, e.g., by MS or NMR analysis. In general, analysis of metabolites is done in the same way as conventional drug metabolism studies well-known to those skilled in the art. The conversion products, so long as they are not otherwise found in vivo, are useful in diagnostic assays for therapeutic dosing of the compounds of the invention even if they possess no HIV-inhibitory activity of their own. Recipes and methods for determining stability of compounds in surrogate gastrointestinal secretions are known. Compounds are defined herein as stable in the gastrointestinal tract where less than about 50 mole percent of the protected groups are deprotected in surrogate intestinal or gastric juice upon incubation for 1 hour at 37° C. Simply because the compounds are stable to the gastrointestinal tract does not mean that they cannot be hydrolyzed in vivo. The phosphonate prodrugs of the invention typically will be stable in the digestive system but are substantially hydrolyzed to the parental drug in the digestive lumen, liver or other metabolic organ, or within cells in general. Exemplary Methods of Making the Compounds of the Invention. The invention also relates to methods of making the compositions of the invention. The compositions are prepared by any of the applicable techniques of organic synthesis. Many such techniques are well known in the art. However, many of the known techniques are elaborated in Compendium of Organic Synthetic Methods (John Wiley & Sons, New York), Vol. 1, Ian T. Harrison and Shuyen Harrison, 1971; Vol. 2, Ian T. Harrison and Shuyen Harrison, 1974; Vol. 3, Louis S. Hegedus and Leroy Wade, 1977; Vol. 4, Leroy G. Wade, jr., 1980; Vol. 5, Leroy G. Wade, Jr., 1984; and Vol. 6, Michael B. Smith; as well as March, J., Advanced Organic Chemistry, Third Edition, (John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1985), Comprehensive Organic Synthesis. Selectivity, Strategy & Efficiency in Modern Organic Chemistry. In 9 Volumes, Barry M. Trost, Editor-in-Chief (Pergamon Press, New York, 1993 printing). A number of exemplary methods for the preparation of the compositions of the invention are provided below. These methods are intended to illustrate the nature of such preparations and are not intended to limit the scope of applicable methods. Generally, the reaction conditions such as temperature, reaction time, solvents, work-up procedures, and the like, will be those common in the art for the particular reaction to be performed. The cited reference material, together with material cited therein, contains detailed descriptions of such conditions. Typically the temperatures will be −100° C. to 200° C., solvents will be aprotic or protic, and reaction times will be 10 seconds to 10 days. Work-up typically consists of quenching any unreacted reagents followed by partition between a water/organic layer system (extraction) and separating the layer containing the product. Oxidation and reduction reactions are typically carried out at temperatures near room temperature (about 20° C.), although for metal hydride reductions frequently the temperature is reduced to 0° C. to −100° C., solvents are typically aprotic for reductions and may be either protic or aprotic for oxidations. Reaction times are adjusted to achieve desired conversions. Condensation reactions are typically carried out at temperatures near room temperature, although for non-equilibrating, kinetically controlled condensations reduced temperatures (0° C. to −100° C.) are also common. Solvents can be either protic (common in equilibrating reactions) or aprotic (common in kinetically controlled reactions). Standard synthetic techniques such as azeotropic removal of reaction by-products and use of anhydrous reaction conditions (e.g., inert gas environments) are common in the art and will be applied when applicable. Schemes and Examples General aspects of these exemplary methods are described below and in the Examples. Each of the products of the following processes is optionally separated, isolated, and/or purified prior to its use in subsequent processes. Generally, the reaction conditions such as temperature, reaction time, solvents, work-up procedures, and the like, will be those common in the art for the particular reaction to be performed. The cited reference material, together with material cited therein, contains detailed descriptions of such conditions. Typically the temperatures will be −100° C. to 200° C., solvents will be aprotic or protic, and reaction times will be 10 seconds to 10 days. Work-up typically consists of quenching any unreacted reagents followed by partition between a water/organic layer system (extraction) and separating the layer containing the product. Oxidation and reduction reactions are typically carried out at temperatures near room temperature (about 20° C.), although for metal hydride reductions frequently the temperature is reduced to 0° C. to −100° C., solvents are typically aprotic for reductions and may be either protic or aprotic for oxidations. Reaction times are adjusted to achieve desired conversions. Condensation reactions are typically carried out at temperatures near room temperature, although for non-equilibrating, kinetically controlled condensations reduced temperatures (0° C. to −100° C.) are also common. Solvents can be either protic (common in equilibrating reactions) or aprotic (common in kinetically controlled reactions). Standard synthetic techniques such as azeotropic removal of reaction by-products and use of anhydrous reaction conditions (e.g., inert gas environments) are common in the art and will be applied when applicable. The terms “treated”, “treating”, “treatment”, and the like, when used in connection with a chemical synthetic operation, mean contacting, mixing, reacting, allowing to react, bringing into contact, and other terms common in the art for indicating that one or more chemical entities is treated in such a manner as to convert it to one or more other chemical entities. This means that “treating compound one with compound two” is synonymous with “allowing compound one to react with compound two”, “contacting compound one with compound two”, “reacting compound one with compound two”, and other expressions common in the art of organic synthesis for reasonably indicating that compound one was “treated”, “reacted”, “allowed to react”, etc., with compound two. For example, treating indicates the reasonable and usual manner in which organic chemicals are allowed to react. Normal concentrations (0.01M to 10M, typically 0.1M to 1M), temperatures (−100° C. to 250° C., typically −78° C. to 150° C., more typically −78° C. to 100° C., still more typically 0° C. to 100° C.), reaction vessels (typically glass, plastic, metal), solvents, pressures, atmospheres (typically air for oxygen and water insensitive reactions or nitrogen or argon for oxygen or water sensitive), etc., are intended unless otherwise indicated. The knowledge of similar reactions known in the art of organic synthesis are used in selecting the conditions and apparatus for “treating” in a given process. In particular, one of ordinary skill in the art of organic synthesis selects conditions and apparatus reasonably expected to successfully carry out the chemical reactions of the described processes based on the knowledge in the art. Modifications of each of the exemplary schemes and in the examples (hereafter “exemplary schemes”) leads to various analogs of the specific exemplary materials produce. The above-cited citations describing suitable methods of organic synthesis are applicable to such modifications. In each of the exemplary schemes it may be advantageous to separate reaction products from one another and/or from starting materials. The desired products of each step or series of steps is separated and/or purified (hereinafter separated) to the desired degree of homogeneity by the techniques common in the art. Typically such separations involve multiphase extraction, crystallization from a solvent or solvent mixture, distillation, sublimation, or chromatography. Chromatography can involve any number of methods including, for example: reverse-phase and normal phase; size exclusion; ion exchange; high, medium, and low pressure liquid chromatography methods and apparatus; small scale analytical; simulated moving bed (SMB) and preparative thin or thick layer chromatography, as well as techniques of small scale thin layer and flash chromatography. Another class of separation methods involves treatment of a mixture with a reagent selected to bind to or render otherwise separable a desired product, unreacted starting material, reaction by product, or the like. Such reagents include adsorbents or absorbents such as activated carbon, molecular sieves, ion exchange media, or the like. Alternatively, the reagents can be acids in the case of a basic material, bases in the case of an acidic material, binding reagents such as antibodies, binding proteins, selective chelators such as crown ethers, liquid/liquid ion extraction reagents (LIX), or the like. Selection of appropriate methods of separation depends on the nature of the materials involved. For example, boiling point, and molecular weight in distillation and sublimation, presence or absence of polar functional groups in chromatography, stability of materials in acidic and basic media in multiphase extraction, and the like. One skilled in the art will apply techniques most likely to achieve the desired separation. A single stereoisomer, e.g., an enantiomer, substantially free of its stereoisomer may be obtained by resolution of the racemic mixture using a method such as formation of diastereomers using optically active resolving agents (Stereochemistry of Carbon Compounds, (1962) by E. L. Eliel, McGraw Hill; Lochmuller, C. H., (1975) J. Chromatogr., 113:(3) 283-302). Racemic mixtures of chiral compounds of the invention can be separated and isolated by any suitable method, including: (1) formation of ionic, diastereomeric salts with chiral compounds and separation by fractional crystallization or other methods, (2) formation of diastereomeric compounds with chiral derivatizing reagents, separation of the diastereomers, and conversion to the pure stereoisomers, and (3) separation of the substantially pure or enriched stereoisomers directly under chiral conditions. Under method (1), diastereomeric salts can be formed by reaction of enantiomerically pure chiral bases such as brucine, quinine, ephedrine, strychnine, α-methyl-β-phenylethylamine (amphetamine), and the like with asymmetric compounds bearing acidic functionality, such as carboxylic acid and sulfonic acid. The diastereomeric salts may be induced to separate by fractional crystallization or ionic chromatography. For separation of the optical isomers of amino compounds, addition of chiral carboxylic or sulfonic acids, such as camphorsulfonic acid, tartaric acid, mandelic acid, or lactic acid can result in formation of the diastereomeric salts. Alternatively, by method (2), the substrate to be resolved is reacted with one enantiomer of a chiral compound to form a diastereomeric pair (Eliel, E. and Wilen, S. (1994) Stereochemistry of Organic Compounds, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., p. 322). Diastereomeric compounds can be formed by reacting asymmetric compounds with enantiomerically pure chiral derivatizing reagents, such as menthyl derivatives, followed by separation of the diastereomers and hydrolysis to yield the free, enantiomerically enriched xanthene. A method of determining optical purity involves making chiral esters, such as a menthyl ester, e.g., (−) menthyl chloroformate in the presence of base, or Mosher ester, α-methoxy-α-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl acetate (Jacob III. (1982) J. Org. Chem. 47:4165), of the racemic mixture, and analyzing the NMR spectrum for the presence of the two atropisomeric diastereomers. Stable diastereomers of atropisomeric compounds can be separated and isolated by normal- and reverse-phase chromatography following methods for separation of atropisomeric naphthyl-isoquinolines (Hoye, T., WO 96/15111). By method (3), a racemic mixture of two enantiomers can be separated by chromatography using a chiral stationary phase (Chiral Liquid Chromatography (1989) W. J. Lough, Ed. Chapman and Hall, New York; Okamoto, (1990) J. of Chromatogr. 513:375-378). Enriched or purified enantiomers can be distinguished by methods used to distinguish other chiral molecules with asymmetric carbon atoms, such as optical rotation and circular dichroism. Examples General Section A number of exemplary methods for the preparation of compounds of the invention are provided herein, for example, in the Examples hereinbelow. These methods are intended to illustrate the nature of such preparations are not intended to limit the scope of applicable methods. Certain compounds of the invention can be used as intermediates for the preparation of other compounds of the invention. For example, the interconversion of various phosphonate compounds of the invention is illustrated below. Interconversions of the Phosphonates R-Link-P(O)(OR1)2, R-Link-P(O)(OR1)(OH) and R-Link-P(O)(OH)2. The following schemes 32-38 describe the preparation of phosphonate esters of the general structure R-link-P(O)(OR1)2, in which the groups R1 may be the same or different. The R1 groups attached to a phosphonate ester, or to precursors thereto, may be changed using established chemical transformations. The interconversion reactions of phosphonates are illustrated in Scheme S32. The group R in Scheme 32 represents the substructure, i.e. the drug “scaffold, to which the substituent link-P(O)(OR1)2 is attached, either in the compounds of the invention, or in precursors thereto. At the point in the synthetic route of conducting a phosphonate interconversion, certain functional groups in R may be protected. The methods employed for a given phosphonate transformation depend on the nature of the substituent R1, and of the substrate to which the phosphonate group is attached. The preparation and hydrolysis of phosphonate esters is described in Organic Phosphorus Compounds, G. M. Kosolapoff, L. Maeir, eds, Wiley, 1976, p. 9ff. In general, synthesis of phosphonate esters is achieved by coupling a nucleophile amine or alcohol with the corresponding activated phosphonate electrophilic precursor. For example, chlorophosphonate addition on to 5′-hydroxy of nucleoside is a well known method for preparation of nucleoside phosphate monoesters. The activated precursor can be prepared by several well known methods. Chlorophosphonates useful for synthesis of the prodrugs are prepared from the substituted-1,3-propanediol (Wissner, et al, (1992) J. Med. Chem. 35:1650). Chlorophosphonates are made by oxidation of the corresponding chlorophospholanes (Anderson, et al, (1984) J. Org. Chem. 49:1304) which are obtained by reaction of the substituted diol with phosphorus trichloride. Alternatively, the chlorophosphonate agent is made by treating substituted-11,3-diols with phosphorusoxychloride (Patois, et al, (1990) J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. I, 1577). Chlorophosphonate species may also be generated in situ from corresponding cyclic phosphites (Silverburg, et al., (1996) Tetrahedron lett., 37:771-774), which in turn can be either made from chlorophospholane or phosphoramidate intermediate. Phosphoroflouridate intermediate prepared either from pyrophosphate or phosphoric acid may also act as precursor in preparation of cyclic prodrugs (Watanabe et al., (1988) Tetrahedron lett., 29:5763-66). Phosphonate prodrugs of the present invention may also be prepared from the free acid by Mitsunobu reactions (Mitsunobu, (1981) Synthesis, 1; Campbell, (1992) J. Org. Chem. 57:6331), and other acid coupling reagents including, but not limited to, carbodiimides (Alexander, et al, (1994) Collect. Czech. Chem. Commun. 59:1853; Casara et al, (1992) Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 2:145; Ohashi et al, (1988) Tetrahedron Lett., 29:1189), and benzotriazolyloxytris-(dimethylamino)phosphonium salts (Campagne et al (1993) Tetrahedron Lett. 34:6743). Aryl halides undergo Ni+2 catalyzed reaction with phosphite derivatives to give aryl phosphonate containing compounds (Balthazar, et al (1980) J. Org. Chem. 45:5425). Phosphonates may also be prepared from the chlorophosphonate in the presence of a palladium catalyst using aromatic triflates (Petrakis et al (1987) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 109:2831; Lu et al (1987) Synthesis 726). In another method, aryl phosphonate esters are prepared from aryl phosphates under anionic rearrangement conditions (Melvin (1981) Tetrahedron Lett. 22:3375; Casteel et al (1991) Synthesis, 691). N-Alkoxy aryl salts with alkali metal derivatives of cyclic alkyl phosphonate provide general synthesis for heteroaryl-2-phosphonate linkers (Redmore (1970) J. Org. Chem. 35:4114). These above mentioned methods can also be extended to compounds where the W5 group is a heterocycle. Cyclic-1,3-propanyl prodrugs of phosphonates are also synthesized from phosphonic diacids and substituted propane-1,3-diols using a coupling reagent such as 1,3-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC) in presence of a base (e.g., pyridine). Other carbodiimide based coupling agents like 1,3-disopropylcarbodiimide or water soluble reagent, 1-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-3-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride (EDCI) can also be utilized for the synthesis of cyclic phosphonate prodrugs. The conversion of a phosphonate diester S32.1 into the corresponding phosphonate monoester S32.2 (Scheme 32, Reaction 1) is accomplished by a number of methods. For example, the ester S32.1 in which R1 is an aralkyl group such as benzyl, is converted into the monoester compound S32.2 by reaction with a tertiary organic base such as diazabicyclooctane (DABCO) or quinuclidine, as described in J. Org. Chem. (1995) 60:2946. The reaction is performed in an inert hydrocarbon solvent such as toluene or xylene, at about 110° C. The conversion of the diester S32.1 in which R1 is an aryl group such as phenyl, or an alkenyl group such as allyl, into the monoester S32.2 is effected by treatment of the ester S32.1 with a base such as aqueous sodium hydroxide in acetonitrile or lithium hydroxide in aqueous tetrahydrofuran. Phosphonate diesters S32.1 in which one of the groups R1 is aralkyl, such as benzyl, and the other is alkyl, is converted into the monoesters S32.2 in which R1 is alkyl by hydrogenation, for example using a palladium on carbon catalyst. Phosphonate diesters in which both of the groups R1 are alkenyl, such as allyl, is converted into the monoester S32.2 in which R1 is alkenyl, by treatment with chlorotris(triphenylphosphine)rhodium (Wilkinson's catalyst) in aqueous ethanol at reflux, optionally in the presence of diazabicyclooctane, for example by using the procedure described in J. Org. Chem. (1973) 38:3224, for the cleavage of allyl carboxylates. The conversion of a phosphonate diester S32.1 or a phosphonate monoester S32.2 into the corresponding phosphonic acid S32.3 (Scheme 32, Reactions 2 and 3) can be effected by reaction of the diester or the monoester with trimethylsilyl bromide, as described in J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Comm., (1979) 739. The reaction is conducted in an inert solvent such as, for example, dichloromethane, optionally in the presence of a silylating agent such as bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide, at ambient temperature. A phosphonate monoester S32.2 in which R1 is aralkyl such as benzyl, is converted into the corresponding phosphonic acid S32.3 by hydrogenation over a palladium catalyst, or by treatment with hydrogen chloride in an ethereal solvent such as dioxane. A phosphonate monoester S32.2 in which R1 is alkenyl such as, for example, allyl, is converted into the phosphonic acid S32.3 by reaction with Wilkinson's catalyst in an aqueous organic solvent, for example in 15% aqueous acetonitrile, or in aqueous ethanol, for example using the procedure described in Helv. Chim. Acta. (1985) 68:618. Palladium catalyzed hydrogenolysis of phosphonate esters S32.1 in which R1 is benzyl is described in J. Org. Chem. (1959) 24:434. Platinum-catalyzed hydrogenolysis of phosphonate esters S32.1 in which R1 is phenyl is described in J. Am. Chem. Soc. (1956) 78:2336. The conversion of a phosphonate monoester S32.2 into a phosphonate diester S32.1 (Scheme 32, Reaction 4) in which the newly introduced R1 group is alkyl, aralkyl, haloalkyl such as chloroethyl, or aralkyl is effected by a number of reactions in which the substrate S32.2 is reacted with a hydroxy compound R1OH, in the presence of a coupling agent. Typically, the second phosphonate ester group is different than the first introduced phosphonate ester group, i.e. R1 is followed by the introduction of R2 where each of R1 and R2 is alkyl, aralkyl, haloalkyl such as chloroethyl, or aralkyl (Scheme 32, Reaction 4a) whereby S32.2 is converted to S32.1a. Suitable coupling agents are those employed for the preparation of carboxylate esters, and include a carbodiimide such as dicyclohexylcarbodiimide, in which case the reaction is preferably conducted in a basic organic solvent such as pyridine, or (benzotriazol-1-yloxy)tripyrrolidinophosphonium hexafluorophosphate (PYBOP, Sigma), in which case the reaction is performed in a polar solvent such as dimethylformamide, in the presence of a tertiary organic base such as diisopropylethylamine, or Aldrithiol-2 (Aldrich) in which case the reaction is conducted in a basic solvent such as pyridine, in the presence of a triaryl phosphine such as triphenylphosphine. Alternatively, the conversion of the phosphonate monoester S32.2 to the diester S32.1 is effected by the use of the Mitsunobu reaction, as described above. The substrate is reacted with the hydroxy compound R1OH, in the presence of diethyl azodicarboxylate and a triarylphosphine such as triphenyl phosphine. Alternatively, the phosphonate monoester S32.2 is transformed into the phosphonate diester S32.1, in which the introduced R1 group is alkenyl or aralkyl, by reaction of the monoester with the halide R1Br, in which R1 is as alkenyl or aralkyl. The alkylation reaction is conducted in a polar organic solvent such as dimethylformamide or acetonitrile, in the presence of a base such as cesium carbonate. Alternatively, the phosphonate monoester is transformed into the phosphonate diester in a two step procedure. In the first step, the phosphonate monoester S32.2 is transformed into the chloro analog RP(O)(OR1)Cl by reaction with thionyl chloride or oxalyl chloride and the like, as described in Organic Phosphorus Compounds, G. M. Kosolapoff, L. Maeir, eds, Wiley, 1976, p. 17, and the thus-obtained product RP(O)(OR1)Cl is then reacted with the hydroxy compound R1OH, in the presence of a base such as triethylamine, to afford the phosphonate diester S32.1. A phosphonic acid R-link-P(O)(OH)2 is transformed into a phosphonate monoester RP(O)(OR1)(OH) (Scheme 32, Reaction 5) by means of the methods described above of for the preparation of the phosphonate diester R-link-P(O)(OR1)2 S32.1, except that only one molar proportion of the component R1OH or R1Br is employed. Dialkyl phosphonates may be prepared according to the methods of: Quast et al (1974) Synthesis 490; Stowell et al (1990) Tetrahedron Lett. 3261; U.S. Pat. No. 5,663,159. A phosphonic acid R-link-P(O)(OH)2 S32.3 is transformed into a phosphonate diester R-link-P(O)(OR1)2 S32.1 (Scheme 32, Reaction 6) by a coupling reaction with the hydroxy compound R1OH, in the presence of a coupling agent such as Aldrithiol-2 (Aldrich) and triphenylphosphine. The reaction is conducted in a basic solvent such as pyridine. Alternatively, phosphonic acids S32.3 are transformed into phosphonic esters S32.1 in which R1 is aryl, by means of a coupling reaction employing, for example, dicyclohexylcarbodiimide in pyridine at ca 70° C. Alternatively, phosphonic acids S32.3 are transformed into phosphonic esters S32.1 in which R1 is alkenyl, by means of an alkylation reaction. The phosphonic acid is reacted with the alkenyl bromide R1Br in a polar organic solvent such as acetonitrile solution at reflux temperature, the presence of a base such as cesium carbonate, to afford the phosphonic ester S32.1. Preparation of Phosphonate Carbamates. Phosphonate esters may contain a carbamate linkage. The preparation of carbamates is described in Comprehensive Organic Functional Group Transformations, A. R. Katritzky, ed., Pergamon, 1995, Vol. 6, p. 416ff, and in Organic Functional Group Preparations, by S. R. Sandler and W. Karo, Academic Press, 1986, p: 260ff. The carbamoyl group may be formed by reaction of a hydroxy group according to the methods known in the art, including the teachings of Ellis, US 2002/0103378 A1 and Hajima, U.S. Pat. No. 6,018,049. Scheme 33 illustrates various methods by which the carbamate linkage is synthesized. As shown in Scheme 33, in the general reaction generating carbamates, an alcohol S33.1, is converted into the activated derivative S33.2 in which Lv is a leaving group such as halo, imidazolyl, benztriazolyl and the like, as described herein. The activated derivative S33.2 is then reacted with an amine S33.3, to afford the carbamate product S33.4. Examples 1-7 in Scheme 33 depict methods by which the general reaction is effected. Examples 8-10 illustrate alternative methods for the preparation of carbamates. Scheme 33, Example 1 illustrates the preparation of carbamates employing a chloroformyl derivative of the alcohol S33.5. In this procedure, the alcohol S33.5 is reacted with phosgene, in an inert solvent such as toluene, at about 0° C., as described in Org. Syn. Coll. Vol. 3, 167, 1965, or with an equivalent reagent such as trichloromethoxy chloroformate, as described in Org: Syn. Coll. Vol. 6, 715, 1988, to afford the chloroformate S33.6. The latter compound is then reacted with the amine component S33.3, in the presence of an organic or inorganic base, to afford the carbamate S33.7. For example, the chloroformyl compound S33.6 is reacted with the amine S33.3 in a water-miscible solvent such as tetrahydrofuran, in the presence of aqueous sodium hydroxide, as described in Org. Syn. Coll. Vol. 3, 167, 1965, to yield the carbamate S33.7. Alternatively, the reaction is performed in dichloromethane in the presence of an organic base such as diisopropylethylamine or dimethylaminopyridine. Scheme 33, Example 2 depicts the reaction of the chloroformate compound S33.6 with imidazole to produce the imidazolide S33.8. The imidazolide product is then reacted with the amine S33.3 to yield the carbamate S33.7. The preparation of the imidazolide is performed in an aprotic solvent such as dichloromethane at 0′, and the preparation of the carbamate is conducted in a similar solvent at ambient temperature, optionally in the presence of a base such as dimethylaminopyridine, as described in J. Med. Chem., 1989, 32, 357. Scheme 33 Example 3, depicts the reaction of the chloroformate S33.6 with an activated hydroxyl compound R″OH, to yield the mixed carbonate ester S33.10. The reaction is conducted in an inert organic solvent such as ether or dichloromethane, in the presence of a base such as dicyclohexylamine or triethylamine. The hydroxyl component R″OH is selected from the group of compounds S33.19-S33.24 shown in Scheme 33, and similar compounds. For example, if the component R″OH is hydroxybenztriazole S33.19, N-hydroxysuccinimide S33.20, or pentachlorophenol, S33.21, the mixed carbonate S33.10 is obtained by the reaction of the chloroformate with the hydroxyl compound in an ethereal solvent in the presence of dicyclohexylamine, as described in Can. J. Chem., 1982, 60, 976. A similar reaction in which the component R″OH is pentafluorophenol S33.22 or 2-hydroxypyridine S33.23 is performed in an ethereal solvent in the presence of triethylamine, as described in Syn., 1986, 303, and Chem. Ber. 118, 468, 1985. Scheme 33 Example 4 illustrates the preparation of carbamates in which an alkyloxycarbonylimidazole S33.8 is employed. In this procedure, an alcohol S33.5 is reacted with an equimolar amount of carbonyl diimidazole S33.11 to prepare the intermediate S33.8. The reaction is conducted in an aprotic organic solvent such as dichloromethane or tetrahydrofuran. The acyloxyimidazole S33.8 is then reacted with an equimolar amount of the amine R′NH2 to afford the carbamate S33.7. The reaction is performed in an aprotic organic solvent such as dichloromethane, as described in Tet. Lett., 42, 2001, 5227, to afford the carbamate S33.7. Scheme 33, Example 5 illustrates the preparation of carbamates by means of an intermediate alkoxycarbonylbenztriazole S33.13. In this procedure, an alcohol ROH is reacted at ambient temperature with an equimolar amount of benztriazole carbonyl chloride S33.12, to afford the alkoxycarbonyl product S33.13. The reaction is performed in an organic solvent such as benzene or toluene, in the presence of a tertiary organic amine such as triethylamine, as described in Synthesis., 1977, 704. The product is then reacted with the amine R′NH2 to afford the carbamate S33.7. The reaction is conducted in toluene or ethanol, at from ambient temperature to about 80 as described in Synthesis., 1977, 704. Scheme 33, Example 6 illustrates the preparation of carbamates in which a carbonate (R″O)2CO, S33.14, is reacted with an alcohol S33.5 to afford the intermediate alkyloxycarbonyl intermediate S33.15. The latter reagent is then reacted with the amine R′NH2 to afford the carbamate S33.7. The procedure in which the reagent S33.15 is derived from hydroxybenztriazole S33.19 is described in Synthesis, 1993, 908; the procedure in which the reagent S33.15 is derived from N-hydroxysuccinimide S33.20 is described in Tet. Lett., 1992, 2781; the procedure in which the reagent S33.15 is derived from 2-hydroxypyridine S33.23 is described in Tet. Lett., 1991, 4251; the procedure in which the reagent S33.15 is derived from 4-nitrophenol S33.24 is described in Synthesis. 1993, 103. The reaction between equimolar amounts of the alcohol ROH and the carbonate S33.14 is conducted in an inert organic solvent at ambient temperature. Scheme 33, Example 7 illustrates the preparation of carbamates from alkoxycarbonyl azides S33.16. In this procedure, an alkyl chloroformate S33.6 is reacted with an azide, for example sodium azide, to afford the alkoxycarbonyl azide S33.16. The latter compound is then reacted with an equimolar amount of the amine R′NH2 to afford the carbamate S33.7. The reaction is conducted at ambient temperature in a polar aprotic solvent such as dimethylsulfoxide, for example as described in Synthesis., 1982, 404. Scheme 33, Example 8 illustrates the preparation of carbamates by means of the reaction between an alcohol ROH and the chloroformyl derivative of an amine S33.17. In this procedure, which is described in Synthetic Organic Chemistry, R. B. Wagner, H. D. Zook, Wiley, 1953, p. 647, the reactants are combined at ambient temperature in an aprotic solvent such as acetonitrile, in the presence of a base such as triethylamine, to afford the carbamate S33.7. Scheme 33, Example 9 illustrates the preparation of carbamates by means of the reaction between an alcohol ROH and an isocyanate S33.18. In this procedure, which is described in Synthetic Organic Chemistry, R. B. Wagner, H. D. Zook, Wiley, 1953, p. 645, the reactants are combined at ambient temperature in an aprotic solvent such as ether or dichloromethane and the like, to afford the carbamate S33.7. Scheme 33, Example 10 illustrates the preparation of carbamates by means of the reaction between an alcohol ROH and an amine R′NH2. In this procedure, which is described in Chem. Lett. 1972, 373, the reactants are combined at ambient temperature in an aprotic organic solvent such as tetrahydrofuran, in the presence of a tertiary base such as triethylamine, and selenium. Carbon monoxide is passed through the solution and the reaction proceeds to afford the carbamate S33.7. Examples Preparation of Carboalkoxy-Substituted Phosphonate Bisamidates, Monoamidates, Diesters and Monoesters. A number of methods are available for the conversion of phosphonic acids into amidates and esters. In one group of methods, the phosphonic acid is either converted into an isolated activated intermediate such as a phosphoryl chloride, or the phosphonic acid is activated in situ for reaction with an amine or a hydroxy compound. The conversion of phosphonic acids into phosphoryl chlorides is accomplished by reaction with thionyl chloride, for example as described in J. Gen. Chem. USSR, 1983, 53, 480, Zh. Obschei Khim., 1958, 28, 1063, or J. Org. Chem., 1994, 59, 6144, or by reaction with oxalyl chloride, as described in J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1994, 116, 3251, or J. Org. Chem., 1994, 59, 6144, or by reaction with phosphorus pentachloride, as described in J. Org. Chem., 2001, 66, 329, or in J. Med. Chem., 1995, 38, 1372. The resultant phosphoryl chlorides are then reacted with amines or hydroxy compounds in the presence of a base to afford the amidate or ester products. Phosphonic acids are converted into activated imidazolyl derivatives by reaction with carbonyl diimidazole, as described in J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Comm. (1991) 312, or Nucleosides & Nucleotides (2000) 19:1885. Activated sulfonyloxy derivatives are obtained by the reaction of phosphonic acids with trichloromethylsulfonyl chloride or with triisopropylbenzenesulfonyl chloride, as described in Tet. Lett. (1996) 7857, or Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. (1998) 8:663. The activated sulfonyloxy derivatives are then reacted with amines or hydroxy compounds to afford amidates or esters. Alternatively, the phosphonic acid and the amine or hydroxy reactant are combined in the presence of a diimide coupling agent. The preparation of phosphonic amidates and esters by means of coupling reactions in the presence of dicyclohexyl carbodiimide is described, for example, in J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Comm. (1991) 312 or Coll. Czech. Chem. Comm. (1987) 52:2792. The use of ethyl dimethylaminopropyl carbodiimide for activation and coupling of phosphonic acids is described in Tet. Lett., (2001) 42:8841, or Nucleosides & Nucleotides (2000) 19:1885. A number of additional coupling reagents have been described for the preparation of amidates and esters from phosphonic acids. The agents include Aldrithiol-2, and PYBOP and BOP, as described in J. Org. Chem., 1995, 60, 5214, and J. Med. Chem. (1997) 40:3842, mesitylene-2-sulfonyl-3-nitro-1,2,4-triazole (MSNT), as described in J. Med. Chem. (1996) 39:4958, diphenylphosphoryl azide, as described in J. Org. Chem. (1984) 49:1158, 1-(2,4,6-triisopropylbenzenesulfonyl-3-nitro-1,2,4-triazole (TPSNT) as described in Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. (1998) 8:1013, bromotris(dimethylamino)phosphonium hexafluorophosphate (BroP), as described in Tet. Lett., (1996) 37:3997, 2-chloro-5,5-dimethyl-2-oxo-1,3,2-dioxaphosphinane, as described in Nucleosides Nucleotides 1995, 14, 871, and diphenyl chlorophosphate, as described in J. Med. Chem., 1988, 31, 1305. Phosphonic acids are converted into amidates and esters by means of the Mitsunobu reaction, in which the phosphonic acid and the amine or hydroxy reactant are combined in the presence of a triaryl phosphine and a dialkyl azodicarboxylate. The procedure is described in Org. Lett., 2001, 3, 643, or J. Med. Chem., 1997, 40, 3842. Phosphonic esters are also obtained by the reaction between phosphonic acids and halo compounds, in the presence of a suitable base. The method is described, for example, in Anal. Chem., 1987, 59, 1056, or J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans., I, 1993, 19, 2303, or J. Med. Chem., 1995, 38, 1372, or Tet. Lett., 2002, 43, 1161. Schemes 34-37 illustrate the conversion of phosphonate esters and phosphonic acids into carboalkoxy-substituted phosphonbisamidates (Scheme 34), phosphonamidates (Scheme 35), phosphonate monoesters (Scheme 36) and phosphonate diesters, (Scheme 37). Scheme 38 illustrates synthesis of gem-dialkyl amino phosphonate reagents. Scheme 34 illustrates various methods for the conversion of phosphonate diesters S34.1 into phosphonbisamidates S34.5. The diester S34.1, prepared as described previously, is hydrolyzed, either to the monoester S34.2 or to the phosphonic acid S34.6. The methods employed for these transformations are described above. The monoester S34.2 is converted into the monoamidate S34.3 by reaction with an aminoester S34.9, in which the group R2 is H or alkyl; the group R4b is a divalent alkylene moiety such as, for example, CHCH3, CHCH2CH3, CH(CH(CH3)2), CH(CH2Ph), and the like, or a side chain group present in natural or modified aminoacids; and the group R5b is C1-C12 alkyl, such as methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, or isobutyl; C6-C20 aryl, such as phenyl or substituted phenyl; or C6-C20 arylalkyl, such as benzyl or benzyhydryl. The reactants are combined in the presence of a coupling agent such as a carbodiimide, for example dicyclohexyl carbodiimide, as described in J. Am. Chem. Soc., (1957) 79:3575, optionally in the presence of an activating agent such as hydroxybenztriazole, to yield the amidate product S34.3. The amidate-forming reaction is also effected in the presence of coupling agents such as BOP, as described in J. Org. Chem. (1995) 60:5214, Aldrithiol, PYBOP and similar coupling agents used for the preparation of amides and esters. Alternatively, the reactants S34.2 and S34.9 are transformed into the monoamidate S34.3 by means of a Mitsunobu reaction. The preparation of amidates by means of the Mitsunobu reaction is described in J. Med. Chem. (1995) 38:2742. Equimolar amounts of the reactants are combined in an inert solvent such as tetrahydrofuran in the presence of a triaryl phosphine and a dialkyl azodicarboxylate. The thus-obtained monoamidate ester S34.3 is then transformed into amidate phosphonic acid S34.4. The conditions used for the hydrolysis reaction depend on the nature of the R1 group, as described previously. The phosphonic acid amidate S34.4 is then reacted with an aminoester S34.9, as described above, to yield the bisamidate product S34.5, in which the amino substituents are the same or different. Alternatively, the phosphonic acid S34.6 may be treated with two different amino ester reagents simulataneously, i.e. S34.9 where R2, R4b or are different. The resulting mixture of bisamidate products S34.5 may then be separable, e.g. by chromatography. An example of this procedure is shown in Scheme 34, Example 1. In this procedure, a dibenzyl phosphonate S34.14 is reacted with diazabicyclooctane (DABCO) in toluene at reflux, as described in J. Org. Chem., 1995, 60, 2946, to afford the monobenzyl phosphonate S34.15. The product is then reacted with equimolar amounts of ethyl alaninate S34.16 and dicyclohexyl carbodiimide in pyridine, to yield the amidate product S34.17. The benzyl group is then removed, for example by hydrogenolysis over a palladium catalyst, to give the monoacid product S34.18 which may be unstable according to J. Med. Chem. (1997) 40(23):3842. This compound S34.18 is then reacted in a Mitsunobu reaction with ethyl leucinate S34.19, triphenyl phosphine and diethylazodicarboxylate, as described in J. Med. Chem., 1995, 38, 2742, to produce the bisamidate product S34.20. Using the above procedures, but employing in place of ethyl leucinate S34.19 or ethyl alaninate S34.16, different aminoesters S34.9, the corresponding products S34.5 are obtained. Alternatively, the phosphonic acid S34.6 is converted into the bisamidate S34.5 by use of the coupling reactions described above. The reaction is performed in one step, in which case the nitrogen-related substituents present in the product S34.5 are the same, or in two steps, in which case the nitrogen-related substituents can be different. An example of the method is shown in Scheme 34, Example 2. In this procedure, a phosphonic acid S34.6 is reacted in pyridine solution with excess ethyl phenylalaninate S34.21 and dicyclohexylcarbodiimide, for example as described in J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Comm., 1991, 1063, to give the bisamidate product S34.22. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of ethyl phenylalaninate, different aminoesters S34.9, the corresponding products S34.5 are obtained. As a further alternative, the phosphonic acid S34.6 is converted into the mono or bis-activated derivative S34.7, in which Lv is a leaving group such as chloro, imidazolyl, triisopropylbenzenesulfonyloxy etc. The conversion of phosphonic acids into chlorides S34.7 (Lv=Cl) is effected by reaction with thionyl chloride or oxalyl chloride and the like, as described in Organic Phosphorus Compounds, G. M. Kosolapoff, L. Maeir, eds, Wiley, 1976, p. 17. The conversion of phosphonic acids into monoimidazolides S34.7 (Lv imidazolyl) is described in J. Med. Chem., 2002, 45, 1284 and in J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Comm., 1991, 312. Alternatively, the phosphonic acid is activated by reaction with triisopropylbenzenesulfonyl chloride, as described in Nucleosides and Nucleotides, 2000, 10, 1885. The activated product is then reacted with the aminoester S34.9, in the presence of a base, to give the bisamidate S34.5. The reaction is performed in one step, in which case the nitrogen substituents present in the product S34.5 are the same, or in two steps, via the intermediate S34.11, in which case the nitrogen substituents can be different. Examples of these methods are shown in Scheme 34, Examples 3 and 5. In the procedure illustrated in Scheme 34, Example 3, a phosphonic acid S34.6 is reacted with ten molar equivalents of thionyl chloride, as described in Zh. Obschei Khim., 1958, 28, 1063, to give the dichloro compound S34.23. The product is then reacted at reflux temperature in a polar aprotic solvent such as acetonitrile, and in the presence of a base such as triethylamine, with butyl serinate S34.24 to afford the bisamidate product S34.25. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of butyl serinate S34.24, different aminoesters S34.9, the corresponding products S34.5 are obtained. In the procedure illustrated in Scheme 34, Example 5, the phosphonic acid S34.6 is reacted, as described in J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Comm., 1991, 312, with carbonyl diimidazole to give the imidazolide S34.S32. The product is then reacted in acetonitrile solution at ambient temperature, with one molar equivalent of ethyl alaninate S34.33 to yield the monodisplacement product S34.S34. The latter compound is then reacted with carbonyl diimidazole to produce the activated intermediate S34.35, and the product is then reacted, under the same conditions, with ethyl N-methylalaninate S34.33a to give the bisamidate product S34.36. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of ethyl alaninate S34.33 or ethyl N-methylalaninate S34.33a, different aminoesters S34.9, the corresponding products S34.5 are obtained. The intermediate monoamidate S34.3 is also prepared from the monoester S34.2 by first converting the monoester into the activated derivative S34.8 in which Lv is a leaving group such as halo, imidazolyl etc, using the procedures described above. The product S34.8 is then reacted with an aminoester S34.9 in the presence of a base such as pyridine, to give an intermediate monoamidate product S34.3. The latter compound is then converted, by removal of the R1 group and coupling of the product with the aminoester S34.9, as described above, into the bisamidate S34.5. An example of this procedure, in which the phosphonic acid is activated by conversion to the chloro derivative S34.26, is shown in Scheme 34, Example 4. In this procedure, the phosphonic monobenzyl ester S34.15 is reacted, in dichloromethane, with thionyl chloride, as described in Tetttt. Letters., 1994, 35, 4097, to afford the phosphoryl chloride S34.26. The product is then reacted in acetonitrile solution at ambient temperature with one molar equivalent of ethyl 3-amino-2-methylpropionate S34.27 to yield the monoamidate product S34.28. The latter compound is hydrogenated in ethylacetate over a 5% palladium on carbon catalyst to produce the monoacid product S34.29. The product is subjected to a Mitsunobu coupling procedure, with equimolar amounts of butyl alaninate S34.30, triphenyl phosphine, diethylazodicarboxylate and triethylamine in tetrahydrofuran, to give the bisamidate product S34.31. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of ethyl 3-amino-2-methylpropionate S34.27 or butyl alaninate S34.30, different aminoesters S34.9, the corresponding products S34.5 are obtained. The activated phosphonic acid derivative S34.7 is also converted into the bisamidate S34.5 via the diamino compound S34.10. The conversion of activated phosphonic acid derivatives such as phosphoryl chlorides into the corresponding amino analogs S34.10, by reaction with ammonia, is described in Organic Phosphorus Compounds, G. M. Kosolapoff, L. Maeir, eds, Wiley, 1976. The bisamino compound S34.10 is then reacted at elevated temperature with a haloester S34.12 (Hal=halogen, i.e. F, Cl, Br, I), in a polar organic solvent such as dimethylformamide, in the presence of a base such as 4,4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) or potassium carbonate, to yield the bisamidate S34.5. Alternatively, S34.6 may be treated with two different amino ester reagents simulataneously, i.e. S34.12 where R4b or R5b are different. The resulting mixture of bisamidate products S34.5 may then be separable, e.g. by chromatography. An example of this procedure is shown in Scheme 34, Example 6. In this method, a dichlorophosphonate S34.23 is reacted with ammonia to afford the diamide S34.37. The reaction is performed in aqueous, aqueous alcoholic or alcoholic solution, at reflux temperature. The resulting diamino compound is then reacted with two molar equivalents of ethyl 2-bromo-3-methylbutyrate S34.38, in a polar organic solvent such as N-methylpyrrolidinone at ca. 150° C., in the presence of a base such as potassium carbonate, and optionally in the presence of a catalytic amount of potassium iodide, to afford the bisamidate product S34.39. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of ethyl 2-bromo-3-methylbutyrate S34.38, different haloesters S34.12 the corresponding products S34.5 are obtained. The procedures shown in Scheme 34 are also applicable to the preparation of bisamidates in which the aminoester moiety incorporates different functional groups. Scheme 34, Example 7 illustrates the preparation of bisamidates derived from tyrosine. In this procedure, the monoimidazolide S34.32 is reacted with propyl tyrosinate S34.40, as described in Example 5, to yield the monoamidate S34.41. The product is reacted with carbonyl diimidazole to give the imidazolide S34.42, and this material is reacted with a further molar equivalent of propyl tyrosinate to produce the bisamidate product S34.43. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of propyl tyrosinate S34.40, different aminoesters S34.9, the corresponding products S34.5 are obtained. The aminoesters employed in the two stages of the above procedure can be the same or different, so that bisamidates with the same or different amino substituents are prepared. Scheme 35 illustrates methods for the preparation of phosphonate monoamidates. In one procedure, a phosphonate monoester S34.1 is converted, as described in Scheme 34, into the activated derivative S34.8. This compound is then reacted, as described above, with an aminoester S34.9, in the presence of a base, to afford the monoamidate product S35.1. The procedure is illustrated in Scheme 35, Example 1. In this method, a monophenyl phosphonate S35.7 is reacted with, for example, thionyl chloride, as described in J. Gen. Chem. USSR., 1983, 32, 367, to give the chloro product S35.8. The product is then reacted, as described in Scheme 34, with ethyl alaninateS3, to yield the amidate S35.10. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of ethyl alaninate S35.9, different aminoesters S34.9, the corresponding products S35.1 are obtained. Alternatively, the phosphonate monoester S34.1 is coupled, as described in Scheme 34, with an aminoester S34.9 to produce the amidateS335.1. If necessary, the R1 substituent is then altered, by initial cleavage to afford the phosphonic acid S35.2. The procedures for this transformation depend on the nature of the R1 group, and are described above. The phosphonic acid is then transformed into the ester amidate product S35.3, by reaction with the hydroxy compound R3OH, in which the group R3 is aryl, heterocycle, alkyl, cycloalkyl, haloalkyl etc, using the same coupling procedures (carbodiimide, Aldrithiol-2, PYBOP, Mitsunobu reaction etc) described in Scheme 34 for the coupling of amines and phosphonic acids. Examples of this method are shown in Scheme 35, Examples 2 and 3. In the sequence shown in Example 2, a monobenzyl phosphonate S35.11 is transformed by reaction with ethyl alaninate, using one of the methods described above, into the monoamidate S35.12. The benzyl group is then removed by catalytic hydrogenation in ethylacetate solution over a 5% palladium on carbon catalyst, to afford the phosphonic acid amidate S35.13. The product is then reacted in dichloromethane solution at ambient temperature with equimolar amounts of 1-(dimethylaminopropyl)-3-ethylcarbodiimide and trifluoroethanol S35.14, for example as described in Tet. Lett., 2001, 42, 8841, to yield the amidate ester S35.15. In the sequence shown in Scheme 35, Example 3, the monoamidate S35.13 is coupled, in tetrahydrofuran solution at ambient temperature, with equimolar amounts of dicyclohexyl carbodiimide and 4-hydroxy-N-methylpiperidine S35.16, to produce the amidate ester product S35.17. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of the ethyl alaninate product S35.12 different monoacids S35.2, and in place of trifluoroethanol S35.14 or 4-hydroxy-N-methylpiperidine S35.16, different hydroxy compounds R3OH, the corresponding products S35.3 are obtained. Alternatively, the activated phosphonate ester S34.8 is reacted with ammonia to yield the amidate S35.4. The product is then reacted, as described in Scheme 34, with a haloester S35.5, in the presence of a base, to produce the amidate product S35.6. If appropriate, the nature of the R1 group is changed, using the procedures described above, to give the product S35.3. The method is illustrated in Scheme 35, Example 4. In this sequence, the monophenyl phosphoryl chloride S35.18 is reacted, as described in Scheme 34, with ammonia, to yield the amino product S35.19. This material is then reacted in N-methylpyrrolidinone solution at 170° with butyl 2-bromo-3-phenylpropionate S35.20 and potassium carbonate, to afford the amidate product S35.21. Using these procedures, but employing, in place of butyl 2-bromo-3-phenylpropionate S35.20, different haloesters S35.5, the corresponding products S35.6 are obtained. The monoamidate products S35.3 are also prepared from the doubly activated phosphonate derivatives S34.7. In this procedure, examples of which are described in Synlett., 1998, 1, 73, the intermediate S34.7 is reacted with a limited amount of the aminoester S34.9 to give the mono-displacement product S34.11. The latter compound is then reacted with the hydroxy compound R3OH in a polar organic solvent such as dimethylformamide, in the presence of a base such as diisopropylethylamine, to yield the monoamidate ester S35.3. The method is illustrated in Scheme 35, Example 5. In this method, the phosphoryl dichloride S35.22 is reacted in dichloromethane solution with one molar equivalent of ethyl N-methyl tyrosinate S35.23 and dimethylaminopyridine, to generate the monoamidate S35.24. The product is then reacted with phenol S35.25 in dimethylformamide containing potassium carbonate, to yield the ester amidate product S35.26. Using these procedures, but employing, in place of ethyl N-methyl tyrosinate S35.23 or phenol S35.25, the aminoesters 34.9 and/or the hydroxy compounds R3OH, the corresponding products S35.3 are obtained. Scheme 36 illustrates methods for the preparation of carboalkoxy-substituted phosphonate diesters in which one of the ester groups incorporates a carboalkoxy substituent. In one procedure, a phosphonate monoester S34.1, prepared as described above, is coupled, using one of the methods described above, with a hydroxyester S36.1, in which the groups R4b and R5b are as described in Scheme 34. For example, equimolar amounts of the reactants are coupled in the presence of a carbodiimide such as dicyclohexyl carbodiimide, as described in Aust. J. Chem., 1963, 609, optionally in the presence of dimethylaminopyridine, as described in Tet., 1999, 55, 12997. The reaction is conducted in an inert solvent at ambient temperature. The procedure is illustrated in Scheme 36, Example 1. In this method, a monophenyl phosphonate S36.9 is coupled, in dichloromethane solution in the presence of dicyclohexyl carbodiimide, with ethyl 3-hydroxy-2-methylpropionate S36.10 to yield the phosphonate mixed diester S36.11. Using this procedure, but employing, in place of ethyl 3-hydroxy-2-methylpropionate S36.10, different hydroxyesters S33.1, the corresponding products S33.2 are obtained. The conversion of a phosphonate monoester S34.1 into a mixed diester S36.2 is also accomplished by means of a Mitsunobu coupling reaction with the hydroxyester S36.1, as described in Org. Lett., 2001, 643. In this method, the reactants 34.1 and S36.1 are combined in a polar solvent such as tetrahydrofuran, in the presence of a triarylphosphine and a dialkyl azodicarboxylate, to give the mixed diester S36.2. The R1 substituent is varied by cleavage, using the methods described previously, to afford the monoacid product S36.3. The product is then coupled, for example using methods described above, with the hydroxy compound R3OH, to give the diester product S36.4. The procedure is illustrated in Scheme 36, Example 2. In this method, a monoallyl phosphonate S36.12 is coupled in tetrahydrofuran solution, in the presence of triphenylphosphine and diethylazodicarboxylate, with ethyl lactate S36.13 to give the mixed diester S36.14. The product is reacted with tris(triphenylphosphine) rhodium chloride (Wilkinson catalyst) in acetonitrile, as described previously, to remove the allyl group and produce the monoacid product S36.15. The latter compound is then coupled, in pyridine solution at ambient temperature, in the presence of dicyclohexyl carbodiimide, with one molar equivalent of 3-hydroxypyridine S36.16 to yield the mixed diester S36.17. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of the ethyl lactate S36.13 or 3-hydroxypyridine, a different hydroxyester S36.1 and/or a different hydroxy compound R3OH, the corresponding products S36.4 are obtained. The mixed diesters S36.2 are also obtained from the monoesters S34.1 via the intermediacy of the activated monoesters S36.5. In this procedure, the monoester S34.1 is converted into the activated compound S36.5 by reaction with, for example, phosphorus pentachloride, as described in J. Org. Chem., 2001, 66, 329, or with thionyl chloride or oxalyl chloride (Lv=Cl), or with triisopropylbenzenesulfonyl chloride in pyridine, as described in Nucleosides and Nucleotides, 2000, 19, 1885, or with carbonyl diimidazole, as described in J. Med. Chem., 2002, 45, 1284. The resultant activated monoester is then reacted with the hydroxyester S36.1, as described above, to yield the mixed diester S36.2. The procedure is illustrated in Scheme 36, Example 3. In this sequence, a monophenyl phosphonate S36.9 is reacted, in acetonitrile solution at 70° C., with ten equivalents of thionyl chloride, so as to produce the phosphoryl chloride S36.19. The product is then reacted with ethyl 4-carbamoyl-2-hydroxybutyrate S36.20 in dichloromethane containing triethylamine, to give the mixed diester S36.21. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of ethyl 4-carbamoyl-2-hydroxybutyrate S36.20, different hydroxyesters S36.1, the corresponding products S36.2 are obtained. The mixed phosphonate diesters are also obtained by an alternative route for incorporation of the R3O group into intermediates S36.3 in which the hydroxyester moiety is already incorporated. In this procedure, the monoacid intermediate S36.3 is converted into the activated derivative S36.6 in which Lv is a leaving group such as chloro, imidazole, and the like, as previously described. The activated intermediate is then reacted with the hydroxy compound R3OH, in the presence of a base, to yield the mixed diester product S36.4. The method is illustrated in Scheme 36, Example 4. In this sequence, the phosphonate monoacid S36.22 is reacted with trichloromethanesulfonyl chloride in tetrahydrofuran containing collidine, as described in J. Med. Chem., 1995, 38, 4648, to produce the trichloromethanesulfonyloxy product S36.23. This compound is reacted with 3-(morpholinomethyl)phenol S36.24 in dichloromethane containing triethylamine, to yield the mixed diester product S36.25. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of with 3-(morpholinomethyl)phenol S36.24, different alcohols R3OH, the corresponding products S36.4 are obtained. The phosphonate esters S36.4 are also obtained by means of alkylation reactions performed on the monoesters S34.1. The reaction between the monoacid S34.1 and the haloester S36.7 is performed in a polar solvent in the presence of a base such as diisopropylethylamine, as described in Anal. Chem., 1987, 59, 1056, or triethylamine, as described in J. Med. Chem., 1995, 38, 1372, or in a non-polar solvent such as benzene, in the presence of 18-crown-6, as described in Syn. Comm., 1995, 25, 3565. The method is illustrated in Scheme 36, Example 5. In this procedure, the monoacid S36.26 is reacted with ethyl 2-bromo-3-phenylpropionate S36.27 and diisopropylethylamine in dimethylfommamide at 80° C. to afford the mixed diester product S36.28. Using the above procedure, but employing, in place of ethyl 2-bromo-3-phenylpropionate S36.27, different haloesters S36.7, the corresponding products S36.4 are obtained. Scheme 37 illustrates methods for the preparation of phosphonate diesters in which both the ester substituents incorporate carboalkoxy groups. The compounds are prepared directly or indirectly from the phosphonic acids S34.6. In one alternative, the phosphonic acid is coupled with the hydroxyester S37.2, using the conditions described previously in Schemes 34-36, such as coupling reactions using dicyclohexyl carbodiimide or similar reagents, or under the conditions of the Mitsunobu reaction, to afford the diester product S37.3 in which the ester substituents are identical. This method is illustrated in Scheme 37, Example 1. In this procedure, the phosphonic acid S34.6 is reacted with three molar equivalents of butyl lactate S37.5 in the presence of Aldrithiol-2 and triphenyl phosphine in pyridine at ca. 70° C., to afford the diester S37.6. Using the above procedure, but employing, in place of butyl lactate S37.5, different hydroxyesters S37.2, the corresponding products S37.3 are obtained. Alternatively, the diesters S37.3 are obtained by alkylation of the phosphonic acid S34.6 with a haloester S37.1. The alkylation reaction is performed as described in Scheme 36 for the preparation of the esters S36.4. This method is illustrated in Scheme 37, Example 2. In this procedure, the phosphonic acid S34.6 is reacted with excess ethyl 3-bromo-2-methylpropionate S37.7 and diisopropylethylamine in dimethylformamide at ca. 80° C., as described in Anal. Chem., 1987, 59, 1056, to produce the diester S37.8. Using the above procedure, but employing, in place of ethyl 3-bromo-2-methylpropionate S37.7, different haloesters S37.1, the corresponding products S37.3 are obtained. The diesters S37.3 are also obtained by displacement reactions of activated derivatives S34.7 of the phosphonic acid with the hydroxyesters S37.2. The displacement reaction is performed in a polar solvent in the presence of a suitable base, as described in Scheme 36. The displacement reaction is performed in the presence of an excess of the hydroxyester, to afford the diester product S37.3 in which the ester substituents are identical, or sequentially with limited amounts of different hydroxyesters, to prepare diesters S37.3 in which the ester substituents are different. The methods are illustrated in Scheme 37, Examples 3 and 4. As shown in Example 3, the phosphoryl dichloride S35.22 is reacted with three molar equivalents of ethyl 3-hydroxy-2-(hydroxymethyl)propionate S37.9 in tetrahydrofuran containing potassium carbonate, to obtain the diester product S37.10. Using the above procedure, but employing, in place of ethyl 3-hydroxy-2-(hydroxymethyl)propionate S37.9, different hydroxyesters S37.2, the corresponding products S37.3 are obtained. Scheme 37, Example 4 depicts the displacement reaction between equimolar amounts of the phosphoryl dichloride S35.22 and ethyl 2-methyl-3-hydroxypropionate S37.11, to yield the monoester product S37.12. The reaction is conducted in acetonitrile at 70° in the presence of diisopropylethylamine. The product S37.12 is then reacted, under the same conditions, with one molar equivalent of ethyl lactate S37.13, to give the diester product S37.14. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of ethyl 2-methyl-3-hydroxypropionate S37.11 and ethyl lactate S37.13, sequential reactions with different hydroxyesters S37.2, the corresponding products S37.3 are obtained. 2,2-Dimethyl-2-aminoethylphosphonic acid intermediates can be prepared by the route in Scheme 5. Condensation of 2-methyl-2-propanesulfinamide with acetone give sulfinyl imine S38.11 (J. Org. Chem. 1999, 64, 12). Addition of dimethyl methylphosphonate lithium to S38.11 afford S38.12. Acidic methanolysis of S38.12 provide amine S38.13. Protection of amine with Cbz group and removal of methyl groups yield phosphonic acid S38.14, which can be converted to desired S38.15 (Scheme 38a) using methods reported earlier on. An alternative synthesis of compound S38.14 is also shown in Scheme 38b. Commercially available 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol is converted to aziridines S38.16 according to literature methods (J. Org. Chem. 1992, 57, 5813; Syn. Lett. 1997, 8, 893). Aziridine opening with phosphite give S38.17 (Tetrahedron Lett. 1980, 21, 1623). Reprotection) of S38.17 affords S38.14. ENUMERATED EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS 1. A compound, including enantiomers thereof, of Formula 1A, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, wherein: A0 is A1, A2, or A3; A1 is A2 is A3 is: Y1 is independently O, S, N(Rx), N(O)(Rx), N(ORx), N(O)(ORx), or N(N(Rx)(Rx)); Y2 is independently a bond, Y3, N(Rx), N(O)(Rx), N(ORx), N(O)(ORx), N(N(Rx)(Rx)), —S(O)M2—, or —S(O)M2—S(O)M2—; Y3 is O, S(O)M2, S, or C(R2)2; Rx is independently H, R1, R2, W3, a protecting group, or the formula: wherein: Ry is independently H, W3, R2 or a protecting group; R1 is independently H or alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms; R2 and R2a are independently H, R1, R3, or R4 wherein each R4 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups or, when taken together at a carbon atom, two R2 groups form a ring of 3 to 8 and the ring may be substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; R3 is R3a, R3b, R3c, R3d, or R3e, provided that when R3 is bound to a heteroatom, then R3 is R3c or R3d; R3a is R3e, —CN, N3 or —NO2; R3b is (═Y1); R3c is -Rx, —N(Rx)(Rx), —SRx, —S(O)Rx, —S(O)2Rx, —S(O)(ORx), —S(O)2(ORx), —OC(Y1)Rx, —OC(Y1)ORx, —OC(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)), —SC(Y1)Rx, —SC(Y1)ORx, —SC(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)), N(Rx)C(Y1)Rx, —N(Rx)C(Y1)ORx, or —N(Rx)C(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)); R3d is —C(Y1)Rx, —C(Y1)ORx or —C(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)); R3c is F, Cl, Br or I; R4 is an alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms, alkenyl of 2 to 18 carbon atoms, or alkynyl of 2 to 18 carbon atoms; R5 is H or R4, wherein each R4 is substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; W3 is W4 or W5; W4 is R5, —C(Y1)R5, —C(Y1)W5, —SOM2R5, or —SOM2W5; W5 is carbocycle or heterocycle wherein W5 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R2 groups; W6 is W3 independently substituted with 1, 2, or 3 A3 groups; M2 is 0, 1 or 2; M12a is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; M12b is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; M1a, M1c, and M1d are independently 0 or 1; and M12c is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; provided that the compound of Formula 1A is not of the structure 556-E.6 or its ethyl diester. 2. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein R2a is selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl 3. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein R2a is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, alkyl, azido, cyano, or haloalkyl. 4. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein R2 is selected from selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl. 5. The compound of embodiment 1 that has the formula 1B 6. The compound of embodiment 1 that has the formula 1C 7. The compound of embodiment 1 that has the formula 1D 8. The compound of embodiment 1 that has the formula 1E 9. The compound of embodiment 1 that has the formula 1F 10. The compound of embodiment 1 that has the formula 1G 11. The compound of embodiment 1 that has the formula 1H 12. The compound of embodiment 1 that has the formula 1I wherein: Y4 is N or C(R3). 13. The compound of embodiment 1 that has the formula 1J 14. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein R2a is halo, alkyl, azido, cyano, or haloalkyl. 15. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein Rx is a naturally occurring amino acid. 16. A compound, enantiomers thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof that is of the general structure of formula I wherein B is Base; Z is O, S, or C(Rk)2; R3e is F, Cl, Br or I; A6k —CH2P(Yk)(A5k)(Yk2A5k), —CH2P(Yk)(A5k)(A5k), or —CH2P(Yk)(YkAA5k)(Yk2A5k), optionally substituted with Rk; A5k is H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted with Rk; Yk is O or S; Yk2 is O, N(Rk), or S; and each R2 and R2a is independently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl; and each Rk is independently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl; provided that the compound of Formula 1A is not of the structure 556-E.6 or its ethyl diester. 17. The compound of embodiment 16 wherein R2a is selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl 18. The compound of embodiment 16 wherein R2a is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, alkyl, azido, cyano, or haloalkyl. 19. The compound of embodiment 1 selected from: a) Formula 1A wherein A0 is A3; b) Formula 1A wherein A0 is c) Formula 1A wherein: A0 is and each R2 and R2a is H; d) Formula 1A wherein: A3 is R3 is —N(Rx)(Rx); each R2 and R2a is H. e) Formula 1A wherein: A0 is and each R2 and R2a is H. 20. The compound of embodiment 1, wherein A3 is of the formula: wherein: Y2b is O or N(R2); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. 21. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: 22. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: wherein the phenyl carbocycle is substituted with 0, 1, 2, or 3 R2 groups. 23. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: wherein the phenyl carbocycle is substituted with 0, 1, 2, or 3 R2 groups. 24. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: 25. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: wherein: Y1a is O or S; Y2b is O or N(R2); and Y2c is O, N(R) or S; and each R2 and R2a is independently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl. 26. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: wherein each R is independently H or alkyl. 27. The compound of embodiment 1 which is isolated and purified. 28. A compound of formula MBF I, or prodrugs, solvates, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or esters thereof wherein each K1 and K2 are independently selected from the group consisting of A5k and —Yk2A5k; Yk2 is O, N(Rk), or S; B is Base; A5k is H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted with Rk; and Rk is independently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl; provided that when B is adenine, then both K1 and K2 are not simultaneously both —OH or —OEt. 29. The compound of embodiment 28 wherein B is selected form the group consisting of 2,6-diaminopurine, guanine, adenine, cytosine, 5-fluoro-cytosine, monodeaza, and monoaza analogues thereof. 30. The compound of embodiment 28 wherein MBF I is of the formula 31. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein B is selected from the group consisting of adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil, thymine, 7-deazaadenine, 7-deazaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaadenine, inosine, nebularine, nitropyrrole, nitroindole, 2-aminopurine, 2-amino-6-chloropurine, 2,6-diaminopurine, hypoxanthine, pseudouridine, pseudocytosine, pseudoisocytosine, 5-propynylcytosine, isocytosine, isoguanine, 7-deazaguanine, 2-thiopyrimidine, 6-thioguanine, 4-thiothymine, 4-thiouracil, O6-methylguanine, N6-methyladenine, O4-methylthymine, 5,6-dihydrothymine, 5,6-dihydrouracil, 4-methylindole, substituted triazole, and pyrazolo[3,4-D]pyrimidine. 32. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein B is selected form the group consisting of adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil, thymine, 7-deazaadenine, 7-deazaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaadenine, aminopurine, 2-amino-6-chloropurine, 2,6-diaminopurine, and 7-deazaguanine. 33. The compound of embodiment 1 that is selected from Table Y. 34 The compound of embodiment 28 wherein K1 and K2 are selected from Table 100. TABLE 100 K1 K2 Ester Ala OPh cPent Ala OCH2CF3 Et Ala OPh 3-furan-4H Ala OPh cBut Phe(B) OPh Et Phe(A) OPh Et Ala(B) OPh Et Phe OPh sBu(S) Phe OPh cBu Phe OCH2CF3 iBu Ala(A) OPh Et Phe OPh sBu(R) Ala(B) OPh CH2cPr Ala(A) OPh CH2cPr Phe(B) OPh nBu Phe(A) OPh nBu Phe OPh CH2cPr Phe OPh CH2cBu Ala OPh 3-pent ABA(B) OPh Et ABA(A) OPh Et Ala OPh CH2cBu Met OPh Et Pro OPh Bn Phe(B) OPh iBu Phe(A) OPh iBu Phe OPh iPr Phe OPh nPr Ala OPh CH2cPr Phe OPh Et Ala OPh Et ABA OPh nPent Phe Phe nPr Phe Phe Et Ala Ala Et CHA OPh Me Gly OPh iPr ABA OPh nBu Phe OPh allyl Ala OPh nPent Gly OPh iBu ABA OPh iBu Ala OPh nBu CHA CHA Me Phe Phe Allyl ABA ABA nPent Gly Gly iBu Gly Gly iPr Phe OPh iBu Ala OPh nPr Phe OPh nBu ABA OPh nPr ABA OPh Et Ala Ala Bn Phe Phe nBu ABA ABA nPr ABA ABA Et Ala Ala nPr Ala OPh iPr Ala OPh Bn Ala Ala nBu Ala Ala iBu ABA ABA nBu ABA ABA iPr Ala OPh iBu ABA OPh Me ABA OPh iPr ABA ABA iBu wherein Ala represents L-alanine, Phe represents L-phenylalanine, Met represents L-methionine, ABA represents (S)-2-aminobutyric acid, Pro represents L-proline, CHA represents 2-amino-3-(S)cyclohexylpropionic acid, Gly represents glycine; K1 or K2 amino acid carboxyl groups are esterified as denoted in the ester column, wherein cPent is cyclopentane ester; Et is ethyl ester, 3-furan-4H is the (R) tetrahydrofuran-3-yl ester; cBut is cyclobutane ester; sBu(S) is the (S) secButyl ester; sBu(R) is the (R) secButyl ester; iBu is isobutyl ester; CH2cPr is methylcyclopropane ester, nBu is n-butyl ester; CH2cBu is methylcyclobutane ester; 3-pent is 3-pentyl ester; nPent is nPentyl ester; iPr is isopropyl ester, nPr is nPropyl ester; allyl is allyl ester; Me is methyl ester; Bn is Benzyl ester; and wherein A or B in parentheses denotes one stereoisomer at phosphorus, with the least polar isomer denoted as (A) and the more polar as (B). 35. A compound of formula B, and the salts and solvates thereof. wherein: A3 is: Y1 is independently O, S, N(Rx), N(O)(Rx), N(ORx), N(O)(ORx), or N(N(Rx)(Rx)); Y2 is independently a bond, O, N(Rx), N(O)(Rx), N(ORx), N(O)(ORx), N(N(Rx)(Rx)), —S(O)M2—, or —S(O)M2—S(O)M2—; and when Y2 joins two phosphorous atoms Y2 can also be C(R2)(R2); Rx is independently H, R1, R2, W3, a protecting group, or the formula: wherein: R1 is independently H, W3, R2 or a protecting group; R1 is independently H or alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms; R2 and R2a are independently H, R1, R3, or R4 wherein each R4 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups or taken together at a carbon atom, two R2 groups form a ring of 3 to 8 carbons and the ring may be substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; R3 is R3a, R3b, R3c or R3d, provided that when R3 is bound to a heteroatom, then R3 is R3c or R3d; R3a is F, Cl, Br, I, —CN, N3 or —NO2; R3b is Y1; R3c is -Rx, —N(Rx)(Rx), —SRx, —S(O)Rx, —S(O)2Rx, —S(O)(ORx), —S(O)2(ORx), —OC(Y1)Rx, —OC(Y1)ORx, —OC(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)), —SC(Y1)Rx, —SC(Y1)ORx, —SC(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)), —N(Rx)C(Y1)Rx, —N(Rx)C(Y1)ORx, or —N(Rx)C(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)); R3d is —C(Y1)Rx, —C(Y1)ORx or —C(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)); R4 is an alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms, alkenyl of 2 to 18 carbon atoms, or alkynyl of 2 to 18 carbon atoms; R5 is R4 wherein each R4 is substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; W3 is W4 or W5; W4 is R5, —C(Y1)R5, —C(Y1)W5, —SOM2R5, or —SOM2W5; W5 is carbocycle or heterocycle wherein W5 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R2 groups; W6 is W3 independently substituted with 1, 2, or 3 A3 groups; M2 is 0, 1 or 2; M12a is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; M12b is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; M1a, M1c, and M1d are independently 0 or 1; and M12c is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; wherein A3 is not —O—CH2—P(O)(OH)2 or —O—CH2—P(O)(OEt)2. 36. The compound of embodiment 35 wherein m2 is 0, Y1 is O, Y2 is O, M12b and M12a are 1, one Y3 is —ORx where Rx is W3 and the other Y3 is N(H)Rx where Rx is 37. The compound of embodiment 36 wherein the terminal Ry of Rx is selected from the group of esters in Table 100. 38. The compound of embodiment 36 wherein the terminal Ry of Rx is a C1-C8 normal, secondary, tertiary or cyclic alkylene, alkynylene or alkenylene. 39. The compound of embodiment 36 wherein the terminal Ry of Rx is a heterocycle containing 5 to 6 ring atoms and 1 or 2 N, O and/or S atoms in the ring. 40. The compound of embodiment 1 having the formula XX: 41. The compound of embodiment 1 having the formula XXX: 42. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a pharmaceutical excipient and an antivirally-effective amount of the compound of embodiment 1. 43. The pharmaceutical composition of embodiment 32 that further comprises a second active ingredient. 44. A combination comprising the compound of embodiment 1 and one or more antivirally active ingredients. 45. The combination of embodiment 44 wherein one or more of the active ingredients is selected from Table 98. 46. The combination of embodiment 45 wherein one of the active ingredients is selected from the group consisting of Truvada, Viread, Emtriva, d4T, Sustiva, or Amprenavir antiviral compounds. 47. The combination of embodiment 44 wherein one or more of the active ingredients is selected from Table 99. 48. The combination of embodiment 47 wherein one of the active ingredients is selected from the group consisting of Truvada, Viread, Emtriva, d4T, Sustiva, or Amprenavir antiviral compounds. 49. The combination of embodiment 46 for use in medical therapy. 50. The combination of embodiment 48 for use in medical therapy. 51. The pharmaceutical composition of embodiment 42 for use in medical therapy, 52. The pharmaceutical composition of embodiment 43 for use in medical therapy 53. The compound of embodiment 1 for use in antiretroviral or antihepadinaviral treatment. 54. A method of preparing the compound of embodiment 1 according to the Examples or Schemes. 55. Use of a compound of embodiment 1 for preparing a medicament for treating HIV or a HIV associated disorder. 56. A method of therapy for treating HIV or HIV-associated disorders with the compound of embodiment 1. 57. A method of treating disorders associated with HIV, said method comprising administering to an individual infected with, or at risk for HIV infection, a pharmaceutical composition which comprises a therapeutically effective amount of the compound of any of embodiments 1-28. 58. A compound of Table Y, provided the compound is not or its ethyl diester. EXAMPLES AND EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS Examples 2-deoxy-2-fluoro-3,5-di-O-benzoyl-•-D-arabinofuranosylbromide (2) Tann et al., JOC 1985, 50, p 3644 Howell et al. JOC 1988, 53, p 85. To a solution of 1 (120 g, 258 mmol), commercially available from Davos or CMS chemicals, in CH2Cl2 (1 L) was added 33% HBr/Acetic acid (80 mL). The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 16 h, cooled with ice-water, and slowly neutralized over 1-2 h with NaHCO3 (150 g/1.5 L solution). The CH2Cl2 phase was separated and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was dissolved in ethyl acetate and washed with NaHCO3 until no acid was present. The organic phase was dried over MgSO4, filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure to give product 2 as a yellow oil (˜115 g). 2-deoxy-2-fluoro-3,5-di-O-benzoyl-β-D-arabinofuranosyl-9H-6-chloropurine (3) Ma et al., J. Med. Chem. 1997, 40, 2750 Marquez et al., J. Med. Chem. 1990, 33, 978 Hildebrand et al., J. Org. Chem. 1992, 57, 1808 Kazimierczuk et al. JACS 1984, 106, 6379 To a suspension of NaH (14 g, 60%) in ACETONITRILE (900 mL), 6-chloropurine (52.6 g) was added in 3 portions. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 1.5 h. A solution of 2 (258 mmol) in ACETONITRILE (300 mL) was added dropwise. The resulting mixture was stirred at room temperature for 16 h. The reaction was quenched with Acetic acid (3.5 mL), filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was partitioned between CH2Cl2 and water. The organic phase was dried over MgSO4, filtered and concentrated. The residue was treated with CH2Cl2 and then EtOH (˜1:2 overall) to precipitate out the desired product 3 as a yellowish solid (83 g, 65% from 1). 2-deoxy-2-fluoro-β-D-arabinofuranosyl-6-methoxyadenine (4) To a suspension of 3 (83 g, 167 mmol) in Methanol (1 L) at 0° C., NaOMe (25% wt, 76 mL) was added. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 2 h, and then quenched with Acetic acid (˜11 mL, pH=7). The mixture was concentrated under reduced pressure and the resultant residue partitioned between hexane and water (approximately 500 mL hexane and 300 mL water). The aqueous layer was separated and the organic layer mixed with water once again (approximately 300 mL). The water fractions were combined and concentrated under reduced pressure to ˜100 mL. The product, 4, precipitated out and was collected by filtration (42 g, 88%). 2-deoxy-2-fluoro-5-carboxy-β-D-arabinofuranosyl-6-methoxyadenine (5) Moss et al. J. Chem. Soc 1963, p 1149 A mixture of Pt/C (10%, 15 g (20-30% mol equiv.) as a water slurry) and NaHCO3 (1.5 g, 17.94 mmol) in H2O (500 mL) was stirred at 65° C. under H2 for 0.5 h. The reaction mixture was then allowed to cool, placed under a vacuum and flushed with N2 several times to completely remove all H2. Compound 4 (5.1 g, 17.94 mmol) was then added at room temperature. The reaction mixture was stirred at 65° C. under O2 (balloon) until the reaction was complete by LC-MS (typically 24-72 h). The mixture was cooled to room temperature and filtered. The Pt/C was washed with H2O extensively. The combined filtrates were concentrated to ˜30 mL, and acidified (pH 4) by the addition of HCl (4N) at 0° C. A black solid precipitated out which was collected by filtration. The crude product was dissolved in a minimum amount of Methanol and filtered through a pad of silica gel (eluting with Methanol). The filtrate was concentrated and crystallized from water to give compound 5 (2.5 g) as an off-white solid. (2′R,3′S,4′R,5′R)-6-Methoxy-9-[tetrahydro 4-iodo-3-fluoro-5-(diethoxyphosphinyl)methoxy-2-furanyl purine (6) Zemlicka et al., J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 1972, 94, p 3213 To a solution of 5 (22 g, 73.77 mmol) in DMF (400 mL), DMF dineopentyl acetal (150 mL, 538 mmol) and methanesulfonic acid (9.5 mL, 146.6 mmol) were added. The reaction mixture was stirred at 80-93° C. (internal temperature) for 30 min, then cooled to room temperature and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was partitioned between ethyl acetate and water. The organic phase was separated and washed with NaHCO3 followed by brine, dried over MgSO4, filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue and diethyl (hydroxymethyl)phosphonate (33 mL, 225 mmol) were dissolved in CH2Cl2 (250 mL) and cooled down to −40° C. A solution of iodine monobromide (30.5 g, 1.1 mol) in CH2Cl2 (100 mL) was added dropwise. The mixture was stirred at −20 to −5° C. for 6 h. The reaction was then quenched with NaHCO3 and Na2S2O3. The organic phase was separated and the water phase was extracted with CH2Cl2. The combined organic phases were washed with brine, dried over MgSO4, filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was purified by silica gel chromatography to give product 6 (6 g, 15.3%). Alternative Procedure for the Preparation of 6 A solution of 5 (2.0 g, 6.7 mmol) in THF (45 mL) was treated with triphenyl phosphine (2.3 g, 8.7 mmol) under N2. Diisopropyl azodicarboxylate (1.8 g, 8.7 mmol) was added slowly. The resultant mixture was stirred at room temperature for 1 h and then concentrated under reduced pressure to dryness. The residue was dissolved in CH2Cl2 (20 ml), and then treated with diethyl(hydroxymethyl)phosphonate (4.5 g, 27 mmol). The mixture was cooled to −60° C. and then a cold solution of iodine monobromide 2 g, 9.6 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (10 ml) was added. The reaction mixture was warmed to −10° C. and then kept at −10° C. for 1 h. The reaction mixture was diluted with CH2Cl2, washed with saturated aqueous NaHCO3, and then with aqueous sodium thiosulfate. The organic phase was separated, dried over MgSO4, and concentrated under reduced pressure to dryness. The reaction mixture was purified by silica gel chromatography (eluting with 25% ethyl acetate in CH2Cl2, then switching to 3% methanol in CH2Cl2) to afford product 6 (0.9 g, 33%). (2′R,5′R)-6-Methoxy-9-[3-fluoro-2,5-dihydro-5-(diethoxyphosphinyl)methoxy-2-furanyl]purine (7) To a solution of compound 6 (6 g, 11.3 mmol) in acetic acid (2.5 mL) and methanol (50 mL), NaClO (10-13%) (50 mL) was added dropwise. The reaction mixture was then stirred for 0.5 h and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was treated with ethyl acetate and then filtered to remove solids. The filtrate was concentrated and the residue was purified by silica gel chromatography to give product 7 (4 g, 88%). (2′R,5′R)-9-(3-fluoro-2,5-dihydro-5-phosphonomethoxy-2-furanyl)adenine Disodium Salt (8) A solution of compound 7 (2.3 g, 5.7 mmol) in methanol (6 mL) was mixed with ammonium hydroxide (28-30%) (60 mL). The resultant mixture was stirred at 120° C. for 4 h, cooled, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was dried under vacuum for 12 h. The residue was dissolved in DMF (40 mL) and bromotrimethylsilane (3.5 mL) was added. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 16 h, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was dissolved in aqueous NaHCO3 (2.3 g in 100 mL of water). The solution was evaporated and the residue was purified on C-18 (40 μm) column, eluting with water. The aqueous fractions were freeze dried to give di-sodium salt 8 (1.22 g, 57%). Example of Monoamidate Preparation (9) Disodium salt 8 (25 mg, 0.066 mmol), (S)-Ala-O-cyclobutyl ester hydrochloride (24 mg, 2 eq., 0.133 mmol) and phenol (31 mg, 0.333 mmol) were mixed in anhydrous pyridine (1 mL). Triethylamine (111 μL, 0.799 mmol) was added and the resultant mixture was stirred at 60° C. under nitrogen. In a separate flask, 2′-Aldrithiol (122 mg, 0.466 mmol) and triphenylphosphine (103 mg, 0.466 mmol) were dissolved in anhydrous pyridine (0.5 mL) and the resulting yellow solution was stirred for 15-20 min. The solution was then added to the solution of 8 in one portion. The combined mixture was stirred at 60° C. under nitrogen for 16 h to give a clear yellow to light brown solution. The mixture was then concentrated under reduced pressure. The resultant oil was dissolved in CH2Cl2 and purified by silica gel chromatography (eluting with a linear gradient of 0 to 5% MeOH in CH2Cl2) to give an oil. The resulting oil was dissolved in acetonitrile and water and purified by preparative HPLC (linear gradient, 5-95% acetonitrile in water). Pure fractions were combined and freeze-dried to give mono amidate 9 as a white powder. Example of Bis Amidate Preparation (10) Disodium salt 8 (12 mg, 0.032 mmol) and (S)-Ala-O-n-Pr ester hydrochloride (32 mg, 6 eq., 0.192 mmol) were mixed in anhydrous pyridine (1 mL). Triethylamine (53 μL, 0.384 mmol) was added and the resultant mixture was stirred at 60° C. under nitrogen. In a separate flask, 2′-Aldrithiol (59 mg, 0.224 mmol) and triphenylphosphine (49 mg, 0.224 mmol) were dissolved in anhydrous pyridine (0.5 mL) and the resulting yellow solution was stirred for 15-20 min. The solution was then added to the solution of 8 in one portion. The combined mixture was stirred at 60° C. under nitrogen for 16 h to give a clear yellow to light brown solution. The mixture was then concentrated under reduced pressure. The resultant oil was dissolved in CH2Cl2 and purified by silica gel chromatography (eluting with a linear gradient of 0 to 5% MeOH in CH2Cl2) to give an oil. The resulting oil was dissolved in acetonitrile and water and purified by preparative HPLC (linear gradient, 5-95% acetonitrile in water). Pure fractions were combined and freeze-dried to give bis amidate as a white powder. Example of Monoamidate Preparation (11) Compound 8 (1.5 g, 4 mmol) was mixed with ethyl alanine ester HCl salt (1.23 g, 8 mmol) and phenol (1.88 g, 20 mmol). Anhydrous pyridine (35 mL) was added followed by TEA (6.7 mL, 48 mmol). The mixture was stirred at 60° C. under nitrogen for 15-20 min. 2′-Aldrithiol (7.3 g) was mixed in a separate flask with triphenylphosphine (6.2 g) in anhydrous pyridine (5 mL) and the resultant mixture was stirred for 10-15 min to give a clear light yellow solution. The solution was then added to the above mixture and stirred overnight at 60° C. The mixture was concentrated under reduced pressure to remove pyridine. The resultant residue was dissolved in ethyl acetate and washed with saturated sodium bicarbonate solution (2×) and then with saturated sodium chloride solution. The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate, filtered and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The resultant oil was dissolved in dichloromethane and loaded onto a dry CombiFlash column, 40 g, eluting, with a linear gradient of 0-5% methanol in dichloromethane over 10 min and then 5% methanol in dichloromethane for 7-10 min. Fractions containing the desired product were combined and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a foam. The foam was dissolved in acetonitrile and purified by prep HPLC to give 11 (0.95 g). Dissolved 11 (950 mg) in small amount of acetonitrile and let stand at room temperature overnight. Collected solid by filtration and washed with small amount of acetonitrile. Solid was GS-327625. Filtrate was reduced under vacuum and then loaded onto Chiralpak AS-H column equilibrated in Buffer A, 2% ethanol in acetonitrile. Isomer A, 12, was eluted out with Buffer A at 10 mL/min for 17 mins. After which Buffer 13, 50% methanol in acetonitrile, was used to elute isomer 13 out from the column in 8 mins. Removed all solvent and then re-dissolved in acetonitrile and water. Freeze-dried the samples (Mass—348 mg). Example 11b 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.39 (s, 1H) • 8.12 (s, 1H) • 6.82 (m, 1H) • 5.96-5.81 (m, 4H) • 4.03-3.79 (m, 10H) • 3.49 (s, 1H) • 3.2 (m, 2H) • 1.96-1.69 (m, 10H) • 1.26 (m, 4H) • 0.91 (m, 12H) • 31P NMR (CDCl3) 20.37 (s, 1P) MS (M+1) 614 Example 12b 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.39 (s, 1H) • 8.13 (s, 1H) • 7.27-7.11 (m, 5H) • 6.82 (s, 1H) • 5.97-5.77 (m, 4H) • 4.14-3.79 (m, 6H) • 3.64 (t, 1H) • 2.00-1.88 (bm, 4H) • 1.31 (dd, 3H) • 0.91 (m, 6H). 31P NMR (CDCl3) • 20.12 (s, 0.5P) • 19.76 (s, 0.5P) MS (M+1) 535 Example 13b 1H NMR (CDCl3): • 8.39 (s, 1H), 8.13 (s, 1H), 6.81 (m 1H), 5.95 (m, 1H), 5.81 (s, 1H), 4.98 (m, 2H), 3.90 (m, 2H), 3.37 (m, 1H), 3.19 (m, 1H), 1.71 (m, 4H), 1.25 (m, 12H), 0.90 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 586.3 Example 14 1H NMR (CDCl3): • 8.38 (s, 1H), 8.12 (s, 1H), 6.80 (m 1H), 5.93 (m, 1H), 5.79 (s, 1H), 4.02 (m, 6H), 3.42 (m, 1H), 3.21 (m, 1H), 1.65 (m, 4H), 1.35 (m, 8H), 0.92 (m, 12H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 614.3 Example 15 1H NMR (CDCl3): • 8.38 (s, 1H), 8.12 (s, 1H), 6.80 (m 1H), 5.93 (m, 2H), 5.80 (s, 1H), 3.91 (m, 6H), 3.42 (m, 1H), 3.30 (m, 1H), 1.91 (m, 2H), 1.40 (m, 6H), 0.90 (m, 12H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 586.3 Example 16 1H NMR (CDCl3): • 8.37 (s, 1H), 8.17 (s, 1H), 6.80 (m 1H), 6.18 (s, 1H), 5.93 (m, 1H), 5.79 (s, 1H), 4.02 (m, 6H), 3.46 (m, 1H), 3.37 (m, 1H), 1.61 (m, 4H), 1.32 (m, 10H), 0.92 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 614.3 Example 17 1H NMR (CD3OD): • 8.29 (s, 1H), 8.25 (s, 1H), 6.84 (m 1H), 6.00 (s, 1H), 5.96 (m, 1H), 4.04 (m, 8H), 1.66 (m, 4H), 1.38 (m, 6H), 0.98 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 558.3 Example 18 1H NMR (CD3OD): • 8.29 (s, 1H), 8.25 (s, 1H), 6.84 (m 1H), 5.99 (s, 1H), 5.96 (m, 1H), 4.04 (m, 8H), 1.67 (m, 4H), 1.23 (m, 6H), 0.95 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 558.3 Example 19 1H NMR (CD3OD): • 8.29 (s, 1H), 8.25 (s, 1H), 6.84 (m 1H), 5.99 (s, 1H), 5.96 (m, 1H), 4.03 (m, 8H), 1.66 (m, 8H), 0.93 (m, 12H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 586.3 Example 20 1H NMR (CD3OD): • 8.25 (s, 1H), 8.17 (s, 1H), 7.21 (m, 10H), 6.80 (m 1H), 5.91 (s, 1H), 5.72 (m, 1H), 4.04 (m, 6H), 3.50 (m, 2H), 2.90 (m, 4H), 1.47 (m, 8H), 0.92 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 738.4 Example 21 1H NMR (CD3OD): • 8.24 (s, 2H), 7.33 (m, 10H), 6.81 (m 1H), 5.88 (s, 1H), 5.84 (m, 1H), 5.12 (m, 4H), 3.94 (m, 4H), 1.35 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 654.3 Example 22 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.38 (d, 1H) • 8.12 (d, 1H) • 7.31-7.10 (m, 5H) • 6.81 (m, 1H) • 5.98-5.75 (m, 4H) • 4.23-3.92 (M, 7H) • 3.65 (m, 1H) • 1.63 (m, 3H) • 1.26 (m, 4H) • 1.05-0.78 (m, 3H) 31P NMR • 21.01 (s, 0.6P) • 20.12 (s, 0.4P) MS (M+1) 521 Example 23 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.40 (d, 1H) • 8.13 (d, 1H) • 7.30-7.10 (m, 5H) • 6.82 (m, 1H) • 5.99-5.77 (m, 3H) • 4.22-3.92 (m, 6H) • 3.61 (m, 1H) • 1.65 (m, 4H) • 1.26-0.71 (m, 6H) 31P NMR (CDCl3) • 20.99 (s, 0.6P) • 20.08 (s, 0.4P) MS (M+1) 535 Example 24 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.39 (d, 1H) • 8.08 (d, 1H) • 7.28-6.74 (m, 10H) • 5.90 (m, 4H) • 4.37 (m, 1H) • 4.05 (m, 5H) • 3.56 (m, 2H) • 2.99 (m, 2H) • 1.55 (m, 2H) • 1.22 (m, 3H) • 0.88 (m, 3H) 31P NMR (CDCl3) • 20.95 (s, 0.5P) 20.01 (s, 0.5P) MS (M+1) 611 Example 25 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.38 (d, 1H) • 8.11 (s, 1H) • 7.31-7.11 (m, 5H) • 6.82 (s, 1H) • 5.96-5.76 (m, 4H) • 4.22-3.63 (m, 6H) • 2.17 (bm, 2H) • 1.65 (m, 2H) 1.30 (m, 4H) • 0.88 (m, 3H). 31P NMR (CDCl3) • 20.75 (s, 0.5P) • 19.82 (s, 0.5P) MS (M+1) 521 Example 26 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.40 (d, 1H) • 8.09 (d, 1H) • 7.27-6.74 (m, 10H) • 5.93-5.30 (m, 4H) • 4.39 (m, 1H) • 4.14-3.77 (m, 4H) • 3.58 (m, 2H) • 2.95 (m, 2H) • 1.90 (m, 3H) • 1.26 (m, 1H) • 0.85 (m, 6H). 31P NMR (CDCl3) • 20.97 (s, 0.5P) • 20.04 (s, 0.5P) MS (M+1) 611 Example 27 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.31 (s, 1H), 8.25 (s, 1H), 6.84 (m 1H), 6.02 (s, 1H), 5.98 (m, 1H), 4.98 (m, 2H), 4.01 (m, 2H), 3.66 (m, 4H), 1.23 (m, 12H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 530.2 Example 28 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.31 (s, 1H), 8.25 (s, 1H), 6.84 (m 1H), 6.01 (s, 1H), 5.98 (m, 1H), 4.03 (m, 2H), 3.86 (m, 4H), 3.68 (m, 4H), 1.92 (m, 2H), 0.93 (m, 12H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 558.3 Example 29 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.29 (s, 1H), 8.25 (s, 1H), 6.84 (m 1H), 5.99 (s, 1H), 5.97 (m, 1H), 4.01 (m, 8H), 1.66 (m, 8H), 1.32 (m, 8H), 0.96 (m, 12H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 642.4 Example 30 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (s, 1H), 8.16 (s, 1H), 7.24 (m, 10H), 6.80 (m 1H), 5.90 (s, 1H), 5.71 (m, 1H), 5.25 (m, 4H), 4.57 (m, 2H), 4.51 (m, 2H), 4.05 (m, 2H), 3.46 (m, 2H), 2.92 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 706.4 Example 31 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.32 (s, 1H), 8.25 (s, 1H), 6.84 (m 1H), 6.00 (s, 1H), 5.97 (m, 11), 3.93 (m, 4H), 3.71 (s, 3H), 3.60 (s, 3H), 1.51 (m, 26H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 666.5 Example 32 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.39 (s, 1H) • 8.17 (d, 1H) • 7.32-6.82 (m, 5H) • 6.82 (s, 1H) • 5.98-5.81 (m, 3H) • 4.27-3.64 (m, 6H) • 1.94 (m, 11) • 0.90 (m, 6H) • 31P NMR (CDCl3) • 21.50 (s, 0.5P) • 21.37 (s, 0.5P) MS (M+1) 521 Example 33 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.39 (s, 1H) • 8.13 (s, 1H) • 7.27-7.14 (m, 5H) • 6.85 (s, 1H) • 5.97-5.77 (m, 4H) • 4.186-4.05 (m, 7H) • 1.60 (m, 3H) • 1.29 (m, 7H) • 0.90 (m, 3H) 31P NMR (CDCl3) 20.69 (s, 0.6P) • 19.77 (s, 0.4P) MS (M+1) 549 Example 34 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.39 (d, 1H) • 8.07 (d, 1H) • 7.27-6.74 (m, 10H) • 5.91 (m, 2H) • 5.69 (m 2H) • 5.27 (m, 2H) • 4.55 (m, 2H) • 4.30 (m, 1H) • 3.69 (m, 1H) • 2.95 (m, 1H) • 5.05 (m, 2H) 31P NMR (CDCl3) • 20.94 (s, 0.5P) • 19.94 (s, 0.5P) MS (M+1) 595 Example 35 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.39 (d, 1H) • 8.11 (d, 1H) • 7.28-7.10 (m, 5H) • 6.82 (s, 1H) • 5.98-5.76 (m, 3H) • 4.18-3.56 (m, 4H) • 3.59 (m, 1H) • 1.74-0.70 (m, 12H). 31P NMR (CDCl3) • 21.00 (s, 0.6 P) • 20.09 (s, 0.4 P). MS (M+1) 549 Example 36 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.39 (d, 1H) • 8.12 (d. 1H) • 7.29 (m, 2H) • 7.15 (m, 3H) • 6.82 (s, 1H) • 5.94 (dd, 1H) • 5.80 (s, 3H)• 5.02 (m, 1H) • 4.23-3.58 (m, 6H) • 2.18 (s, 3H) • 1.23 (m, 6H). 31P NMR (CDCl3) • 21.54 (s, 0.5 P) • 21.43 (s, 0.5 P). MS (M+1) 507 Example 37 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.30 (s, 1H), 8.25 (s, 1H), 6.84 (m 1H), 6.00 (s, 1H), 5.95 (m, 1H), 4.06 (m, 8H), 1.31 (m, 12H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 530.3 Example 38 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (s, 1H), 8.16 (s, 1H), 7.24 (m, 10H), 6.84 (m 1H), 5.91 (s, 1H), 5.75 (m, 1H), 4.08 (m, 6H), 3.60 (m, 2H), 2.90 (m, 4H), 1.21 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 682.4 Example 39 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (s, 1H), 8.16 (s, 1H), 7.22 (m, 10H), 6.81 (m 1H), 5.90 (s, 1H), 5.72 (m, 1H), 4.02 (m, 6H), 3.63 (m, 2H), 2.90 (m, 4H), 1.58 (m, 4H), 0.87 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 710.4 Example 40 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (m, 2H), 7.22 (m, 8H), 6.95 (m, 1H), 6.82 (m 1H), 5.90 (m, 2H), 5.72 (m, 1H), 3.95 (m, 4H), 3.63 (m, 1H), 3.07 (m, 1H), 2.81 (m, 1H), 1.55 (m, 2H), 0.86 (m, 3H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 597.4 Example 41 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (m, 2H), 7.20 (m, 9H), 6.96 (m, 1H), 6.81 (m 1H), 5.97 (m, 2H), 5.73 (m, 1H), 4.05 (m, 2H), 3.60 (m, 1H), 3.02 (m, 1H), 2.81 (m, 1H), 1.13 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 597.5 Example 42 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (m, 2H), 7.33 (m, 10H), 6.83 (m, 1H), 5.92 (m, 2H), 5.15 (m, 2H), 4.25 (m, 4H), 3.20 (m, 1H), 1.90 (m, 4H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 595.6 Example 43 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (m, 2H), 7.15 (m, 5H), 6.83 (m, 1H), 5.98 (m, 2H), 4.10 (m, 5H), 2.50 (m, 4H), 2.01 (m, 3H), 1.22 (m, 3H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 567.3 Example 44 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (m, 2H), 7.15 (m, 5H), 6.83 (m, 1H), 5.98 (m, 2H), 4.10 (m, 5H), 2.57 (m, 1H), 1.80 (m, 6H), 1.25 (m, 3H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 547.7 Example 45 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (m, 2H), 7.17 (m, 5H), 6.85 (m, 1H), 5.99 (m, 2H), 4.66 (m, 1H), 4.12 (m, 3H), 1.56 (m, 4H), 1.28 (m, 3H), 0.88 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 549.3 Example 46 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (m, 2H), 7.12 (m, 10H), 6.83 (m, 1H), 5.99 (m, 2H), 5.72 (m, 1H), 4.10 (m, 411), 3.65 (m, 1H), 3.02 (m, 1H), 2.79 (m, 1H), 2.50 (m, 1H), 1.89 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 623.4 Example 47 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (m, 2H), 7.15 (m, 10H), 6.82 (m, 1H), 5.99 (m, 2H), 5.73 (m, 1H), 3.99 (m, 4H), 3.65 (m, 1H), 3.05 (m, 1H), 2.85 (m, 1H), 1.02 (m, 1H), 0.51 (m, 2H), 0.20 (m, 2H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 609.3 Example 48 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (m, 2H), 7.20 (m, 9H), 6.96 (m, 1H), 6.81 (m 1H), 5.97 (m, 2H), 5.73 (m, 1H), 4.71 (m, 1H)), 4.05 (m, 2H), 3.60 (m, 1H), 3.02 (m, 1H), 2.81 (m, 1H), 1.49 (m, 2H) 1.07 (m, 3H), 0.82 (m, 3H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 611.2 Example 49 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.20 (m, 2H), 7.25 (m, 6H), 6.82 (m 1H), 5.95 (m, 2H), 5.68 (m, 1H), 3.93 (m, 6H), 3.50 (m, 1H), 3.20 (m, 1H), 2.81 (m, 1H), 1.90 (m, 1H), 0.95 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 617.3 Example 50 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.23 (m, 2H), 7.18 (m, 10H), 6.96 (m, 1H), 6.81 (m 1H), 5.94 (m, 2H), 5.72 (m, 1H), 4.81 (m, 1H)), 4.05 (m, 2H), 3.60 (m, 1H), 3.02 (m, 1H), 2.81 (m, 1H), 2.25 (m, 2H) 1.81 (m, 4H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 609.3 Example 51 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (m, 2H), 7.20 (m, 9H), 6.96 (m, 1H), 6.81 (m 1H), 5.97 (m, 2H), 5.73 (m, 1H), 4.71 (m, 1H)), 4.05 (m, 2H), 3.60 (m, 1H), 3.02 (m, 1H), 2.81 (m, 1H), 1.49 (m, 2H) 1.07 (m, 3H), 0.82 (m, 3H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 611.4 Example 52 1H NMR (CD3OD): • 8.29 (m, 1H), 8.25 (m, 1H), 7.20 (m, 5H), 6.85 (m, 1H), 5.97 (m, 2H), 4.85 (m, 1H), 4.15 (m, 2H), 3.95 (m, 1H), 2.28 (m, 2H), 1.99 (m, 2H), 1.77 (m, 2H) 1.26 (m, 3H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 533.3 Example 53 1H NMR (CD3OD): • 8.29 (m, 1H), 8.25 (m, 1H), 7.20 (m, 5H), 6.85 (m, 1H), 5.98 (m, 2H), 5.18 (m, 1H), 4.03 (m, 7H), 2.15 (m, 1H), 1.95 (m, 1H), 1.26 (m, 3H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 549.2 Example 54 1H NMR (CD3OD): • 8.24 (m, 2H), 6.85 (m, 1H), 6.01 (m, 2H), 4.43 (m, 2H), 4.09 (m, 5H), 1.38 (m, 3H) 1.23 (m, 3H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 513.2 Example 55 1H NMR for mixture of diastereomers at phosphorus (300 MHz, CD3OD ref. solv. resid. 3.30 ppm): • • (ppm)=8.22-8.27 (m, 2H), 7.09-7.34 (m, 5H), 6.84 (br s, 1H), 5.93-6.02 (m, 2H), 5.00-5.14 (m, 1H), 4.01-4.26 (m, 2H) 3.89-3.94 (m, 1H), 1.50-1.88 (m, 8H), 1.23, (br t, 3H, J=6.8). 31P NMR for mixture of diastereomers at phosphorus(121 MHz, 1H decoupled): • • (ppm)=23.56, 22.27 (˜60:40 ratio). Example 102 By way of example and not limitation, embodiments of the invention are named below in tabular format (Table Y). These embodiments are of the general formula “MBF3” MBF3: Sc.K1.K2 Each embodiment of MBF3, is depicted as a substituted nucleus (Sc). Sc is described in Table 1.1 below. Sc is also described by any formula presented herein that bears at least one K1 or K2 wherein each is a point of covalent attachment to Sc. For those embodiments described in Table Y, Sc is a nucleus designated by a number and each substituent is designated in order by number. Table 1.1 are a schedule of nuclei used in forming the embodiments of Table Y. Each nucleus (Sc) is given a number designation from Table 1.1 and this designation appears first in each embodiment name as numbers 1 to 2. Similarly, Tables 20.1 to 20.37 list the selected substituent groups by number designation, and are understood to be attached to Sc at K1 or K2 as listed. It is understood that K1 and K2 do not represent atoms, but only points of connection to the parent scaffold Sc. Accordingly, a compound of the formula MBF3 includes compounds having Sc groups based on compounds according to Table Y below. In all cases the compounds of the formula MBF3 have groups K1 and K2 on nucleus Sc, and the corresponding groups K1 and K2 are listed, as set forth in the Tables below. Accordingly, each named embodiment of Table Y is depicted by a number designating the nucleus from Table 1.1, followed by a number designating each substituent group K1, followed by the designation of substituent K2, as incorporated from Tables 20.1 to 20.37. In graphical tabular form, each embodiment of Table Y appears as a name having the syntax: Sc.K1.K2 Each Sc group is shown having various substituents K1 or K2. Each group K1 and K2 as listed in Table Y, is a substituent, as listed, of the Sc nucleus listed in Table Y. K1 and K2, it should be understood, do not represent groups or atoms but are simply connectivity designations. The site of the covalent bond to the nucleus (Sc) is designated as K1 and K2 of formula MBF3. Embodiments of K1 and K2 in Tables 20.1 to 20.37 are designated as numbers 1 to 247. For example there are 2 Sc entries in Table 1.1 and these entries for Sc are numbered 1 to 2. Each is designated as the Sc identifier (ie. 1 to 2). In any event, entries of Tables 20.1 to 20.37 always begin with a number, and are independently selected from Tables 20.1 to 20.37 and are each thus independently designated as numbers 1 to 247. Selection of the point of attachment is described herein. By way of example and not limitation, the point of attachment is selected from those depicted in the schemes and examples. TABLE 1.1 TABLE 20.1 TABLE 20.2 TABLE 20.3 TABLE 20.4 TABLE 20.5 TABLE 20.6 TABLE 20.7 TABLE 20.8 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 TABLE 20.9 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 TABLE 20.10 58 59 60 TABLE 20.11 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 TABLE 20.12 69 70 71 TABLE 20.13 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 TABLE 20.14 80 81 82 TABLE 20.15 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 TABLE 20.16 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 TABLE 20.17 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 TABLE 20.18 107 108 109 TABLE 20.19 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 TABLE 20.20 118 119 120 TABLE 20.21 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 TABLE 20.22 129 130 131 TABLE 20.23 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 TABLE 20.24 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 TABLE 20.25 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 TABLE 20.26 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 TABLE 20.27 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 TABLE 20.28 180 181 182 183 184 185 TABLE 20.29 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 TABLE 20.30 194 195 196 197 198 199 TABLE 20.31 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 TABLE 20.32 208 209 210 211 212 213 TABLE 20.33 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 TABLE 20.34 222 223 224 225 226 227 TABLE 20.35 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 TABLE 20.36 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 TABLE 20.37 244 245 246 247 Lengthy table referenced here US20090202470A1-20090813-T00001 Please refer to the end of the specification for access instructions. EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS Example R1 R2 Ester MW 55 Ala OPh cPent 546.5 54 Ala OCH2CF3 Et 512.36 53 Ala OPh 3-furan- 548.47 4H 52 Ala OPh cBut 532.47 50 Phe(B) OPh Et 582.53 56 Phe(A) OPh Et 582.53 57 Ala(B) OPh Et 506.43 51 Phe OPh sBu(S) 610.58 58 Phe OPh cBu 608.57 49 Phe OCH2CF3 iBu 616.51 59 Ala(A) OPh Et 506.43 48 Phe OPh sBu(R) 610.58 60 Ala(B) OPh CH2cPr 532.47 61 Ala(A) OPh CH2cPr 532.47 62 Phe(B) OPh nBu 610.58 63 Phe(A) OPh nBu 610.58 47 Phe OPh CH2cPr 608.57 46 Phe OPh CH2cBu 622.59 45 Ala OPh 3-pent 548.51 64 ABA(B) OPh Et 520.46 65 ABA(A) OPh Et 520.46 44 Ala OPh CH2cBu 546.5 43 Met OPh Et 566.55 42 Pro OPh Bn 594.54 66 Phe(B) OPh iBu 610.58 67 Phe(A) OPh iBu 610.58 41 Phe OPh iPr 596.56 40 Phe OPh nPr 596.56 79 Ala OPh CH2cPr 532.47 68 Phe OPh Et 582.53 69 Ala OPh Et 506.43 70 ABA OPh nPent 562.54 39 Phe Phe nPr 709.71 38 Phe Phe Et 681.66 37 Ala Ala Et 529.47 71 CHA OPh Me 574.55 36 Gly OPh iPr 506.43 35 ABA OPh nBu 548.51 34 Phe OPh allyl 594.54 33 Ala OPh nPent 548.51 32 Gly OPh iBu 520.46 72 ABA OPh iBu 548.51 73 Ala OPh nBu 534.48 31 CHA CHA Me 665.7 30 Phe Phe Allyl 705.68 29 ABA ABA nPent 641.48 28 Gly Gly iBu 557.52 27 Gly Gly iPr 529.47 26 Phe OPh iBu 610.58 25 Ala OPh nPr 520.46 24 Phe OPh nBu 610.58 23 ABA OPh nPr 534.48 22 ABA OPh Et 520.46 21 Ala Ala Bn 653.61 20 Phe Phe nBu 737.77 19 ABA ABA nPr 585.57 18 ABA ABA Et 557.52 17 Ala Ala nPr 557.52 74 Ala OPh iPr 520.46 75 Ala OPh Bn 568.5 16 Ala Ala nBu 585.57 15 Ala Ala iBu 585.57 14 ABA ABA nBu 613.63 13b ABA ABA iPr 585.57 12b Ala OPh iBu 534.48 77 ABA OPh Me 506.43 78 ABA OPh iPr 534.48 11b ABA ABA iBu 613.63 wherein Ala represents L-alanine, Phe represents L-phenylalanine, Met represents L-methionine, ABA represents (S)-2-aminobutyric acid, Pro represents L-proline, CHA represents 2-amino-3-(S)cyclohexylpropionic acid, Gly represents glycine; K1 or K2 amino acid carboxyl groups are esterified as denoted in the ester column, wherein cPent is cyclopentane ester; Et is ethyl ester, 3-furan-4H is the (R) tetrahydrofuran-3-yl ester; cBut is cyclobutane ester; sBu(S) is the (S) secButyl ester; sBu(R) is the (R) secButyl ester; iBu is isobutyl ester; CH2cPr is methylcyclopropane ester, nBu is n-butyl ester; CH2cBu is methylcyclobutane ester; 3-pent is 3-pentyl ester; nPent is nPentyl ester; iPr is isopropyl ester, nPr is nPropyl ester; allyl is allyl ester; Me is methyl ester; Bn is Benzyl ester; and wherein A or B in parentheses denotes one stereoisomer at phosphorus, with the least polar isomer denoted as (A) and the more polar as (B). All literature and patent citations above are hereby expressly incorporated by reference at the locations of their citation. Specifically cited sections or pages of the above cited works are incorporated by reference with specificity. The invention has been described in detail sufficient to allow one of ordinary skill in the art to make and use the subject matter of the following Embodiments. It is apparent that certain modifications of the methods and compositions of the following Embodiments can be made within the scope and spirit of the invention. In the embodiments hereinbelow, the subscript and superscripts of a given variable are distinct. For example, R1 is distinct from R1. LENGTHY TABLES The patent application contains a lengthy table section. A copy of the table is available in electronic form from the USPTO web site (). An electronic copy of the table will also be available from the USPTO upon request and payment of the fee set forth in 37 CFR 1.19(b)(3).	A	A61	A61K	38	20
10592019	US20070277933A1-20071206	Positioning Device For A Tubular Label At A Pre-Established Height From A Bottle Bottom In A Labelling Machine	ACCEPTED	20071121	20071206		[]	B65C306	["B65C306"]	8082967	20070709	20111227	156	582000	57543.0	SENGUPTA	SONYA	[{"inventor_name_last": "Zacche", "inventor_name_first": "Vanni", "inventor_city": "Lamberdia", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "IT"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Panzetti", "inventor_name_first": "Luigi", "inventor_city": "Parma", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "IT"}]	The invention deals with the field of labelling machines with tubular labels made of heat-shrinking film that are directly formed on the machine starting from coiled film. More precisely, the invention refers to a device (1) or (10) for positioning a tubular label (8) at a pre-established height from a bottle bottom and to means (21) for keeping the label position during the label transfer to an outlet conveyor where a first partial heat-shrinkage occurs. The positioning device is supported by the drum, on which the label is formed, and must allow sliding the bottle inside the formed label.	1. Device for positioning a tubular label at a pre-established height from a bottle bottom in a rotating labelling machine of a type equipped with a drum around which the tubular label is formed, and adapted to support the bottle to be labelled on an upper base, said drum being able to vertically translate in order to take the bottle inside the formed tubular label, characterised in that it provides stopper members of the lower label edge placed in a semi-circle at a pre-established height from the bottle bottom when the bottle is housed on the tubular label winding drum, the semi-circle diameter having to be such as to allow the vertical bottle translation during the bottle transfer step into the formed tubular label and to guarantee an elastic adaptation condition to the external and variable bottle surfaces. 2. Device according to claim 1, characterised in that it provides stopper members secured to the bottle supporting drum base. 3. Device according to claim 1, characterised in that it provides stopper members secured to a bracket that can be moved according to two Cartesian axes in order to approach or move away from the drum axis and to be vertically moved according to an axis parallel to the drum axis. 4. Device according to claim 1, characterised in that it comprises, in combination with label stopper members, means for keeping the position during the bottle transfer step from the labelling machine to a conveyor in which a first heat-shrinkage step occurs that is enough to keep the label in position for the final heat-shrinking step. 5. Device according to claim 4, characterised in that it provides elastic members for holding in position labels fitted onto the bottles in turn inserted in pits of a star conveyor. 6. Device according to claim 1 or 2, characterised in that the stopper members of the lower label edge comprise a plurality of small vertical walls (2) arranged as a semi-circle on a collar (3) adapted to be secured to the upper base of the winding drum (5). 7. Device according to claim 1, 2 or 3, characterised in that it provides vertical pins (11) that support a semi-circle bracket (12) on which limit switches (13) are radially secured, said vertical pins being able to be fixed to the upper base of the winding drum or to a bracket equipped with at least two movements along Cartesian axes.			The present invention deals with a positioning device for a tubular label at a pre-established height from a bottle bottom in a labelling machine. A labelling machine with tubular labels, as disclosed in Italian Patent Application N. PR2002A000049, filed by the same Applicant, is known. In the above-described labelling machine, a tubular label is formed by winding a crop of heat-shrinking film on a cylindrical drum, on the upper base of which a bottle is placed. The cylindrical drum is provided with a plurality of holes through which a vacuum can be created in order to restrain the label during its transfer around the drum and during the welding step of the two overlapped edges, or a pressure to move the formed label away from the drum itself to allow the bottle to penetrate inside the label by lowering the drum on which the bottle rests. In the briefly-described patent application, the label is always placed starting from the bottle bottom, since the label is abutted onto the cylindrical drum base, base on which the bottle also abuts. Object of the present invention is positioning a label at a predetermined height from the bottle bottom and keeping said position during the bottle transfer step from the labelling machine to one or more conveyors, for example of the star type, in which the partial heat-shrinkage and thereby the stable securing of label to bottle occurs. This object is fully obtained by the device for positioning a tubular label at a pre-established height from a bottle bottom in a labelling machine, subject of the present invention, which is characterised for what is provided by the below-listed claims. Characteristics and advantages will be better pointed out by the following description of two embodiments, shown merely as a non-limiting example, in the enclosed tables of drawing in which: FIGS. 1, 2 and 3 respectively show in a plan view, an elevation view and a perspective view a positioning device according to a first embodiment; FIGS. 4, 5 and 6 respectively show in a plan view, an elevation view and a perspective view a positioning device according to a further embodiment; FIG. 7 shows a label forming drum arranged for housing a label positioning device; FIG. 8 is a schematic elevation view of the means for keeping the position established by the positioning device during a bottle transfer step on a star conveyor where a first heat-shrinkage step occurs; FIG. 9 shows the means for keeping of FIG. 8 in a plan view. With reference to FIGS. 1, 2 and 3, 1 designates as a whole a first embodiment of the device with a plurality of small vertical walls 2 arranged according to a semi-circle on a collar 3 adapted to be secured to the upper base of the winding drum 5, as shown in FIG. 4. The collar 3 is placed over the drum 5 from the part of the turntable rotation axis 4 on which a plurality of drums are assembled, in such a way as to allow transferring the bottle 7 from the drum to an outlet star conveyor 6 shown in FIGS. 8 and 9. The small vertical walls elastically adhere on the top to the external surface of the bottle 7 to create a stop on which the lower label 8 edge abuts. The whole piece is preferably made of a plastic material in order to guarantee an elastic adaptation condition to external and variable bottle surfaces even when they are not with a vertical generatrix. Another type of mechanical stopper for label positioning is the one shown in FIGS. 4, 5 and 6 and designated as a whole as 10. This positioning device 10 provides for two vertical pins 11 of a predetermined height that are secured to the drum. The vertical pins 11 support a semi-circle bracket 12 on which limit switches 13 are radially secured and get in contact with the bottle to determine a bearing plane of the lower edge of the tubular label. The internal diameter of the semi-circle bracket and the limit switch position must be such as to allow the vertical bottle movement. Limit switches are preferably made of plastic material. Both devices 1 and 10 are fixtures that must be replaced depending on the height at which the label must be applied with respect to the bottle bottom; in particular, in the device 10, the pins 11 will have to be replaced for adjusting the bottle positioning height and the semi-circle racket 12 depending on the bottle diameter. When the bottle format changes, all positioning devices must be manually replaced, but, according to a possible variation not shown, label-stopper devices could be provided, assembled on means that allow their movement along two Cartesian axes, one approaching or going away from the drum rotation axis and one according to a vertical axis parallel to the drum axis. In this way, with a single command, it could be possible to automatically adjust the position of the positioning device depending on the bottle format change. For this arrangement, the device 10 could be advantageously used, and, instead of being secured to the drum, it will be supported by a bracket of the two above-mentioned movements. With reference to FIGS. 8 and 9, means will be described that are adapted to keep the label position during the transfer step of the vessel from the labelling machine to a star conveyor 20 on which hot air jets 21 operate in order to perform a first heat-shrinkage that is enough to keep the label in position during the following passage into a heating tunnel where the final blocking of the label onto the vessel occurs. Such means are substantially composed of resilient members 22, such as for example sponge pads 22, supported by the rotating part of the star conveyor and fitted into the area of the star pits 23. Such pads 22 slightly press the label fitted onto the bottle. The resilient holding members could be composed of a small pneumatic piston, whose stem slightly presses the label or other types of deformable friction members, for example leaf springs or the like.	B	B65	B65C	3	06
11811431	US20070287583A1-20071213	Method for the operation of a drivetrain	ACCEPTED	20071129	20071213		[]	B60W1000	["B60W1000"]	7811199	20070607	20101012	477	070000	61477.0	LEWIS	TISHA	[{"inventor_name_last": "Steinhauser", "inventor_name_first": "Klaus", "inventor_city": "Kressbronn", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Popp", "inventor_name_first": "Christian", "inventor_city": "Kressbronn", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Klein", "inventor_name_first": "Gerald", "inventor_city": "Friedrichshafen", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}]	A method for operating a multi-speed automatic transmission of a motor vehicle. The automatic transmission has multiple shift elements for transmitting torque and/or power. When in forward and reverse gears, a first number of shift elements are engaged, and a second number of shift elements are disengaged. To improve the shift speed of successive upshifts and/or successive downshifts which are implemented in an overlapped manner, during a first upshift and/or downshift, at least one shift element, necessary for a successive second upshift and/or downshift, is prepared during the first upshift and/or downshift such that when the first upshift and/or downshift reaches a synchronous point, immediate implementation of the successive second upshift and/or downshift is possible. Depending on a gear change to be implemented, the first upshift and/or downshift from a current gear to a desired gear is preferably implemented as a multiple shift rather than a single shift.	1-10. (canceled) 11. A method of operating an multispeed automatic transmission of a motor vehicle for at least one of torque transmission and power transmission in which the automatic transmission has a plurality of shifting elements, and for each of a plurality of forward gears and for reverse gear, a first number of the plurality of shifting elements are engaged and a second number of the plurality of shifting elements are disengaged, and at least one of a successive upshift and a successive downshift, for improvement of a shift speed, are implemented in an overlapped manner such that during one of a first upshift and a first downshift, preparing at least one shifting element, necessary for a successive second upshift and a successive second downshift, during the first upshift or the first downshift in such manner that, upon attaining a synchronous point of the first upshift or the first downshift, the successive upshift or the successive downshift is capable of being preformed immediately and, depending on a desired gear change, and a multiple shift is implemented as the first upshift or the first downshift from a current gear to a desired gear. 12. The method according to claim 11, further comprising the step of executing a single shift as the first upshift or the first downshift only when a gear change between two immediately successive desired gears is to be implemented. 13. The method according to claim 12, further comprising the step of preparing the successive upshift or the successive downshift as a single shift, during the first upshift or the first downshift, when the first upshift or the first downshift is a single shift. 14. The method according to claim 11, further comprising the step of always performing the first upshift or the first downshift as a multiple shift, when the desired gear change is between two not immediately successive gears. 15. The method according to claim 14, further comprising the step of preparing the successive upshift or the successive downshift as a single shift when the first upshift or the first downshift is performed as a multiple shift. 16. The method according to claim 14, further comprising the step of preparing the successive upshift or the successive downshift as a multiple shift, during the first upshift or the first downshift, when the first upshift or the first downshift is performed as a multiple shift. 17. The method according to claim 11, further comprising the step of employing five shifting elements within the automatic transmission, and transmitting the at least one of the torque and the power in each of the plurality of forward gears and in reverse gear with two engaged shifting elements and three disengaged shifting elements. 18. The method according to claim 11, further comprising the step of employing five shifting elements within the automatic transmission, and transmitting the at least one of the torque and the power in each of the plurality of the forward gears and in the reverse gear by engagement of at least three shifting elements. 19. The method according to claim 11, further comprising the step of employing five shifting elements within the automatic transmission, and transmitting the at least one of the torque and the power in each of the plurality of forward gears and in the reverse gear with disengagement of a maximum of two shifting elements. 20. The method according to claim 11, further comprising the step of employing five shifting elements within the automatic transmission, and transmitting the at least one of the torque and the power in each of the plurality of forward gears and in the reverse gear with engagement of three of the five shifting elements and disengagement of two of the five shifting elements. 21. A method of operating a multi-speed automatic transmission of a motor vehicle, the automatic transmission having a plurality of shifting elements, the method comprising the steps of: requiring a first number of shifting elements be engaged and a second number of shifting elements be disengaged in each of a plurality of forward gears and a reverse gear for transferring at least torque and power; overlapping preparation of at least one shifting element, which is necessary for a successive upshift or a successive downshift, with implementation of a current upshift or a current downshift to increase a speed of shifting between the current upshift or the current downshift and the respective successive upshift or the successive downshift; upon attaining a synchronous point of the current upshift or the current downshift, immediately performing the successive upshift or the successive downshift; and implementing the current upshift or the current downshift as a multiple shift depending on a gear change from a current gear to a desired gear.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Vehicles require a transmission to convert rotational forces as well as rotational speeds. The purpose of a vehicle transmission is to transfer the tractive force of a drive unit. The present invention pertains to a method for operating an automatic transmission. In terms of the present invention, all transmissions with automatic gear changers will be addressed under the term automatic transmission and are also described as phase automatic transmissions. A method is known from DE 100 35 479 A1 for operating an automatic transmission in which shifts are realized in an interlaced manner for the purpose of improving the shift speed of successive upshifts and/or successive downshifts. For this purpose, during each first upshift and/or downshift, a shift element needed for the successive second upshift and/or downshift is prepared during the ongoing first upshift and/or downshift in such a manner that upon realization of a synchronous speed of the ongoing first upshift and/or downshift, the immediate completion of the successive upshift and/or downshift is possible. Moreover, according to DE 100 35 479 A1, only single shifts are overlapped with each other, which means that each completed first upshift and/or downshift, as well as each successive second upshift and/or downshift, is a single shift between two immediately successive gears. Especially when the number of gears in automatic transmissions increase and the gear ratio phases between the immediately successive gears decrease, the preparation of shift elements for a second upshift and/or downshift during the first upshift and/or downshift in the sense of overlapped single shifts causes difficulties since the time needed for the preparation of the shift elements for the second upshift and/or downshift during the first upshift and/or downshift is then no longer available. Proceeding from this, the present invention is based on the problem of creating a new method for operating an automatic transmission. According to the present invention, depending on a gear change, which is to be completed from an actual gear into a nominal gear as first upshift and/or downshift, a multiple shift is preferred over a single shift.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Within the meaning of the present invention, it is proposed, at least in the first upshift and/or downshift of overlapped upshifts and/or downshifts rather to install multiple shifts instead of a single shift. Due to the utilization of a multiple shift as the first upshift and/or downshift, the gear ratio jump increases for the first upshift and/or downshift so that more time will be available for the preparation of the successive second upshift and/or downshift. During the first upshift and/or downshift, no negative delay procedures, affecting the shift speed and/or shift spontaneity for shift elements, which are disengaging, must be implemented. This improves the shift speed as well as the shift spontaneity of upshifts and/or downshifts which are to be executed successively in an overlapped manner. Following a first advantageous further development of the invention, when a gear change is to be performed between two non-immediately successive gears, a multiple shift is then always designed as first upshift and/or downshift whereas a single shift is prepared as a successive second upshift and/or downshift during the ongoing first upshift and/or downshift. Following a second advantageous development of the invention, when a gear change between two non-immediately successive gears is to be performed, a multiple shift is then always designed as a first upshift and/or downshift, whereas a multiple shift is prepared as a successive second upshift and/or downshift during the ongoing first upshift and/or downshift. Only when a gear change, between two immediately successive gears is to be performed, is a single shift performed as first upshift and/or downshift.	This application claims priority from German Application Serial No. 10 2006 026 599.8 filed Jun. 8, 2006. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention pertains to a method for operating an automatic transmission. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Vehicles require a transmission to convert rotational forces as well as rotational speeds. The purpose of a vehicle transmission is to transfer the tractive force of a drive unit. The present invention pertains to a method for operating an automatic transmission. In terms of the present invention, all transmissions with automatic gear changers will be addressed under the term automatic transmission and are also described as phase automatic transmissions. A method is known from DE 100 35 479 A1 for operating an automatic transmission in which shifts are realized in an interlaced manner for the purpose of improving the shift speed of successive upshifts and/or successive downshifts. For this purpose, during each first upshift and/or downshift, a shift element needed for the successive second upshift and/or downshift is prepared during the ongoing first upshift and/or downshift in such a manner that upon realization of a synchronous speed of the ongoing first upshift and/or downshift, the immediate completion of the successive upshift and/or downshift is possible. Moreover, according to DE 100 35 479 A1, only single shifts are overlapped with each other, which means that each completed first upshift and/or downshift, as well as each successive second upshift and/or downshift, is a single shift between two immediately successive gears. Especially when the number of gears in automatic transmissions increase and the gear ratio phases between the immediately successive gears decrease, the preparation of shift elements for a second upshift and/or downshift during the first upshift and/or downshift in the sense of overlapped single shifts causes difficulties since the time needed for the preparation of the shift elements for the second upshift and/or downshift during the first upshift and/or downshift is then no longer available. Proceeding from this, the present invention is based on the problem of creating a new method for operating an automatic transmission. According to the present invention, depending on a gear change, which is to be completed from an actual gear into a nominal gear as first upshift and/or downshift, a multiple shift is preferred over a single shift. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Within the meaning of the present invention, it is proposed, at least in the first upshift and/or downshift of overlapped upshifts and/or downshifts rather to install multiple shifts instead of a single shift. Due to the utilization of a multiple shift as the first upshift and/or downshift, the gear ratio jump increases for the first upshift and/or downshift so that more time will be available for the preparation of the successive second upshift and/or downshift. During the first upshift and/or downshift, no negative delay procedures, affecting the shift speed and/or shift spontaneity for shift elements, which are disengaging, must be implemented. This improves the shift speed as well as the shift spontaneity of upshifts and/or downshifts which are to be executed successively in an overlapped manner. Following a first advantageous further development of the invention, when a gear change is to be performed between two non-immediately successive gears, a multiple shift is then always designed as first upshift and/or downshift whereas a single shift is prepared as a successive second upshift and/or downshift during the ongoing first upshift and/or downshift. Following a second advantageous development of the invention, when a gear change between two non-immediately successive gears is to be performed, a multiple shift is then always designed as a first upshift and/or downshift, whereas a multiple shift is prepared as a successive second upshift and/or downshift during the ongoing first upshift and/or downshift. Only when a gear change, between two immediately successive gears is to be performed, is a single shift performed as first upshift and/or downshift. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention will now be described, by way of example, with reference to the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a first transmission layout of an automatic transmission with five shift elements, in which the method according to the invention is beneficially applicable; FIG. 2 is a shift element matrix for the shift elements of the transmission layout of FIG. 1 for the purpose of clarifying which shift elements are closed in which gear; FIG. 3 is a second transmission layout of an automatic transmission with five shift elements, in which the method according to the invention is beneficially applicable; FIG. 4 is a shift element matrix for the shift elements of the transmission layout of FIG. 3 for the purpose of clarification, to show which shift elements are closed in which gear. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION FIG. 1 shows a first transmission layout 1 of a phase automatic transmission in which the method, according to the present invention, for operating an automatic transmission may be applied. The automatic transmission, shown in FIG. 1, therefore, uses several transmission gearsets 2, 3 and 4 in order to convert a transmission input torque applied to a transmission input 5 into a transmission output torque of a transmission output 6. The transmission gearsets 2, 3, 4 of the automatic transmission are, therefore, according to FIG. 1, designed as planetary transmission gears. According to the transmission layout 1 of FIG. 1, the automatic transmission, in addition to the transmission gearsets 2 through 4, also has a total of five shift elements 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11, whereas the shift element 7 is also referred to as shift element A; shift element 8 as shift element B; shift element 9 as shift element C; shift element 10 as shift element D, and shift element 11 as shift element E. The shift element C and the shift element D are brakes, where the shift elements A, B and E are clutches. For the automatic transmission, schematically represented in FIG. 1, which includes the five shift elements 7 through 11, applying a shift matrix 12, illustrated in FIG. 2, six forward gears, as well as one reverse gear, can be realized. In the left-hand column of the shift matrix 12, the six forward gears “1” through “6”, as well as the reverse gear “R” and, in the upper line of the shift matrix 12, the shift elements A through E are listed. Shift elements, which in the shift element matrix 12, are marked with a dot, are engaged in the respective gear. In each forward gear, as well as in the reverse gear, two of the five shift elements are engaged in each case. For the forward gear “1,” for example, the shift elements A and D, as well as for the reverse gear “R”, the shift elements B and D are engaged, respectively. The other shift elements are, therefore, completely disengaged in the respective gear. For the transmission of power and/or rotational torque from transmission input 5 to the transmission output 6, two shift elements are, therefore, completely engaged in each gear in the automatic transmission, illustrated in the Figure, while three shift elements are completely disengaged. According to the present invention, successive upshifts and/or successive downshifts are performed in an overlapped manner to improve the shift speed, specifically in such a way that in a first upshift and/or downshift at least one shift element needed for a successive second upshift and/or downshift during the ongoing first upshift and/or downshift is prepared, such that upon attaining a synchronous point, preferably a synchronous rotation speed of the ongoing first upshift and/or downshift, the immediate processing of the successive second upshift and/or downshift is possible. Moreover, according to the invention, depending upon a gear change to be completed from a current gear to a desired gear as first upshift and/or downshift, a multiple shift is preferred to be performed over a single shift. Only when a gear change, between two immediately adjacent gears is to be completed, is a single shift performed as first upshift and/or downshift whereas, during the ongoing first upshift and/or downshift, when another upshift and/or downshift is possible in the same shift direction, a single shift is also prepared as a successive second upshift and/or downshift. On the other hand, when a gear change between two non-immediately successive gears is to be performed, a multiple shift is always performed as first upshift and/or downshift whereby, during the running first upshift and/or downshift, executed as a multiple shift, either a single shift or also a multiple shift is prepared as a successive second upshift and/or downshift. The following Table 1 illustrates an exemplary configuration of the method for the automatic transmission of FIGS. 1 and 2. According the following Table 1, successive upshifts, as well as downshift, are implemented in an overlapped manner. TABLE 1 SHIFT ELEMENTS OF AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION OF FIG. 1, 2 A B C D E DOWNSHIFT 6-5 (5-4) pe e/pd d — x 5-4 (4-3) e d/pe — — pd 4-3 (3-2) x e/pd pe — d 3-2 (2-1) x d e/pd pe — 2-1 x — d e — 6-4 (4-3) e pe d — pd 5-3 (3-2) e pd pe — d 4-2 (2-1) x — e/pd pe d UPSHIFT 1-2 (2-3) x pe e/pd d — 2-3 (3-4) x e/pd d — pe 3-4 (4-5) pd d/pe — — e 4-5 (5-6) d e/pd pe — x 5-6 — d e — x In the above Table 1, successive overlapped upshifts and successive downshifts are listed in parenthesis in the left-hand column. These follow the first upshift and/or downshift. The upshift and/or downshift, not listed in parenthesis, is the first upshift and/or downshift and the upshift and/or downshift, listed in parenthesis, is the second upshift and/or downshift for which one shift element is prepared during the ongoing first upshift and/or downshift. According to Table 1, first downshifts are either designed as single downshifts or as multiple downshifts, i.e., as double downshifts. Successive second downshifts are always prepared as single downshifts. First upshifts are, however, always designed as single upshifts, to be prepared the same as second upshifts. According to the present invention, depending on a gear change to be performed, in the above table, multiple shifts are preferably implemented from an actual gear to a nominal gear versus single shifts as first downshifts. According to the above Table, after the first downshift, implemented as a multiple downshift, the successive second downshift is implemented as a single downshift. Only when a downshift is to be performed between immediately successive gears, a single shift is performed as first downshift while, instead of a second downshift, a single downshift is also prepared. For example, if the transmission control selects to change gears, namely a downshift from the forward gear “6” to the forward gear “5” then, while applying the above Table, a single downshift from forward gear “6” to the forward gear “5” is performed as first downshift, during which a single downshift from forward gear “5” to the forward gear “4” is prepared as second downshift. This second downshift, however, is only performed when the transmission control recognizes, depending on the driver's wish, that this is in fact desired. If not, the second downshift, prepared during the first downshift, is terminated. When the transmission control unit specifies performing a gear change, namely, a downshift from forward gear “6” to forward gear “4”, according to the invention, the first downshift is performed as a multiple shift, specifically from forward gear “6” to the forward gear “4” whereby, during the first downshift, a second downshift is prepared as a single downshift from forward gear “4” to the forward gear “3” and is only performed if this is in fact the driver's wish. For example, if the transmission control selects to change gears, such as a downshift from the forward gear “5” to the forward gear “2” then, while applying the above Table, a multiple downshift is performed as the first downshift, specifically from forward gear “5” to the forward gear “3” while, during this first downshift, a second downshift is prepared as the single downshift from forward gear “3” to the forward gear “2” and will be performed immediately upon attaining the synchronous speed of the first downshift. In the above Table, shift elements which, during an upshift and/or downshift to be performed, and which are additionally activated on and therefore engaged, are marked with “e”. Shift elements that, in turn, are deactivated during a first upshift and/or downshift and therefore disengaged, are marked with “d”. Shift elements that, during a first upshift and/or downshift for a successive second upshift and/or downshift, are prepared to be activated and therefore engaged, or to be deactivated and therefore disengaged, are marked in the above table with “pe” or “pd”. In the above Table, when shift elements are marked with “e/pd” and/or “d/pe”, this means that the respective shift elements are involved in the first upshift and/or downshift, as well as in the successive second upshift and/or downshift. During the transition from the first upshift and/or downshift to the second upshift, the specific shift elements are selected from a minimum or a maximum amount of shift elements. Shift elements marked with “x” are and will remain, in turn, engaged during a shift performance. Shift elements marked with “−” are and will remain disengaged during the shift. FIG. 3 illustrates a second transmission layout 13 of a phase automatic transmission in which the method of the invention for the operation of an automatic transmission can be applied. The automatic transmission of FIG. 3 has a total of four transmission gearsets 14, 15, 16 and 17, in order to convert transmission input torque applied to a transmission input 18 into a transmission output torque of a transmission output 19. The transmission gearsets 14 through 17 of the automatic transmission, according to FIG. 3 thereby, in turn, are designed as planetary gears. According to the transmission layout 13 of FIG. 3, the automatic transmission has, in addition to the four transmission gearsets 14 through 17, a total of five shift elements 20, 21, 22, 23 and 24, whereby the shift element 20 is also referred to as shift element A; shift element 21 as shift element B; shift element 22 as shift element C; shift element 23 as shift element D, and shift element 24 as shift element E. The shift element A, as well as shift element B, are brakes, while the shift elements C, D and E are clutches. In FIG. 3 illustrated as a schematic automatic transmission, which includes the five shift elements 20 through 24, applying a shift matrix 25, illustrated in FIG. 4, eight forward gears, as well as one reverse gear, can be realized and are listed in the left-hand column of the shift matrix 25 as the eight forward gears “1” through “8”, as well as the reverse gear “R”. In the upper line of the shift matrix 25, the shift elements A through E are listed. Shift elements which, in the shift element matrix 25 are marked with a dot, are engaged in the respective gear. In each forward gear, as well in the reverse gear, three of the five shift elements are engaged in any given case. For the forward gear “1”, for example, the shift elements A, B and C, as well as for the reverse gear “R”, the shift elements A, B and D are therefore engaged. The other shift elements are, therefore, completely disengaged in the respective gear. For the transmission of power and/or rotational torque from transmission input 18 to the transmission output 19, three shift elements are completely engaged in each gear in the automatic transmission, illustrated in FIG. 3, while two shift elements are completely disengaged. Additionally, in connection with the automatic transmission according to FIGS. 3 and 4, successive upshifts and/or successive downshifts are to be overlapped, specifically in such a manner that, during the process of the first upshift and/or downshift, at least one shift element, necessary for a successive second shift, is prepared. In this connection, Table 2 shows a possible implementation of the method, according to the invention, for the automatic transmission of FIGS. 3 and 4 whereby, the same nomenclature of Table 1 with regard to the automatic transmission of FIGS. 1 and 2, applies to these Tables. TABLE 2 SHIFT ELEMENTS OF AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION OF FIGS. 3, 4 A B C D E DOWNSHIFT 8-7 (7-6) pd — e x d/pe 7-6 (6-5) d pe — x e/pd 6-5 (5-4) — e pd x d/pe 5-4 (4-3) — x d/pe pd e 4-3 (3-2) pe x e/pd d — 3-2 (2-1) e x d/pe — pd 2-1 x x e — d 8-6 (6-5) d pe e x pd 7-5 (5-4) d e pd x pe 6-4 (4-3) — e d/pe pd x 5-3 (3-2) pe x pd d e 4-2 (2-1) e x pe d pd 3-1 e x x — d 8-4 (4-3) d e pe pd x 8-2 (2-1) x e pe d pd 7-1 x e x d — 6-3 (3-2) pe e pd d x 5-1 e x x d — UPSHIFT 1-2 (2-3) pd x d/pe — e 2-3 (3-4) d x e/pd pe x 3-4 (4-5) — x d/pe e pd 4-5 (5-6) — pd e x d/pe 5-6 (6-7) pe d x x e/pd 6-7 (7-8) e — pd x d/pe 7-8 x — d x e 1-3 (3-4) d x pd pe e 2-4 (4-5) d x pe e pd 3-5 (5-6) — pd x e d/pe 4-6 (6-7) pe d e x pd 5-7 (7-8) e d pd x pe 6-8 e — d x x When applying Table 2 for the automatic transmission of FIGS. 3 and 4, depending on the gear change to be performed from a current gear to a desired gear, first upshifts and first downshifts are preferably multiple shifts as opposed to single shifts. During the performance of such a multiple shift, the second successive upshift and/or downshift is prepared as a single shift. Downshifts performed as multiple shifts can be double downshifts, triple downshifts and quadruple downshifts, as well as sextuple downshifts. During upshifts, double shifts are performed as first shifts as multiple shifts according to Table 2. Likewise, it is possible for the automatic transmission of FIGS. 3 and 4, as shown in Table 3 below, to perform a multiple shift in the overlapped implementation of successive upshifts and/or successive downshifts as the first upshift and/or downshift or to perform, for example, a double shift and/or multiple shift while, for a second successive upshift and/or downshift, a multiple shift, specifically a double shift, is prepared. The nomenclature described in connection with Table 1 applies to Table 3 as well. TABLE 3 SHIFT ELEMENTS OF AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION OF FIGS. 3, 4 A B C D E DOWNSHIFT 8-6 (6-4) d pe e/pd x x 7-5 (5-3) d e e pd pe 6-4 (4-2) pe e d pd x 5-3 (3-1) pe x x d e/pd 8-4 (4-2) d/pe e — pd x UPSHIFT 4-6 (6-8) pe d e/pd x x Within the meaning of the method of the invention for operating an automatic transmission with overlapped implementation of successive upshifts and/or successive downshifts, multiple shifts are preferable as first upshifts and/or downshifts, over single shifts. During the performance of such multiple shifts, either a multiple shift or a single shift is prepared for the possible successive upshift and/or downshift as the second upshift and/or downshift. Only when a gear change, between two immediately successive gears is to be performed the first upshift and/or downshift, is a single shift, while a single shift is prepared as a second successive shift. It depends on the driver's wish as to whether a prepared second upshift and/or downshift is, in fact, performed. If a prepared second upshift and/or downshift does not meet with the driver's wish, it is then terminated. The selection of the shift elements to be prepared for a second upshift and/or downshift during a performed first upshift and/or downshift takes place through an assignment matrix, according to the Tables 1 through 3. REFERENCE NUMERALS 1 transmission schema 2 transmission gears 3 transmission gears 4 transmission gears 5 transmission input 6 transmission output 7 shift element A 8 shift element B 9 shift element C 10 shift element D 11 shift element E 12 shift element matrix 13 transmission schema 14 transmission gears 15 transmission gears 16 transmission gears 17 transmission gears 18 transmission input 19 transmission output 20 shift element A 21 shift element B 22 shift element C 23 shift element D 24 shift element E 25 shift element matrix	B	B60	B60W	10	00
11668821	US20080181856A1-20080731	Dentifrice Containing Zinc Ions and Polyphosphate Ions	ACCEPTED	20080716	20080731		[]	A61K855	["A61K855", "A61Q1100"]	8628755	20070130	20140114	424	049000	85036.0	MAEWALL	SNIGDHA	[{"inventor_name_last": "Prencipe", "inventor_name_first": "Michael", "inventor_city": "Princeton Junction", "inventor_state": "NJ", "inventor_country": "US"}]	The invention includes a dentifrice composition that comprises a zinc ion source, a polyphosphate ion source, an anethole, and a silica. The silica has a mean particle size of about 5 to about 12 microns, an Einlehner hardness of about 1 to about 20, and an oil absorption of about 40 to less than about 100 cc/100 g. The composition contains zinc ions and polyphosphate ions in a weight ratio of about 0.1:1 to about 10:1 and has a RDA value of about 100 to about 200 and a PCR value of about 75 to about 110. Related methods are also included.	1. A dentifrice composition comprising: a. a zinc ion source; b. a polyphosphate ion source; c. an anethole; and d. a silica, the silica having a mean particle size of about 5 to about 12 microns, an Einlehner hardness of about 1 to about 20, and an oil absorption of about 40 to less than about 100 cc/100 g, wherein the composition contains zinc ions and polyphosphate ions in a weight ratio of about 0.1:1 to about 10:1 and has a RDA value of about 100 to about 200 and a PCR value of about 75 to about 110. 2. The composition of claim 1, wherein the zinc ion source is zinc citrate. 3. The composition of claim 1, wherein the zinc ion source is selected from zinc oxide, zinc sulfate, zinc chloride, zinc lactate, zinc gluconate, zinc malate, zinc tartrate, zinc carbonate and zinc phosphate. 4. The composition of claim 1, wherein the polyphosphate ion source is tetrapotassium pyrophosphate. 5. The composition of claim 1, wherein the polyphosphate ion source is selected from dialkali or tetra alkali metal pyrophosphate salts, Na4P2O7, K4P2O7, Na2K2P2O7, Na2H2P2O7, K2H2P2O7, and sodium hexametaphosphate, potassium trimetaphosphate. 6. The composition of claim 1, wherein the polyphosphate ion source is selected from those having the structure: XO(XPO3)nX wherein X is chosen from Na2+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, Mn2+, and K2+, and n is about 4 to about 125. 7. The composition of claim 1, wherein the silica has a BET surface area of about 100 to about 700 m2/g of silica. 8. The composition of claim 1, wherein the zinc ions and the polyphophospate ions are present in a weight ratio of about 0.2:1 to 5:1. 9. The composition of claim 1, further comprising an agent selected from a stannous ion agent; triclosan; triclosan monophosphate; chlorhexidine; alexidine; hexetidine; sanguinarine; benzalkonium chloride; salicylanilide; domiphen bromide; cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC); tetradecylpyridinium chloride (TPC); N-tetradecyl-4-ethylpyridinium chloride (TDEPC); octenidine; delmopinol; octapinol; nisin; a copper ion agent; a fluoride ion source, an essential oil; furanones; bacteriocins; and salts thereof. 10. A method of maintaining and/or enhancing systemic health comprising topically applying an oral care composition at least once a day to an oral surface, the composition comprising: a. a zinc ion source; b. a polyphosphate ion source; c. an anethole; and d. a silica, the silica having a mean particle size of about 5 to about 12 microns, an Einlehner hardness of about 1 to about 20, and an oil absorption of about 40 to less than about 100 cc/100 g, wherein the composition contains zinc ions and polyphosphate ions in a weight ratio of about 0.1:1 to about 10:1, and has a RDA value of about 100 to about 200 and a PCR value of about 75 to about 110. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the zinc ion source is zinc citrate. 12. The method of claim 10, wherein the zinc ion source is zinc lactate. 13. The method of claim 10, wherein the zinc ion source is selected from zinc oxide, zinc sulfate, zinc chloride, zinc lactate, zinc gluconate, zinc malate, zinc tartrate, zinc carbonate, and zinc phosphate. 14. The method of claim 10, wherein the polyphosphate ion source is tetrapotassium pyrophosphate. 15. The method of claim 10, wherein the polyphosphate ion source is selected from dialkali or tetraalkali metal pyrophosphate salts, Na4P2O7, K4P2O7, Na2K2P2O7, Na2H2P2O7, K2H2P2O7, and sodium hexametaphosphate, potassium trimetaphosphate. 16. The method of claim 10, wherein the silica has a BET surface area of about 100 to about 700 m2/g of silica. 17. The method of claim 10, wherein the zinc ions and the polyphosphate ions are present in a weight ratio of 0.2:1 to about 5:1. 18. The method of claim 10, wherein the composition is topically applied to an oral surface twice a day. 19. A method of reducing the presence of plaque on an oral surface comprising topically applying an oral care composition at least once a day to an oral surface, the composition comprising: a. a zinc ion source; b. a polyphosphate ion source; c. an anethole; and d. a silica, the silica having a mean particle size of about 5 to about 12 microns, an Einlehner hardness of about 1 to about 20, and an oil absorption of about 40 to less than about 100 cc/100 g, wherein the composition contains zinc ions and polyphosphate ions in a weight ratio of about 0.1:1 to about 10:1 and has a RDA of about 100 to about 200 and a PCR of about 75-110. 20. The method of claim 19, wherein application is accomplished by a brush, a toothbrush, a stick, a sponge, a swab, lavage, mastication and dissolution.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The antibacterial effects of zinc ions in the oral cavity are described in the art and numerous attempts have been made to prepare dentifrice compositions incorporating zinc ions to take advantage of the therapeutic benefits of reduced plaque, gum inflammation and/or gingivitis. However, such formulations are noted for their unpleasant taste, often referred to as “astringent”. Such unpleasant organoleptic experiences often result in reduced compliance to an oral care regimen by the patient/consumer. Various attempts to disguise or avoid the unpleasant organoleptic aspects while retailing and/or enhancing the therapeutic benefits obtained have been made. However, there remains a need in the art for a dentifrice formulation that allows the patient/consumer to obtain the therapeutic benefits of a zinc-containing dentifrice, whilst not suffering the disadvantageous organoleptic experience associated with such dentifrices.	<SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The invention includes a dentifrice composition that comprises a zinc ion source, a polyphosphate ion source, an anethole, and a silica. The silica has a mean particle size of about 5 to about 12 microns, an Einlehner hardness of about 1 to about 20, and an oil absorption of about 40 to less than about 100 cc/100 g. The composition contains zinc ions and polyphosphate ions in a weight ratio of about 0.1:1 to about 10:1 and has a RDA value of about 100 to about 200 and a PCR value of about 75 to about 110. In one embodiment, the zinc ion source is zinc citrate. The invention also includes related methods, such as a method of maintaining and/or enhancing systemic health that includes topically applying the dentifrice composition of the invention at least once a day to an oral surface, or a method of reducing the presence of plaque on an oral surface comprising topically applying an oral care composition at least once a day to an oral surface. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The antibacterial effects of zinc ions in the oral cavity are described in the art and numerous attempts have been made to prepare dentifrice compositions incorporating zinc ions to take advantage of the therapeutic benefits of reduced plaque, gum inflammation and/or gingivitis. However, such formulations are noted for their unpleasant taste, often referred to as “astringent”. Such unpleasant organoleptic experiences often result in reduced compliance to an oral care regimen by the patient/consumer. Various attempts to disguise or avoid the unpleasant organoleptic aspects while retailing and/or enhancing the therapeutic benefits obtained have been made. However, there remains a need in the art for a dentifrice formulation that allows the patient/consumer to obtain the therapeutic benefits of a zinc-containing dentifrice, whilst not suffering the disadvantageous organoleptic experience associated with such dentifrices. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention includes a dentifrice composition that comprises a zinc ion source, a polyphosphate ion source, an anethole, and a silica. The silica has a mean particle size of about 5 to about 12 microns, an Einlehner hardness of about 1 to about 20, and an oil absorption of about 40 to less than about 100 cc/100 g. The composition contains zinc ions and polyphosphate ions in a weight ratio of about 0.1:1 to about 10:1 and has a RDA value of about 100 to about 200 and a PCR value of about 75 to about 110. In one embodiment, the zinc ion source is zinc citrate. The invention also includes related methods, such as a method of maintaining and/or enhancing systemic health that includes topically applying the dentifrice composition of the invention at least once a day to an oral surface, or a method of reducing the presence of plaque on an oral surface comprising topically applying an oral care composition at least once a day to an oral surface. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The invention described herein provides clinical efficacy in an oral context, yet is not perceived by the patient as having the unpleasant astringent taste commonly associated with conventional zinc-containing dentifrices. In one aspect, the invention includes a composition having a zinc ion source, a polyphosphate ion source, an anethole, and a silica. Zinc ion sources for use in the invention may include agents known or to be developed in the art that ionize at least partially once applied to the oral surfaces in the presence of saliva. For example, suitable zinc ion sources may include zinc salts, such as zinc oxide, zinc sulfate, zinc chloride, zinc citrate, zinc lactate, zinc gluconate, zinc malate, zinc tartrate, zinc carbonate, zinc phosphate, and other salts listed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,022,880, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. Mixtures on two or more of these zinc ion sources may also be used. Other zinc ion sources include those described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,000,944, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. The zinc ion source may be present in any effective amount; however, it may be preferable that it is present in a sufficient amount to provide at least about 1,000 ppm of zinc ions for delivery to the tooth surface or alternatively, about 2,000 ppm to about 15,000 ppm. Under some circumstances, one may wish to have the zinc ion source present in an amount sufficient to provide about 3,000 ppm to about 13,000 ppm or about 4,000 ppm to about 10,000 ppm. Depending on the ionization properties of the zinc salt selected, it may be desirable that the zinc ion is present in the composition in all amount of about 1% by weight to about 5% by weight, alternatively 3% by weight to about 10% by weight. A polyphosphate ion source is present in the composition of the invention. The polyphosphate ion source suitable for inclusion into the composition may include any known or to be developed in the art, as long as it ionizes at least partially to provide polyphosphate ions upon application to an oral surface. Exemplary polyphosphate ions may include linear polyphosphates, cyclic polyphosphates, dialkali or tetra alkali metal pyrophosphate salts, Na4P2O7, K4P2O7, Na2K2P2O7, Na2H2P2O7 and K2H2P2O7, alkali metal hexametaphosphates, alkali metal trimetaphosphates, glassy polyphosphates and may include those having the structure: XO(XPO3)nX wherein X is a cation such as Na2+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, Mn2+, and K2+, and n is about 4 to about 125 or alternatively 10 to about 75. In some embodiments, n may be 6, 13, 21 or 63. These polyphosphates may be used alone or in any combination of two or more. Other polyphosphate ion sources include those described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,000,944, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. The selected polyphosphates may be present in any amount; however, it may be preferred that the polyphosphate is present in amounts of about 0.1% to about 45% by weight of the total composition, alternatively about 20% to about 30% by weight of the total composition. The absolute amounts of polyphosphate ion sources and zinc ion sources should be calculated such that the overall composition contains zinc ions and polyphosphate ions in a weight ratio of about 0.1:1 to about 10:1, alternatively in a weight ratio of about 0.2:1 to about 5:1. The composition includes an anethole, which may be from any source, synthetic or natural. Any isomeric form may be used (e.g., estragol). It may be provided to the composition neat or it may be included as part of an extract of fennel, basil, star anise and the like. It may be present in any amount, for example, about 0.1% to about 10% by weight or 2% to about 7% by weight. Silica is included in the composition of the invention. The silica has a mean particle size of about 5 to about 12 microns, alternatively about 7 to 10 μmicrons, as measured using a Malvern Particle Size Analyzer, Model Mastersizer S. This instrument, manufactured by Malvern Instruments, Inc., Southborough, Mass., United States of America, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,290,933, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. Suitable silica for use in the composition of the invention has an Einlehner hardness of about 1 to about 20, alternatively about 5 to about 15 and an oil absorption value of about 40 to less than about 100 cc/100 g. The Einlehner hardness is determined using an Einlehner At-1000 Abrader. A Fourdrinier brass wire screen is weighed and exposed to the action of a 10% aqueous silica suspension for a given number of revolutions. The hardness value is expressed as milligrams weight lost of the Fourdrinier wire screen per 100,000 revolutions. The oil absorption value is determined using ASTM rub-out method D281. Silicas suitable for use in the composition may also have a BET surface area of about 100 to 700 m2/g of silica. The BET surface area is determined by a BET nitrogen adsorption method described in Brunauer et al., Journal of the American Chemical Society, 60, 309 (1938), the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. The BET measurement is preformed using an Accelerated Surface Area and Porosimetry Analyzer (ASAP 2400), by Micromeritics Instrument Corporation, Norcross, Ga., United States of America. The sample is outgassed under vacuum at 350° C. for a minimum of two hours before measurement. The composition of the invention may include any conventional dentifrice vehicle component, such as water, surfactants, sweeteners, preservatives, flavorants, colorants, and/or additional active agents. Any may be included; suitable examples include stannous ion agent; triclosan; triclosan monophosphate; chlorhexidine; alexidine; hexetidine; sanguinarine; benzalkonium chloride; salicylanilide; domiphen bromide; cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC); tetradecylpyridinium chloride (TPC); N-tetradecyl-4-ethylpyridinium chloride (TDEPC); octenidine; delmopinol; octapinol; nisin; a copper ion agent; a fluoride ion source, an essential oil; furanones; bacteriocins; and salts thereof. The composition may be prepared by any means know in the art, such as, for example, the methods disclosed in WIPO Publication Number WO 2002/45678, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. The final composition is characterized by a radiotracer dentin abrasion value (“RDA value”) of about 100 to about 200, alternatively about 125 to about 175 and a pellicle cleaning ratio (“PCR value”) of about 75 to about 110, alternatively about 85 to about 97. The RDA value is determined according to the method recommended by the American Dental Association as set forth by Hefferren, Journal of Dental Research, 55:4, 1976, 563-573, and described U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,340,583; 4,420,312; and 4,421,527, the contents of each of which are incorporated herein by reference. In summary, an irradiated dentin surface is treated with the slurried composition to be evaluated and the level of radioactivity present in the slurry post treatment is indicative of the level of wear to the dentin surface. PCR values are determined as measured by the method described U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,658,553 and 5,651,958, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. In summary, a clear pellicle material is applied to a bovine tooth which is then stained with a combination of the pellicle material and tea, coffee, and FeCl3, which is subsequently treated with the composition, and the change in the reflectance of the tooth surface before and after treatment is the PCR value. The invention also includes methods of maintaining and/or enhancing systemic health, reducing and/or preventing gingival inflammation, and reducing the presence of plaque on an oral surface. Such methods include topically application of any of the compositions described herein to the surfaces of the oral cavity (“oral surfaces”), such as the teeth, gingival tissue, buccal tissue, tongue surface, cheek surface, etc. Application may be accomplished by any means; such means may vary depending on the form of the primary oral care composition. Exemplary means of application include application using an implement (such as a brush, toothbrush, stick, sponge, cotton swab), lavage (“swish”), mastication, adjacent placement, and dissolution. Application can be at least once, at least twice, or more per day.	A	A61	A61K	8	55
11774174	US20080178208A1-20080724	APPARATUS AND METHOD FOR EDITING TS PROGRAM INFORMATION AND TS RECORDING DEVICE USING THE SAME	ACCEPTED	20080709	20080724		[]	H04N716	["H04N716"]	9319736	20070706	20160419	386	239000	67828.0	CHEVALIER	ROBERT	[{"inventor_name_last": "KIM", "inventor_name_first": "Young-jin", "inventor_city": "Suwon-si", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}]	An apparatus and method for editing transport stream (TS) program information, and a TS recording device using the same, the apparatus including: a demultiplexer that demultiplexes a TS in order to separate the TS into a video stream, an audio stream, and a program information section; a controller that generates new program information using user data obtained from the video stream separated from the TS by the demultiplexer; and a section modifier that modifies the program information section using the new program information generated by the controller. Using the apparatus and method for editing TS program information, the user data can still be used even when the user data is included in a video frame and a recorded program is reproduced at high speed. Thus, controlling the viewing of a program by rating is possible.	1. An apparatus for editing transport stream (TS) program information, the apparatus comprising: a demultiplexer to demultiplex a TS in order to separate the TS into a video stream, an audio stream, and a program information section; a controller to generate new program information using user data obtained from the video stream separated from the TS by the demultiplexer; and a section modifier to modify the program information section to include the new program information generated by the controller. 2. The apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the user data is included in extended data services (XDS) included in the video stream. 3. The apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the user data is a rating for restricting viewing. 4. The apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the controller comprises: a user data controller to obtain the user data from the video stream; and a section controller to obtain packet identifiers (PID) of packets forming a program that a viewer desires to record by parsing a program association section (PAS) of the program information section. 5. The apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the controller comprises: a user data controller to obtain the user data from the video stream. 6. The apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the controller comprises: a section controller to obtain PIDs of packets forming a program that a viewer desires to record by parsing a PAS of the program information section and obtaining the PIDs from a program association table (PAT) included in the PAS. 7. The apparatus as claimed in claim 4, wherein the section controller generates a new program mapping table (PMT), which is the new program information, using the user data received from the user data controller. 8. The apparatus as claimed in claim 7, wherein the new PMT comprises a content advisory descriptor and the user data is recorded in the content advisory descriptor. 9. The apparatus as claimed in claim 7, wherein the section modifier modifies a program mapping section of the program information section using the new PMT. 10. The apparatus as claimed in claim 6, wherein the section controller generates a new PAT by extracting program information related to the program that the viewer desires to record. 11. The apparatus as claimed in claim 10, wherein the section modifier modifies the PAS using the new PAT. 12. The apparatus as claimed in claim 1, further comprising: a stream recorder to extract packets forming a program from the TS that is to be recorded, wherein the section modifier modifies the program information section included in the packets to include the new program information. 13. The apparatus as claimed in claim 12, further comprising a memory to store the modified packets as a TS file. 14. A transport stream (TS) recording device comprising: a controller to generate new program information to include user data obtained from a video stream included in a TS; a stream recorder to extract packets forming a program from the TS that is to be recorded, and to temporarily store the extracted packets; a modifier to modify the packets stored by the stream recorder to include the new program information generated by the controller; and a memory to store the packets modified by the modifier. 15. The device as claimed in claim 14, wherein the user data is a rating for restricting viewing. 16. The device as claimed in claim 14, further comprising: a demultiplexer to demultiplex the TS in order to separate the TS into the video stream, an audio stream packet, and a program information section packet, such that the modifier modifies the program information section packet to include the new program information. 17. A method of editing transport stream (TS) program information, the method comprising: separating a TS into a video stream, an audio stream, and a program information section by demultiplexing the TS; obtaining user data from the separated video stream; generating new program information to include the user data; and modifying the program information section to include the new program information. 18. The method as claimed in claim 17, wherein the user data is a rating for restricting viewing. 19. The method as claimed in claim 17, wherein the new program information is a program mapping table (PMT). 20. The method as claimed in claim 19, further comprising: determining whether the user data is included in the video stream, wherein the new program information is not generated and the program information section is not modified if the user data is not included in the video stream. 21. The method as claimed in claim 19, wherein the modifying of the program information section comprises modifying a program mapping section of the program information section using the PMT. 22. The method as claimed in claim 17, wherein the generating of the new program information comprises: obtaining packet identifiers (PIDs) of packets forming a program that a viewer desires to record by parsing a program association section (PAS) of the program information section and obtaining the PIDs from a program association table (PAT) included in the PAS. 23. The method as claimed in claim 22, wherein the generating of the new program information further comprises: generating a new PMT, which is the new program information, using the user data. 24. The method as claimed in claim 23, wherein the PMT comprises a content advisory descriptor and the user data is recorded in the content advisory descriptor. 25. The method as claimed in claim 22, further comprising: generating a new PAT by extracting program information related to the program that the viewer desires to record; and modifying the PAS using the new PAT. 26. The method as claimed in claim 17, wherein the separating of the TS comprises: separating the TS into a video stream packet, an audio stream packet, and a program information section packet that form a program that is to be recorded, the program information section packet including the program information section. 27. The method as claimed in claim 26, further comprising: storing the video stream packet, the audio stream packet, and the program information section packet in a memory after the program information section is modified to include the new program information. 28. A computer readable recording medium encoded with the method of claim 17 implemented by a computer. 29. A method of recording transport stream (TS) program information, the method comprising: generating new program information to include user data obtained from a video stream included in a TS; extracting packets forming a program from the TS that is to be recorded; modifying the packets to include the new program information; and storing the modified packets. 30. The method as claimed in claim 29, wherein the user data is a rating for restricting viewing. 31. A computer readable recording medium encoded with the method of claim 29 implemented by a computer.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention Aspects of the present invention relate to recording transport stream (TS) data, and more particularly, to an apparatus and method for editing program information in order to preserve user data of TS data. 2. Description of the Related Art Generally, digital broadcast program providers can prevent certain viewers from viewing certain programs by presetting program ratings for each program and including the preset program rating in a transport stream (TS). For example, a rating according to age groups in order to stop minors from viewing adult programs is generally included in the TS. However, even when information about the rating is included in the TS, a viewer may be able to view the program by recording the program and reproducing the program at high speed. The reason is as follows. FIGS. 1A through 1C are diagrams illustrating one of the conventional syntax structures generally employed in a TS packet for digital broadcast. The conventional syntax structure complies with ISO/IEC 13818-1, alias MPEG 2, which is the standard. FIG. 1A illustrates elementary streams, ES 1 and ES 2 , including video and/or audio data. Such elementary streams are combined with header information in order to form a packetized elementary stream (PES) packet, as illustrated in FIG. 1B . Also, the PES packets are combined with program information data (such as program and system information protocol (PSIP) data) and then included in a data portion of a TS packet, as illustrated in FIG. 1C . PSIP is an example of program information. Such program information contains auxiliary information required when reproducing a program using the TS packets. PSIP includes a program association table (PAT), a program mapping table (PMT), and an event information table (EIT). The PMT includes a program number, a packet identifier (PID) of TS packets forming the program, and auxiliary information. The PAT includes a program number and the PMT. When user data (such as a rating) is included in the PMT or EIT of the PSIP, viewing of a program is restricted by the rating even when the recorded program is reproduced at high speed because the PSIP is also parsed during the reproduction at high speed. However, when the user data (such as the rating) is included in an extended data service (XDS), restricting the viewing of a program by the rating may not be possible. This is because the XDS is included in a video stream (or a PES packet). When the recorded program is reproduced at high speed, part of the video stream is not parsed and reproduced. Accordingly, when the XDS included in the video stream is not parsed/reproduced, it is not possible to restrict a viewing of a program according to the rating.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Aspects of the present invention provide an apparatus and method for editing TS program information that does not lose user data while reproducing a recorded TS program at high speed, and a TS program recording device using the apparatus. According to an aspect of the present invention, there is provided an apparatus for editing TS program information, the apparatus including: a demultiplexer to demultiplex a TS in order to separate the TS into a video stream, an audio stream, and a program information section; a controller to generate new program information using user data obtained from the video stream separated from the TS by the demultiplexer; and a section modifier to modify the program information section using the new program information generated by the controller. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a TS recording device including: a controller to generate new program information using user data obtained from a video stream included in a TS; a stream recorder to extract packets forming a program from the TS that is to be recorded, and to temporarily store the extracted packets; a modifier to modify the packets stored in the stream recorder using the new program information generated by the controller; and a memory to store the packets modified by the modifier. According to yet another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method of editing TS program information, the method including: separating a TS into a video stream, an audio stream, and a program information section by demultiplexing the TS; obtaining user data from the separated video stream; generating new program information using the user data; and modifying the program information section using the new program information. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a computer readable recording medium having recorded thereon a program for executing a method of editing TS program information, the method including: separating a TS into a video stream, an audio stream, and a program information section by demultiplexing the TS; obtaining user data from the separated video stream; generating new program information using the user data; and modifying the program information section using the new program information. According to still another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method of recording transport stream (TS) program information, the method including: generating new program information to include user data obtained from a video stream included in a TS; extracting packets forming a program from the TS that is to be recorded; modifying the packets to include the new program information; and storing the modified packets. Additional aspects and/or advantages of the invention will be set forth in part in the description which follows and, in part, will be obvious from the description, or may be learned by practice of the invention.	CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application claims the benefit of Korean Application No. -2007-7652 filed on Jan. 24, 2007 in the Korean Intellectual Property Office, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention Aspects of the present invention relate to recording transport stream (TS) data, and more particularly, to an apparatus and method for editing program information in order to preserve user data of TS data. 2. Description of the Related Art Generally, digital broadcast program providers can prevent certain viewers from viewing certain programs by presetting program ratings for each program and including the preset program rating in a transport stream (TS). For example, a rating according to age groups in order to stop minors from viewing adult programs is generally included in the TS. However, even when information about the rating is included in the TS, a viewer may be able to view the program by recording the program and reproducing the program at high speed. The reason is as follows. FIGS. 1A through 1C are diagrams illustrating one of the conventional syntax structures generally employed in a TS packet for digital broadcast. The conventional syntax structure complies with ISO/IEC 13818-1, alias MPEG 2, which is the standard. FIG. 1A illustrates elementary streams, ES1 and ES2, including video and/or audio data. Such elementary streams are combined with header information in order to form a packetized elementary stream (PES) packet, as illustrated in FIG. 1B. Also, the PES packets are combined with program information data (such as program and system information protocol (PSIP) data) and then included in a data portion of a TS packet, as illustrated in FIG. 1C. PSIP is an example of program information. Such program information contains auxiliary information required when reproducing a program using the TS packets. PSIP includes a program association table (PAT), a program mapping table (PMT), and an event information table (EIT). The PMT includes a program number, a packet identifier (PID) of TS packets forming the program, and auxiliary information. The PAT includes a program number and the PMT. When user data (such as a rating) is included in the PMT or EIT of the PSIP, viewing of a program is restricted by the rating even when the recorded program is reproduced at high speed because the PSIP is also parsed during the reproduction at high speed. However, when the user data (such as the rating) is included in an extended data service (XDS), restricting the viewing of a program by the rating may not be possible. This is because the XDS is included in a video stream (or a PES packet). When the recorded program is reproduced at high speed, part of the video stream is not parsed and reproduced. Accordingly, when the XDS included in the video stream is not parsed/reproduced, it is not possible to restrict a viewing of a program according to the rating. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Aspects of the present invention provide an apparatus and method for editing TS program information that does not lose user data while reproducing a recorded TS program at high speed, and a TS program recording device using the apparatus. According to an aspect of the present invention, there is provided an apparatus for editing TS program information, the apparatus including: a demultiplexer to demultiplex a TS in order to separate the TS into a video stream, an audio stream, and a program information section; a controller to generate new program information using user data obtained from the video stream separated from the TS by the demultiplexer; and a section modifier to modify the program information section using the new program information generated by the controller. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a TS recording device including: a controller to generate new program information using user data obtained from a video stream included in a TS; a stream recorder to extract packets forming a program from the TS that is to be recorded, and to temporarily store the extracted packets; a modifier to modify the packets stored in the stream recorder using the new program information generated by the controller; and a memory to store the packets modified by the modifier. According to yet another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method of editing TS program information, the method including: separating a TS into a video stream, an audio stream, and a program information section by demultiplexing the TS; obtaining user data from the separated video stream; generating new program information using the user data; and modifying the program information section using the new program information. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a computer readable recording medium having recorded thereon a program for executing a method of editing TS program information, the method including: separating a TS into a video stream, an audio stream, and a program information section by demultiplexing the TS; obtaining user data from the separated video stream; generating new program information using the user data; and modifying the program information section using the new program information. According to still another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method of recording transport stream (TS) program information, the method including: generating new program information to include user data obtained from a video stream included in a TS; extracting packets forming a program from the TS that is to be recorded; modifying the packets to include the new program information; and storing the modified packets. Additional aspects and/or advantages of the invention will be set forth in part in the description which follows and, in part, will be obvious from the description, or may be learned by practice of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS These and/or other aspects and advantages of the invention will become apparent and more readily appreciated from the following description of the embodiments, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings of which: FIGS. 1A through 1C are diagrams illustrating a conventional syntax structure employed in a transport stream (TS) packet for digital broadcast; FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating a TS recording device for recording a TS program including an apparatus for editing TS program information according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a flowchart illustrating a method of editing TS program information according to an embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 4 illustrates program information tables generated according to an embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS Reference will now be made in detail to the present embodiments of the present invention, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings, wherein like reference numerals refer to the like elements throughout. The embodiments are described below in order to explain the present invention by referring to the figures. Hereinafter, program rating is used as an example of user data included in a video stream for convenience. However, user data according to aspects of the present invention is not limited to program rating, and may include other types of information, such as an electric program guide (EPG), a caption, or the like. FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating a transport stream (TS) recording device for recording a TS program including an apparatus for editing TS program information according to an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 2, a tuner 23 receives a broadcast signal from an antenna, selects a channel selected by a viewer from the broadcast signal, and then obtains a corresponding TS by demodulating the selected channel. A demultiplexer 24 demultiplexes the TS obtained by the tuner 23 in order to separate the TS into TS data (i.e., to separate the TS into a video stream, an audio stream, and a program information section). The TS data includes a plurality of program data according to the MPEG 2 standard. A user data controller 21 obtains rating data by parsing a user data area (for example, extended data services (XDS)) included in the video stream separated by the demultiplexer 24. The user data controller 21 transmits the rating data to a section controller 22. The section controller 22 parses program information (such as program and system information protocol (PSIP) data) separated by the demultiplexer 24. For example, the section controller 22 parses a program association section (PAS) in order to obtain a packet identification (PID) of packets forming a program that a viewer desires to record. The PID obtained from a program association table (PAT) included in the PAS is a PID of a program mapping section (PMS). By parsing the PID of the PMS, a PID of video packets forming each program, a PID of audio packets, and a PID of a program information section can be obtained. Then, the section controller 22 transmits the PIDs forming the program to a stream recorder 25. Furthermore, the section controller 22 generates a new PAT by extracting program information related to the program that the viewer desires to record, based on section information obtained by parsing the program information. At the same time, the section controller 22 generates a new program mapping table (PMT) including the rating data received from the user data controller 21. The new PMT includes a content advisory descriptor. Information about the rating is recorded in the content advisory descriptor. Next, the section controller 22 transmits the newly generated PAT and PMT to a section modifier 26. The stream recorder 25 extracts a video packet, an audio packet, and a program information section packet corresponding to the PIDs forming the program that the viewer desires to record from among the TS data including a plurality of program data received from the demultiplexer 24. The stream recorder 25 receives the corresponding PIDs from the section controller 22. Moreover, the stream recorder 25 temporarily stores the extracted video packet, the extracted audio packet, and the extracted program information section packet. The section modifier 26 modifies section data using tables received from the section controller 22. In other words, the section modifier 26 modifies the PAS from among the program information received from the stream recorder 25 using the newly generated PAT, and modifies the PMS using the newly generated PMT. Once the section modifier 26 finishes modifying the sections (or the program information), the TS data is stored (or recorded) in a memory 27 as a TS file. It is understood that according to aspects of the present invention, the section controller 22 and the user data controller 21 can each be physically realized as an independent controller or processor, or can be realized as one controller (such as a central processing unit (CPU)). FIG. 3 is a flowchart illustrating a method of editing TS program information according to an embodiment of the present invention. In operation 31, a TS of a specific channel including a program that a viewer desires to record is filtered and separated from a received digital broadcast signal. In operation 32, the TS filtered in operation 31 is separated into TS data (i.e., the TS is separated into a video stream, an audio stream, and a program information section). In operation 33, the program information section separated in operation 32, is parsed in order to obtain packet identifications (PIDs) of packets forming the program that the viewer desires to record. Specifically, a program association section (PAS) is parsed. In operation 34, a video packet, an audio packet, and a program information session packet corresponding to the PIDs are obtained from among the TS data and recorded. The PIDs are obtained in operation 33. In operation 35, a new program association table (PAT) is generated by extracting program information related to the program that the viewer desires to record, based on a PAS obtained by parsing the program information in operation 33. In operation 36, it is determined whether rating data is included in the video stream by parsing a user data area (such as extended data services (XDS)) included in the video stream. When rating data is not included, operation 37 is omitted and operation 38 is performed. When rating data is included in the video stream, a new program mapping table (PMT) that includes a content advisory descriptor having the rating data is generated in operation 37. In operation 38, the PAS and/or a program mapping section (PMS) in the program information is modified. The PAS is modified using the PAT generated in operation 35. Also, when the new PMT is generated in operation 37, the PMS is modified using the PMT. The modified TS data is stored in a memory as a TS file in operation 39. The order of the operations of the method of editing TS program information according to aspects of the present invention is not limited to the order illustrated in FIG. 3. In other words, operations 31 through 39 can be performed in a different order. For example, operation 35 and operations 36 and 37 can be swapped. FIG. 4 illustrates a PAT and a PMT generated according to an embodiment of the present invention. The PAT includes a PID of one PMT, and the PMT includes a content advisory descriptor. Aspects of the present invention can also be embodied as computer-readable codes on a computer-readable recording medium. The computer-readable recording medium is any data storage device that can store data which can be thereafter read by a computer system. Examples of the computer readable recording medium include read-only memory (ROM), random-access memory (RAM), CD-ROMs, magnetic tapes, floppy disks, optical data storage devices, and a computer data signal embodied in a carrier wave comprising a compression source code segment comprising the code and an encryption source code segment comprising the code (such as data transmission through the Internet). The computer-readable recording medium can also be distributed over network-coupled computer systems so that the computer-readable code is stored and executed in a distributed fashion. Using the apparatus and method for editing TS program information according to aspects of the present invention, a rating limitation of viewers is possible even when the user data is included in the video stream and the recorded program is reproduced at high speed, since the user data can be obtained from the video stream and included in a modified program mapping table. Although a few embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described, it would be appreciated by those skilled in the art that changes may be made in this embodiment without departing from the principles and spirit of the invention, the scope of which is defined in the claims and their equivalents.	H	H04	H04N	7	16
11631628	US20080023646A1-20080131	Photostabilisation of Fluorescent Dyes	ACCEPTED	20080116	20080131		[]	G01J158	["G01J158", "C07D31106", "C07D31182", "G11B724", "C07D40314", "C07D48722"]	7511284	20070319	20090331	250	458100	76720.0	GAWORECKI	MARK	[{"inventor_name_last": "Nau", "inventor_name_first": "Werner", "inventor_city": "Bremen", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Mohanty", "inventor_name_first": "Jyotirmayee", "inventor_city": "Mumbai", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "IN"}]	The invention relates to the field of photostabilisers for fluorescent dyes. The invention additionally relates to products containing such photostabilisers.	1. Use of a cucurbituril for improving the photostability and/or for improving the storage stability of a fluorescent dye. 2. Use according to claim 1, wherein the cucurbituril is selected from the group consisting of cucurbit[5]uril, cucurbit[6]uril, cucurbit[7]uril and cucurbit[8]uril or a mixture of two or more of these cucurbiturils. 3. Use according to claim 1, wherein the fluorescent dye is selected from the group consisting of fluorescent dyes having a molecular weight of from 200 to 1000 g/mol., xanthene fluorescent dyes, cyanine fluorescent dyes, oxazine fluorescent dyes and coumarin fluorescent dyes or a mixture containing two or more of these dyes. 4. Photostabilised dye product containing a fluorescent dye and a cucurbituril in a concentration sufficient for the photostabilisation of the fluorescent dye. 5. Dye product according to claim 4, wherein the concentration of the fluorescent dye is at least 100 μM and the concentration of the cucurbituril is at least 1 μM. 6. Dye product according to claim 4, wherein the dye product is selected from the group consisting of: a laser dye solution for a dye laser, a reference solution for spectroscopic purposes, an optical storage medium and/or a display medium. 7. Dye laser containing a dye product according to claim 6. 8. Optical storage medium for the storage of data according to claim 6, comprising a) a solid carrier and b) a storage layer for recording and reproducing information, the storage layer comprising storage sections, and the storage sections containing a fluorescent dye and a cucurbituril in a concentration sufficient for the photostabilisation of the fluorescent dye. 9. Display device according to claim 6, comprising a) a display surface having display sections, the display sections containing a fluorescent dye and a cucurbituril in a concentration sufficient for the photostabilisation of the fluorescent dye, b) irradiating means for irradiating a chosen display section with a radiation intensity sufficient for triggering a fluorescence signal, and c) a control device that is in active communication with the irradiating means in order to control the irradiating means in such a manner that display sections are irradiated or are not irradiated according to image information read in by the control device, in order to produce on the display surface a fluorescent image corresponding to the image information. 10. Storage device comprising a) a storage surface having storage sections, the storage sections containing a fluorescent dye and a cucurbituril, and b) irradiating means for irradiating a chosen storage section with a radiation intensity sufficient to trigger a fluorescence signal. 11. Process for inscribing an optical storage medium according to claim 6, comprising the following steps: a) information to be stored is read in, and b) fluorescent dye and/or cucurbituril is destroyed in storage sections chosen according to the information to be stored, in order to produce an arrangement of storage sections having the ability, according to the information to be stored, to emit a fluorescence signal.			The invention relates to the field of photostabilisers for fluorescent dyes. The invention additionally relates to products containing such photostabilisers. Fluorescent dyes are organic colouring agents that are able to absorb ultraviolet radiation or visible light and emit it as light of longer wavelength with virtually no time delay (fluorescent). Fluorescent dyes within the scope of this invention are both dye molecules and chromophoric constituents (fluorochromes) of larger molecular units, for example chromophores bound to antibodies or other biomolecules. Such fluorescent dyes are used in many technical fields, for example in day-glow paints, as optical enhancers in dye lasers (laser dyes), but also in a number of analytical methods in chemistry, biochemistry, biology, clinical chemistry and physics. For example, fluorochromes are used in fluorescence analysis and as fluorescent probes for specific labelling in immunology. A good overview of common fluorescent dyes and their fields of use is known to the person skilled in the art from, for example, the Handbook of Fluorescent Probes and Research Chemicals, Richard P. Haugland, Molecular Probes. Xanthene dyes, in particular the rhodamines and their derivatives, such as, for example, rhodamine 6G, which is the most well known, and derivatives such as rhodamine 101, rhodamine 123, sulforhodamine and fluorescein, have for a long time been used successfully in analytical applications. Rhodamines and fluorescein are distinguished inter alia by a particularly intense fluorescence. A further group of frequently used fluorescent dyes are cyanine dyes. The main field of application of cyanine dyes is photography, where they are used as sensitisers, but also in organic dye lasers, and as fluorescent markers for biomolecules. A third and fourth, likewise important group of frequently used fluorescent dyes are the coumarin and oxazine dyes. A factor that limits the usability of fluorescent dyes is their photostability. The photostability of fluorescent dyes affects not only the accuracy of single-molecule detection processes (SMD) by laser-induced fluorescence and dye laser chemistry, but virtually all applications of fluorescence spectroscopy, in which high sensitivity or a good signal-to-noise ratio is important. As a result of light-induced chemical change, fluorescent dyes gradually lose their ability to fluoresce; this process is also known as photobleaching. The slower the photobleaching of a fluorescent dye at a given incident light radiation, the greater its photostability. With regard to the theoretical background of photostability, to factors that can affect photostability and to methods of determining the photostability of a fluorescent dye, the person skilled in the art will consult in particular the publication of Eggeling et al., Photostability of Fluorescent Dyes for Single-Molecule Spectroscopy: Mechanisms and Experimental Methods for Estimating Photobleaching in Aqueous Solution, Chapter 10 in Rettig et al., Applied Fluorescence in Chemistry, Biology and Medicine, Springer Verlag, ISBN 3-540-64451-2. Photobleaching is normally an irreversible process. As a result, fluorescent dyes have only a comparatively short life and are consumed rapidly in analytical applications and in dye lasers. There is therefore a need for agents and processes for improving the photostability of fluorescent dyes. A number of different substances are conventionally used for the photostabilisation of fluorescent dyes, for example ascorbic acid, cyclooctatetraene, mercaptoethylamine, n-propyl gallate, Mowiol (Hoechst, Germany), Slowfade (Molecular Probes, USA) or ProLong (Molecular Probes, USA). Although it has been possible to achieve an improvement in photostability for some fluorescent dyes, this is often accompanied by an impairment of the photointensity or is found to be inadequate for particularly sensitive applications, especially in the analytical field or for dye lasers. The object of the invention was, therefore, to remedy the disadvantages of the prior art and, in particular, to provide agents and processes for improving the photostability of conventional fluorescent dyes. It has now been found that cucurbiturils are able considerably to increase the photostability of conventional fluorescent dyes. The invention therefore teaches the use of a cucurbituril for improving the photostability of a fluorescent dye. To that end, the fluorescent dye to be stabilised is brought into contact with the cucurbituril. Cucurbiturils are macrocyclic compounds of the general formula (A): wherein each R, independently of each other R, can represent: H, alkyl, hydroxy, alkoxy. The basic structure of the cucurbiturils was published for the first time in the publication W. A. Freeman, W. L. Mock and N.-Y. Shih: Cucurbituril, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 103 (1981), p. 7367-7368. In that publication, the name cucurbituril is first proposed for the compound; the substance investigated at that time is today called cucurbit[6]uril. Preparation processes for cucurbiturils are known, for example, from EP 1 094 065 A, wherein the preparation of cucurbit[5]uril, cucurbit[6]uril, cucurbit[7]uril and cucurbit[8]uril in particular is described. Cucurbiturils were hitherto known for removing dyes from waste water in the textile industry. They are also mentioned incidentally in U.S. Pat. No. 5,994,143 as a covalently bonded, functional constituent of particular polymeric fluorescent dyes, where they are merely said to increase the fluorescence intensity of the fluorescent dye; an influence on the photostability of fluorescent dyes is not taught. It is not possible to draw conclusions as to a possible photostabilising effect, that is to say as to the mean number of cycles of light absorption and emission of fluorescent radiation per dye molecule before the molecule loses its fluorescence, from a change in the fluorescence intensity, that is to say an improved quantum yield of emitted fluorescent radiation per irradiated radiation. The degree of photostabilisation of a fluorescent dye effected by cucurbiturils is dependent inter alia on the ratio of the size of the cucurbituril to the size of the fluorescent dye. It is to be assumed that cucurbiturils form inclusion compounds with fluorescent dyes. Accordingly, it will be understood that the cucurbituril used for photostabilisation is to be chosen in dependence on the size of the fluorescent dye to be stabilised. A low degree of photostabilisation by a given cucurbituril occurs if the fluorescent dye is too small or too large to be included in the form of a complex by the particular cucurbituril in question. Which cucurbituril brings about the greatest photostabilisation for a given fluorescent dye can readily be determined by the person skilled in the art by means of a few routine tests. In order to improve the photostability of a fluorescent dye there is preferably used a cucurbituril selected from the group consisting of cucurbit[5]uril, cucurbit[6]uril, cucurbit[7]uril and cucurbit[8]uril or a mixture of two or more of these cucurbiturils. In preliminary tests, these cucurbiturils exhibited the best photostabilisation for conventional fluorescent dyes, in particular for xanthene and cyanine fluorescent dyes. Within the scope of this invention, particular preference is given to the use of the following cucurbiturils: cucurbit[5]uril: a substance having a structure according to formula (B): cucurbit[6]uril: a substance having a structure according to formula (C): cucurbit[7]uril: a substance having a structure according to formula (D): cucurbit[8]uril: a substance having a structure according to formula (A) wherein n=6 and each R=H (formula (E)). The cucurbiturils according to formulae (B) to (E) exhibit only a slight or no improvement in the photostability of anionic fluorescent dyes, for example fluorescein. The cucurbiturils according to formulae (B) to (E) are therefore preferably not used for improving the photostability of anionic fluorescent dyes. In addition, it is preferred to use cucurbiturils, and in particular the cucurbiturils according to formulae (B) to (E), for improving the photostability of cationic fluorescent dyes. It is often difficult to obtain cucurbiturils in pure form. Cucurbiturils are usually obtained in the form of mixtures in which one or two cucurbiturils are present in a higher concentration than other cucurbiturils. It has been found, however, that the photostabilisation of a fluorescent dye by a cucurbituril is affected to only a small degree by the presence of another cucurbituril. Accordingly, it is often not necessary to use a pure cucurbituril for improving the photostability of a fluorescent dye; mixtures of two or more cucurbiturils can also be used instead. Moreover, it is preferred to use mixtures of a plurality of cucurbiturils for improving the photostabilities of a dye mixture containing a plurality of fluorescent dyes, in particular when the sizes of the fluorescent dyes present in the dye mixture differ markedly from one another. In that manner, it is advantageously possible, in a simple manner, simultaneously to provide a good or the best cucurbituril for each fluorescent dye that is to be stabilised in a dye mixture. The fluorescent dyes for the photostabilisation of which cucurbiturils according to the invention, and in particular the cucurbiturils cucurbit[5]uril, cucurbit[6]uril, cucurbit[7]uril and/or cucurbit[8]uril mentioned above as being preferred, are used are preferably selected from the group consisting of fluorescent dyes having a molecular weight of from 200 to 1000 g/mol., based on the chromophore, xanthene fluorescent dyes, cyanine fluorescent dyes, coumarin fluorescent dyes and oxazine fluorescent dyes or a mixture containing two or more of these dyes. Particular preference is given to the use of cucurbiturils for improving the photostability of xanthene, coumarin, oxazine and/or cyanine fluorescent dyes having a molecular weight of from 200 to 1000 g/mol., again based on the particular chromophore in question. Particular preference is given to the use of a cucurbituril for improving the photostability of a fluorescent dye selected from the group consisting of BiBuQ, BM-terphenyl, coumarin 2, coumarin 6, coumarin 7, coumarin 30, coumarin 47, coumarin 102, coumarin 120, coumarin 153, coumarin 307, coumarin 334, coumarin 6H, cyanine 3, cyanine 5, DCM, DMQ, DOTCl, DPS, HDITC, HITC, IR 125, IR 140, IR 144+IR 125, oxazine 1, oxazine 9, oxazine 750, PBBO, p-terphenyl, pyridine 1, pyridine 2, QUI, rhodamine 101, rhodamine 110, rhodamine 123, rhodamine 6G, rhodamine 700, rhodamine 800, rhodamine B, tetramethylrhodamine, stilbene 3, styryl 8, styryl 9, styryl 9M, sulforhodamine B, sulforhodamine G and the lactone forms thereof, the degree of protonation and deprotonation of the fluorescent dye being unimportant. A cucurbituril is preferably used for improving the photostability of the cationic or neutral form of the mentioned fluorescent dyes. Anionic fluorescent dyes have only a low intrinsic affinity for cucurbiturils, so that, under the solution conditions conventional for bioassays, significant photostabilisation frequently does not occur by the addition of a cucurbituril. Particular preference is given to the use of a cucurbituril (in particular cucurbit[5]uril, cucurbit[6]uril, cucurbit[7]uril and/or cucurbit[8]uril) for improving the photostability of a fluorescent dye wherein the fluorescent dye comprises at least a portion selected from the group consisting of: amino, aminium, ammonium, imino, iminium, imido, enamine, lactam and oxime. A common feature of the fluorescent dyes preferably stabilised by the use of a cucurbituril is that they contain a nitrogen atom that is positively charged at pH 7 and/or that is protonisable in solution. Fluorescent dyes having one or more protonisable nitrogen atoms enter particularly readily into complexes with cucurbiturils and are therefore photostabilised particularly well by cucurbiturils. In tests carried out hitherto, it has been possible to achieve very good photostabilisation by the use of a cucurbituril for rhodamine fluorescent dyes of the general formula wherein each of the radicals R1, R2, independently of one another and of each other radical, can be selected from H, C1-C4-alkyl, preferably CH3 and particularly preferably C2H5, each radical R3, independently of each other radical, can be selected from H and C1-C4-alkyl, preferably CH3, and each radical R4, independently of each other radical, can be selected from H and C1-C4-alkyl, preferably C2H5, and also for other salts, the neutral form and the lactone forms of these fluorescent dyes. These uses are therefore preferred according to the invention. Particularly good photostabilisation by the use of a cucurbituril has been achieved for the fluorescent dyes according to formula (F) rhodamine 6G (R1=H, R2=C2H5, R3=CH3, R4=C2H5), rhodamine 123 (R1=R2=R3=H, R4=C2H5) and tetramethylrhodamine (R1=R2=CH3, R3=R4=H). These uses are particularly preferred according to the invention. The photostability of the fluorescent dyes according to formula (F), and in particular of the fluorescent dyes just mentioned, could be improved particularly well according to the invention by the use of cucurbit[7]uril. Very good photostabilisation by the use of a cucurbituril, in particular cucurbit[7]uril, has also been achieved for cyananine fluorescent dyes of the general formula wherein each radical R1, R2, R3, independently of each other radical R1, R2, R3, is selected from H and C1-C4-alkyl, preferably CH3 and C2H5, and wherein n is an integer from 1 to 5, preferably 1 or 2, and for other salts and the neutral form of these fluorescent dyes. Particularly good photostabilisation has been achieved for the cyanine fluorescent dyes cyanine 3 (R1=C2H5, R2=R3=CH3, n=1) and cyanine 5 (R1=C2H5, R2=R3=CH3, n=2), in particular when using cucurbit[7]uril. These uses are therefore likewise particularly preferred according to the invention. It has also been possible to achieve very good improvements in photostability by the use of a cucurbituril for coumarin dyes of the general formula wherein each of the radicals R1 to R6, independently of one another, is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C4-alkyl and is preferably selected from H and CH3. It is possible for the radicals R4 and R6 and the radicals R3 and R5 to form in each case a ring, which can also in each case contain one or more hetero atoms and one or more multiple bonds. An example of a sub-group of fluorescent dyes according to formula (H) is shown hereinbelow in formula (I); the photostabilisation of these fluorescent dyes, in particular by cucurbit[7]uril, is particularly preferred. Particularly good photostabilisation has been achieved with cucurbit[7]uril for the coumarin fluorescent dyes of formula (I), in particular coumarin 102 (R1=H, R2=CH3 in formula (I)) and coumarin 39 (R1=CH3, R2=CH3 in formula (I)); these uses are therefore likewise particularly preferred according to the invention. It has also been found that cucurbiturils are able to improve the solubility of a fluorescent dye in aqueous media. Preference is therefore given according to the invention also to the use of a cucurbituril for improving the solubility of a fluorescent dye. It has additionally been found that fluorescent dyes adsorb less strongly at surfaces in cucurbituril-containing aqueous media. In particular, a fluorescent dye in aqueous solution complexed with a cucurbituril adsorbs less strongly at glass surfaces than without the cucurbituril. Accordingly, the invention teaches the use of a cucurbituril for reducing the adsorption of a fluorescent dye at a surface, in particular at a glass surface. The improved solubility of a fluorescent dye in combination with a cucurbituril, the reduced adsorption at surfaces and the improved photostability result overall in improved storage stability of the fluorescent dye, in particular in aqueous solutions and in particular in glass containers. The invention therefore also teaches the use of a cucurbituril for improving the storage stability of a fluorescent dye. In a complex with cucurbituril, the absorbance (extinction coefficient) and the fluorescence quantum yield (intensity) of a number of fluorescent dyes are greater than without the cucurbituril, e.g. for coumarin-102 and for cyanine 5. The invention therefore also teaches the use of a cucurbituril for increasing the absorbance and/or the fluorescence quantum yield. In addition, cucurbiturils influence the absorption maximum of fluorescent dyes; the nature of the displacement of the fluorescence spectrum depends on the particular fluorescent dye in question and on the particular cucurbituril in question. The invention therefore also provides the use of a cucurbituril for changing the fluorescence spectrum of a fluorescent dye. It will be understood that the interaction of the cucurbituril with the fluorescent dye is critical for all the above-mentioned uses according to the invention. Accordingly, for all the above-mentioned uses, particular preference is given to the particular combinations of cucurbituril and fluorescent dye mentioned at the beginning. In particular, the cucurbituril and the fluorescent dye are so chosen that the fluorescent dye can be complexed by the cucurbituril. In each of the uses according to the invention, the fluorescent dye preferably has a molecular weight of from 200 to 1000 g/mol., as described at the beginning. Particularly preferred fluorescent dyes for the uses according to the invention are also described in greater detail at the beginning. In addition, the invention provides a photostabilised dye product containing a fluorescent dye and a cucurbituril in a concentration sufficient for photostabilisation. According to the invention, the cucurbituril is to be chosen in dependence on the dye to be stabilised, as described above. Such dye products are particularly photostable owing to the action of their cucurbituril constituent. The comments made above apply in respect of the choice of a particularly suitable dye and of a particularly suitable cucurbituril. The dye product contains the florescent dye(s) and the cucurbituril(s) preferably in an aqueous medium, particularly preferably in water. Cucurbiturils can be dissolved particularly readily in aqueous media (in particular in water); in addition, aqueous media are very often used in conventional fluorescence assays. Preference is given according to the invention to those dye products and uses in which the concentration of the fluorescent dye is at least 100 pM and the concentration of the cucurbituril is at least 1 μM. These minimum concentrations are particularly preferred when the dye product contains the fluorescent dye(s) and the cucurbituril(s) in an aqueous medium, in particular in water. In addition, preference is given to those dye products and uses in which the concentration of the fluorescent dye is not more than 100 μM and the concentration of the cucurbituril is not more than 10 mM. In particularly preferred embodiments, the dye product according to the invention is a laser dye solution for a dye laser or is a reference solution for microscopic and spectroscopic purposes. For example, commercial UV spectrophotometers contain reference solutions of rhodamine or are corrected spectrally with the aid of rhodamine solutions as standard. Further possible applications are in the field of confocal fluorescence microscopy, where the photostability of fluorescent dyes is particularly important owing to the high laser intensities. Confocal microscopy is used in particular to study biological or biologically relevant samples labelled with fluorescent dyes, so that the addition of a photostabiliser, such as, for example, according to the invention the addition of a cucurbituril, prolongs the time for which the labelled biological samples can be studied. This permits more accurate, more highly resolved measurements, and measurements over prolonged periods for the monitoring of time-dependent processes. Fluorescence processes are widely used in the field of active ingredient research, in high-throughput screening and in assays, where increased photostability is likewise advantageous, in particular in the case of high-throughput screening by means of confocal fluorescence microscopy, where focused laser light is in turn used in order to reduce the sample amounts. Many applications in confocal microscopy also require reference solutions for calibration and optimisation, in which high photostability of a standard solution of a fluorescent dye is desirable. Accordingly, the invention also provides a dye laser and a spectrometer containing a laser dye solution and a fluorescent dye solution, respectively, of the above-described type according to the invention. Such dye lasers and spectrometers have the advantage over conventional dye lasers and spectrometers of improved photostability of the fluorescent dye solution, so that the fluorescent dye solution has to be replaced less frequently, while the laser power remains the same, and is able to give more stable, reproducible results. Preferred dye products according to the invention are also those for information technology, in particular a storage medium and a display medium each containing a fluorescent dye and a cucurbituril for improving the photostability of the fluorescent dye. The use of a cucurbituril advantageously permits the optical excitation of fluorescent dyes and the repeated determination of their fluorescence. Cucurbiturils are therefore capable of conferring the necessary repeated readability and the necessary useful life on an optical storage medium containing fluorescent dyes. In addition, when choosing the appropriate dye, the absorbance (the extinction coefficient) and the fluorescence quantum yield (intensity) are increased by the use of a cucurbituril, so that a storage medium according to the invention and a display medium according to the invention require less intensive irradiation to produce a strong luminescence signal. This likewise results in a prolonged useful life as compared with conventional storage media and display media. Storage media based on fluorescence instead of on optical reflection are said to be distinguished in principle by a higher achievable data density, by the possibility of three-dimensional data storage and selective addressing, and such data carriers are referred to among experts as next-generation technology or 21st century technology (http://www.vxm.com/Speed.MassStorage.html; http://www.ifrance.com/shuman/data_storage_technology.htm; http://pubs.acs.org/cen/topstory/8047/8047notw7.html). The invention accordingly provides an optical storage medium for data storage, the storage medium comprising: a) a solid carrier and b) a storage layer for recording and reproducing information, wherein the storage layer comprises storage sections and wherein the storage sections contain a fluorescent dye and a cucurbituril in a concentration sufficient for the photostabilisation of the fluorescent dye. The storage medium realises the advantages which can be achieved with the use of cucurbiturils. In particular, it is possible with the aid of cucurbiturils to provide a storage medium, containing fluorescent dyes, which is readable many times by irradiation with light. The storage medium according to the invention can comprise a plurality of storage layers in order to increase the amount of information that can be stored on the storage medium. For the inscription of an optical storage medium according to the invention there is provided according to the invention a process comprising the following steps: a) information to be stored is read in, and b) fluorescent dye and/or cucurbituril is destroyed in storage sections chosen according to the information to be stored, in order to produce an arrangement of storage sections having the ability, according to the information to be stored, to emit a fluorescence signal. As a result, a pattern of storage sections is produced on the storage medium, the storage sections fluorescing according to the information written on the storage medium. If the cucurbituril in the storage sections is destroyed, and its ability to photostabilise the fluorescent dye in the particular storage section in question is accordingly limited or removed, a pattern of storage sections is produced in which the storage sections fluoresce with varying permanence according to the information written on the storage medium. If the storage medium comprises several layers of storage sections, then the process according to the invention advantageously comprises the step of choosing an associated layer for the writing of information. For carrying out the process according to the invention there is provided a storage device comprising a) a storage surface having storage sections, the storage sections containing a fluorescent dye and a cucurbituril in particular in a concentration sufficient for the photostabilisation of the fluorescent dye, b) irradiating means for irradiating a chosen storage section with a radiation intensity sufficient to trigger a fluorescence signal. The storage device according to the invention also realises the above-described advantages which can be achieved with the use of cucurbiturils. Advantageously, the storage device contains control means for the irradiating means, in order to indicate thereto a chosen storage section corresponding to information to be stored. The invention additionally provides a display device comprising a) a display surface having display sections, the display sections containing a fluorescent dye and a cucurbituril in a concentration sufficient for the photostabilisation of the fluorescent dye, b) irradiating means for irradiating a chosen display section with a radiation intensity sufficient to trigger a fluorescence signal, and c) a control device that is in active communication with the irradiating means in order to control the irradiating means in such a manner that display sections are irradiated or are not irradiated according to image information read in by the control device, in order to produce on the display surface a fluorescent image corresponding to the image information. The display device according to the invention realises the above-described advantages which can be achieved with the use of cucurbiturils. The display device according to the invention and the storage device according to the invention can contain in particular a dye product according to the invention in each display section or storage section, so that the fluorescent dye(s) in a display and/or storage section is/are photostabilised. Depending on the application, and in particular in applications in storage and display media as well as in high-throughput screening processes, it can be necessary or advantageous to use solid, that is to say undissolved, but photostabilised fluorescent dyes. According to the invention, the described photostabilisation by means of cucurbituril comprises also fluorescent dye complexes with cucurbituril which are isolated in solid form (e.g. by removal of the solvent), as well as complexes on surfaces by means of surface-fixed or material-bound fluorescent dyes or cucurbiturils. The invention is described in greater detail hereinbelow by means of some exemplary embodiments and the figures: EXAMPLE 1 Improvement in the Photostability of Rhodamine 6G The addition of cucurbituril (mixture of a plurality of cucurbiturils, wherein cucurbit[7]uril (formula (D), also known as CB7) was the predominant species according to mass spectrometry, with cucurbit[5]uril as a detectable impurity), concentration of cucurbit[7]uril 1-2 mM, mixture prepared as described in C. Marquez, F. Huang, W. M. Nau, “Cucurbiturils: Molecular Nanocapsules for Time-Resolved Fluorescence-based Analysis”, IEEE Trans. Nanobiosci. 2004, 3, 39-45) to an aqueous solution of rhodamine 6G (1-10 μM) in a quartz cuvette (1 cm×4 cm) increased the photostability of the sample both to laser irradiation with the 2nd harmonic (532 nm) of a Nd-YAG laser (Continuum Surelite III 10 model, 1.3-2.1 kW/cm2) and to daylight (ambient light). The photostabilisation of the fluorescent dye stabilised by cucurbituril (CB7) was monitored by the characteristic visible absorption band with a Varian Cary 50 UV-VIS spectrophotometer, based on a cucurbituril-free, optically adapted (at 532 nm) solution of the fluorescent dye. The UV-Vis spectra were recorded at different irradiation times (FIG. 1), and the decreasing absorption (A) at 532 nm was plotted against the pertinent function log([10A0−1]/[10A−1]). FIG. 1 shows absorption spectra of rhodamine-6G without (red, spectra with maxima on the left) and with (blue, spectra with maxima on the right) cucurbit[7]uril at different, in each case comparable 532-nm laser irradiation times (0 min, 3 min, 20 min, 37 min and 60 min). The slower decrease in the characteristic absorption with cucurbit[7]uril and the displacement of the absorption wavelength are visible. The concentrations with and without cucurbit[7]uril are not identical, but were so chosen that the absorbance at 532 nm was identical at the start of irradiation. The concentration of rhodamine 6G was lower in samples containing cucurbit[7]uril than in samples without cucurbit[7]uril owing to a higher extinction coefficient. The quantum yield of the photobleaching was determined by means of the initial linear region of the graph (FIG. 2) of the ratio of the gradients S(D)/S(D+CB7)=εDφb(D)/[εD+CB7φb(D+CB7)], wherein εD+CB7 and εD are the extinction coefficient of the dye (D) with and without CB7 at the irradiation wavelength of 532 nm. FIG. 2 plots the data according to FIG. 1 for the absorption spectra of rhodamine-6G without (red, data points at the top) and with (blue, data points at the bottom) cucurbit[7]uril according to log([10A0−1]/[10A−1]) against the irradiation time to determine the time-dependent stabilisation factor from the gradient. The chosen stabilisation factor was the ratio of the quantum yields of the photobleaching in the absence and presence of CB7. This gave the results shown in Table 1. It has been found, for example, that the number of absorption cycles before a molecule of rhodamine 6G decomposes is increased from 0.8 million to 22 million by addition of cucurbit[7]uril (in the form of the above-described CB7 solution). By comparison, the number of corresponding absorption cycles for rhodamine 123, one of the most stable fluorescent dyes, is only 1.6 million. By using cucurbit[7]uril, therefore, the photostability of rhodamine 6G is improved considerably. As an alternative, the decrease in the fluorescence intensity of the above-described solutions was determined by observing their fluorescence (Cary Eclipse Fluorometer, Varian) when the solutions were stored in daylight (ambient light). The fluorescence intensity remained unchanged over the observation period for the solution containing cucurbituril, whereas it felt markedly for the cucurbituril-free solution (FIG. 3), with approximate half-lives of about 80 to 390 hours, depending on the sample vessel. FIG. 3 shows the decrease in the fluorescence intensity of rhodamine-6G in daylight under various conditions: a) with cucurbit[7]uril in glass bottles (Rh6G-CB7), b) without cucurbit[7]uril in quartz cuvettes (quartz cuvette, Rh6G) and c) without cucurbit[7]uril in glass bottles (glass bottle, Rh6G). It will be seen that, by using cucurbit[7]uril, the fluorescence intensity of rhodamine-6G hardly decreases at all when exposed to daylight for 300 hours, while the fluorescence intensity in quartz cuvettes falls to 90% of the original value and in a glass bottle to 60% of the original value in the same period of time. Problems owing to a considerable decrease in the fluorescence intensity of the dye solution in cucurbituril-free, unstabilised solutions are known to the person skilled in the art (Eggeling et al., Photostability of Fluorescent Dyes for Single-Molecule Spectroscopy: Mechanisms and Experimental Methods for Estimating Photobleaching in Aqueous Solution, Chapter 10 in Rettig et al., Applied Fluorescence in Chemistry, Biology and Medicine, Springer Verlag, ISBN 3-540-64451-2). The effect is particularly pronounced when the solutions are monitored in conventional glass bottles instead of in quartz cuvettes, see FIG. 3. TABLE 1 Quantum yields of the photobleaching and stabilisation factors for rhodamine 6G in the presence of cucurbituril (CB7)* Conditions Stabilisation factor without CB7 ≡1 (reference) with 1 mM CB7, daylight, screw-top glass >5000* bottle with 1 mM CB7, daylight, quartz cuvette >500* with 1 mM CB7, low laser power (1.3 W) 30* with 1 mM CB7, high laser power (2.1 W) 7.5* *independently of the concentration of CB7 (about 1 and 2 mM) and laser dye (about 3.5 and 7 μM) and laser frequency (1 Hz or 10 Hz) EXAMPLE 2 Tests on Other Fluorescent Dyes Aqueous solutions of fluorescent dyes (10 nM) with and without cucurbit[7]uril (1 mM) were also studied by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) on a confocal microscope (Carl Zeiss LSM 510 Confocor 2), which is used for several applications relevant for biology, biochemistry and spectroscopy. 400 μl of each solution were transferred to an 8-chamber cover glass system and irradiated with the light of a CW laser. The decrease in the count rate, which is directly proportional to the mean fluorescence intensity of the sample, was measured against the irradiation time. FIG. 4 shows the decrease in the count rate for a tetramethylrhodamine (TMR) solution with and without cucurbituril (CB7). Considerable photostabilisation can again be seen, because without cucurbit[7]uril less than 30%, but with cucurbit[7]uril still more than 90% of the count rate is present after 30 minutes. The observed photostabilisation factors are contained in Table 2 (footnotes b, c, d). TABLE 2 Effect of the addition of CB7 (1 mM) on the brightness (ε × φf) and the photostability of selected fluorescent dyes without CB7 with 1 mM CB7 Stabilisation Fluorescent dye phif ε × φf φf ε × φf factor Rhodamine 6G 0.89 71218 0.883 81594 30.0a 5.4b Rhodamine 123 0.83 57470 0.362 24097 1.8c Tetramethylrhodamine 0.20 17553 0.271 20277 4.3b Coumarin-102 0.66 14388 0.754 17807 — Cyanine 3 0.15 18000 0.108 11502 1.4a Cyanine 5 0.27 37260 0.456 51000 1.3d aOn irradiation of 3 μM dye solutions with 532-nm laser light (1.3 W, 10 Hz) of a Nd-YAG laser. bOn irradiation of 10 nM dye solutions with 514-nm laser light (30 mW, cw) of a Ar/2 laser in fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS, Carl Zeiss LSM 510 Confocor 2) after 35 minutes, quantified via photon count rate. cOn irradiation of 10 nM dye solutions with 514-nm laser light (30 mW, cw) of a Ar/2 laser in fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS, Carl Zeiss LSM 510 Confocor 2) after 5 minutes. dOn irradiation of 10 nM dye solutions with 633-nm laser light (6 mW, cw) of a He-Ne/2 laser in fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS, Carl Zeiss LSM 510 Confocor 2) after 35 minutes. FIG. 4 shows the decrease in the relative photon count rate of TMR solutions in the confocal fluorescence microscope (Modus fluorescence correlation spectroscopy) with (TMR-CB7) and without (TMR) stabilisation by cucurbit[7]uril. The photon count rate in samples containing cucurbit[7]uril fell during irradiation for 2000 seconds only to about 95%, while the proton count rate of the cucurbit[7]uril-free sample fell to about 25% of the initial value in the same time. EXAMPLE 3 Effect on Photophysical Properties Addition of cucurbiturils leads to the formation of complexes with fluorescent dyes, which have changed photophysical properties, see examples in Table 3. TABLE 3 Effect of the addition of CB7 (1 mM) on the absorption and fluorescence maxima of selected fluorescent dyes without CB7 with 1 mM CB7 Fluorescent dye λabsmax λemmax λabsmax λemmax Rhodamine 6G 526.0 552.0 534.6 555.0 Rhodamine 123 500.0 525.0 502.6 532.0 Tetramethylrhodamine 552.6 577.0 558.6 582.0 Coumarin-102 392.6 489.0 404.6 476.0 Cyanine 3 544.6 560.0 558.6 571.0 Cyanine 5 642.0 660.0 642.2 657.0 EXAMPLE 4 Optical Storage Medium FIG. 5 shows an optical storage medium 100 according to the invention. The optical storage medium 100 has a solid carrier 101, a cover layer 105 and, between the carrier 101 and the cover layer 105, two storage layers 110, 120 for recording information. The storage layers 110, 120 are separated from one another by a separating layer 103. The storage layers 110 and 120 each comprise storage sections 111 and 121, respectively. The storage sections 111, 121 each contain a fluorescent dye and cucurbituril, if the storage section 111, 121 in question is to be permanently fluorescent according to the information stored on the storage medium 100. The storage sections 111, 121 of the storage layers 110, 120 can be spaced from one another, in the plane of the storage layer 110, 120 in question, by sections that are not storage sections 111, 121. The reliability when writing and reading information to or from the optical storage medium is thereby improved. The separating layer 103 and the cover layer 105 are substantially permeable to radiation of the excitation and fluorescence wavelengths of the fluorescent dye in question. For storage (writing) of information, a corresponding storage section 111, 121 is first chosen. In this storage section, the fluorescent dye and/or the cucurbituril is destroyed completely or partially or is not destroyed, according to the information to be stored and the coding scheme. In particular, the fluorescent dye can be destroyed by irradiation with very strong light of the excitation wavelength in question. There is accordingly formed on the storage medium 100 a pattern of storage sections 111, 121, the fluorescence intensity of which is of varying permanence or strength according to the stored information. For reading the information, a storage section 111, 121 is irradiated with light of the excitation wavelength of the particular fluorescent dye expected in the storage section 111, 121. According to whether the fluorescent dye is present in the storage section, and optionally whether the fluorescent dye is photostabilised by cucurbituril, a fluorescence signal corresponding to the stored information is produced by the irradiation. The fluorescence signal is measured and the storage information is reconstructed on the basis of the fluorescence signal. The person skilled in the art will understand that it is possible for the storage medium to possess not simply two storage layers 110, 120 but also, for example, a single storage layer 110 or 120 or three or more storage layers. In addition, the one, two, three or more storage layers can contain more than one fluorescent dye, it being particularly preferred for each storage layer to contain a fluorescent dye whose excitation and emission wavelength is different from the excitation and emission wavelengths of fluorescent dyes in other storage layers. In this manner, selection of the storage layer to be inscribed and read is advantageously simplified.	G	G01	G01J	1	58
11769054	US20090002631A1-20090101	SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR MEASURING CORNEAL TOPOGRAPHY	ACCEPTED	20081216	20090101		[]	A61B3107	["A61B3107", "G01B1125"]	7976163	20070627	20110712	351	212000	67366.0	TRA	TUYEN	[{"inventor_name_last": "Campbell", "inventor_name_first": "Charles E.", "inventor_city": "Berkeley", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Farrer", "inventor_name_first": "Stephen W.", "inventor_city": "Albuquerque", "inventor_state": "NM", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Neal", "inventor_name_first": "Daniel R.", "inventor_city": "Tijeras", "inventor_state": "NM", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Powers", "inventor_name_first": "W. Shea", "inventor_city": "Albuquerque", "inventor_state": "NM", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Raymond", "inventor_name_first": "Thomas D.", "inventor_city": "Edgewood", "inventor_state": "NM", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A system measures a corneal topography of an eye. The system includes a group of first light sources arranged around a central axis, the group being separated from the axis by a radial distance defining an aperture in the group; a plurality of second light sources; a detector array; and an optical system adapted to provide light from the second light sources through the aperture to a cornea of an eye, and to provide images of the first light sources and images of the second light sources from the cornea, through the aperture, to the detector array. The optical system includes an optical element having a focal length, f. The second light sources are disposed to be in an optical path approximately one focal length, f, away from the optical element.	1. A system for measuring a corneal topography of an eye, comprising: a group of first light sources arranged around a central axis, the group being separated from the axis by a radial distance defining an aperture in the group; a plurality of second light sources; a detector array; and an optical system adapted to provide light from the second light sources through the aperture to a cornea of an eye, and to provide images of the first light sources and images of the second light sources from the cornea, through the aperture, to the detector array, wherein the optical system includes an optical element having a focal length, f; and wherein the second light sources are disposed to be in an optical path approximately one focal length, f away from the optical element. 2. The system of claim 1, wherein the optical system includes: a beamsplitter adapted to provide the light from the second light sources through the aperture to the cornea of the eye, to receive the images of the first light sources and images of the second light sources from the cornea through the aperture; and an optical element adapted to provide the light from the second light sources to the beamsplitter, and to provide the images of the first light sources and images of the second light sources from the beamsplitter to the detector array. 3. The system of claim 1, further comprising a structure having a principal surface with an opening therein around the central axis, wherein the group of first light sources is provided on the principal surface. 4. The system of claim 3, wherein the principal surface is concave. 5. The system of claim 4, wherein the principal surface substantially defines a conical frustum. 6. The system of claim 4, wherein the first light sources are arranged on the concave surface such that when the cornea has a predetermined shape, the images of the first light sources are uniformly spaced on a grid on the detector array. 7. The system of claim 1, wherein the first light sources are arranged such that when the cornea has a predetermined shape, the images of the first light sources are uniformly spaced on a grid on the detector array. 8. The system of claim 1, further comprising: a third light source providing a probe beam; and a wavefront sensor; wherein the optical system is further adapted to provide the probe beam through the aperture to a retina of the eye, and to provide light from the probe beam scattered by the retina through the aperture to the wavefront sensor. 9. The system of claim 8, wherein the wavefront sensor is a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor, and the optical system includes an adjustable telescope in an optical path between the eye and the wavefront sensor. 10. The system of claim 9, wherein the adjustable telescope includes first and second lenses and means for moving a relative position between the first and second lenses. 11. The system of claim 9, wherein, at least one of: (1) the optical system further comprises a dynamic range limiting aperture in an optical path between the first and second lenses; and (2) the adjustable telescope provides a common optical path for both the probe beam from the third light source to the eye, and the light scattered by the retina to the wavefront sensor. 12. A method of measuring aberrations and a corneal topography of an eye, comprising: illuminating a cornea of an eye with light from a group of first light sources arranged around a central axis, the group being separated from the axis by a radial distance defining an aperture in the group; illuminating the cornea with light from a plurality of second light sources, the light passing through the aperture, the second light sources located at an optical infinity relative to the cornea; providing a probe beam through the aperture to a retina of the eye; providing images of the first light sources and images of the second light sources from the cornea through the aperture to a detector array; providing light from the probe beam scattered by the retina through the aperture to a wavefront sensor; determining the cornea topography from an output of the detector array; and determining aberrations of the eye from an output of the wavefront sensor. 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the aberrations and the corneal topography of the eye are measured simultaneously. 14. The method of claim 12, the first light sources are arranged such that when the cornea has a predetermined shape, the images of the first light sources are uniformly spaced on a grid on the detector array. 15. A method of measuring a corneal topography of an eye, comprising: illuminating a cornea of an eye with a group of first light sources arranged around a central axis, the group being separated from the axis by a radial distance defining an aperture in the group; projecting collimated light beams from a plurality of second light sources, through the aperture, to the cornea; providing images of the first light sources and images of the second light sources from the cornea through the opening in the principal surface to a detector array; and determining the cornea topography from an output of the detector array. 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the first light sources are arranged such that when the cornea has a predetermined shape, the images of the first light sources are uniformly spaced on a grid on the detector array. 17. A method of determining a vertex alignment error for a corneal topographer comprising central light sources to sample a central region of the corneal surface, and a Placido-type light source array to sample an outer region of the corneal surface outside the central area, the method comprising: measuring, using the central light sources, a curvature in an outer ring of the central area of the corneal surface, adjacent the outer region of the corneal surface; measuring reflection locations from the cornea of an innermost set of light sources of the Placido-type light source array; using the measured curvature of the outer ring of the central area of the corneal surface and the measured reflection locations from the cornea of the innermost set of light sources of the Placido-type light source array to calculate a vertex alignment error for each of the innermost set of light sources of the Placido-type light source; and determining the vertex alignment error for the corneal topographer from the calculated vertex alignment error for each of the innermost set of light sources of the Placido-type light source. 18. A system for measuring a topography of a reflective surface, comprising: an optical element disposed about an optical axis and comprising an object side, the optical element defining an object space located on the object side a finite distance from the optical element and an image space conjugate the object space; at least one first light source disposed an optically finite distance from the object space and at least one second light source disposed at an optical infinity with respect to the object space; the optical element configured to provide an image within the image space when a reflective surface is disposed within the object space. 19. The system of claim 18, wherein the lens further comprises an image side, the system further comprising a telecentric stop disposed on the image side of the optical element. 20. The system of claim 18, further comprising a detector disposed within the image space for providing a readable image when a reflective surface is disposed within the object space. 21. The system of claim 20, wherein the at least one first light source comprises a plurality of light sources, and the plurality of first light sources are arranged such that when the reflective surface has a predetermined shape, the images of the plurality of first light sources are uniformly spaced on a grid on the detector. 22. The system of claim 18, wherein the reflective object is a corneal surface of an eye. 23. A system for measuring a topography of a reflective surface, comprising: an optical element having a focal length and disposed about an optical axis, the optical element comprising an object side and an image side, the optical element defining an object space located on the object side a finite distance from the optical element and an image space located on the image side that is conjugate the object space; at least one first light source disposed an optically finite distance from the object space, and at least one second light source disposed on the image side, the second light source located along an optical path approximately one focal length away from the optical element; the optical element configured to provide an image within the image space when a reflective surface is disposed within the object space. 24. The system of claim 23, further comprising an aperture disposed on the image side of the optical element. 25. The system of claim 23, further comprising a detector disposed within the image space for providing a readable image when a reflective surface is disposed within the object space. 26. The system of claim 25, wherein the at least one first light source comprises a plurality of light sources, and the plurality of first light sources are arranged such that when the reflective surface has a predetermined shape, the images of the plurality of first light sources are uniformly spaced on a grid on the detector. 27. The system of claim 23, wherein the reflective object is a corneal surface of an eye.	<SOH> BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY <EOH>1. Field This invention pertains to the field of vision diagnostics, and in particular to a method and apparatus for measuring the topography of a cornea of an eye. 2. Description Ocular aberrations typically produce unwanted results (bad eyesight) and therefore need to be characterized so as to be adequately treatable. Accordingly, wavefront measurement systems and methods have been developed for measuring ocular aberrations of an eye. On class of such systems typically provide a probe beam to illuminate the eye and measure the wavefront of light refracted from the eye to measure the total aberrations of the eye. Since typically 60-70% of ocular aberrations result from imperfections in the cornea, such wavefront measurements can be more valuable if the corneal topography of the eye is known. Topographical measurements of a cornea are typically performed by a corneal topographer. A variety of corneal topographers are known in the art, examples of which are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,062,702 and 6,634,752, which are herein incorporated by reference. It would be useful to provide a combined system for measuring total ocular aberrations and the corneal topography of an eye. One type of corneal topographer employs a “Placido disk” system. A Placido disk system consists of a series of concentric illuminated rings that are reflected off the cornea and viewed with a detector array, such as a charge-coupled device or video camera. Because of its great simplicity, the Placido disk system has been widely used for measuring corneal topography. A key part of this system is the object surface with rings as well as the spatial distribution and the width of these rings on the surface. The location and width of the rings are computed in such a way that the image of the rings reflected off a reference sphere is a uniform distribution of rings, i.e., rings equally spaced and all with the same width. The radius of curvature of the reference sphere is made equal to the mean radius of the cornea (about 7.8 mm). Then the image of the rings reflected off an aberrated cornea will be distorted rings, and from this distortion it is possible to obtain the shape of the cornea. Many variations on the Placido disk approach for corneal topography measurements have been developed over the years, examples of which are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,993,826 and 6,601,956, and by Yobani Meji a-Barbosa et al., “Object surface for applying a modified Hartmann test to measure corneal topography,” APPLIED OPTICS, Vol. 40, No. 31 (Nov. 1, 2001) (“Meji a-Barbosa”). Meji a-Barbosa is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes as if fully set forth herein. One problem in many Placido disk type corneal topographers is that the central region of the corneal surface cannot be detected during the measurement because of the need to provide an opening or aperture in the Placido disk for passing the light reflected from the cornea to the detector array. This is especially disadvantageous because the central optical zone of the cornea in particular determines the refractive power of the eye and typically forms the pass-through point of the visual axis. The so-called Stiles-Crawford effect leads to the consequence that the central corneal zone—which is free from any light patterns during the projection of patterns from a Placido-type light source—plays a special role with respect to the peripheral corneal regions of the eye's projection system. As the opening or aperture is increased in size, this problem is exacerbated. Another problem in Placido disk type corneal topographers is alignment error (i.e., “vertex error”) between the corneal surface vertex and the design corneal vertex plane. More specifically, the instrument expects the cornea to be located at a particular location long the optical axis of the system with respect to the Placido light sources in order to make accurate calculations of the corneal topography. If an actual cornea being measured is “too close” or “too far” from the instrument, then there is a vertex error that will produce inaccurate corneal topography results, unless this vertex error can be determined and factored into the corneal topography calculations. Yet another problem with Placido disk type corneal topographers is that the data is obtained from analysis of a series of projected rings. That is, a radial position of the detected ring is compared to a reference position and the comparison is used to determine the corneal shape. However, this only provides radial deviations. While these are azimuthally resolved, they do not provide an adequate measure of the “skew” rays, i.e., those rays which would be deflected in an azimuthal direction. This is an inherent limitation for a system using Placido rings. This limitation is especially significant considering that astigmatism, one of the major classes of ocular aberrations, is known to generate significant skew rays. Therefore, it would be desirable to provide a combined system for measuring aberrations and a corneal topography of an eye that can address one or more of these problems. It would also be desirable to provide a method of measuring aberrations and a corneal topography of an eye. It would further be desirable to provide a corneal topographer that allows the topography of the entire cornea to be characterized. It would still further be desirable to provide a method of determining vertex errors between a corneal topographer and a cornea being measured. It would even further be desirable to provide a corneal topographer that produces a uniform grid of spots on the detector array when an idealized structure (e.g., a “reference cornea”) is measured. In one aspect of the invention, a system measures a corneal topography of an eye. The system includes a group of first light sources arranged around a central axis, the group being separated from the axis by a radial distance defining an aperture in the group; a plurality of second light sources; a detector array; and an optical system adapted to provide light from the second light sources through the aperture to a cornea of an eye, and to provide images of the first light sources and images of the second light sources from the cornea, through the aperture, to the detector array. The optical system includes an optical element having a focal length, f. The second light sources are disposed to be in an optical path approximately one focal length, f, away from the optical element. In another aspect of the invention, a method of measuring aberrations and a corneal topography of an eye comprises: illuminating a cornea of an eye with light from a group of first light sources arranged around a central axis, the group being separated from the axis by a radial distance defining an aperture in the group; illuminating the cornea with light from a plurality of second light sources, the light passing through the aperture, the second light sources located at an optical infinity relative to the cornea; providing a probe beam through the aperture to a retina of the eye; providing images of the first light sources and images of the second light sources from the cornea through the aperture to a detector array; providing light from the probe beam scattered by the retina through the aperture to a wavefront sensor; determining the cornea topography from an output of the detector array; and determining aberrations of the eye from an output of the wavefront sensor. In yet another aspect of the invention, a method of measuring a corneal topography of an eye comprises: illuminating a cornea of an eye with a group of first light sources arranged around a central axis, the group being separated from the axis by a radial distance defining an aperture in the group; projecting collimated light beams from a plurality of second light sources, through the aperture, to the cornea; providing images of the first light sources and images of the second light sources from the cornea through the opening in the principal surface to a detector array; and determining the cornea topography from an output of the detector array. In still another aspect of the invention, a method is provided for determining a vertex alignment error for a corneal topographer comprising central light sources to sample a central region of the corneal surface, and a Placido-type light source array to sample an outer region of the corneal surface outside the central area. The method comprises: measuring, using the central light sources, a curvature in an outer ring of the central area of the corneal surface, adjacent the outer region of the corneal surface; measuring reflection locations from the cornea of an innermost set of light sources of the Placido-type light source array; using the measured curvature of the outer ring of the central area of the corneal surface and the measured reflection locations from the cornea of the innermost set of light sources of the Placido-type light source array to calculate a vertex alignment error for each of the innermost set of light sources of the Placido-type light source; and determining the vertex alignment error for the corneal topographer from the calculated vertex alignment error for each of the innermost set of light sources of the Placido-type light source. In a further aspect of the invention, a system for measuring a topography of a reflective surface, comprises: an optical element disposed about an optical axis and comprising an object side, the optical element defining an object space located on the object side a finite distance from the optical element and an image space conjugate the object space; at least one first light sources disposed an optically finite distance from the object space and at least one second light source disposed at an optical infinity with respect to the object space; the optical element configured to provide an image within the image space when a reflective surface is disposed within the object space. In still a further aspect of the invention, a system for measuring a topography of a reflective surface, comprises: an optical element having a focal length and disposed about an optical axis, the optical element comprising an object side and an image side, the optical element defining an object space located on the object side a finite distance from the optical element and an image space located on the image side that is conjugate the object space; at least one first light source disposed an optically finite distance from the object space, and at least one second light source disposed on the image side, the second light source located along an optical path approximately one focal length away from the optical element; the optical element configured to provide an image within the image space when a reflective surface is disposed within the object space.	<SOH> BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY <EOH>1. Field This invention pertains to the field of vision diagnostics, and in particular to a method and apparatus for measuring the topography of a cornea of an eye. 2. Description Ocular aberrations typically produce unwanted results (bad eyesight) and therefore need to be characterized so as to be adequately treatable. Accordingly, wavefront measurement systems and methods have been developed for measuring ocular aberrations of an eye. On class of such systems typically provide a probe beam to illuminate the eye and measure the wavefront of light refracted from the eye to measure the total aberrations of the eye. Since typically 60-70% of ocular aberrations result from imperfections in the cornea, such wavefront measurements can be more valuable if the corneal topography of the eye is known. Topographical measurements of a cornea are typically performed by a corneal topographer. A variety of corneal topographers are known in the art, examples of which are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,062,702 and 6,634,752, which are herein incorporated by reference. It would be useful to provide a combined system for measuring total ocular aberrations and the corneal topography of an eye. One type of corneal topographer employs a “Placido disk” system. A Placido disk system consists of a series of concentric illuminated rings that are reflected off the cornea and viewed with a detector array, such as a charge-coupled device or video camera. Because of its great simplicity, the Placido disk system has been widely used for measuring corneal topography. A key part of this system is the object surface with rings as well as the spatial distribution and the width of these rings on the surface. The location and width of the rings are computed in such a way that the image of the rings reflected off a reference sphere is a uniform distribution of rings, i.e., rings equally spaced and all with the same width. The radius of curvature of the reference sphere is made equal to the mean radius of the cornea (about 7.8 mm). Then the image of the rings reflected off an aberrated cornea will be distorted rings, and from this distortion it is possible to obtain the shape of the cornea. Many variations on the Placido disk approach for corneal topography measurements have been developed over the years, examples of which are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,993,826 and 6,601,956, and by Yobani Meji a-Barbosa et al., “Object surface for applying a modified Hartmann test to measure corneal topography,” APPLIED OPTICS, Vol. 40, No. 31 (Nov. 1, 2001) (“Meji a-Barbosa”). Meji a-Barbosa is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes as if fully set forth herein. One problem in many Placido disk type corneal topographers is that the central region of the corneal surface cannot be detected during the measurement because of the need to provide an opening or aperture in the Placido disk for passing the light reflected from the cornea to the detector array. This is especially disadvantageous because the central optical zone of the cornea in particular determines the refractive power of the eye and typically forms the pass-through point of the visual axis. The so-called Stiles-Crawford effect leads to the consequence that the central corneal zone—which is free from any light patterns during the projection of patterns from a Placido-type light source—plays a special role with respect to the peripheral corneal regions of the eye's projection system. As the opening or aperture is increased in size, this problem is exacerbated. Another problem in Placido disk type corneal topographers is alignment error (i.e., “vertex error”) between the corneal surface vertex and the design corneal vertex plane. More specifically, the instrument expects the cornea to be located at a particular location long the optical axis of the system with respect to the Placido light sources in order to make accurate calculations of the corneal topography. If an actual cornea being measured is “too close” or “too far” from the instrument, then there is a vertex error that will produce inaccurate corneal topography results, unless this vertex error can be determined and factored into the corneal topography calculations. Yet another problem with Placido disk type corneal topographers is that the data is obtained from analysis of a series of projected rings. That is, a radial position of the detected ring is compared to a reference position and the comparison is used to determine the corneal shape. However, this only provides radial deviations. While these are azimuthally resolved, they do not provide an adequate measure of the “skew” rays, i.e., those rays which would be deflected in an azimuthal direction. This is an inherent limitation for a system using Placido rings. This limitation is especially significant considering that astigmatism, one of the major classes of ocular aberrations, is known to generate significant skew rays. Therefore, it would be desirable to provide a combined system for measuring aberrations and a corneal topography of an eye that can address one or more of these problems. It would also be desirable to provide a method of measuring aberrations and a corneal topography of an eye. It would further be desirable to provide a corneal topographer that allows the topography of the entire cornea to be characterized. It would still further be desirable to provide a method of determining vertex errors between a corneal topographer and a cornea being measured. It would even further be desirable to provide a corneal topographer that produces a uniform grid of spots on the detector array when an idealized structure (e.g., a “reference cornea”) is measured. In one aspect of the invention, a system measures a corneal topography of an eye. The system includes a group of first light sources arranged around a central axis, the group being separated from the axis by a radial distance defining an aperture in the group; a plurality of second light sources; a detector array; and an optical system adapted to provide light from the second light sources through the aperture to a cornea of an eye, and to provide images of the first light sources and images of the second light sources from the cornea, through the aperture, to the detector array. The optical system includes an optical element having a focal length, f. The second light sources are disposed to be in an optical path approximately one focal length, f, away from the optical element. In another aspect of the invention, a method of measuring aberrations and a corneal topography of an eye comprises: illuminating a cornea of an eye with light from a group of first light sources arranged around a central axis, the group being separated from the axis by a radial distance defining an aperture in the group; illuminating the cornea with light from a plurality of second light sources, the light passing through the aperture, the second light sources located at an optical infinity relative to the cornea; providing a probe beam through the aperture to a retina of the eye; providing images of the first light sources and images of the second light sources from the cornea through the aperture to a detector array; providing light from the probe beam scattered by the retina through the aperture to a wavefront sensor; determining the cornea topography from an output of the detector array; and determining aberrations of the eye from an output of the wavefront sensor. In yet another aspect of the invention, a method of measuring a corneal topography of an eye comprises: illuminating a cornea of an eye with a group of first light sources arranged around a central axis, the group being separated from the axis by a radial distance defining an aperture in the group; projecting collimated light beams from a plurality of second light sources, through the aperture, to the cornea; providing images of the first light sources and images of the second light sources from the cornea through the opening in the principal surface to a detector array; and determining the cornea topography from an output of the detector array. In still another aspect of the invention, a method is provided for determining a vertex alignment error for a corneal topographer comprising central light sources to sample a central region of the corneal surface, and a Placido-type light source array to sample an outer region of the corneal surface outside the central area. The method comprises: measuring, using the central light sources, a curvature in an outer ring of the central area of the corneal surface, adjacent the outer region of the corneal surface; measuring reflection locations from the cornea of an innermost set of light sources of the Placido-type light source array; using the measured curvature of the outer ring of the central area of the corneal surface and the measured reflection locations from the cornea of the innermost set of light sources of the Placido-type light source array to calculate a vertex alignment error for each of the innermost set of light sources of the Placido-type light source; and determining the vertex alignment error for the corneal topographer from the calculated vertex alignment error for each of the innermost set of light sources of the Placido-type light source. In a further aspect of the invention, a system for measuring a topography of a reflective surface, comprises: an optical element disposed about an optical axis and comprising an object side, the optical element defining an object space located on the object side a finite distance from the optical element and an image space conjugate the object space; at least one first light sources disposed an optically finite distance from the object space and at least one second light source disposed at an optical infinity with respect to the object space; the optical element configured to provide an image within the image space when a reflective surface is disposed within the object space. In still a further aspect of the invention, a system for measuring a topography of a reflective surface, comprises: an optical element having a focal length and disposed about an optical axis, the optical element comprising an object side and an image side, the optical element defining an object space located on the object side a finite distance from the optical element and an image space located on the image side that is conjugate the object space; at least one first light source disposed an optically finite distance from the object space, and at least one second light source disposed on the image side, the second light source located along an optical path approximately one focal length away from the optical element; the optical element configured to provide an image within the image space when a reflective surface is disposed within the object space.	BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY 1. Field This invention pertains to the field of vision diagnostics, and in particular to a method and apparatus for measuring the topography of a cornea of an eye. 2. Description Ocular aberrations typically produce unwanted results (bad eyesight) and therefore need to be characterized so as to be adequately treatable. Accordingly, wavefront measurement systems and methods have been developed for measuring ocular aberrations of an eye. On class of such systems typically provide a probe beam to illuminate the eye and measure the wavefront of light refracted from the eye to measure the total aberrations of the eye. Since typically 60-70% of ocular aberrations result from imperfections in the cornea, such wavefront measurements can be more valuable if the corneal topography of the eye is known. Topographical measurements of a cornea are typically performed by a corneal topographer. A variety of corneal topographers are known in the art, examples of which are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,062,702 and 6,634,752, which are herein incorporated by reference. It would be useful to provide a combined system for measuring total ocular aberrations and the corneal topography of an eye. One type of corneal topographer employs a “Placido disk” system. A Placido disk system consists of a series of concentric illuminated rings that are reflected off the cornea and viewed with a detector array, such as a charge-coupled device or video camera. Because of its great simplicity, the Placido disk system has been widely used for measuring corneal topography. A key part of this system is the object surface with rings as well as the spatial distribution and the width of these rings on the surface. The location and width of the rings are computed in such a way that the image of the rings reflected off a reference sphere is a uniform distribution of rings, i.e., rings equally spaced and all with the same width. The radius of curvature of the reference sphere is made equal to the mean radius of the cornea (about 7.8 mm). Then the image of the rings reflected off an aberrated cornea will be distorted rings, and from this distortion it is possible to obtain the shape of the cornea. Many variations on the Placido disk approach for corneal topography measurements have been developed over the years, examples of which are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,993,826 and 6,601,956, and by Yobani Mejia-Barbosa et al., “Object surface for applying a modified Hartmann test to measure corneal topography,” APPLIED OPTICS, Vol. 40, No. 31 (Nov. 1, 2001) (“Mejia-Barbosa”). Mejia-Barbosa is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes as if fully set forth herein. One problem in many Placido disk type corneal topographers is that the central region of the corneal surface cannot be detected during the measurement because of the need to provide an opening or aperture in the Placido disk for passing the light reflected from the cornea to the detector array. This is especially disadvantageous because the central optical zone of the cornea in particular determines the refractive power of the eye and typically forms the pass-through point of the visual axis. The so-called Stiles-Crawford effect leads to the consequence that the central corneal zone—which is free from any light patterns during the projection of patterns from a Placido-type light source—plays a special role with respect to the peripheral corneal regions of the eye's projection system. As the opening or aperture is increased in size, this problem is exacerbated. Another problem in Placido disk type corneal topographers is alignment error (i.e., “vertex error”) between the corneal surface vertex and the design corneal vertex plane. More specifically, the instrument expects the cornea to be located at a particular location long the optical axis of the system with respect to the Placido light sources in order to make accurate calculations of the corneal topography. If an actual cornea being measured is “too close” or “too far” from the instrument, then there is a vertex error that will produce inaccurate corneal topography results, unless this vertex error can be determined and factored into the corneal topography calculations. Yet another problem with Placido disk type corneal topographers is that the data is obtained from analysis of a series of projected rings. That is, a radial position of the detected ring is compared to a reference position and the comparison is used to determine the corneal shape. However, this only provides radial deviations. While these are azimuthally resolved, they do not provide an adequate measure of the “skew” rays, i.e., those rays which would be deflected in an azimuthal direction. This is an inherent limitation for a system using Placido rings. This limitation is especially significant considering that astigmatism, one of the major classes of ocular aberrations, is known to generate significant skew rays. Therefore, it would be desirable to provide a combined system for measuring aberrations and a corneal topography of an eye that can address one or more of these problems. It would also be desirable to provide a method of measuring aberrations and a corneal topography of an eye. It would further be desirable to provide a corneal topographer that allows the topography of the entire cornea to be characterized. It would still further be desirable to provide a method of determining vertex errors between a corneal topographer and a cornea being measured. It would even further be desirable to provide a corneal topographer that produces a uniform grid of spots on the detector array when an idealized structure (e.g., a “reference cornea”) is measured. In one aspect of the invention, a system measures a corneal topography of an eye. The system includes a group of first light sources arranged around a central axis, the group being separated from the axis by a radial distance defining an aperture in the group; a plurality of second light sources; a detector array; and an optical system adapted to provide light from the second light sources through the aperture to a cornea of an eye, and to provide images of the first light sources and images of the second light sources from the cornea, through the aperture, to the detector array. The optical system includes an optical element having a focal length, f. The second light sources are disposed to be in an optical path approximately one focal length, f, away from the optical element. In another aspect of the invention, a method of measuring aberrations and a corneal topography of an eye comprises: illuminating a cornea of an eye with light from a group of first light sources arranged around a central axis, the group being separated from the axis by a radial distance defining an aperture in the group; illuminating the cornea with light from a plurality of second light sources, the light passing through the aperture, the second light sources located at an optical infinity relative to the cornea; providing a probe beam through the aperture to a retina of the eye; providing images of the first light sources and images of the second light sources from the cornea through the aperture to a detector array; providing light from the probe beam scattered by the retina through the aperture to a wavefront sensor; determining the cornea topography from an output of the detector array; and determining aberrations of the eye from an output of the wavefront sensor. In yet another aspect of the invention, a method of measuring a corneal topography of an eye comprises: illuminating a cornea of an eye with a group of first light sources arranged around a central axis, the group being separated from the axis by a radial distance defining an aperture in the group; projecting collimated light beams from a plurality of second light sources, through the aperture, to the cornea; providing images of the first light sources and images of the second light sources from the cornea through the opening in the principal surface to a detector array; and determining the cornea topography from an output of the detector array. In still another aspect of the invention, a method is provided for determining a vertex alignment error for a corneal topographer comprising central light sources to sample a central region of the corneal surface, and a Placido-type light source array to sample an outer region of the corneal surface outside the central area. The method comprises: measuring, using the central light sources, a curvature in an outer ring of the central area of the corneal surface, adjacent the outer region of the corneal surface; measuring reflection locations from the cornea of an innermost set of light sources of the Placido-type light source array; using the measured curvature of the outer ring of the central area of the corneal surface and the measured reflection locations from the cornea of the innermost set of light sources of the Placido-type light source array to calculate a vertex alignment error for each of the innermost set of light sources of the Placido-type light source; and determining the vertex alignment error for the corneal topographer from the calculated vertex alignment error for each of the innermost set of light sources of the Placido-type light source. In a further aspect of the invention, a system for measuring a topography of a reflective surface, comprises: an optical element disposed about an optical axis and comprising an object side, the optical element defining an object space located on the object side a finite distance from the optical element and an image space conjugate the object space; at least one first light sources disposed an optically finite distance from the object space and at least one second light source disposed at an optical infinity with respect to the object space; the optical element configured to provide an image within the image space when a reflective surface is disposed within the object space. In still a further aspect of the invention, a system for measuring a topography of a reflective surface, comprises: an optical element having a focal length and disposed about an optical axis, the optical element comprising an object side and an image side, the optical element defining an object space located on the object side a finite distance from the optical element and an image space located on the image side that is conjugate the object space; at least one first light source disposed an optically finite distance from the object space, and at least one second light source disposed on the image side, the second light source located along an optical path approximately one focal length away from the optical element; the optical element configured to provide an image within the image space when a reflective surface is disposed within the object space. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1A shows one embodiment of a system for measuring aberrations and corneal topography of an eye. FIGS. 1B-1D illustrate how corneal topography may be measured using first and second light sources in the system of FIG. 1A FIG. 2 illustrates imaging rays for an eye's iris in the system of FIG. 1A. FIG. 3 illustrates rays for a fixation target in the system of FIG. 1A. FIG. 4 illustrates rays for a probe beam in the system of FIG. 1A. FIG. 5 illustrates rays for a wavefront sensor in the system of FIG. 1A. FIG. 6 illustrates corneal topography rays in the system of FIG. 1A. FIG. 7 illustrates operating principals of a set of central light sources included in the system of FIG. 1A. FIG. 8 illustrates a uniform distribution of light sources on the surface of a cone in one embodiment of the system of FIG. 1A. FIG. 9 illustrates a pattern of light spots produced on a detector in the system of FIG. 1 when the light source pattern of FIG. 8 is employed. FIG. 10 illustrates a uniform pattern of light spots on a grid on a detector in the system of FIG. 1A. FIG. 11 illustrates another uniform pattern of light spots on a grid on a detector in the system of FIG. 1A. FIG. 12 illustrates a distribution of light sources on the surface of a cone that can produce a uniform pattern of light spots on a grid on a detector in the system of FIG. 1A. FIG. 13 illustrates a vertex error in a corneal topographer. FIG. 14 shows another embodiment of a system for measuring aberrations and corneal topography of an eye. DETAILED DESCRIPTION As discussed above, it would be desirable to provide a combined system for measuring aberrations and a corneal topography of an eye. FIG. 1A shows one embodiment of a system 1000 for measuring aberrations and corneal topography of an eye 100. System 1000 comprises a structure 1100 having a principal surface 1120 with an opening or aperture 1140 therein; a plurality of first (or peripheral) light sources 1200 provided on the principal surface 1120 of the structure 1100; a plurality of second, or central, light sources 1300 (also sometimes referred to as “Helmholtz light sources”); a detector array 1400; a processor 1410; a third light source 1500 providing a probe beam; a wavefront sensor 1550; and an optical system 1700 disposed along a central axis 1002 passing through the opening or aperture 1140 of the structure 1100. Optical system 1700 comprises a quarterwave plate 1710, a first beamsplitter 1720, a second beamsplitter 1730, an optical element (e.g., a lens) 1740, a third beamsplitter 1760, and a structure including an aperture 1780. Beneficially, third light source 1500 includes a lamp 1520, a collimating lens 1540, and light source polarizing beamsplitter 1560. Associated with third light source 1500 and wavefront sensor 1550 in a wavefront analysis system 1600 also comprising: a polarizing beamsplitter 1620; an adjustable telescope 1640 comprising a first optical element (e.g., lens) 1642 and a second optical element (e.g., lens) 1644 and a movable stage or platform 1646; and a dynamic-range limiting aperture 1650 for limiting a dynamic range of light provided to wavefront sensor 1550. It will be appreciated by those of skill in the art that the lenses 1642, 1644, or any of the other lenses discussed herein, may be replaced or supplemented by another type of converging or diverging optical element, such as a diffractive optical element. Beneficially, system 1000 further comprises a fixation target system 1800, comprising light source 1820 and lenses 1840, 1860, and 1880. As used herein the term “light source” means a source of electromagnetic radiation, particularly a source in or near the visible band of the electromagnetic spectrum, for example, in the infrared, near infrared, or ultraviolet bands of the electromagnetic radiation. As used herein, the term “light” may be extended to mean electromagnetic radiation in or near the visible band of the electromagnetic spectrum, for example, in the infrared, near infrared, or ultraviolet bands of the electromagnetic radiation. In one embodiment, structure 1100 has the shape of an elongated oval or “zeppelin” with openings or apertures at either end thereof. An example of such a structure is disclosed in Mejia-Barbosa, cited above, as particularly illustrated in FIG. 4 therein. Such a structure may have an advantage in terms of maintaining the focus of the images of the light spots reflected from the cornea onto detector array 1400. However, such a structure has ergonomic disadvantages and may be more difficult to construct than other structures. As can be seen in FIG. 4 of Mejia-Barbosa, the structure almost appears to be “pointed” in the direction toward the eye, and therefore possibly could cause injury to a patient when aligning the system to a patient's eye. Accordingly, in some embodiments, principal surface 1120 of structure 1100 is concave when viewed from the cornea of eye 100, as illustrated in FIG. 1A. In one embodiment where principal surface 1120 is concave, principal surface 1120 has the shape of a conical frustum. Alternatively, principal surface 1120 may have a shape of hemisphere or some other portion of a sphere, with an opening or aperture therein. Also alternatively, principal surface 1120 may have the shape of a modified sphere or conical frustum, with a side portion removed. Beneficially, such an arrangement may improve the ergonomics of system 1000 by more easily allowing structure 1100 to be more closely located to a subject's eye 100 without being obstructed by the subject's nose. Of course, a variety of other configurations and shapes for principal surface 1120 are possible. In the embodiment of FIG. 1A, the plurality of first light sources 1200 are provided on the principal surface 1120 of structure 1100 so as to illuminate the cornea of eye 100. In one embodiment, light sources 1220 may comprise individual light generating elements or lamps, such as light emitting diodes (LEDs) and/or the tips of the individual optical fibers of a fiber bundle. Alternatively, principal surface 1120 of structure 1100 may have a plurality of holes or apertures therein, and one or more backlight lamps, which may include reflectors and/or diffusers, may be provided for passing lighting through the holes to form the plurality of first light sources 1200 which project light onto the cornea of eye 100. Other arrangements are possible. In another embodiment, structure 1100 is omitted from system 1000, and the first light sources 1200 may be independently suspended (e.g., as separate optical fibers) to form a group of first light sources 1200 arranged around a central axis, the group being separated from the axis by a radial distance defining an aperture in the group (corresponding generally to the aperture 1140 in the structure 1100 illustrated in FIG. 1A). In one embodiment, second light sources 1300 comprise a plurality of lamps, such as LEDs or optical fiber tips. Alternatively, second light sources 1300 may comprise a plurality of holes or apertures in a surface that are illuminated by one or more backlight lamps with reflectors and/or diffusers. In one embodiment, second light sources 1300 are located off the central optical axis 1002 of system 1000, and light from second light sources is directed toward optical element 1740 by third beamsplitter 1760. Alternatively, second light sources 1300 may comprise a plurality of lamps disposed on the structure around the aperture 1780, perpendicular to the optical axis 1002. Beneficially, each of the second light sources 1300 is located approximately one focal length, f, away from optical element 1740. Detector array 1400 comprises a plurality of light detecting elements arranged in a two dimensional array. In one embodiment, detector array 1400 comprises such a charge-coupled device (CCD), such as may be found in a video camera. However, other arrangements such as a CMOS array, or another electronic photosensitive device, may be employed instead. Beneficially, the video output signal(s) of detector array 1400 are provided to processor 1410 which processes these output signals as described in greater detail below. Beneficially, lamp 1520 of third light source 1500 is an 840 nm SLD (super luminescent laser diode). An SLD is similar to a laser in that the light originates from a very small emitter area. However, unlike a laser, the spectral width of the SLD is very broad, about 40 nm. This tends to reduce speckle effects and improve the images that are used for wavefront measurements. Beneficially, wavefront sensor 1550 is a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor comprising a detector array and a plurality of lenslets for focusing received light onto its detector array. In that case, the detector array may be a CCD, a CMOS array, or another electronic photosensitive device. However, other wavefront sensors may be employed instead. Embodiments of wavefront sensors which may be employed in one or more systems described herein are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,550,917, issued to Neal et al. on Apr. 22, 2003, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,777,719, issued to Williams et al. on Jul. 7, 1998, both of which patents are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Optical element 1740 has an object side (e.g., towards eye 100) and an image side (e.g., towards detector 1400). Optical element 1740 defines an object space located on the object side a finite distance from the optical element, and an image space conjugate the object space. First light sources 1200 are located an optically finite distance from the object space, and second light sources 1300 are located at an optical infinity with respect to the object space. Optical element 1740 is configured to provide an image within the image space when a reflective surface, such as a cornea, is disposed within the object space. Optical element 1740 has a focal length, f, that is adapted to project collimated light from each of the second light sources 1300 through the opening or aperture 1140 of structure 1100 (or through the aperture defined by the group of first light sources 1200, when structure 1100 is omitted) onto the cornea of eye 100. Beneficially, system 1000 includes both a corneal topographer and a wavefront analyzer for measuring ocular aberrations. More specifically, system 1000 can be considered to comprise six major subsystems: (1) Iris Image; (2) a Fixation Target; (3) a Probe Beam Source; (4) a Wavefront Sensor; (5) a Placido-type Light Source Array; and (6) and Helmholtz Sources. Important aspects of system 1000 will be better appreciated from an explanation of the operation thereof. Referring to FIG. 1B, which for clarity illustrates only selected elements of the system 1000, operation of the second (central) light sources 1300 may be illustrated. FIG. 1B illustrates how second light sources 1300 may be located optionally either off the central optical axis 1002 of system 1000, or around aperture 1780. The effect of the arrangement of second light sources 1300 insures that light from each of the second light sources 1300 exiting optical element 1740 is collimated as it travels toward the corneal surface and makes an angle α to optical axis 1002 that is the arc tangent of the ratio of the focal length, f, of optical element 1740 and the radial distance of the particular light source 1300 from optical axis 1002, i.e. the center of the aperture 1140. FIG. 1B illustrates a bundle of light rays from one second light source 1300 in the case where second light sources 1300 are located around the aperture 1780. Within the bundle of rays shown in FIG. 1B, one of the rays (solid line) intersects the corneal surface such that the angle between the surface normal and optical axis 1002 is equal to about α/2. This ray is reflected so that it is parallel to the optical axis 1002, and passes through aperture 1140. This ray makes its way back through optical element 1740 and aperture 1780 onto detector array 1400 to form an image of second light sources 1300 corresponding to its reflected location off the cornea of the eye 100. It will be appreciated that this ray is representative of a small bundle of rays that make it through optical system 1700 and onto detector array 1400, all of which will focus to substantially the same location on detector array 1400. Other rays (dotted lines in FIG. 1B) which impinge the cornea at other locations are scattered in other directions that do not make it through optical system 1700, and accordingly are not imaged onto detector array 1400. Light from each of the remaining second light sources 1300 is collimated at a different angle to central axis 1002 that depends on its distance therefrom. Thus, each of the second light sources 1300 is imaged or mapped to a location on detector array 1400 that may be correlated to a particular reflection location on the cornea of eye 100 and/or the shape of the cornea. System 1000 employs second light sources that may be configured according to the Helmholtz principle. In such embodiments, the second light sources 1300 are located at optical infinity with respect to eye 100. The Helmholtz principle includes the use of such infinite sources in combination with a telecentric detector system: i.e., a system that places the detector array at optical infinity with respect to the surface under measurement, in addition to insuring that the principal measured ray leaving the surface is parallel to the optical axis of the instrument. The Helmholtz corneal measurement principle has second light sources 1300 at optical infinity and the telecentric observing system so that detector array 1400 is also optically at an infinite distance from the images of the sources formed by the cornea. Naturally such a measurement system is insensitive to axial misalignment of the corneal surface with respect to the instrument. Aperture (or stop) 1780 influences the operation of system 1000 in several ways. First, the size of aperture 1780 sets the solid angle of rays that can be accepted and passed to detector array 1400. This solid angle in turn sets the area of the corneal surface that is sampled by any given light source spot. This may be understood by thinking of the image of a given light source to be located as a virtual image posterior to the corneal surface. Projecting forward from this spot image is a cone of rays; the solid angle that the detector can ‘see’. The intersection of this cone with the cornea surface defines the area of that surface sampled by the light source spot. So setting the size of aperture 1780 localizes the area of the cornea that a given light source samples. Second, because the sampled area size is set by the size of aperture 1780, it sets the amount of light that any single light source spot deposits on detector array 1400. Thus if aperture 1780 is made too small, the spots images are too dim. Third, the size of aperture 1780 sets the depth of focus of the detector system. If aperture 1780 is too large and the virtual images created by the cornea lie in different planes due to the fact that the power of the cornea, i.e. its curvature, is different in different areas, it becomes hard to get all images in sharp enough focus on detector array 1400 to achieve good image processing results. This can be a problem when measuring a case of keratoconus. Referring to FIG. 1C, which for clarity illustrates only selected elements of the system 1000, operation of the first (peripheral) light sources 1200 may be illustrated. As shown in FIG. 1C, first light sources 1200 illuminate the cornea of eye 100. A ray (solid line) from one of the first light sources 1200 is reflected by the cornea and passes through optical system 1700 (including aperture 1780) to appear as a light spot on detector array 1400. It will be appreciated that this ray is representative of a small bundle of rays that make it through optical system 1700 and onto detector array 1400, all of which will focus to substantially the same location on detector array 1400. Other rays (e.g., those indicated by the dotted lines in FIG. 1C) from that first light source 1200 are either blocked by the aperture 1780 or are otherwise scatter so as to not pass through the optical system 1700. In similar fashion, light from the other first light sources 1200 are imaged onto detector array 1400 such that each one of first light sources 1200 is imaged or mapped to a location on detector array 1400 that may be correlated to a particular reflection location on the cornea of eye 100 and/or the shape of the cornea. Thus, detector array 1400 detects the light spots projected thereon and provides corresponding output signals to processor 1410. Processor 1410 determines the locations and/or shape of the light spots on detector array 1400, and compares these locations and/or shapes to those expected for a standard or model cornea, thereby allowing processor 1410 to determine the corneal topography. Alternatively, other ways of processing the spot images on detector array 1400 may be used to determine the corneal topography of eye 100, or other information related to the characterization of eye 100. With additional reference to FIG. 1D, the operation of the topographer portion of system 1000 may be illustrated based on the combined use of first and second light sources 1200, 1300. In general, the images of first light sources 1200 that appear on detector array 1400 emanate from an outer region of the surface of the cornea, and the images of second light sources 1300 that appear on detector array 1400 emanate from a central or paraxial region of the surface of the cornea. Accordingly, even though information about the central region of the corneal surface (e.g., surface curvature) cannot be determined from the images of first light sources 1200 on detector array 1400, such information can be determined from the images of second light sources 1300 on detector array 1400. So, as illustrated in FIG. 1D, detector array 1400 detects the light spots projected thereon from both second light sources 1300 (detected at a central portion of detector array 1400) and first light sources 1200 (detected at a peripheral portion of detector array 1400) and provides corresponding output signals to processor 1410. Processor 1410 determines the locations and/or shapes of the light spots on detector array 1400, and compares these locations and/or shapes to those expected based for a standard or model cornea, thereby allowing processor 1410 to determine the corneal topography of eye 100. Accordingly, the topography of the entire corneal surface can be characterized by system 1000 without a “hole” or missing data from the central corneal region. Meanwhile, the presence of the aperture or opening in the middle of the group of first light sources 1200 (e.g., aperture 1140 in principal surface 1120 of structure 1100) allows system 1000 to provide a probe beam into eye 100 to characterize its total ocular aberrations. Accordingly, as described in greater detail below, third light source 1500 supplies a probe beam through polarizing beamsplitter 1620 and adjustable telescope 1640 to first beamsplitter 1720 of optical system 1700. First beamsplitter 1720 directs the probe beam through aperture 1140 to eye 100. Beneficially, light from the probe beam is scattered from the retina of eye 100, and at least a portion of the scattered light passes back through aperture 1140 to first beamsplitter 1720. First beamsplitter 1720 directs the scattered light through adjustable telescope 1640 and polarizing beamsplitter 1620 to wavefront sensor 1550. Wavefront sensor 1550 outputs signals to processor 1410 which uses the signals to determine ocular aberrations of eye 100. Beneficially, processor 1410 is able to better characterize eye 100 by considering the corneal topography of eye 100, which may also be determined by processor 1410 based on outputs of detector array 1400, as explained above. FIG. 2 illustrates imaging rays for an iris of eye 100 in system 1000 of FIG. 1A. Rays drawn in FIG. 2 show the imaging condition between eye 100 and detector array 1400. In normal use, an operator will adjust a position or alignment of system 1000 in XY and Z directions to align the patient according to the image detector array 1400. In one embodiment, eye 100 is illuminated with infrared light. In this way, the wavefront obtained by wavefront sensor 1550 will be registered to the image from detector array 1400. The image that the operator sees is the iris of eye 100. The cornea generally magnifies and slightly displaces the image from the physical location of the iris. So the alignment that is done is actually to the entrance pupil of the eye. This is generally the desired condition for wavefront sensing and iris registration. Beneficially, system 1000 includes fixation target 1800 for the patient to view. Fixation target system 1800 is used to control the patient's accommodation, because it is often desired to measure the refraction and wavefront aberrations when eye 100 is focused at its far point (e.g., because LASIK treatments are primarily based on this). FIG. 3 illustrates rays for a fixation target system 1800 in system 1000 of FIG. 1. Light originates from the light source 1820. This could be a back lit reticule or an LCD microdisplay. Lens 1840 collects the light and forms an aerial image T2. This aerial image is the one that the patient views. Rays drawn from T1 to T2 indicate this imaging condition. Lens 1840 may be used to magnify the aerial image to the appropriate size and also to provide mechanical clearance as the movable stage or platform 1646 moves. FIG. 3 shows the rays from the retina of eye 100 to T2. This indicates a condition when the target T2 would appear in focus to the patient. This state would tend to induce accommodation and would not be desired for measuring the far point of the eye. From this condition, movable stage or platform 1646 is moved down until eye 100 can no longer focus the target T2 and the target T2 appears fuzzy. This relaxes the patient's accommodation until the far point is reached, at which point the refraction and aberrations of eye 100 are measured. Beneficially, the increments of motion of movable stage or platform 1646 are made relatively small and the motions are relatively slow (compared to how far and fast a stage can be made to move) so that eye 100 can follow the target T2. At each stage location, the wavefront and refraction of eye 100 is measured. When the eye's refractive state no longer changes as the target T2 moves farther out, the far point of eye 100 has been reached. The last measurement is the refraction and wavefront of eye 100 at the far point. FIG. 3 shows that the patient views the fixation target T2 through lenses 1860 and 1880. Two lenses are used in order to form a retrofocus lens so that the principal plane of the lens group can be made to coincide with the principal plane of lens 1644 of wavefront analysis system 1600. This makes it so the vergences on the path of wavefront sensor 1550 and the fixation target path match for all positions of movable stage 1646, which is a necessary condition for the fogging function to work properly. FIG. 4 illustrates rays for a probe beam employed in system 1000 of FIG. 1 for wavefront analysis. Beneficially, in system 1000 the refraction and aberrations of eye 100 are measured using light that is injected into eye 100 and that scatters off the eye's retina. In FIG. 4 rays leave lamp 1520 and are collimated by lens 1540. The light passes through light source polarizing beam splitter 1560. The light entering light source polarizing beam splitter 1560 is partially polarized. Light source polarizing beam splitter 1560 reflects light having a first, S, polarization, and transmits light having a second, P, polarization so the exiting light is 100% linearly polarized. In this case, S and P refer to polarization directions relative to the hypotenuse in light source polarizing beam splitter 1560. Light from light source polarizing beam splitter 1560 enters polarizing beamsplitter 1620. The hypotenuse of polarizing beamsplitter 1620 is rotated 90 degrees relative to the hypotenuse of light source polarizing beamsplitter 1560 so the light is now S polarized relative the hypotenuse of polarizing beamsplitter 1620 and therefore the light reflects upwards. The light from polarizing beamsplitter 1620 travels upward and passes through telescope 1640 comprising lenses 1642 and 1644. Back reflections off of lenses 1642 and 1644 will be S polarized so they will reflect off polarizing beamsplitter 1620 and be directed toward lamp 1520. In the figure, the polarization is perpendicular to the plane of the paper. This reflection prevents back reflections off 1642 and 1644 from reaching wavefront sensor 1550. In practice, the reflectivities of 1642 and 1644 should be less than 0.5% for no back reflections to appear on wavefront sensor 1550. After passing through lens 1644, the light reflects off first beamsplitter 1720, retaining its S polarization, and then travels through quarterwave plate 1710. Quarterwave plate 1710 converts the light to circular polarization. The light then travels through aperture 1140 in principal surface 1120 of structure 1100 to eye 100. Beneficially, the beam diameter on the cornea is between 1 and 2 mm. Then the light travels through the cornea and focuses onto the retina of eye 100. The focused spot of light becomes a light source that is used to characterize eye 100 with wavefront sensor 1550. FIG. 5 illustrates rays from the focused spot on the retina that to the wavefront sensor 1550 in system 1000 of FIG. 1. Light from the probe beam that impinges on the retina of eye 100 scatters in various directions. Some of the light travels back out of the cornea and to the wavefront sensor 1550. Measurements indicate that of the light sent into the cornea, only about 1/4000th is reflected back out. This light then travels as a semi-collimated beam back towards system 1000. Upon scattering, about 90% of the light retains its polarization. So the light traveling back towards system 1000 is substantially still circularly polarized. The light then travels through aperture 1140 in principal surface 1120 of structure 1100, through quarterwave plate 1710, and is converted back to linear polarization. Quarterwave plate 1710 converts the polarization of the light from the eye's retina so that is it is P polarized, in contrast to probe beam received from third light source 1500 having the S polarization. This P polarized light then reflects off of first beamsplitter 1720, travels through telescope 1640, and then reaches polarizing beamsplitter 1620. Since the light is now P polarized relative the hypotenuse of polarizing beamsplitter 1620, the beam is transmitted and then continues onto wavefront sensor 1550. When wavefront sensor 1550 is a Shack-Hartmann sensor, the light is collected by the lenslet array in wavefront sensor 1550 and an image of spots appears on the detector array (e.g., CCD) in wavefront sensor 1550. This image is then provided to processor 1410 and analyzed to compute the refraction and aberrations of eye 100. FIG. 6 illustrates corneal topography rays in system 1000 of FIG. 1. System 1000 measures the curvature and shape of the cornea. Light for this measurement is provided by first light sources 1200. In FIG. 6, first light sources 1200 are provided on principal surface 1100 of structure 1100, although as explained above in one embodiment, structure 1100 may be omitted and the group of first light sources 1200 is arranged around central optical axis 1002, with the group being separated from the axis by a radial distance defining an aperture in the group. In one embodiment, structure 1100 is a conical frustum which is backlit with one or more lamps, and first light sources 1200 comprise a pattern of holes in principal surface 1100 through which the backlit light passes. Light from each of first light sources 1200 forms a virtual image behind the cornea. That virtual image is converted into a real image appearing as a light spot on detector array 1400 by optical element (e.g., lens) 1740. The location of each spot depends on the local curvature at a very small section of the cornea. Accordingly, the light spots from the cornea form a pattern on detector array 1400. The resulting pattern is analyzed by processor 1410 of system 1200 to determine the base curvature and shape of the cornea. In FIG. 6, light rays are shown emanating in various directions from one of light sources 1200. Some of the light will reflect off the cornea and travel back to system 1000. In FIG. 6, only those rays that reach detector array 1400 are shown drawn completely. Beneficially, the arrangement in the embodiment shown as system 1000 is telecentric. A convenient definition of telecentricity is that for each image point, the chief ray is traveling parallel to the system's optical axis 1002 after the light reflects from the cornea. The chief ray is the one that travels through the center of aperture 1780. In FIG. 6, aperture 1780 may be a telecentric stop located one focal length behind optical element 1740. The diameter of the telecentric aperture 1780 may be selected to determine how much light from any particular spot of light is sampled. If aperture 1780 is made too large, there may be too much overlap between the individual images of the individual sources of first and second light sources 1200, 1300 for accurate calculation of corneal shape. However, if aperture 1780 is made too small, not enough light reaches detector array 1400 for a usable image to form. In one embodiment, a practical size for aperture 1780 is between 1 and 4 mm. Beneficially, aperture 1780 may be selected such that it is the only aperture that restricts how much light reaches detector array 1400. Deviations from that can result in departures from telecentricity and consequent miscalculations of the shape of the cornea. FIG. 7 illustrates rays from second light sources 1300 in the system 1000 of FIG. 1. Second light sources 1300 solve a problem that plagues conventional corneal topographers. As noted above, with a conventional corneal topographer it is difficult to make a measurement of the corneal shape near the optical axis of the instrument. This is because any light source that would illuminate the center of the cornea would also block any optical path from the cornea back to the detector array. This is unfortunate because the center of the cornea is the region of most interest for its impact on visual performance. FIG. 7 illustrates how second light sources 1300 solve this problem. In FIG. 7, a grid pattern of lighted spots is placed at the location marked 1300 to indicate the second light sources. For instance, a 3x grid may be used. This grid is placed in an optical path one focal length, f, away from optical element 1740. Second light sources 1300 generate light that passes through optical element 1740 and travels as collimated light beams to the cornea. The light reflects off the cornea and diverges after the reflection. Some of the light travels back through optical element 1740. A small bundle of this light then passes through aperture 1780 onto detector array 1400. The aperture 1780 limits the solid angle of rays that are allowed to pass through to detector array 1400. The size of aperture 1780 can be optimized for many parameters; one example being the amount of light from any particular second source point 1300 that gets reflected off the cornea 100 and is sampled on the detector array 1400. Another way to view this is that the second light sources 1300 each form a virtual image behind the cornea and then that image is relayed onto detector array 1400, similar to the virtual images from first light sources 1200. As mentioned above, a variety of different shapes may be employed for structure 1100, with various advantages and disadvantages. However, once a shape has been selected for principal surface 1120, the question remains as to the locations where first light sources 1200 should be provided. FIG. 8 illustrates a uniform distribution of first light sources 1200a on the surface 1120a of a conical frustum 1100a in one embodiment of the system of FIG. 1. As before, these first light sources 1200a may be individual lamps, or surface 1120a may be backlit with one or more lamps, and sources 1200a may include holes or apertures in 1120a through which the backlit light passes. FIG. 9 illustrates a pattern of light spots produced on detector array 1400 in the system 1000 of FIG. 1 when the light source pattern of FIG. 8 illuminates a reference object, such as an idealized corneal surface, or a sphere with a radius of curvature (ROC)=7.9 mm, etc. As can be seen in FIG. 8, the light spots from first light sources 1200a are not uniformly spaced or arranged on detector array 1400. This can complicate the calculations which must be performed by processor 1410 of system 1000 to calculate a measured cornea's topography. FIG. 10 illustrates a uniform pattern of light spots on a grid on detector array 1400 in the system 1000 of FIG. 1. The light spots in FIG. 10 are uniformly and evenly spaced on a grid on detector array 1400. FIG. 11 illustrates another uniform pattern of light spots on a grid on detector array 1400 in the system 1000 of FIG. 1. The light spots in FIG. 11 are also uniformly and evenly spaced on a grid on detector array 1400, however compared to FIG. 10, there are more light spots and a greater light spot density. There are several reasons for wanting a uniform grid produced on detector array 1400. If a reference surface (e.g., an idealized cornea, a sphere with ROC=7.9 mm, etc.) could produce the pattern of FIG. 10 or FIG. 11, for example, on detector array 1400, this could facilitate easier reconstruction of the corneal topography, since the expected spots for a “reference eye” will be on a grid, and small deviations might easily lead to simple reconstruction methods. Furthermore, with the spot pattern being close to a grid, the spot location algorithm becomes much simpler and might easily be tackled with a difference image calculated from an image with and without first light sources 1200 turned-on, followed by centroiding algorithms based on predefined areas of interest (AOI). An additional translation calculation might be needed prior to AOI-based centroiding to account for system misalignment. To calculate the locations of the first light sources 1200, one begins at detector array 1400 with the desired spot separation specified in pixels and propagates rays backwards through the optical system 1700 to the spot locations on an idealized cornea (or retina). Then the locations of the spots on the idealized retina (or sphere) are used to find where on the principal surface 1120 the reflected rays intersect. These intersection locations are where the first light sources 1200 should be provided. FIG. 12 illustrates a distribution of first light sources 1200b on the surface 1120a of a conical frustum 1100a that can produce a uniform pattern of light spots on a grid on detector array 1400 in the system 1000 of FIG. 1. A conventional topographer suffers from a scale ambiguity that it makes it impossible to calculate the base radius of curvature of the cornea unless the distance from the instrument to the cornea is known. That is, if the corneal surface vertex is not located at the design corneal vertex plane, for example due to misalignment between the instrument and the cornea, it will result in an error in the calculated radius of curvature of the cornea. FIG. 13 illustrates a vertex error in a corneal topographer. FIG. 13 illustrates the simple case of a spherical surface with a radius of curvature illuminated by a Placido source located at a radial distance from the optical axis of the corneal topographer, rs, and at an axial distance v from the design corneal vertex plane. The corneal surface vertex however does not touch the design corneal vertex plane but is located a distance dv from it. The distance dv is known as the vertex error. As may be seen in the figure, the ray from the source that reflects off the surface so that following reflection it is parallel to the optical axis of the instrument makes an angle of 2α to the optical axis as it passes from the surface to the reflection point. The radial distance of the reflection point from the optical axis is rm. This value is directly measured by the instrument. The tangent of 2α′ is given by the expression: tan  ( 2  α ′ ) = ( rs - rm ) v ′ ( 1 ) The derivative of the tangent of 2α is then:  { tan  ( 2  α ) }  v ′ = - ( rs - rm ) ( v ′ ) 2 = - tan  ( 2  α ) v ′ This allows the expression for the change in tangent of 2α′ when distance v′ changes by dv to be given as  { tan  ( 2  α ′ ) } = - tan  ( 2  α ′ )  dv ′ v ′ Using equation (1) this is:  { tan  ( 2  α ′ ) } = - { ( rs - rm ) v ′ }  dv ′ v ′ ( 2 ) The figure also illustrates that for a spherical surface of curvature K the relationship between the radial position of the reflection point, rm, the curvature and the angle the surface normal at the reflection point, α′, is:  rm = r · sin   α ′ = sin   α ′ K ,   so   that  : K = sin   α ′ rm ( 3 ) The approximations are now made that: tan 2α′=2α′ sin α′=α′ These approximations are reasonable because reflection points close to the optical axis will be used in the vertex correction method to be given and for these points angle α is quite small. Then equations (1),(2) and (3) are approximated by: 2  α ′ = ( rs - rm ) v ′    { tan  ( 2  α ′ ) } ≅ - 2  α ′  dv ′ v ′ K ≅ tan   2  α ′ 2  rm ( 4 ) K ≅ α ′ 2  rm ( 5 ) The derivative of the curvature with respect to v′ is then:  K  v ′ ≅ 1 2  rm   ( tan   2  α ′ )  v ′ So that the error is the curvature due to a vertex error, using equation (4), is: dK ≅ d  ( tan   2  α ′ ) 2  rm = - 2  α ′ 2  rm  dv ′ v ′ = - ( a ′ rm )  dv ′ v ′ Then using equation (5) this becomes: dK ≅ - K  dv ′ v ′ ( 6 ) It is informative to rearrange equation (6) to read: dK K ≅ - dv ′ v ′ ( 7 ) This shows that for the areas of interest in this method the percentage of curvature error equals the negative of the percentage of vertex error. For a vertex distance of 70 mm, for instance, a 1% vertex error equals 0.7 mm. For midrange corneal curvature values of 45 D, this then induces an error of 0.45 D. This amount of curvature difference is well with in the resolution of the corneal topography system and so can be detected without difficulty. While this analysis is for the simple case of a spherical surface, the analysis for a toric surface is the same, but for each meridional curvature. In the treatment below the surface will be approximated by a surface that may be represented by a curvature matrix. The inclusion of second light sources 1300 in system 1000 provides a solution to this problem. Second light sources 1300 have the remarkable characteristic that the light pattern generated from these sources can be analyzed to determine the base radius of the cornea independent of the distance to the cornea. The reason second light sources 1300 work differently than the light sources the conventional Placido-disk type corneal topographer is that the light from second light sources 1300 passes through the same optical element (e.g., lens 1740) twice instead of just once. Therefore, second light sources 1300 are insensitive to vertex errors in the measurement system. For the central region of the cornea measured by second (central) light sources 1300, the points of reflection are directly measured and will be symbolized by xm(i,j) and ym(i,j). Here i and j are indices designating the source points. The surface normal components are known from the design of the instrument because all rays from the source that strike the surface have the same direction so the angle they make with respect to the optical axis is the same for all. Due to the laws of reflection, this angle is twice that the surface normal makes to the optical axis and so this angle is also known by design. Finally, knowledge of the angle the surface normal makes to the z axis of the coordinate system means that both of the gradient components are known. Thus for the system using the by second (central) light sources 1300, the surface gradient components at the point of measurement, ∂ S ∂ x   and   ∂ S ∂ x are known by design and the reflection position is measured. If measurements are made for at least three rays in a surface neighborhood, sufficient information is available to find a curvature matrix that characterizes the surface neighborhood. The curvature matrix [K] relates the local curvature, the measurement locations and the gradients at those points via the following equation: ( ∂ S ∂ x ∂ S ∂ x ) = [ Km + Kp Kx Kx Km - Kp ]  ( xm ym ) ( 8 ) The element of [K] are defined as: Km is the mean curvature of the local area; Kp is the curvature of a cross-cylinder like surface oriented with its principal axes aligned with the x and y axes; Kx is the curvature of a cross-cylinder like surface oriented with its principal axes aligned at 45 degrees to the x and y axes. The elements of [K] can be found in the following way. For a surface whose central normal is aligned with the z axis: [ K ] = [ Km + Kp Kx Kx Km - Kp ] = ⌊ ∂ 2  S ∂ x 2 ∂ 2  S ∂ x  ∂ y ∂ 2  S ∂ x  ∂ y ∂ 2  S ∂ y 2 ⌋ = ⌊ ∂ ∂ x  ( ∂ S ∂ x ) ∂ ∂ x  ( ∂ S ∂ y ) ∂ ∂ x  ( ∂ S ∂ y ) ∂ ∂ y  ( ∂ S ∂ y ) ⌋ , so   that    Km + Kp = ∂ ( ∂ S ∂ x ) ∂ x , Km - Kp = ∂ ( ∂ S ∂ y ) ∂ y ,  Kx = ∂ ( ∂ S ∂ y ) ∂ x = ∂ ( ∂ S ∂ x ) ∂ y ( 9 ) If the measured points are located in a quadrilateral as illustrated and labeled below: then the curvature matrix components can be expressed as finite difference approximations of equations (9) as: Km + Kp = 1 2  { ( ∂ S ∂ x ) i + 1 , j - ( ∂ S ∂ x ) i , j xm i + 1 , j - xm i , j + ( ∂ S ∂ x ) i + 1 , j + 1 - ( ∂ S ∂ x ) i , j + 1 xm i + 1 , j + 1 - xm i , j + 1 }   Km - Kp = 1 2  { ( ∂ S ∂ y ) i , j + 1 - ( ∂ S ∂ y ) i , j ym i , j + 1 - ym i , j + ( ∂ S ∂ y ) i + 1 , j + 1 - ( ∂ S ∂ y ) i + 1 , j ym i + 1 , j + 1 - ym i + 1 , j }   Kx = 1 4  { ( ∂ S ∂ x ) i , j + 1 - ( ∂ S ∂ x ) i , j ym i , j + 1 - ym i , j + ( ∂ S ∂ x ) i + 1 , j + 1 - ( ∂ S ∂ x ) i + 1 , j ym i + 1 , j + 1 - ym i + 1 , j + ( ∂ S ∂ y ) i + 1 , j - ( ∂ S ∂ y ) i , j xm i + 1 , j - xm i , j + ( ∂ S ∂ y ) i + 1 , j + 1 - ( ∂ S ∂ y ) i , j + 1 xm i + 1 , j + 1 - xm i , j + 1 } ( 10 ) Here averaging of equivalent differences has been done to symmetrically use all data. This is not the only way the curvature values can be found using the data from the second light sources. If the central area is characterized by two principal curvature values, Kmax and Kmin and the axis value A for the principal meridian with the greater curvature value, the curvature matrix components are given by the equations: Km = K   max + K   min 2 Kp = K   max - K   min 2  cos  ( 2  A ) Kx = K   max - K   min 2  sin  ( 2  A ) These curvature matrix values plus the measure reflection locations of the inner most Placido sources, xm and ym and the known locations of the Placido sources, xs, ys and v, are used to find the vertex error dv in the following way. Using the measured reflection locations, xm and ym, and the previously found values of Km, Kp and Kx, equation (8) is used to calculate the values of ∂ S ∂ x   and   ∂ S ∂ y for a given inner Placido source. The values of ∂ S ∂ x   and   ∂ S ∂ y are next used to calculate the components of the surface normal unit vector  N 〉 = ( Nx Ny Nz ) at the reflection point using the equations: Nx = - ∂ S ∂ x 1 + ( ∂ S ∂ x ) 2 + ( ∂ S ∂ y ) 2 Ny = - ∂ S ∂ y 1 + ( ∂ S ∂ x ) 2 + ( ∂ S ∂ y ) 2 Nz = 1 1 + ( ∂ S ∂ x ) 2 + ( ∂ S ∂ y ) 2 Recognizing Nz as the cosine of the angle between the surface normal and the optical axis, α, and that the plane of reflection passes through the optical axis and vector \|N, the angle of the ray striking the reflection point from the source and the optical axis is twice this angle so: tan  ( 2  α ) = sin  ( 2  α ) cos  ( 2  α ) = 2  sin  ( α )  cos  ( α ) 2  cos 2  ( α ) - 1 = 2  1 - cos  ( α ) 2  cos  ( α ) 2  cos 2  ( α ) - 1 tan  ( 2  α ) = Nz  1 - Nz 2 Nz - 1 / 2 But tan(2α) is also equal to the radial distance between the reflection point and the source point divided by the axial distance between the reflection point and the source point. So: tan  ( 2  α ) = ( xs - xm ) 2 + ( ys - ym ) 2 v ′ Solving for v′ and using the expression for tan(2α) as a function of Nz gives: v ′ = ( xs - xm ) 2 + ( ys - ym ) 2 tan  ( 2  α ) = ( Nz - 1 / 2 )  ( xs - xm ) 2 + ( ys - ym ) 2 Nz  1 - Nz 2 ( 11) The axial distance between the reflection point and the source point v′ is the sum of the design vertex distance v, the surface sag at the reflection point, S(xm,ym), and the vertex error dv, so: v′=v+S(xm,ym)+dv and v′−v−S(xm,ym)=dv (12) To find the value of S(xm,ym) the central portion of the surface is approximated by a surface given by the equation: S  ( xm , ym ) = Km  ( xm 2 + ym 2 ) 2 + Kp  ( xm 2 - ym 2 ) 2 + Kx  ( xm )  ( ym ) ( 13 ) Equations (11), (12) and (13) are combined to give an equation for the vertex error: dv = v - ( Nz - 1 / 2 )  ( xs - xm ) 2 + ( ys - ym ) 2 Nz  1 - Nz 2 - Km  ( xm 2 + ym 2 ) 2 - Kp  ( xm 2 - ym 2 ) 2 - Kx  ( xm )  ( ym ) This calculation is done for each of the Placido sources nearest the objective lens and the results averaged to given the best estimate of the vertex error. Accordingly, the procedure described above may be summarized as: (1) determine the central radius of curvature in a central region of the cornea from the data for the second (central) light sources 1300; (2) use the data near the outer edge of this ring of data—which is independent of the distance to the cornea—to analyze the innermost ring of the data from the Placido-type array of first light sources 1200. This radius of curvature data is used to determine which curve the ray vs. z-distance falls upon. This plot can then be used to read out the z-distance (vertex distance) from the ray position. These steps can be performed iterably, as necessary. It is obvious to those skilled in the art, that other analysis may likewise be employed to simultaneously determine the vertex error and use the entirety of spots from first and second light sources 1200 and 1300 to determine the corneal topography over the entire region measured. It will also be evident to those skilled in the art that range finding means, e.g., optical coherence tomography, may be employed to determine or eliminate the vertex error, and thus errors in the corneal topography for the data acquired with first light sources 1200. FIG. 14 shows another embodiment of a system 2000 for measuring aberrations and corneal topography of an eye. System 2000 is similar to system 1000 and so for brevity, only the differences between system 1000 and 2000 will be explained. Compared to system 1000, in system 2000, the optical system 1700 is rearranged such that optical element (e.g., lens) 1740 is moved to be in the optical path between quarterwave plate 1710 and first beamsplitter 1720. An advantage of the arrangement of system 2000 is that it can potentially give better coverage of the central region of the cornea with first light sources 1200 than system 1000. A disadvantage of the arrangement of system 2000 is that optical element 1740 is now in the optical path of the wavefront measurement system, and can complicate the design of the adjustable telescope 1400 to allow the system to perform wavefront measurements over a desired measurement range. While preferred embodiments are disclosed herein, many variations are possible which remain within the concept and scope of the invention. Such variations would become clear to one of ordinary skill in the art after inspection of the specification, drawings and claims herein. The invention therefore is not to be restricted except within the spirit and scope of the appended claims.	A	A61	A61B	31	07
11547581	US20080022691A1-20080131	Method for Designing a Low-Pressure Turbine of an Aircraft Engine, and Low-Pressure Turbine	ACCEPTED	20080116	20080131		[]	F02C310	["F02C310"]	7806651	20070625	20101005	415	199100	95937.0	NGUYEN	NINH	[{"inventor_name_last": "Kennepohl", "inventor_name_first": "Fritz", "inventor_city": "Unterschleissheim", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Korte", "inventor_name_first": "Detlef", "inventor_city": "Muenchen", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}]	A low-pressure turbine of a gas turbine is disclosed. The turbine comprises a number of stages arranged one behind the other in an axial manner in the flow-through direction of the turbine. Each stage is formed from a fixed vane ring having a number of vanes and from a rotating blade ring having a number of blades. Each stage is characterized by a characteristic value vane-to-blade ratio that indicates the ratio of the number of vanes to the number of blades within a stage. One of the stages of the turbine is designed in such a manner that, in the event of noise-critical conditions of the turbine, the characteristic value vane-to-blade ratio of this stage is between a lower cut-off limit for mode k=−1 of the blade-passing frequency (BPF) of said stage and an upper cut-off limit for the mode k=−2 of the blade-passing frequency (BPF) of this stage.	1-10. (canceled) 11. A turbine, comprising: a plurality of stages positioned axially one behind the other in the flow direction of the turbine, each stage being formed by a stationary guide vane ring having multiple guide vanes and a rotating blade ring having multiple rotating blades, and each stage having a vane-to-blade ratio characteristic quantity indicating a number of guide vanes to the number of rotating blades ratio within a stage; at least one stage of the plurality of stages of the turbine being designed so that under noise-critical operating conditions of the turbine, the vane-to-blade ratio characteristic quantity of the one stage is between a lower cut-off limit for the mode k=−1 of the blade-passing frequency of the one stage and an upper cut-off limit for the mode k=−2 of the blade-passing frequency of the one stage. 12. The turbine as recited in claim 11, wherein the one stage is an upstream stage. 13. The turbine as recited in claim 12, wherein the upstream stage has a vane-to-blade ratio characteristic quantity of between 0.6 and 0.8. 14. The turbine as recited in claim 13, wherein the vane-to-blade ratio characteristic quantity of the upstream stage is 0.7. 15. The turbine as recited in claim 11, wherein a further stage of the turbine is designed in such a way that its vane-to-blade ratio characteristic quantity is between a lower cut-off limit for the mode k=−1 of the double blade-passing frequency of the further stage and an upper cut-off limit for the mode k=−2 of the double blade-passing frequency of the further stage under noise-critical operating conditions of the turbine. 16. The turbine as recited in claim 15, wherein the further stage is a downstream stage. 17. The turbine as recited in claim 16, wherein a vane-to-blade ratio characteristic quantity of the downstream stage is between 1.3 and 1.5. 18. The turbine as recited in claim 17, wherein the vane-to-blade ratio characteristic quantity of the downstream stage is 1.4. 19. The turbine as recited in claim 11, wherein the upstream stages of the turbine positioned in the flow direction are designed in such a way that under noise-critical operating conditions of the turbine their vane-to-blade ratio characteristic quantity is between the lower cut-off limit for the mode k=−1 of the blade-passing frequency and the upper cut-off limit for the mode k=−2 of the blade-passing frequency and the downstream stages of the turbine positioned in the flow direction are designed in such a way that under noise-critical operating conditions of the turbine the vane-to-blade ratio characteristic quantity is between a lower cut-off limit for the mode k=−1 of the double blade-passing frequency and an upper cut-off limit for the mode k=−2 of the double blade-passing frequency. 20. The turbine as recited in claim 16, wherein the upstream stages of the turbine positioned in the flow direction are designed in such a way that the vane-to-blade ratio characteristic quantities of the upstream stages are between 0.6 and 0.8, and the downstream stages of the turbine positioned in the flow direction are designed in such a way that the vane-to-blade ratio characteristic quantities of the downstream stages are between 1.3 and 1.5. 21. The turbine as recited in claim 20, wherein the vane-to-blade ratio characteristic quantities of the upstream stages are 0.7 and the vane-to-blade ratio characteristic quantities of the downstream stages are 1.4. 22. The turbine as recited in claim 11, wherein the turbine is a low pressure turbine of a gas turbine. 23. The turbine as recited in claim 22, wherein the turbine is a turbine of an aircraft engine.			The present invention relates to a turbine, in particular a low-pressure turbine of a gas turbine, in particular of an aircraft engine, according to the definition of the species in patent claim 1. Gas turbines, in particular aircraft engines, are made up of multiple subassemblies, namely among other things a compressor, preferably a low-pressure compressor and a high-pressure compressor, a combustion chamber, and at least one turbine, in particular a high-pressure turbine and a low-pressure turbine. The compressors and the turbines of the aircraft engine preferably include multiple stages which are positioned axially one behind the other in the flow direction. Each stage is formed by a stationary vane ring and a rotating blade ring, the stationary vane ring having multiple stationary guide vanes and the rotating blade ring having multiple rotating blades. Each stage is characterized by a characteristic quantity which indicates the number of guide vanes to the number of rotating blades ratio within the stage. This characteristic quantity is also referred to as the vane-to-blade ratio (V/B). The low-pressure turbine of an aircraft engine in particular is a noise source not to be disregarded. The low-pressure turbine emits noises in particular at frequencies which are an integral multiple of the so-called blade-passing frequency (BPF). The blade-passing frequency of a stage is the frequency at which the rotating blades of the stage rotate past a stationary guide vane of the respective stage. For minimizing the noise emission of the low-pressure turbine of an aircraft engine, it is known from the related art to establish the vane-to-blade ratio of downstream stages of the low-pressure turbine at a value of approximately 1.5 in order to muffle the noise of the blade-passing frequency. Despite these measures known from the related art, the low-pressure turbines of aircraft engines known from the related art still emit a high noise level under noise-critical operating conditions, in particular during the landing approach or during taxiing on the tarmac of an airport. On this basis, the object of the present invention is to create a novel turbine, in particular a low-pressure turbine of a gas turbine, in particular of an aircraft engine. This object is achieved by a turbine, in particular a low-pressure turbine of a gas turbine, in particular of an aircraft engine, according to patent claim 1. According to the present invention, at least one stage of the turbine is designed in such a way that its vane-to-blade ratio characteristic quantity under noise-critical operating conditions of the turbine is between a lower cut-off limit for mode k=−1 of the blade-passing frequency (BPF) of this stage and an upper cut-off limit for mode k=−2 of the blade-passing frequency (BPF) of this stage. The design principle according to the present invention for a turbine of an aircraft engine makes it possible to noticeably minimize the noise level emitted by the turbine. The noise emission in the range of the blade-passing frequency (BPF) may be clearly reduced with the aid of the present invention. According to a preferred refinement of the present invention, at least one of the stages of the turbine is designed in such a way that its vane-to-blade ratio characteristic quantity in noise-critical operating conditions of the turbine is between a lower cut-off limit for mode k=−1 of the double blade-passing frequency (2BPF) of this stage and an upper cut-off limit for mode k=−2 of the double blade-passing frequency (2BPF) of this stage. With the aid of this preferred refinement of the present invention, it is also possible to minimize the noise emission with frequencies which correspond to the double blade-passing frequency. According to another preferred refinement of the present invention, at least one of the stages of the turbine situated upstream in the flow direction is designed in such a way that its vane-to-blade ratio characteristic quantity under noise-critical operating conditions of the turbine is between a lower cut-off limit for mode k=−1 of the blade-passing frequency (BPF) of this stage and an upper cut-off limit for mode k=−2 of the blade-passing frequency (BPF) of this stage, and, furthermore, at least one of the stages of the turbine situated downstream in the flow direction is designed in such a way that its vane-to-blade ratio characteristic quantity under noise-critical operating conditions of the turbine is between a lower cut-off limit for mode k=−1 of the double blade-passing frequency (2BPF) of this stage and an upper cut-off limit for mode k=−2 of the double blade-passing frequency (2BPF) of this stage. Preferred refinements of the present invention arise from the subclaims and the following description. Exemplary embodiments of the present invention are explained in greater detail on the basis of the drawing without being limited thereto. FIG. 1 shows a diagram for illustrating the design according to the present invention of the vane-to-blade ratio of the stages of a turbine with regard to modes k=−1 and k=−2 of the blade-passing frequency (BPF), and FIG. 2 shows a diagram for illustrating the design according to the present invention of the vane-to-blade ratio of the stages of a turbine with regard to modes k=−1, k=−2, and k=−3 of the double blade-passing frequency (2BPF). The present invention is described in greater detail in the following with reference to FIGS. 1 and 2. The present invention relates to a design principle for the stages of a turbine, namely a low-pressure turbine of an aircraft engine. Such a low-pressure turbine includes multiple stages which are situated axially behind each other in the flow direction of the low-pressure turbine. Each stage is formed by a stationary guide vane ring and a rotating blade ring. The guide vane ring has multiple stationary guide vanes. The rotating blade ring of each stage has multiple rotating blades. The present invention relates to a design principle with which the vane-to-blade ratio of the stages of a low-pressure turbine may be adapted in such a way that the low-pressure turbine emits a noise level as low as possible, i.e., under noise-critical operating conditions of the turbine or the aircraft engine. Such noise-critical operating conditions are, for example, a landing approach of an aircraft or movement of the aircraft on the tarmac of an airport. The noise emitted is characterized by frequencies which are integral multiples of the blade-passing frequency (BPF). According to the present invention, at least one stage of the low-pressure turbine is designed in such a way that under noise-critical operating conditions of the turbine the vane-to-blade ratio (V/B) is between a lower cut-off limit for mode k=−1 of the blade-passing frequency (BPF) of this stage and an upper cut-off limit for mode k=−2 of the blade-passing frequency (BPF) of this stage. FIG. 1 shows a diagram 10 for a low-pressure turbine having a total of seven stages, six of the seven guide vane rings V2 through V7 and the seven moving blade rings B1 through B7 being plotted on the horizontal axis of diagram 10. The vane-to-blade ratio V/B is plotted on the vertical axis of diagram 10. Reference numeral 11 in FIG. 1 indicates a lower cut-off limit for mode k=−1 of the blade-passing frequency, while reference numeral 12 indicates the upper cut-off limit for mode k=−1 of this blade-passing frequency. Mode k=−1 of the blade-passing frequency (BPF) is dampened above upper cut-off limit 12 and below lower cut-off limit 11. However, in area 15, which is situated between lower cut-off limit 11 and upper cut-off limit 12 for mode k=−1 of the blade-passing frequency, mode k=−1 of the blade-passing frequency propagates almost undampened. Reference numeral 13 in FIG. 1 indicates a lower cut-off limit for mode k=−2 of the blade-passing frequency. Reference numeral 14 indicates the upper cut-off limit for mode k=−2 of the blade-passing frequency. Mode k=−2 thus propagates almost undampened in area 16 between lower cut-off limit 13 and upper cut-off limit 14 for mode k=−2 of the blade-passing frequency (BPF), proper dampening being achieved for mode k=−2 below lower cut-off limit 13 and above upper cut-off limit 14. Reference numeral 17 in FIG. 1 indicates the design principle known from the related art for the vane-to-blade ratio of low-pressure turbines. According to curve 17, the vane-to-blade ratio of the downstream stages (V5 through B7) is selected in such a way that, for the downstream stages, it is above upper cut-off limit 12 for mode k=−1 of the blade-passing frequency. This is achieved according to the related art in that the vane-to-blade ratio V/B is established at a value of approximately 1.50 for these stages. In contrast, a vane-to-blade ratio V/B of approximately 0.90 is selected for the upstream stages (V2 through B4) according to the related art. However, such a vane-to-blade ratio is within area 15 so that, according to the related art, sound waves at frequencies in the range of the blade-passing frequency (BPF) are not dampened in the upstream stages. Another problem of design principle 17 known from the related art arises from FIG. 2 in which the propagation characteristics and the dampening characteristics of modes k=−1, k=−2, and k=−3 of the double blade-passing frequency (2BPF) are discussed. Reference numeral 20 in diagram 19 of FIG. 2 indicates the lower cut-off limit for mode k=−1 of the double blade-passing frequency (2BPF). Reference numeral 21 in FIG. 2 indicates the upper cut-off limit for mode k=−2 of the double blade-passing frequency (2BPF) and reference numeral 22 in FIG. 2 indicates the lower cut-off limit for mode k=−2 of the double blade-passing frequency (2BPF). In the area 23 of FIG. 2, which is situated between upper cut-off limit 21 and lower cut-off limit 22 for mode k=−2 of the double blade-passing frequency (2BPF), mode k=−2 of the double blade-passing frequency (2BPF) propagates almost undampened. Moreover, a corresponding area 24 for mode k=−3 of the double blade-passing frequency (2BPF) is shown in FIG. 3 which is situated between an upper cut-off limit 25 and a lower cut-off limit 26 for mode k=−3 of the double blade-passing frequency. Reference numeral 17 in FIG. 2 again indicates the design principle of the vane-to-blade ratio for the stages of the low-pressure turbine known from the related art. As is apparent from FIG. 2, for the design principle known from the related art, the vane-to-blade ratio V/B in the area of the downstream stages (V5 through B7) is situated above lower cut-off limit 20 for mode k=−1 of the double blade-passing frequency. According to the related art, mode k=−1 of the double blade-passing frequency is not dampened in the area of the downstream stages. Moreover, in the area of the upstream stages (V1 through B4), the vane-to-blade ratio V/B of these stages is in area 23, from which it follows that for these stages mode k=−2 of the double blade-passing frequency (2BPF) is not dampened. A particularly preferred design principle for the vane-to-blade ratio for the stages of a low-pressure turbine is indicated with reference numeral 18 in FIGS. 1 and 2. As is apparent in particular in FIG. 1, the upstream stages (V2 through B4) situated in the flow direction of the turbine are designed in such a way that their vane-to-blade ratio V/B under noise-critical operating conditions of the turbine is between the lower cut-off limit for mode k=−1 of the blade-passing frequency (BPF) and upper cut-off limit 14 for mode k=−2 of the blade-passing frequency (BPF). In the area of these stages, the vane-to-blade ratio is preferably in a range between 0.6 and 0.8, in particular in a range of approximately 0.7. In the area of the upstream stages, the vane-to-blade ratio V/B is thus established in a window between lower cut-off limit 11 of mode k=−1 of the blade-passing frequency and upper cut-off limit 14 of mode k=−2 of the blade-passing frequency. Modes k=−1 and k=−2 of the blade-passing frequency (BPF) are thus properly dampened in the area of these stages. In the area of the downstream stages (V5 through B7) of the low-pressure turbine, their vane-to-blade ratio is established in a range above upper cut-off limit 12 of mode k=−1 of the blade-passing frequency, according to FIG. 1. Moreover, the vane-to-blade ratio for these stages is selected in such a way that, in the area of these stages, it is between lower cut-off limit 20 of mode k=−1 and upper cut-off limit 21 of mode k=−2 of the double blade-passing frequency (2BPF), according to FIG. 2. This is achieved in that the vane-to-blade ratio V/B in the area of the downstream stages of the turbine assumes a value which is in a range between 1.3 and 1.5, preferably approximately 1.4. Furthermore, it is apparent from FIG. 2 that due to the vane-to-blade ratio V/B for the upstream stages (V2 through B4), already discussed in connection with FIG. 1, which is preferably in a range between 0.6 and 0.8, it may be achieved that it is outside of area 23 in which mode k=−2 of the double blade-passing frequency (2BPF) may propagate almost undampened. Moreover, the less critical mode k=−3 of the double blade-passing frequency (2BPF) is positioned in area 23 for these stages. The above-described design principle for the vane-to-blade ratio of the stages of a low-pressure turbine directly results in that, using the present invention, modes k=−1 and k=−2 of the blade-passing frequency (BPF) and modes k=−1 and k=−2 of the double blade-passing frequency (2BPF) may be dampened. A turbine configured in this way is thus characterized by low sound emission of frequencies in the range of the blade-passing frequency and the double blade-passing frequency. Using the present invention makes it possible to design all stages of a low-pressure turbine in such a way that the low-pressure turbine exhibits an optimal noise performance. As mentioned above, FIGS. 1 and 2 only show a preferred exemplary embodiment of the present invention. It should be pointed out that, based on the present invention, it is of course possible to select the vane-to-blade ratio for all stages of the low-pressure turbine in such a way that it is between a lower cut-off limit for mode k=−1 of the blade-passing frequency (BPF) of the respective stage and an upper cut-off limit for mode k=−2 of the blade-passing frequency (BPF) of the respective stage. It is also possible to determine the vane-to-blade ratio for the upstream stages in such a way that, for the upstream stages, it is between a lower cut-off limit for mode k=−1 of the double blade-passing frequency (2BPF) and an upper cut-off limit for mode k=−2 of the double blade-passing frequency (2BPF), while the vane-to-blade ratio for the downstream stages is between a lower cut-off limit for mode k=−1 of the blade-passing frequency (BPF) and an upper cut-off limit for mode k=−2 of the blade-passing frequency (BPF). Also proper dampening of the sound propagation and thus a noise minimization of the low-pressure turbine is possible in low-pressure turbines designed in this way.	F	F02	F02C	3	10
11856832	US20080072254A1-20080320	DIGITAL VIDEO BROADCASTING SYSTEM, DIGITAL VIDEO BROADCASTING TERMINAL, AND METHOD FOR PROVIDING FILE INFORMATION IN FILE DOWNLOAD SERVICE	ACCEPTED	20080305	20080320		[]	G06F300	["G06F300"]	8316397	20070918	20121120	725	039000	98253.0	FEATHERSTONE	MARK	[{"inventor_name_last": "Jung", "inventor_name_first": "Ji-Wuck", "inventor_city": "Suwon-si", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Kim", "inventor_name_first": "Young-Jip", "inventor_city": "Suwon-si", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Jeon", "inventor_name_first": "Jin-Woo", "inventor_city": "Seongnam-si", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Song", "inventor_name_first": "Jae-Yeon", "inventor_city": "Seoul", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}]	A digital video broadcasting system, digital video broadcasting terminal, and method for providing file information in a file download service are provided. To this end, the digital broadcasting system includes a broadcasting server for transmitting an Electronic Service Guide (ESG) comprising a schedule event fragment wherein, if files that provide the file download service comprise a file set generated by grouping at least one file, the schedule event fragment comprises the information about files included in the file set, and a terminal for receiving the ESG, for evaluating the schedule event fragment of the ESG upon receipt of a request for downloadable file information, and for evaluating the information about the files included in the file set and displaying the information if the schedule event fragment comprises the information about the file set.	1. A digital broadcasting system for providing file information in a file download service using broadcasting information, the digital broadcasting system comprising: a broadcasting server for transmitting an Electronic Service Guide (ESG) comprising a schedule event fragment wherein, if files that provide the file download service comprise a file set generated by grouping at least one file, the schedule event fragment comprises information about files included in the file set; and a terminal for receiving the ESG, for evaluating the schedule event fragment of the ESG upon receipt of a request for downloadable file information, and for evaluating the information about the files included in the file set and displaying the information if the schedule event fragment comprises the information about the file set. 2. The digital broadcasting system of claim 1, wherein the broadcasting server incorporates at least one of a content Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) type element comprising information about an encoding type used to group the files included in the file set and a content list type element comprising file list information corresponding to the file set into a content location element of the schedule event fragment if the files that provide the file download service comprise the file set. 3. The digital broadcasting system of claim 2, wherein if the files that provide the file download service comprise a single file that is transmitted as a single file unit, the broadcasting server sets an encoding type value included in the content URI type element as a value for indicating that the files that provide the file download service comprise the single file. 4. The digital broadcasting system of claim 2, wherein the terminal determines if the schedule event fragment comprises the information about the file set by evaluating encoding type information included in the content location element. 5. The digital broadcasting system of claim 4, wherein if the terminal determines that the information about the file set is included in the received ESG, it evaluates file list information corresponding to each of the files included in the information about the file set through the content list type element. 6. The digital broadcasting system of claim 1, wherein the broadcasting server incorporates information about a single file into a content location element of the schedule event fragment if the files that provide the file download service comprise the single file, and incorporates at least one of a content Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) type element comprising information about an encoding type used to group the files included in the file set and a content list type element comprising file list information corresponding to the file set into an archive location element of the schedule event fragment if the files that provide the file download service comprise the file set. 7. The digital broadcasting system of claim 6, wherein the terminal determines if the information about the file set is included in the received ESG by evaluating the archive location element. 8. The digital broadcasting system of claim 7, wherein if the files that provide the file download service comprise the file set, the terminal evaluates file list information corresponding to each of the files included in the information about the file set through the content list type element. 9. A digital broadcasting system for providing file information in a file download service using broadcasting information, the digital broadcasting system comprising: a broadcasting server for transmitting an Electronic Service Guide (ESG) comprising a content fragment wherein, if files that provide the file download service comprise information about a file set generated by grouping at least one file, the content fragment comprises information about files included in the file set; and a terminal for receiving the ESG, for evaluating the content fragment of the ESG upon receipt of a request for downloadable file information, and for evaluating the information about the files included in the file set and displaying the information if the content fragment comprises the file set. 10. The digital broadcasting system of claim 9, wherein the broadcasting server incorporates at least one of a content Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) type element comprising information about an encoding type used to group the files included in the file set and a content list type element comprising file list information corresponding to the file set into an archive location element of the content fragment if the files that provide the file download service comprise a file set. 11. The digital broadcasting system of claim 10, wherein the terminal determines if the content fragment comprises the information about the file set by evaluating the archive location element of the content fragment. 12. The digital broadcasting system of claim 11, wherein if the terminal determines that the files that provide the file download service comprise the information about the file set, it evaluates file list information corresponding to each of the files included in the information about the file set through the content list type element. 13. A method for providing file information in a file download service using broadcasting information, the method comprising: transmitting, by a broadcasting server, an Electronic Service Guide (ESG) comprising a schedule event fragment wherein, if files that provide the file download service comprise information about a file set generated by grouping at least one file, the schedule event fragment comprises information about files included in the file set; receiving, by a terminal, the ESG; determining, by the terminal, if a request for downloadable file information is input; determining, by the terminal, if the content fragment comprises the information about the file set by evaluating the schedule event fragment if the request for the downloadable file information is input; and evaluating, by the terminal, the information about the files included in the file set and displaying the information if the schedule event fragment comprises the file set. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the transmitting by the broadcasting server of the ESG comprises: if the files that provide the file download service comprise the information about the file set, generating, by the broadcasting server, the ESG by incorporating at least one of a content Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) type element comprising information about an encoding type used to group the files included in the file set and a content list type element comprising file list information corresponding to the file set into a content location element of the schedule event fragment; and transmitting, by the broadcasting server, the generated ESG. 15. The method of claim 14, wherein the generating by the broadcasting server of the ESG comprises setting, by the broadcasting server, an encoding type value included in the content URI type element as a value for indicating that the files that provide the file download service comprise a single file that is transmitted as a single file unit if the files that provide the file download service comprise the single file. 16. The method of claim 14, wherein the determining by the terminal if the schedule event fragment comprises the information about the file set comprises determining if the schedule event fragment comprises the information about the file set by evaluating encoding type information included in the content location element of the schedule event fragment included in the received ESG. 17. The method of claim 13, wherein the transmitting by the broadcasting server of the ESG comprises: if the files that provide the file download service comprise the information about the file set, generating, by the broadcasting server, the ESG by incorporating single file information into a content location element of the schedule event fragment and incorporating at least one of a content Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) type element comprising information about an encoding type used to group the files included in the file set and a content list type element comprising file list information corresponding to the file set into an archive location element of the schedule event fragment; and transmitting, by the broadcasting server, the generated ESG. 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the determining, by the terminal, if the content fragment comprises the information about the file set comprises determining, by the terminal, if the files that provide the file download service comprise the file set, by evaluating the archive location element. 19. The method of claim 16, wherein the evaluating, by the terminal, of the information about the files included in the file set and the displaying of the information comprises, if the received file is the file set, evaluating file list information of the files included in the file set through the content list type element; and displaying the file list information in a position corresponding to the file set on a screen. 20. A method for providing file information in a file download service using broadcasting information, the method comprising: transmitting, by a broadcasting server, an Electronic Service Guide (ESG) comprising a content fragment wherein, if files that provide the file download service comprise information about a file set generated by grouping at least one file, the content fragment comprises information about files included in the file set; receiving, by a terminal, the ESG and determining, by the terminal, if a request for downloadable file information is input; determining, by the terminal, if the content fragment comprises the information about the file set by evaluating the content fragment if the request for the downloadable file information is input; and evaluating, by the terminal, the information about the files included in the file set and displaying the information if the content fragment comprises the file set. 21. The method of claim 20, wherein the transmitting by the broadcasting server of the ESG comprises: if the files that provide the file download service comprise the information about the file set, generating, by the broadcasting server, the ESG by incorporating at least one of a content Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) type element comprising information about an encoding type used to group the files included in the file set and a content list type element comprising file list information corresponding to the file set into an archive location element of the content fragment; and transmitting, by the broadcasting server, the generated ESG. 22. The method of claim 20, wherein the determining by the terminal if the content fragment comprises the information about the file set comprises determining, by the terminal, if the files that provide the file download service comprise the file set by evaluating the archive location element of the content fragment. 23. The method of claim 20, wherein the evaluating by the terminal of the information about the files included in the file set and the displaying of the information comprises displaying file list information corresponding to each of the files included in the file set through the content list type element if the content fragment comprises the file set. 24. A terminal for providing file information of files in a file download service using broadcasting information, the terminal comprising: a receiver for receiving an Electronic Service Guide (ESG); a memory unit for storing the received ESG; a display unit for displaying input data; and a controller for evaluating a schedule event fragment of the received ESG to determine whether the ESG comprises information about a file set, for evaluating information about files included in the file set if the ESG comprises the information about the file set, and for displaying the information through the display unit. 25. The terminal of claim 24, wherein a content location element of the schedule event fragment comprises at least one of a content Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) type element comprising information about an encoding type used to group the files included in the file set and a content list type element comprising file list information corresponding to the file set. 26. The terminal of claim 25, wherein the controller determines if the files that provide the file download service comprise the information about the file set by evaluating encoding type information included in the content location element. 27. The terminal of claim 26, wherein if the files that provide the file download service comprise information about the file set, the controller evaluates file list information corresponding to the files included in the file set through the content list type element of the schedule event fragment. 28. The terminal of claim 24, wherein a content location element of the schedule event fragment comprises information about a single file and an archive location element of the schedule event fragment comprises at least one of a content Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) type element comprising information about an encoding type used to group the files included in the file set and a content list type element comprising file list information corresponding to the file set. 29. The terminal of claim 28, wherein the controller determines if the files that provide the file download service comprise the information about the file set by evaluating the archive location element. 30. The terminal of claim 29, wherein the controller evaluates file list information corresponding to each of the files included in the file set through the content list type element if the files that provide the file download service comprise information about the file set. 31. The terminal of claim 27, wherein if the files that provide the file download service comprise information about the file set, the controller evaluates file list information corresponding to each of the files included in the file set through the content list type element and displays the file list information in a position corresponding to the file set on a screen.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an apparatus and method for a digital video broadcasting system. More particularly, the present invention relates to a digital video broadcasting system, digital video broadcasting terminal, and method for providing information about downloadable files using an Electronic Service Guide (ESG) in a file download service. 2. Description of the Related Art Generally, in a digital broadcasting system, a broadcasting signal, which has been conventionally transmitted in an analog manner, is transmitted in a digital manner. A broadcasting signal transmitted in a digital manner provides superior quality and provides various services for both video and audio. Digital broadcasting is classified as Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB), Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), Digital Multimedia Broadcasting (DMB), MediaFLO, and the like. DVB is a European digital broadcasting standard and can be classified into various forms according to its nature, such as DVB-Terrestrial (DVB-T), DVB-Satellite (DVB-S), and DVB-Handheld (DVB-H). DVB-T is a standard for terrestrial digital broadcasting, DVB-S is a standard for satellite digital broadcasting, and DVB-H is a standard for portable mobile digital broadcasting. DVB-H is a technology standard established for the transmission of digital signals to handheld devices such as mobile terminals and the like. DVB-H provides excellent reception of terrestrial digital broadcasting to handheld devices (i.e. mobile terminals). Moreover, it can be used to implement digital mobile multimedia broadcasting to provide high-quality video and audio content to users anytime and anywhere, for example while driving or walking. Unlike other digital broadcasting standards, DVB-H transmits important information required for a broadcasting service through Electronic Service Guide (ESG) data. DVB-H uses a File Delivery over Unidirectional Transport (FLUTE) protocol as a Content Delivery Protocol (CDP). The FLUTE protocol allows transmission of files such as text, audio, video and image files. As part of its standard, DVB-H uses the FLUTE protocol to download files required for ESG configuration and ESG update. DVB-H provides video broadcasting and audio broadcasting as fundamental broadcasting services. In addition, DVB-H provides a data broadcasting service. In other words, three types of services, i.e., video service, audio service and data service, can be provided by the DVB-H standard. Information about each of the three services is transmitted through ESG information. A terminal, for example a handheld device, receiving a DVB-H broadcasting signal, analyzes ESG information included in the broadcasting signal in order to recognize the type of service transmitted through the broadcasting signal and service related information. The ESG information includes Extensible Markup Language (XML) data, and the format of ESG XML information is defined using an XML scheme in the standard. DVB-H broadcasting information is transmitted as ESG fragment information. An ESG fragment can be classified into various types according to the information included in the ESG fragment. ESG data defined in the DVB-H service includes 7 fragments, i.e., a service bundle fragment, a purchase fragment, a purchase channel fragment, a service fragment, a schedule event fragment, a content fragment, and an acquisition fragment. The terminal collects these fragments together in order to recognize all of the information contained in the DVB-H broadcasting signal. A DVB-H broadcasting service includes a data broadcasting service. A data broadcasting service is a file download service that involves downloading a particular data file transmitted through a broadcasting signal. In the file download service, file data required for a service, such as an HTML page, Audio/Video (AV) files, and ring tones, in addition to a streaming service, is transmitted using the FLUTE protocol. In order to acquire file data used for a particular period of time, a FLUTE session is initiated using Session Description Protocol (SDP) information of the ESG data and the desired file data is transmitted. In the file download service, information required for the file download service is transmitted using the service fragment, the schedule event fragment, the content fragment, and the acquisition fragment of the ESG data. FIGS. 4A and 4B illustrate an ESG for a DVB-H file download service. Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) information for each transmission file is transmitted through a schedule event fragment. It can be seen from FIGS. 4A and 4B that a download service for three ring tone MP3 files, i.e., a Ring Tone 1 , a Ring Tone 2 , and a Ring Tone 100 , is provided. More specifically, it can be seen from FIGS. 4A and 4B that URI information for each MP3 file is transmitted through a content location element of the schedule event fragment. As can be seen from FIGS. 4A and 4B , information required to provide the download service for the three MP3 files is transmitted through the content fragment, the service fragment, the schedule event fragment, and the acquisition fragment. FIG. 5 illustrates the syntax of a general ESG schedule event fragment. Referring to FIG. 5 , a content location element 500 of the schedule event fragment has information about the type of any URI and can indicate URI information of a single service file. As such, when the current DVB-H system provides file information for a download service using an ESG, it can provide information about a download service for a single file as illustrated in FIGS. 4A and 4B . However, when several individual files are grouped together for download in the file download service, there is no way to provide information about each of the several files included in the grouped file. As a result, when a set of several files is provided in a file download service, information about each of the several files included in the set may not be provided. For example, when a service provider offers 10 ring tone MP3 files, grouped together as a single file, to a user for purchase, the user may desire to evaluate information about each of the 10 ring tone MP3 files, i.e., a file list, before paying for and downloading the 10 ring tone MP3 files. However, according to the current DVB-H Convergence of Broadcast and Mobile Services (CBMS) ESG standard, when a terminal is provided with several files grouped as a single file, there is no way to provide information about each of the individual files of the grouped file, thus resulting in a failure to provide sufficient information to the user.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention has been made to address at least the above problems and/or disadvantages and to provide at least the advantages described below. Accordingly, an object of the present invention is to provide a digital video broadcasting system, terminal, and method for providing information about a plurality of files grouped as a single file through an ESG. According to one aspect of the present invention, a digital broadcasting system for providing file information in a file download service using broadcasting information is provided. The digital broadcasting system includes a broadcasting server for transmitting an Electronic Service Guide (ESG) comprising a schedule event fragment wherein, if files that are included in the file download service comprise a file set that is generated by grouping a plurality of files, the schedule event fragment comprises information about the plurality of files included in the file set, and a terminal for receiving the ESG, for evaluating the schedule event fragment of the ESG upon receipt of a request for downloadable file information, and for evaluating and displaying the information about the plurality of files included in the file set if the schedule event fragment comprises the information about the file set. According to another aspect of the present invention, a digital broadcasting system for providing file information in a file download service using broadcasting information is provided. The digital broadcasting system includes a broadcasting server for transmitting an Electronic Service Guide (ESG) comprising a content fragment wherein, if files that are included in the file download service comprise information about a file set generated by grouping a plurality of files, the content fragment comprises information about the plurality of files included in the file set and a terminal for receiving the ESG, for evaluating the content fragment of the ESG upon receipt of a request for downloadable file information, and for evaluating and displaying the information about the plurality of files included in the file set if the content fragment comprises the file set. According to another aspect of the present invention, a method for providing file information in a file download service using broadcasting information is provided. The method includes transmitting, by a broadcasting server, an Electronic Service Guide (ESG) comprising a schedule event fragment wherein, if files that are included in the file download service comprise information about a file set generated by grouping a plurality of files, the schedule event fragment comprises information about the plurality of files included in the file set, receiving, by a terminal, the ESG, determining, by the terminal, if a request for downloadable file information is input, determining, by the terminal, if the content fragment comprises the information about the file set by evaluating the schedule event fragment if the request for the downloadable file information is input, and evaluating and displaying, by the terminal, the information about the files included in the file set if the schedule event fragment comprises the file set. According to another aspect of the present invention, a method for providing file information in a file download service using broadcasting information is provided. The method includes transmitting, by a broadcasting server, an Electronic Service Guide (ESG) comprising a content fragment wherein, if files that are included in the file download service comprise information about a file set generated by grouping a plurality of files, the content fragment comprises information about the plurality of files included in the file set, receiving, by a terminal, the ESG, determining, by the terminal, if a request for downloadable file information is input, determining, by the terminal, if the content fragment comprises the information about the file set by evaluating the content fragment if the request for the downloadable file information is input, evaluating and displaying, by the terminal, the information about the files included in the file set if the content fragment comprises the file set. According to another aspect of the present invention, a terminal for providing file information of files in a file download service using broadcasting information is provided. The terminal includes a receiver for receiving an Electronic Service Guide (ESG), a memory unit for storing the received ESG, a display unit for displaying input data, and a controller for evaluating a schedule event fragment of the received ESG to determine whether the ESG comprises information about a file set, for evaluating information about files included in the file set if the ESG comprises the information about the file set, and for displaying the information through the display unit.	PRIORITY This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. §119(a) of a Korean Patent Application filed in the Korean Intellectual Property Office on Sep. 18, 2006 and assigned Serial No. 2006-90180 and a Korean Patent Application filed in the Korean Intellectual Property Office on Apr. 20, 2007 and assigned Serial No. 2007-39066, the entire disclosures of both of which are hereby incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an apparatus and method for a digital video broadcasting system. More particularly, the present invention relates to a digital video broadcasting system, digital video broadcasting terminal, and method for providing information about downloadable files using an Electronic Service Guide (ESG) in a file download service. 2. Description of the Related Art Generally, in a digital broadcasting system, a broadcasting signal, which has been conventionally transmitted in an analog manner, is transmitted in a digital manner. A broadcasting signal transmitted in a digital manner provides superior quality and provides various services for both video and audio. Digital broadcasting is classified as Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB), Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), Digital Multimedia Broadcasting (DMB), MediaFLO, and the like. DVB is a European digital broadcasting standard and can be classified into various forms according to its nature, such as DVB-Terrestrial (DVB-T), DVB-Satellite (DVB-S), and DVB-Handheld (DVB-H). DVB-T is a standard for terrestrial digital broadcasting, DVB-S is a standard for satellite digital broadcasting, and DVB-H is a standard for portable mobile digital broadcasting. DVB-H is a technology standard established for the transmission of digital signals to handheld devices such as mobile terminals and the like. DVB-H provides excellent reception of terrestrial digital broadcasting to handheld devices (i.e. mobile terminals). Moreover, it can be used to implement digital mobile multimedia broadcasting to provide high-quality video and audio content to users anytime and anywhere, for example while driving or walking. Unlike other digital broadcasting standards, DVB-H transmits important information required for a broadcasting service through Electronic Service Guide (ESG) data. DVB-H uses a File Delivery over Unidirectional Transport (FLUTE) protocol as a Content Delivery Protocol (CDP). The FLUTE protocol allows transmission of files such as text, audio, video and image files. As part of its standard, DVB-H uses the FLUTE protocol to download files required for ESG configuration and ESG update. DVB-H provides video broadcasting and audio broadcasting as fundamental broadcasting services. In addition, DVB-H provides a data broadcasting service. In other words, three types of services, i.e., video service, audio service and data service, can be provided by the DVB-H standard. Information about each of the three services is transmitted through ESG information. A terminal, for example a handheld device, receiving a DVB-H broadcasting signal, analyzes ESG information included in the broadcasting signal in order to recognize the type of service transmitted through the broadcasting signal and service related information. The ESG information includes Extensible Markup Language (XML) data, and the format of ESG XML information is defined using an XML scheme in the standard. DVB-H broadcasting information is transmitted as ESG fragment information. An ESG fragment can be classified into various types according to the information included in the ESG fragment. ESG data defined in the DVB-H service includes 7 fragments, i.e., a service bundle fragment, a purchase fragment, a purchase channel fragment, a service fragment, a schedule event fragment, a content fragment, and an acquisition fragment. The terminal collects these fragments together in order to recognize all of the information contained in the DVB-H broadcasting signal. A DVB-H broadcasting service includes a data broadcasting service. A data broadcasting service is a file download service that involves downloading a particular data file transmitted through a broadcasting signal. In the file download service, file data required for a service, such as an HTML page, Audio/Video (AV) files, and ring tones, in addition to a streaming service, is transmitted using the FLUTE protocol. In order to acquire file data used for a particular period of time, a FLUTE session is initiated using Session Description Protocol (SDP) information of the ESG data and the desired file data is transmitted. In the file download service, information required for the file download service is transmitted using the service fragment, the schedule event fragment, the content fragment, and the acquisition fragment of the ESG data. FIGS. 4A and 4B illustrate an ESG for a DVB-H file download service. Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) information for each transmission file is transmitted through a schedule event fragment. It can be seen from FIGS. 4A and 4B that a download service for three ring tone MP3 files, i.e., a Ring Tone 1, a Ring Tone 2, and a Ring Tone 100, is provided. More specifically, it can be seen from FIGS. 4A and 4B that URI information for each MP3 file is transmitted through a content location element of the schedule event fragment. As can be seen from FIGS. 4A and 4B, information required to provide the download service for the three MP3 files is transmitted through the content fragment, the service fragment, the schedule event fragment, and the acquisition fragment. FIG. 5 illustrates the syntax of a general ESG schedule event fragment. Referring to FIG. 5, a content location element 500 of the schedule event fragment has information about the type of any URI and can indicate URI information of a single service file. As such, when the current DVB-H system provides file information for a download service using an ESG, it can provide information about a download service for a single file as illustrated in FIGS. 4A and 4B. However, when several individual files are grouped together for download in the file download service, there is no way to provide information about each of the several files included in the grouped file. As a result, when a set of several files is provided in a file download service, information about each of the several files included in the set may not be provided. For example, when a service provider offers 10 ring tone MP3 files, grouped together as a single file, to a user for purchase, the user may desire to evaluate information about each of the 10 ring tone MP3 files, i.e., a file list, before paying for and downloading the 10 ring tone MP3 files. However, according to the current DVB-H Convergence of Broadcast and Mobile Services (CBMS) ESG standard, when a terminal is provided with several files grouped as a single file, there is no way to provide information about each of the individual files of the grouped file, thus resulting in a failure to provide sufficient information to the user. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention has been made to address at least the above problems and/or disadvantages and to provide at least the advantages described below. Accordingly, an object of the present invention is to provide a digital video broadcasting system, terminal, and method for providing information about a plurality of files grouped as a single file through an ESG. According to one aspect of the present invention, a digital broadcasting system for providing file information in a file download service using broadcasting information is provided. The digital broadcasting system includes a broadcasting server for transmitting an Electronic Service Guide (ESG) comprising a schedule event fragment wherein, if files that are included in the file download service comprise a file set that is generated by grouping a plurality of files, the schedule event fragment comprises information about the plurality of files included in the file set, and a terminal for receiving the ESG, for evaluating the schedule event fragment of the ESG upon receipt of a request for downloadable file information, and for evaluating and displaying the information about the plurality of files included in the file set if the schedule event fragment comprises the information about the file set. According to another aspect of the present invention, a digital broadcasting system for providing file information in a file download service using broadcasting information is provided. The digital broadcasting system includes a broadcasting server for transmitting an Electronic Service Guide (ESG) comprising a content fragment wherein, if files that are included in the file download service comprise information about a file set generated by grouping a plurality of files, the content fragment comprises information about the plurality of files included in the file set and a terminal for receiving the ESG, for evaluating the content fragment of the ESG upon receipt of a request for downloadable file information, and for evaluating and displaying the information about the plurality of files included in the file set if the content fragment comprises the file set. According to another aspect of the present invention, a method for providing file information in a file download service using broadcasting information is provided. The method includes transmitting, by a broadcasting server, an Electronic Service Guide (ESG) comprising a schedule event fragment wherein, if files that are included in the file download service comprise information about a file set generated by grouping a plurality of files, the schedule event fragment comprises information about the plurality of files included in the file set, receiving, by a terminal, the ESG, determining, by the terminal, if a request for downloadable file information is input, determining, by the terminal, if the content fragment comprises the information about the file set by evaluating the schedule event fragment if the request for the downloadable file information is input, and evaluating and displaying, by the terminal, the information about the files included in the file set if the schedule event fragment comprises the file set. According to another aspect of the present invention, a method for providing file information in a file download service using broadcasting information is provided. The method includes transmitting, by a broadcasting server, an Electronic Service Guide (ESG) comprising a content fragment wherein, if files that are included in the file download service comprise information about a file set generated by grouping a plurality of files, the content fragment comprises information about the plurality of files included in the file set, receiving, by a terminal, the ESG, determining, by the terminal, if a request for downloadable file information is input, determining, by the terminal, if the content fragment comprises the information about the file set by evaluating the content fragment if the request for the downloadable file information is input, evaluating and displaying, by the terminal, the information about the files included in the file set if the content fragment comprises the file set. According to another aspect of the present invention, a terminal for providing file information of files in a file download service using broadcasting information is provided. The terminal includes a receiver for receiving an Electronic Service Guide (ESG), a memory unit for storing the received ESG, a display unit for displaying input data, and a controller for evaluating a schedule event fragment of the received ESG to determine whether the ESG comprises information about a file set, for evaluating information about files included in the file set if the ESG comprises the information about the file set, and for displaying the information through the display unit. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and other features and advantages of exemplary embodiments of the present invention will be more apparent from the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a digital video broadcasting system according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating a digital video broadcasting terminal according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a flowchart illustrating a process of providing file information during a file download service in a digital video broadcasting terminal according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 4A and 4B illustrate an ESG for a general ESG file download service; FIG. 5 illustrates the syntax of a general ESG schedule event fragment; FIGS. 6A and 6B illustrate the syntax of an ESG schedule event fragment including file list information of a file set including a plurality of sub files according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 7A and 7B illustrate an ESG using the syntax of the ESG schedule event fragment illustrated in FIGS. 6A and 6B according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; and FIGS. 8A and 8B illustrate the syntax of an ESG schedule event fragment including file list information of a file set including a plurality of sub files according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9 illustrates an ESG using the syntax of the ESG schedule event fragment illustrated in FIGS. 8A and 8B according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 10A and 10B illustrate the syntax of a content fragment including file list information of a file set including a plurality of sub files according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 illustrates an ESG using the syntax of the content fragment illustrated in FIGS. 10A and 10B according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 12 illustrates a screen displaying information of each file that is made as a single file and information of sub files included in a file set according to exemplary embodiments of the present invention. Throughout the drawings, the same drawing reference numerals will be understood to refer to the same elements, features and structures. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS The matters defined in the description such as a detailed construction and elements are provided to assist in a comprehensive understanding of exemplary embodiments of the invention. Accordingly, those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that various changes and modifications can be made to what is described herein without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. Also, descriptions of well-known functions and constructions are omitted for clarity and conciseness. In an exemplary method of the present invention, a terminal receives an ESG schedule event fragment or a content fragment. If the ESG schedule event fragment or the content fragment includes information indicating that a file set, including several files and file list information corresponding to the several files in the file set, is provided as part of a file download service, the file list information is evaluated in order to provide information about each of the several files included in the file set to a user. FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating the structure of a digital video broadcasting system according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 1, the digital video broadcasting system includes a broadcasting service providing server 110 for generating a Transport Stream (TS) for content provided by a content provider 100 and broadcasting the generated TS, a broadcasting network 113 for broadcasting the TS from the broadcasting service providing server 110 to a terminal 120, and the terminal 120 for receiving the broadcasted TS and performing a digital broadcasting service using the TS. The broadcasting service providing server 110 includes a broadcasting service application unit 111 and a broadcasting service management unit 112. The broadcasting service application unit 111 transmits an audio/video stream and file data to the terminal 120, and the broadcasting service management unit 112 transmits ESG data to the terminal 120. According to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention, a file download service provides a set of several files from a service provider that are made as a single file. When the single file, comprised of the several files, is provided, the broadcasting service providing server 110 transmits an ESG including an ESG schedule event fragment or a content fragment that contains information indicating transmission of the file set and file list information corresponding to each of the several files in the set to the terminal 120. Upon receipt of the ESG, the terminal 120 determines if information indicating the transmission of a file set is included in the ESG schedule event fragment. If so, the terminal 120 evaluates the file list information corresponding to the file set in order to provide the file list information to the user. The following detailed description includes several exemplary embodiments in which the broadcasting service providing server 110 incorporates information about a file set into an ESG. In an exemplary embodiment of the present invention, information about a file set is provided using a content location element of a schedule event fragment. In another exemplary embodiment of the present invention, information about a file set is provided using a content location element indicating information of a single file instead of a file set and an archive location element indicating information of a file set. In yet another exemplary embodiment of the present invention, an archive location element is defined in a content fragment. First, a method for providing information about a file set according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention will be provided. When several files are transmitted as a file set according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention, the syntax of an ESG schedule event fragment transmitted by the broadcasting service providing server 110 can be configured as illustrated in FIGS. 6A and 6B. Referring to FIGS. 6A and 6B, the ESG schedule event fragment according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention includes not only URI information of a download file using a content location element, but also includes information about the files included in the file set if the download file is a file set. In a content location element 600 of an ESG schedule event fragment according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention, a content URI type element includes information about an encoding type used to group the several files into the file set in order to allow the terminal 120 to determine whether the received file is a file set that includes several files. In an exemplary embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 6A and 6B, an algorithm used for grouping the several files into a file set is a tar algorithm. Of course, other algorithms may be used. The encoding type may be set to “none” by default, and thus an encoding type attribute may be omitted in the transmission of a single file. In other words, as indicated by 600, the ESG schedule event fragment according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention includes information about an encoding type used to group several files into a file set as an encoding type in a content URI type element and includes file list information corresponding to the file set in a content list type element. An ESG using the syntax of the ESG schedule event fragment as illustrated in FIGS. 6A and 6B will now be described with reference to FIGS. 7A and 7B. FIGS. 7A and 7B illustrate an ESG for providing information about a file set using a content location element of the ESG schedule event fragment illustrated in FIGS. 6A and 6B according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. A description will be made of an example in which an ESG is transmitted that includes information about a Ring Tone Set that is a file set, information about a ring Tone 2 and information about a ring Tone 100. Also as part of the example, the service provider transmits three MP3 files, i.e., a ring Tone 1, a ring Tone 2, and a ring Tone 3, as the Ring Tone Set, to a user. A content fragment then includes information indicating that a Ring Tone set including three MP3 files is provided as indicated by 700, information indicating that a Ring Tone 2 is provided as indicated by 702, and information indicating that a Ring Tone 100 is provided as indicated by 704. A schedule event fragment includes information about the three files of the Ring Tone Set. In particular, the schedule event fragment includes a content URI encoding type and a content list corresponding to the file set as indicated by 710. In the information 710, 706 indicates the content URI encoding type corresponding to the file set and 707, 708 and 709 indicate information about the files included in the file set, i.e., information about the ring Tone 1, information about the ring Tone 2, and information about the ring Tone 3, respectively. Upon receipt of the ESG as illustrated in FIGS. 7A and 7B, the terminal 120 can evaluate a content URI encoding type to recognize that, out of the received files, a file corresponding to a ring tone set includes several files that are grouped using a tar algorithm. The terminal 120 can also recognize which files are included in the Ring Tone Set by evaluating a content list before a downloading operation is performed. Next, a method for providing information about a file set according to another exemplary embodiment of the present invention will be described. In order to transmit several files as a file set that is a single file according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention, the syntax of a schedule event fragment transmitted by the broadcasting service providing server 110 is as shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B. In this exemplary embodiment, an element indicating information about a single file and an element indicating information about a file set are separately used. Referring to FIG. 8A, a content location element is used for a single file having no file set as indicated by 810, and an archive location element is used for a single file having a file set as indicated by 820. The content location element and the archive location element may also be used separately for a single file having no file set or a single file having a file set. When file information to be provided is a file set, basic information may be first provided using a content location element and then detailed information of the file set may be provided using an archive location element, as agreed between a service provider and a terminal. The archive location element has the same content location type information as in the previous exemplary embodiment of the present invention. In other words, although not shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B, by using “esg:ContentLocationRefType” as archive location element type information, information about an encoding type used for grouping files may be included as an encoding type in a content URI type element according to the previous exemplary embodiment of the present invention and file list information corresponding to a file set may be included in a content list type element according to the previous exemplary embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 8B illustrates a modified content URI type element for an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. In other words, in the previous exemplary embodiment of the present invention, a value indicating that an encoding type is “none” is included in order to indicate a single file that is not a file set as shown in FIG. 6B. However, in an exemplary embodiment of the present invention, a single file that is not a file set is indicated using a content location element as shown in FIG. 8B and thus a content URI type element shown in FIG. 8B does not need to include a value indicating that an encoding type is “none”. Hereinafter, an ESG using the syntax of the schedule event fragment as shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B will be described with reference to FIG. 9. FIG. 9 illustrates an ESG for a file download service using the schedule event fragment as shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. A description will be made of an example in which an ESG is transmitted that includes information about a Ring Tone Set, information about a ring Tone 2, and information about a ring Tone 100. Also as part of the example, the service provider transmits three MP3 files, i.e., a ring Tone 1, a ring Tone 2, and a ring Tone 3, as the Ring Tone Set that is a single file, to a user. A content fragment then includes information indicating that a Ring Tone Set including three MP3 files is provided as indicated by 910, information indicating that a Ring Tone 2 is provided as indicated by 920, and information indicating that a Ring Tone 100 is provided as indicated by 930. A schedule event fragment includes information about the three files of the Ring Tone Set. In particular, unlike in the previous exemplary embodiment of the present invention, a content URI encoding type and a content list corresponding to the file set as indicated by 910 use an archive location element as indicated by 970 in an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. In other words, an archive location element is used for a file set and a content location element is used for other cases. In the information 970, 935 indicates the content URI encoding type corresponding to the file set as indicated by 910 and 940, 950, and 960 indicate information about the files included in the file set, i.e., information about the ring Tone 1, information about the ring Tone 2, and information about the ring Tone 3, respectively. Next, a method for providing information about a file set according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention will be described. In order to transmit several files as a single file set according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention, the syntax of a schedule event fragment and the syntax of a content fragment transmitted by the broadcasting service providing server 110 are as shown in FIGS. 10A and 10B. Here, an exemplary embodiment of the present invention is different from the previous exemplary embodiment of the present invention in that the archive location element is included in a content fragment instead of a schedule event fragment. In other words, in the previous exemplary embodiment of the present invention, information about a file set is provided in a content fragment indicating information of the file set, instead of recognizing file set information of content according to each schedule in a schedule event fragment. Referring to FIG. 10B, the archive location element is included in the content fragment as indicated by 1020. In the schedule event fragment, a content location element is used to indicate a single file using an “AnyURI” type as indicated by 1010 in FIG. 10A. Hereinafter, an ESG using the syntax of a content fragment shown in FIGS. 10A and 10B will be described with reference to FIG. 11. FIG. 11 illustrates an ESG using the syntax of the content fragment illustrated in FIGS. 10A and 10B according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. A description will be made of an example in which an ESG is transmitted that includes information about a Ring Tone Set, information about a ring Tone 2, and information about a ring Tone 100. Also as part of the example, content locations of the three files are transmitted through the content fragment and the service provider transmits three MP3 files, i.e., a ring Tone 1, a ring Tone 2, and a ring Tone 3, as the Ring Tone Set that is a single file, to a user. A content fragment then includes information indicating that a Ring Tone set including three MP3 files is provided. The content fragment includes information about the three files and a content URI encoding type and a content list corresponding to a file set is included in an archive location element as indicated by 1150. In the information 1150, 1110 indicates a content URI encoding type of the file set and 1120, 1130, and 140 indicate information about each of the three files, i.e., information about a ring Tone 1, information about a ring Tone 2, and information about a ring Tone 3. Hereinafter, the structure of a terminal 120 according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to FIG. 2. An exemplary terminal 120 is a digital video broadcasting terminal. FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary digital video broadcasting terminal 120. The digital video broadcasting terminal 120 includes a digital broadcasting receiver 202, a memory unit 204, a controller 200, a key input unit 210, a display unit 206, and an audio processor 208. Once a broadcasting channel is selected through use of the controller 200, the digital broadcasting receiver 202 receives and demodulates digital broadcasting data from the broadcasting channel and outputs the demodulated digital broadcasting data to the controller 200. In an exemplary embodiment of the present invention, the digital broadcasting system is a DVB-H broadcasting system and the digital broadcasting receiver 202 is a DVB-H Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM) demodulator. In such an exemplary system, the OFDM demodulator performs OFDM demodulation on a signal received from a broadcasting station that broadcasts DVB-H broadcasting data and outputs digital broadcasting data of a channel selected by a user. The digital broadcasting receiver 202 receives an ESG data stream included in a digital broadcasting TS broadcasted by a digital broadcasting device. The terminal 120 may also include a Radio Frequency (RF) unit (not shown) including an RF transmitter for up-converting and amplifying the frequency of a transmission signal, and an RF receiver for low-noise amplifying and down-converting the frequency of a reception signal. The memory unit 204 stores data required by the controller 200 and, in particular, stores file download service information included in ESG data received from the broadcasting service providing server 110. The controller 200 controls the overall operation of the digital video broadcasting terminal 120, decodes a digital broadcasting stream output from the digital broadcasting receiver 202, and outputs the decoded digital broadcasting stream through the display unit 206 and the audio processor 208. The terminal 120 may also include a video signal processor (not shown) and an audio signal processor (not shown) for respectively processing decoded video and audio signals. In an exemplary embodiment, if information indicating the transmission of a file set is included in an ESG schedule event fragment or a content fragment generated by the broadcasting service providing server 110, the controller 200 performs a control operation in such a way as to evaluate file list information corresponding to the file set and to provide the file list information to the user. A detailed operation of the controller 200 for evaluating information about a file set provided through an ESG schedule event fragment or a content fragment by the broadcasting service providing server 110 and providing information about the file set to the user will be described later with reference to FIG. 3. The key input unit 210 receives a user manipulation signal, such as a key input, and transmits the received user manipulation signal to the controller 200. The display unit 206 outputs display data generated in the digital video broadcasting terminal 120. In an exemplary embodiment, the display unit 206 is a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) for sufficiently supporting the resolution of broadcasting data. When an LCD is implemented with a touch screen, the display unit 206 may also serve as an input unit. The audio processor 208 modulates an electric signal input from a microphone into voice data, and demodulates encoded voice data input from the digital broadcasting receiver 202 into an electric signal and outputs the electric signal to a speaker. The audio processor 208 may include a data codec for processing packet data and an audio codec for processing an audio signal such as voice. In an exemplary embodiment, the audio processor 208 is included in the controller 200. Hereinafter, an exemplary operation of the digital video broadcasting terminal 120 for providing file information to the user in a file download service will be described with reference to FIGS. 3 and 7A through 12. In step 300, once the digital video broadcasting terminal 120 receives ESG data through the digital broadcasting receiver 202, the controller 200 stores the received ESG data in the memory unit 204. The controller 200 determines if a request for viewing information about downloadable files is input from a user in step 302. If so, step 306 is performed. If not, the controller proceeds to step 304 and a corresponding operation is performed. At the request of the user in step 302, the controller 200 proceeds to step 306 and analyzes a schedule event fragment or a content fragment in the ESG data stored in the memory unit 204. In this step, the controller 200 analyzes a schedule event fragment or a content fragment. In step 308, the controller 200 determines if the analysis result with respect to the schedule event fragment or the content fragment in the ESG data indicates that the downloadable files include a file set. Although a schedule event fragment is first analyzed and then a content fragment is analyzed in a general ESG data analysis, the analysis of step 306 is performed on the schedule event fragment or the content fragment in order to determine if the downloadable files include a file set. If the controller 200 receives the ESG generated according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention, it determines if one of the downloadable files is configured as a file set by evaluating a content URI encoding type element including encoding information as indicated by 710 of FIG. 7A. If the downloadable files do not include a file set and each of the downloadable files is a single file, the controller 200 displays information about each of the downloadable files on a screen using a general file information display method in step 314. If the controller 200 receives the ESG generated according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention, it determines if one of the downloadable files is configured as a file set by evaluating a file set list included in an archive location element of a schedule event fragment as indicated by 970 of FIG. 9. If the controller 200 receives the ESG generated according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention, it determines if one of the downloadable files is configured as a file set by evaluating a file set list included in an archive location element of a content fragment as indicated by 1150 of FIG. 11. If it is determined in step 308 that the downloadable files do include a file set as well as single files, in step 310 the controller 200 displays file information for the downloadable files, each of which is a single file, using a general file information display method. Also in step 310, the controller evaluates file information for sub-files included in the file set. As part of the evaluation, the controller 200 evaluates information about the sub-files included in the file set using a content list element corresponding to the file set. If the controller receives the ESG generated according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention, by checking information 707, 708, and 709 included in a content list as illustrated in FIG. 7A, the controller 200 recognizes that the sub files are ringTone 1, ringTone 2, and ringTone 3, respectively. If the controller 200 receives the ESG generated according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention, by checking information 940, 950, and 960 included in a content list as illustrated in FIG. 9, the controller 200 recognizes that the sub files are ringTone 1, ringTone 2, and ringTone 3, respectively. If the controller 200 receives the ESG generated according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention, by checking information 1120, 1130, and 1140 included in a content list as illustrated in FIG. 11, the controller 200 recognizes that the sub files are ringTone 1, ringTone 2, and ringTone 3, respectively. The controller 200 then displays file information for the sub-files included in the file set through the display unit 206 in step 312. The display of the file information for the sub-files may be simultaneous with the display of the information of the single files. For example, the screen of the digital video broadcasting terminal 120 may display the file information as illustrated in FIG. 12. In other words, general file information is displayed for the files, i.e., “2. Ring Tone 2” and “3. Ring Tone 100”, each of which is a single file, and file list information of the sub files included in the Ring Tone Set, i.e., “ringTone 1.mp3, ringTone 2.mp3, and ringTone 3.mp3”, is displayed for the file set “1. Ring Tone Set” as a popup window. The file list information of the sub-files for the file set “1. Ring Tone Set” may be displayed as a popup window 800 simultaneously with the file information for the other files as illustrated in FIG. 12, or may be displayed as a popup window upon a user's key click or cursor dragging. As described above, according to exemplary embodiments of the present invention, for a download service using broadcasting information, several files may be transmitted as a file set, thereby improving the efficiency of file transmission when compared to transmitting the files separately. Furthermore, when several files are serviced as a file set, information about the files included in the file set is provided through ESG information, thereby allowing the user to evaluate the information about the files included in the file set before downloading the files. While the invention has been shown and described with reference to exemplary embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims and their equivalents.	G	G06	G06F	3	00
11736739	US20080148953A1-20080626	TANKLESS PULSE BREWER	ACCEPTED	20080612	20080626		[]	A47J3144	["A47J3144"]	7858134	20070418	20101228	426	433000	59702.0	WEIER	ANTHONY	[{"inventor_name_last": "Maldanis", "inventor_name_first": "Algert J.", "inventor_city": "Heath", "inventor_state": "TX", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Thorn", "inventor_name_first": "Dick", "inventor_city": "Malekoff", "inventor_state": "TX", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Thorn", "inventor_name_first": "Barbara", "inventor_city": "Malekoff", "inventor_state": "TX", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A system that allows for hot water on demand and once the water is heated, it is delivered to flavor containing solid material in a pressurized pulse. By heating the water on demand, a more uniform temperature can be achieved and by delivering the heated water in a pressurized pulse, the extraction of flavor from the flavor containing solid material is greatly improved. In addition, to determine the volume of water used in the system, the number of pressurized pulses are counted and that gives a more uniform consistent measurement of the volume of water used instead of the timed delivery of water.	1. A tankless pulse brewer that allows for hot water on demand and delivers the heated water to flavor containing solid material in a pressurized pulse, the tankless pulse brewer comprising: a control panel that allows a user to control the operation of the tankless pulse brewer; a brew basket; a filter contained in the brew basket wherein the filter contains flavor containing solid material to be brewed; a carafe that captures and stores the liquid created after the flavor containing solid material is brewed; a water system wherein the water system contains a water supply inlet; a main heating block that heats water to a predetermined temperature and delivers the heated water is directly to the flavor containing material in a pressurized pulse; a manifold operationally connected to the main heating block; a main heating block pulse counter proximate to main heating block to count the number of pressurized pulses delivered from main heating block. 2. The tankless pulse brewer of claim 2 wherein the tankless pulse brewer further comprises: a by-pass heater block operationally connected to the manifold wherein the by-pass heating block heats water to a predetermined temperature and delivers the heated water to the brew basket but not directly to the flavor containing solid material contained in the filter; and a by-pass heating block pulse counter proximate to by-pass heating block to count the number of pressurized pulses delivered from by-pass heating block. 3. The tankless pulse brewer of claim 2 wherein the tankless pulse brewer further comprises a cold water by-pass solenoid wherein the cold water by-pass solenoid delivers unheated water to the carafe via a by-pass water line. 4. The tankless pulse brewer of claim 2 wherein the water system contains water supply cut off solenoid that regulates the flow of water into water system and can be used to shut off the flow completely; pressure regulator to regulate the pressure of the water entering water system; and water supply pressure switch to monitor the water pressure to ensure the pressure is sufficient for brewing or there is not a leak within the tankless pulse brewer. 5. The tankless pulse brewer of claim 2 wherein the water is heated to about 197 degrees to about 205 degrees Fahrenheit. 6. The tankless pulse brewer of claim 1 wherein main heating block contains an inlet; a check valve to conditionally allow water flow from the inlet into water camber wherein the check valve contains a check valve spring; a check valve ball; a water chamber; a thermal actuator spring contained within the water chamber; a thermal actuator; and at least one cartridge heater. 7. The tankless pulse brewer of claim 6 wherein main heating block contains two parallel cartridge heating chambers. 8. A method of using a tankless pulse brewer that allows for hot water on demand and delivers the heated water to flavor containing solid material in a pressurized pulse, the tankless pulse brewer comprising the steps of: selecting a brew cycle from a control panel; opening a water inlet; 1. conditioned upon the system determining if a main heating block should be activated, activating the main heating block; 2. conditioned upon the system determining if a by-pass heating block should be activated, activating the by-pass heating block; 3. conditioned upon the system determining if a cold water by-pass solenoid should be activated, activating the cold water by-pass solenoid; and conditioned upon the system determining the brewing cycle has not completed, repeating steps 1, 2, and 3 above. 9. The method of claim 8 wherein the step of activating main heating block includes activating a cartridge heater in the main heating block; heating water in a water chamber to a predetermined temperature wherein the water chamber is located inside the main heating block; conditioned upon the water in the main heating block reaching a predetermined temperature, allowing a thermal actuator to expand thereby forcing a check valve ball away from the water chamber such that pressurized unheated water from an inlet is forced into the water chamber and the pressurized water entering water chamber forces the heated water to exit through an outlet; counting the expulsion or pulse by a pulse counter; and allowing the thermal actuator to cool and retract such that the check valve ball reseats against water chamber closing off the water flow from the inlet. 10. The method of claim 9 wherein the pulsed heated water from main heating block flows through a basket water line to a spray head and onto flavor containing material that is to be brewed. 11. The method of claim 8 wherein the step of activating by-pass heating block includes activating a cartridge heater in the by-pass heating block; heating water in a water chamber to a predetermined temperature wherein the water chamber is located inside by-pass heating block; conditioned upon the water in the by-pass heating block reaching a predetermined temperature, allowing a thermal actuator to expand thereby forcing a check valve ball away from water chamber such that pressurized unheated water from an inlet is forced into the water chamber and the pressurized water entering water chamber forces the heated water to exit through an outlet; counting the expulsion or pulse by a pulse counter; allowing the thermal actuator to cool and retract such that the check valve ball reseats against water chamber closing off the water flow from the inlet. 12. The method of claim 11 wherein the pulsed heated water from by-pass heating block flows through by-pass water line and into a brewing chamber but away from the flavor containing material in brewing chamber. 13. The method of claim 8 wherein the control panel determines the number of pulses from the main heating block and from the by-pass heating block required for the selected brew cycle and when the main heating block and the by-pass heating block should be activated during the brew cycle. 14. The method of claim 8 wherein he water is heated to about 197 degrees to about 205 degrees Fahrenheit. 15. The method of claim 8 wherein the main heating block contains an inlet; a check valve to prevent water flow from the inlet into water camber wherein the check valve includes a check valve spring; check valve ball; a water chamber; a thermal actuator spring; a thermal actuator; and at least one cartridge heater. 16. The method of claim 15 wherein the main heating block contains two parallel cartridge heating chambers. 17. A method of using a tankless pulse brewer that allows for hot water on demand and delivers the heated water to flavor containing solid material in a pressurized pulse, the tankless pulse brewer comprising the steps of: selecting a brew cycle from a control panel opening a water inlet 1. conditioned upon the system determining if main heating block should be activated, activating main heating block wherein the step of activating main heating block includes activating a cartridge heater in main heating block; heating water in a water chamber to a predetermined temperature wherein the water chamber is located inside main heating block; conditioned upon the water in main heating block reaching a predetermined temperature, allowing a thermal actuator to expand thereby forcing a check valve ball away from the water chamber such that pressurized unheated water from an inlet is forced into the water chamber and the pressurized water entering water chamber forces the heated water to exit through an outlet; counting the expulsion or pulse by a pulse counter; allowing the thermal actuator to cool and retract such that the check valve ball reseats against water chamber closing off the water flow from the inlet; 2. conditioned upon the system determining if by-pass heating block should be activated, activating by-pass heating block wherein the step of activating by-pass heating block includes activating a cartridge heater in by-pass heating block; heating water in a water chamber to a predetermined temperature wherein the water chamber is located inside by-pass heating block; conditioned upon the water in by-pass heating block reaching a predetermined temperature, allowing a thermal actuator to expand thereby forcing a check valve ball away from the water chamber such that pressurized unheated water from an inlet is forced into the water chamber and the pressurized water entering water chamber forces the heated water to exit through an outlet; counting the expulsion or pulse by a pulse counter; allowing the thermal actuator to cool and retract such that the check valve ball reseats against water chamber closing off the water flow from the inlet; 3. conditioned upon the system determining if cold water by-pass solenoid should be activated, activating cold water by-pass solenoid conditioned upon the system determining the brewing cycle has not completed, repeating steps 1, 2, and 3 above. 18. The method of claim 17 wherein the pulsed heated water from main heating block flows through a basket water line to a spray head and onto flavor containing material that is to be brewed. 19. The method of claim 17 wherein the pulsed heated water from by-pass heating block flows through cold by-pass water line and into a brewing chamber but away from the flavor containing material in brewing chamber. 20. The method of claim 17 wherein control panel determines the number of pulses from the main heating block and from the by-pass heating block required for the selected brew cycle and when the main heating block and the by-pass heating block should be activated during the brew cycle.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Technical Field This invention relates to brewers, and more particularly, to commercial brewers for flavor containing solid materials. 2. Description of Related Art It has been known for centuries to prepare coffee, tea, herb extracts and other flavor-containing liquids by steeping the corresponding flavor containing solid materials in hot water under ambient or elevated pressure. The steeping of roasted and ground coffee under ambient pressure emerged in the late 14th century and throughout the 19th and even the early 20th centuries, it was considered adequate to add ground coffee to hot water in a saucepan, boil the mixture until it smelled right, and pour the brew into a cup. It was not until later in the 20th century, that coffee making became somewhat automated. The modern coffeemaker is a kitchen appliance used to brew coffee without having to boil water in a separate container. While there are many different types of coffeemakers using a number of different brewing principles, in the most common devices, coffee grounds are placed in a paper or metal filter inside a funnel. The funnel is then set over a glass or ceramic coffee pot. Cold water is poured into a separate chamber, and the water is heated up to the boiling point and directed into the funnel. This is commonly called an automatic drip-brew or drip brew coffee maker and is the most popular method used to brew coffee or tea. Extraction time, water volume and water temperature are among the most critical considerations when brewing coffee with a drip brew coffee maker and in order to achieve a consistent tasting coffee, all three must be kept relatively constant. Typical hot water tank type brewers maintain the temperature of the water in the tank at a preset level through the use of a thermostat. When a brewing cycle is selected in a typical tank type brewer, water solenoids are opened or closed by an electronic or electromechanical timer. The solenoids control the flow of water from a tank to a basket that contains the solid flavor material to be brewed. To replace the hot water sent to the brewing basket from the tank, cold water from a water source flows into the tank as the hot water is sent to the basket. This water inflow causes the tank temperature to drop during the brew cycle, effecting the extraction of the product from the flavor containing solid material. Various control systems, including solid-state controls, have been used to improve the operation of tank brewers and improve extraction of product. However, the effectiveness of these control systems is arguable, as they have a problem with consistent control, are typically not efficient, and do not keep the temperature and volume of water used relatively constant from brew cycle to brew cycle. What is needed is a brewer that can heat the water quickly and uniformly and then deliver the water to the material to be brewed in a manner that will enhance the brewing. In addition, the brewer should not use a time based method to measure the amount of water used. It would be beneficial if a more accurate system was used determine the water volume for each brewing cycle.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF INVENTION <EOH>The present invention solves the above-described problem by providing a system that allows for hot water on demand and delivers the heated water to flavor containing solid material in a pressurized pulse. By heating the water on demand, a more uniform temperature can be achieved and by delivering the heated water in a pressurized pulse, the extraction of flavor from the flavor containing solid material is greatly improved. In addition, to determine the volume of water used in the system, the number of pressurized pulses are counted. This results in a more uniform consistent measurement of the volume of water used instead of the timed delivery of water used in the prior art. During use, the present invention is activated via a control panel. Before activation, water in the system is not being heated and is not flowing through the system. Upon activation, water enters the system through a water inlet and a heater heats the water to a desired temperature. Next, the heated water is delivered in pressurized pulses into a basket that contains flavor contains solid material. The pressurized pulsating water flow into the basket provides better water to ingredient surface contact and agitation for improved extraction of the brewed product. Because the water is heated using a tankless system, the water can be heated to a more uniform temperature. This not only creates a more uniform brewing temperature but also helps prevent deposits in the tank. In the tank based systems, as water evaporates from the tank, a fill control adds cold supply water to keep it filled at a specific volume. This allows a virtually small steady stream of water that typically contains dissolved minerals. At each down cycle of the thermostat, the minerals in the water precipitate and slowly form a buildup on the walls and floor of the water tank as well as the heating coils. This affects the water volume in the tank and the energy needed to keep the water in the tank at the preset temperature. In the present invention, the precipitation of minerals is reduced to virtually zero because only a relatively small amount of relatively cool room temperature water is held in the heating block held at until needed,. Other features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent upon reading the following detailed description of embodiments of the invention, when taken in conjunction with the appended claims.	CLAIM OF PRIORITY This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/871,649 filed Dec. 22, 2006 which is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Technical Field This invention relates to brewers, and more particularly, to commercial brewers for flavor containing solid materials. 2. Description of Related Art It has been known for centuries to prepare coffee, tea, herb extracts and other flavor-containing liquids by steeping the corresponding flavor containing solid materials in hot water under ambient or elevated pressure. The steeping of roasted and ground coffee under ambient pressure emerged in the late 14th century and throughout the 19th and even the early 20th centuries, it was considered adequate to add ground coffee to hot water in a saucepan, boil the mixture until it smelled right, and pour the brew into a cup. It was not until later in the 20th century, that coffee making became somewhat automated. The modern coffeemaker is a kitchen appliance used to brew coffee without having to boil water in a separate container. While there are many different types of coffeemakers using a number of different brewing principles, in the most common devices, coffee grounds are placed in a paper or metal filter inside a funnel. The funnel is then set over a glass or ceramic coffee pot. Cold water is poured into a separate chamber, and the water is heated up to the boiling point and directed into the funnel. This is commonly called an automatic drip-brew or drip brew coffee maker and is the most popular method used to brew coffee or tea. Extraction time, water volume and water temperature are among the most critical considerations when brewing coffee with a drip brew coffee maker and in order to achieve a consistent tasting coffee, all three must be kept relatively constant. Typical hot water tank type brewers maintain the temperature of the water in the tank at a preset level through the use of a thermostat. When a brewing cycle is selected in a typical tank type brewer, water solenoids are opened or closed by an electronic or electromechanical timer. The solenoids control the flow of water from a tank to a basket that contains the solid flavor material to be brewed. To replace the hot water sent to the brewing basket from the tank, cold water from a water source flows into the tank as the hot water is sent to the basket. This water inflow causes the tank temperature to drop during the brew cycle, effecting the extraction of the product from the flavor containing solid material. Various control systems, including solid-state controls, have been used to improve the operation of tank brewers and improve extraction of product. However, the effectiveness of these control systems is arguable, as they have a problem with consistent control, are typically not efficient, and do not keep the temperature and volume of water used relatively constant from brew cycle to brew cycle. What is needed is a brewer that can heat the water quickly and uniformly and then deliver the water to the material to be brewed in a manner that will enhance the brewing. In addition, the brewer should not use a time based method to measure the amount of water used. It would be beneficial if a more accurate system was used determine the water volume for each brewing cycle. SUMMARY OF INVENTION The present invention solves the above-described problem by providing a system that allows for hot water on demand and delivers the heated water to flavor containing solid material in a pressurized pulse. By heating the water on demand, a more uniform temperature can be achieved and by delivering the heated water in a pressurized pulse, the extraction of flavor from the flavor containing solid material is greatly improved. In addition, to determine the volume of water used in the system, the number of pressurized pulses are counted. This results in a more uniform consistent measurement of the volume of water used instead of the timed delivery of water used in the prior art. During use, the present invention is activated via a control panel. Before activation, water in the system is not being heated and is not flowing through the system. Upon activation, water enters the system through a water inlet and a heater heats the water to a desired temperature. Next, the heated water is delivered in pressurized pulses into a basket that contains flavor contains solid material. The pressurized pulsating water flow into the basket provides better water to ingredient surface contact and agitation for improved extraction of the brewed product. Because the water is heated using a tankless system, the water can be heated to a more uniform temperature. This not only creates a more uniform brewing temperature but also helps prevent deposits in the tank. In the tank based systems, as water evaporates from the tank, a fill control adds cold supply water to keep it filled at a specific volume. This allows a virtually small steady stream of water that typically contains dissolved minerals. At each down cycle of the thermostat, the minerals in the water precipitate and slowly form a buildup on the walls and floor of the water tank as well as the heating coils. This affects the water volume in the tank and the energy needed to keep the water in the tank at the preset temperature. In the present invention, the precipitation of minerals is reduced to virtually zero because only a relatively small amount of relatively cool room temperature water is held in the heating block held at until needed,. Other features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent upon reading the following detailed description of embodiments of the invention, when taken in conjunction with the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a front view of the brewer in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a side view of the brewer in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a block diagram of the heater in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a block diagram of the main heating block in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a flow diagram depicting the steps used in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6 is a flow diagram depicting the steps used in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION In the following detailed description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings that form a part hereof, and in which is shown by way of illustration, specific embodiments in which the invention may be practiced. These embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice the invention, and it is to be understood that other embodiments may be utilized. It is also to be understood that structural, procedural and system changes may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. The following detailed description is, therefore, not to be taken in a limiting sense, and the scope of the present invention is defined by the appended claims and their equivalents. For clarity of exposition, like features shown in the accompanying drawings are indicated with like reference numerals and similar features as shown in alternate embodiments in the drawings are indicated with similar reference numerals. Referring to FIG. 1, shown is tankless pulse brewer 102 containing control panel 104, brew basket 106, filter 110 and carafe 108. Control panel 104 allows the user to control the operation of tankless pulse brewer 102 and is used to start an automated pre-determined brew cycle for brewing flavor containing solid material such as coffee or tea or a delayed start “autobrew” where the brewing starts at a pre-determined clock time. In addition, control panel 104 can create a brew cycle or adjust a predetermined cycle. For example, the adjustment to a predetermined cycle may be an adjustment to the volume of water used where the adjustment is made to the pulse count and/or percentage of by pass water used during a brewing cycle. (The use of a pulse count and by pass water will be described in more detail below.) Brew basket 106 contains the flavor containing solid material that is to be brewed and such material may be any flavor containing solid material that may be brewed such as coffee or tea. Carafe 108 captures and stores the brewed flavor containing liquid. FIG. 2 is a side view showing water inlet 202, water system 204, basket water line 206, by-pass water line 208, and cold by-pass water line 210. During use, tankless pulse brewer 102 is activated via control panel 104. Upon activation, water enters through water inlet 202 and water system 204 either heats the water and delivers the heated water to brew basket 106 or does not heat the water and delivers the relatively cool water to carafe 108. If the water is heated and delivered to brew basket 106, the heated water may be delivered via basket water line 206 in pressurized pulses directly onto the flavor containing material contained in filter 110. Alternatively, the heated water may be delivered to brew basket 106 away from the flavor containing material on the outside of filter 110 via by-pass water line 208. The pressurized pulsating water flow emanating from basket water line 206 onto the flavor containing material contained in filter 110 provides better water to ingredient surface contact and agitation resulting in an improved extraction of the brewed product. The use of by-pass water line 208 allows for more hot liquid to be delivered to carafe 108 without excessive brewing of the flavor containing material. FIG. 3 shows a detailed view of water system 204. Water system 204 contains water supply inlet 302, water supply cut off solenoid 304, pressure regulator 306, cold water by-pass solenoid 308, water supply pressure switch 312, main heating block 314, by-pass heater block 324, manifold 316, cold water supply 318, heater inlet 320, main heating block outlet 322, by-pass heating block outlet 330, main heating block pulse counter 326, and by-pass heating block pulse counter 328. Main heating block 314 is connected to basket water line 206. By-pass heating block 324 is connected to by-pass water line 208. Water supply inlet 302 is connected to water inlet 202. Water supply cut off solenoid 304 regulates the flow of water into water system 204 and can be used to shut off the flow completely, allow water to freely flow into water system 204, or in one embodiment, regulate the flow depending on the user's preferences. The flow may be regulated by the user via control panel 104 or may be regulated as part of an automated process. Pressure regulator 306 regulates the pressure of the water entering water system 204 and in one embodiment the pressure is between about 30 psi and about 40 psi. Pressure switch 312 is used to monitor the water pressure to ensure the pressure is sufficient for brewing and there is not a leak within the tankless pulse brewer 102. If pressure regulator 306 does detect a problem with the water pressure, pressure regulator 306 can activate water supply cut off solenoid 304 to shut off the flow of water into the system until the problem is resolved. After the water has passed pressure regulator 306, it is delivered to manifold 316. Manifold 316 is operationally connected to main heating block 314, by-pass heating block 324, and cold water by-pass solenoid 308. Main heating block 314 heats the water to a predetermined temperature and the heated water is delivered to the flavor containing material in brew basket 106 via basket water line 206. By-pass heating block 324 heats the water to a predetermined temperature and the heated water is delivered to brew basket 106 via by-pass water line 208. As stated above, by-pass water line 208 delivers the heated water outside filter 110 and away from the flavor containing material. The predetermined temperature is dependent on the temperature of the water needed to brew the flavor containing material or the desired temperature of the brewed liquid delivered to the carafe. Cold water by-pass solenoid 208 does not heat the water and the unheated water is delivered to carafe 108 via cold by-pass water line 210. In one embodiment, cold water by-pass solenoid 308 delivers unheated water directly to basket 106. Main heating block 314 and by-pass heating block 324 are identical in construction and may be used interchangeable in the description that follows. Main heating block 314 is show in more detail in FIG. 4. Main heating block 314 contains inlet 402, check valve spring 404, check valve ball 406, water chamber 408, thermal actuator spring 410, thermal actuator 412, at least one cartridge heater 414, and outlet 416. Check valve spring 404 and check valve ball 406 create a check valve and temporally prevent water flow from the inlet 402 into water camber 408. In one embodiment, shown in FIG. 4, main heating block 314 contains two parallel chambers with each chamber housing cartridge heater 414. Inlet 402 accepts water sent from regulator 306. Check valve spring 404 holds check valve ball 406 against water chamber 408 and does not allow water to enter water chamber 408 until the water inside water chamber 408 reaches a predetermine temperature. The predetermined temperature is the desired temperature of the brewed liquid delivered to the carafe and/or is the temperature needed to brew the flavor containing material. The predetermined temperature is typically between about 197 degrees to about 205 degrees Fahrenheit. The water inside water chamber 408 is heated by cartridge heater 414 and when the temperature of the water inside water chamber 408 reaches the desired brewing temperature, thermal actuator 412 expands forcing check valve ball 406 away from water chamber 408 thus allowing the pressurized unheated water from inlet 402 to enter water chamber 408. The pressurized water entering water chamber 408 from inlet 402 forces the heated water in water chamber 408 to exit through outlet 416. When thermal actuator 412 is cooled by the cool incoming water, it retracts allowing the check valve ball 406 to reseat closing off the water flow. This open/close cycle produces a “pressurized pulse” wherein the pressure comes from the regulated water supply. The pressurized pulse is counted by main heating block pulse counter 326 and a signal is sent to control panel 104 where, as described below, the system determines if the brew cycle has completed. Once the relatively cool pressurized water has entered water chamber 408, thermal actuator 412 is cooled and contracts and check valve ball 406 is forced against water chamber 408 by check valve spring 404. The cold water inside water chamber 408 is heated by cartridge heater 414 until thermal actuator 412 expands forcing check valve ball 406 away from water chamber 408 and the process is repeated until the brewing cycle is completed. Once the brewing cycle is completed, cartridge heater 414 is shut off, the water inside water chamber 408 is no longer heated, and thermal actuator 412 will not expand and force check valve ball 406 away from water chamber 408. Because check valve ball 406 is held against water chamber 408, water does not flow through the system and is held at room temperature until needed. Because the water is not heated until needed, the system creates a more efficient method for heating the water and reduces the precipitation of minerals to virtually zero. By way of example and not of limitation, FIG. 5, shows the steps used during operation of the system. First the system is activated, Step 502. Next, the brewing cycle is selected from control panel 104, Step 504. Then, the system opens water inlet 202, Step 506 and the system determines if main heating block 314 should be activated, Step 508. If the system determines main heating block 314 should not be activated, then the system determines if by-pass heating block 324 should be activated, Step 512. If the system determines main heating block 314 should be activated, then the system activates cartridge main heating block 314, Step 510 and continues to Step 512 where the system determines if by-pass heating block 324 should be activated, Step 512. If the system determines by-pass heating block 324 should not be activated, then the system determines if cold water by-pass solenoid 208 should be activated, Step 516. If the system determines by-pass heating block 324 should be activated, then the system activates by-pass heating block 324, Step 514 and continues to Step 516 where the system determines if cold water by-pass solenoid 208 should be activated, Step 516. If the system determines cold water by-pass solenoid 208 should be activated, then the system activates cold water by-pass solenoid 208, Step 518 and continues to Step 520 where the system determines if the brewing cycle has completed, Step 520. If the system determines by-pass heating block 324 should not be activated, then the system determines if the brewing cycle has completed, Step 520. If the system determines the brewing cycle has completed, then the system enters into standby mode, Step 522. If the system determines that the brewing cycle has not completed, then the system goes back to Step 508 and the process continues piecewise until the brewing cycle is completed. As shown in FIG. 6, to active main heating block 314, the system activates cartridge heater 414 in main heating block 314, Step 602. Then the water in main heating block 314 is heated to the predetermined temperature, Step 604. Then, thermal actuator 412 expands forcing check valve ball 406 away from water chamber 408, Step 606 and the valve created by check valve ball 406 seated on water chamber 408, or check valve, is opened, Step 608. As check valve ball 406 is forced away from water chamber 408, the check valve is opened, and pressurized unheated water from inlet 402 is forced into water chamber 408, Step 610. The pressurized water entering water chamber 408 from inlet 402 forces the heated water to exit through outlet 416 and the expulsion or pulse is counted by pulse counter 326, Step 612. When the unheated water from inlet 402 enters water chamber 408, thermal actuator 412 is cooled, Step 614 and retracts allowing check valve ball 406 to reseat against water chamber 408 closing off the water flow, Step 616. If main heating block 314 was used to heat the water, the hot water expelled or pulsed from water chamber 408 in Step 612 flows through basket water line 206 to the spray head above brewing chamber 106 and onto the flavor containing material. If by-pass heating block 324 was used to heat the water, the hot water expelled or pulsed from water chamber 408 in Step 612 and flows through cold by-pass water line 210 into brewing chamber 106 but away from the flavor containing material in brewing chamber 106. It should be noted that the above process described for the activation of main heating block 314 can also be used to describe the activation of by-pass hearing block 324. When a brew cycle is selected from control panel 104, control panel 104 determines the number of pulses from main heating block 314 and from by-pass heating block 324 required for the selected brew cycle. Control panel 104 also determines when main heating block 314 and by-pass heating block 324 should be activated during the brew cycle. In addition, control panel 104 calculates the volume of water necessary to flow through cold water by-pass solenoid 208 for the selected brew cycle and when by-pass solenoid 208 should be activated during the brew cycle. Control panel 104 then cycles through the above process and activates main heating block 314, by-pass heating block 324, and/or cold water by-pass solenoid 208 at the appropriate time. By way of example and not of limitation, to brew less than one gallon of coffee, the brew cycle may only require the activation of main heating block 314 whereas to brew more than one gallon of coffee, the brew cycle may require the activation of main heating block 314 and by-pass heating block 324 so an proper amount of hot liquid can be produced without over brewing the flavor containing material. To brew tea for use in iced tea, after the first pulse from main heating block 314, by-pass solenoid 208 is activated allowing relatively cold or room temperature water to be added directly into carafe 108 via cold by-pass water line 210. By adding the relatively cool or room temperature water directly into the carafe 108, the relatively hot flavor containing liquid from brew basket 106 is cooled down to prepare the flavor containing liquid to be served with ice. It should be understood that the foregoing relates to exemplary embodiments of the invention and that modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as set forth in the following claims.	A	A47	A47J	31	44
11794303	US20080112823A1-20080515	Air Compressor	ACCEPTED	20080501	20080515		[]	F04B1700	["F04B1700"]	9528506	20070627	20161227	417	372000	70848.0	KRAMER	DEVON	[{"inventor_name_last": "Yoshida", "inventor_name_first": "Tsutomu", "inventor_city": "Tokyo", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Serita", "inventor_name_first": "Tomohiko", "inventor_city": "Tokyo", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]	An inverter substrate 28 in which heat generating components 26 which make up an inverter control unit 9 are mounted on a rear surface side thereof is accommodated in a case 30 which is made of a material having a good thermal conductivity in such a manner that the heat generating components 30 are closely contact with a base of the case 30. The case 30 is provided between a pair of air tanks 5, 6 which are disposed parallel to each other at an interval and on a lower side of at least either of an electric motor 2 and compressors 3, 4 in such a manner as to be oriented downwards so that the base is located at an upper position. An air flow generated by cooling fans 20, 21 which are driven by the electric motor 2 is introduced to flow along the base of the case 30 to thereby cool the heat generating components 26 via the case 30.	1. An air compressor comprising: an electric motor; a compressor mounted on a motor housing of the electric motor and adapted to be driven by the electric motor for generating compressed air; a pair of air tanks adapted to store the compressed air generated by the compressor, each formed into an elongated barrel shape, and disposed in parallel to each other at an interval below the electric motor while their longitudinal axes are substantially parallel to an axial direction of the electric motor; a substrate on which a heat generating component that makes up a control unit for the electric motor is mounted; a case for accommodating therein the substrate; and a cooling fan provided on a rotating shaft of the electric motor and adapted to generate cooling air that flows along the axial direction of the electric motor so as to cool the compressor, the electric motor and the heat generating component via the case, wherein the heat generating component is accommodated in such a manner as to be closely contact with a base of the case, and the case is provided between the pair of air tanks and below at least either of the electric motor and the compressor in such a manner that the base is located at an upper position. 2. The air compressor according to claim 1, wherein the control unit of the electric motor comprises a primary component including the heat generating component and a secondary component, the secondary component is mounted on a front surface of the substrate, and the primary component is mounted on a rear surface of the substrate. 3. The air compressor according to claim 1, wherein the control unit of the electric motor comprises an inverter control unit, and the substrate is an inverter control substrate. 4. The air compressor according to claim 3, wherein the inverter control unit comprises an inverter module and a circuit component for controlling the inverter module, the circuit component is mounted on a front surface of the inverter control substrate, the inverter module is mounted on a rear surface of the inverter control substrate, and the inverter control substrate is accommodated in the case in such a manner that a surface of the inverter module is closely contact with the base of the case. 5. The air compressor according to claim 4, wherein the inverter module comprises a semiconductor switching element for supplying electric power to a stator coil of the electric motor, and the circuit component comprises a capacitor. 6. The air compressor according to claim 1, wherein the compressor is mounted at a longitudinal end of the motor housing. 7. The air compressor according to claim 1, wherein the case is made of a material with a good thermal conductivity. 8. The air compressor according to claim 1, further comprising a radiator plate provided on an external surface of the base of the case and formed with a plurality of cooling fins extending substantially parallel to the rotating shaft of the electric motor. 9. The air compressor according to claim 8, wherein the radiator plate is mounted on the base of the case in such a manner as to be closely contact therewith. 10. The air compressor according to claim 8, wherein the radiator plate is provided on the base of the case in such a manner as to be integrated into the case. 11. The air compressor according to claim 1, wherein the cooling fan comprises a primary fan mounted at one end of the rotating shaft of the electric motor and a secondary fan mounted the other end of the rotating shaft of the electric motor.	<SOH> BACKGROUND ART <EOH>In general, an air compressor is made up of an electric motor which is driven to rotate by electric power supplied thereto, an air compressor which is driven by the electric motor to compress air sucked thereinto from the outside and discharge the compressed air and an air tank for storing the compressed air which is discharged from the compressor. JP-A-2000-283046 discloses an air compressor in which the supply of electric power to an electric motor which drives a compressor is implemented by an inverter control unit which functions to reduce consumed electric by driving the electric motor efficiently by detecting the rotational position of a rotor of the electric motor and controlling the supply of current and voltage to a coil of a stator of the electric motor by varying frequencies thereof according to detection outputs. The inverter control unit is made up of an electric power supply module which is made up, in turn, of a semiconductor switching element for switching current and voltage supplied to the stator coil of the electric motor and other constituent components and a control module for controlling the electric power supply module based on detection signals of the rotational position of the rotor inside the electric motor. Since the semiconductor switching element making up the power supply module generates heat during its operation, the inverter control unit which includes the electric power supply module on which the semiconductor switching element is mounted and the control module is broken by virtue of heat generated by the semiconductor switching element, and this may lead to a problem that the control of the electric motor is disabled. In general, a protection circuit is formed on the circuit for cutting off the circuit to prevent the failure of the components when the temperatures of the components reach a predetermined temperature. In the air compressor, in the event that the compressing operation is stopped every time the protection circuit works, the operability is deteriorated. To cope with this, in an air compressor which utilizes an inverter control unit like this, it is necessary to cool, in particular, the semiconductor switching element of the electric power supply module in order to prevent the overheat of the inverter control circuit. In order to facilitate the cooling of the semiconductor switching element itself, the semiconductor switching element of the electric power supply module is formed as an independent inverter module. In the air compressor which utilizes the inverter control unit disclosed in JP-A-2000-283046, this inverter module is separated from the electric power supply module so as to be mounted on a radiator plate, and the radiator plate on which the inverter module is mounted is provided between a pair of air tanks and on a lower side of the electric motor, so as to cool the inverter module by a flow of air that is generated by cooling fans mounted at both ends of the rotating shaft of the electric motor in order to cool the electric motor and the compressor. In the air compressor disclosed in JP-A-2000-283046, the radiator plate on which the inverter module, which is the heat generating component, is mounted is disposed between the pair of air tanks, so as to cool the inverter module via the radiator plate by cooling air which cools the compressor and the electric motor. In order to cool the inverter module properly, it is necessary to prepare a radiator plate having a wide surface area, and it is also necessary to secure a space for installation of the radiator plate, and therefore, this configuration has constituted a cause for preventing the attempt to make the air compressor small in size and light in weight. In addition, in the air compressor disclosed in JP-A-2000-283046, a circuit board of the electric power supply module which is made up of the other components excluding the inverter module, which is the heat generating component in an inverter circuit, is separated from the inverter module and is disposed between and below the pair of air tanks with its face turned up. In the event that the circuit board of the electric power supply module and the inverter module are disposed separately from each other in this way, wirings including an electric power supply wire, a signal wire and the like need to be provided therebetween, and this serves to increase the production cost of the substrates and manhours required in assembly of the compressor, leading to a problem that the production cost of the compressor is increased.	<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 A plan view of an air compressor with a cover removed. FIG. 2 A partially sectional side view of the air compressor shown in FIG. 1 . FIG. 3 A front view of the air compressor shown in FIG. 1 with the cover removed. FIG. 4 A perspective view which shows an inverter substrate, a case which accommodates therein the inverter substrate, and a radiator plate. FIG. 5 A perspective view which shows a state in which the case which accommodates the inverter substrate and the cover are assembled on to the air compressor. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?	TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to an air compressor including an electric motor controlled and driven via an inverter control unit, a compressor adapted to be driven by the electric motor and to generate compressed air, and an air tank for storing the compressed air generated by the compressor. BACKGROUND ART In general, an air compressor is made up of an electric motor which is driven to rotate by electric power supplied thereto, an air compressor which is driven by the electric motor to compress air sucked thereinto from the outside and discharge the compressed air and an air tank for storing the compressed air which is discharged from the compressor. JP-A-2000-283046 discloses an air compressor in which the supply of electric power to an electric motor which drives a compressor is implemented by an inverter control unit which functions to reduce consumed electric by driving the electric motor efficiently by detecting the rotational position of a rotor of the electric motor and controlling the supply of current and voltage to a coil of a stator of the electric motor by varying frequencies thereof according to detection outputs. The inverter control unit is made up of an electric power supply module which is made up, in turn, of a semiconductor switching element for switching current and voltage supplied to the stator coil of the electric motor and other constituent components and a control module for controlling the electric power supply module based on detection signals of the rotational position of the rotor inside the electric motor. Since the semiconductor switching element making up the power supply module generates heat during its operation, the inverter control unit which includes the electric power supply module on which the semiconductor switching element is mounted and the control module is broken by virtue of heat generated by the semiconductor switching element, and this may lead to a problem that the control of the electric motor is disabled. In general, a protection circuit is formed on the circuit for cutting off the circuit to prevent the failure of the components when the temperatures of the components reach a predetermined temperature. In the air compressor, in the event that the compressing operation is stopped every time the protection circuit works, the operability is deteriorated. To cope with this, in an air compressor which utilizes an inverter control unit like this, it is necessary to cool, in particular, the semiconductor switching element of the electric power supply module in order to prevent the overheat of the inverter control circuit. In order to facilitate the cooling of the semiconductor switching element itself, the semiconductor switching element of the electric power supply module is formed as an independent inverter module. In the air compressor which utilizes the inverter control unit disclosed in JP-A-2000-283046, this inverter module is separated from the electric power supply module so as to be mounted on a radiator plate, and the radiator plate on which the inverter module is mounted is provided between a pair of air tanks and on a lower side of the electric motor, so as to cool the inverter module by a flow of air that is generated by cooling fans mounted at both ends of the rotating shaft of the electric motor in order to cool the electric motor and the compressor. In the air compressor disclosed in JP-A-2000-283046, the radiator plate on which the inverter module, which is the heat generating component, is mounted is disposed between the pair of air tanks, so as to cool the inverter module via the radiator plate by cooling air which cools the compressor and the electric motor. In order to cool the inverter module properly, it is necessary to prepare a radiator plate having a wide surface area, and it is also necessary to secure a space for installation of the radiator plate, and therefore, this configuration has constituted a cause for preventing the attempt to make the air compressor small in size and light in weight. In addition, in the air compressor disclosed in JP-A-2000-283046, a circuit board of the electric power supply module which is made up of the other components excluding the inverter module, which is the heat generating component in an inverter circuit, is separated from the inverter module and is disposed between and below the pair of air tanks with its face turned up. In the event that the circuit board of the electric power supply module and the inverter module are disposed separately from each other in this way, wirings including an electric power supply wire, a signal wire and the like need to be provided therebetween, and this serves to increase the production cost of the substrates and manhours required in assembly of the compressor, leading to a problem that the production cost of the compressor is increased. DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION According to one or more embodiments of the invention, there is provided a cooling system for an air compressor which can cool the heat generating component on the inverter circuit board with good efficiency and can realize the reduction of size and weight, as well as production cost of the air compressor. According to one or more embodiments of the invention, an air compressor is provided with an electric motor, a compressor mounted on a motor housing of the electric motor so as to be driven by the electric motor for generation of compressed air, a pair of air tanks for storing compressed air that is generated by the compressor which are each formed into an elongated barrel shape and are disposed in parallel to each other at an interval below the electric motor in such a manner that their longitudinal axes run substantially parallel to an axial direction of the electric motor, a substrate on which a heat generating component which makes up a control unit for the electric motor is mounted, a case for accommodating therein the substrate, and a cooling fan provided on a rotating shaft of the electric motor for generating cooling air which flows along the axial direction of the electric motor so as to cool the compressor, the electric motor and the heat generating component via the case, wherein the heat generating component is accommodated in such a manner as to be closely contact with a base of the case, and wherein the case is provided between the pair of air tanks and below at least either of the electric motor and the compressor in such a manner that the base thereof is located at an upper position. In addition, according to one or more embodiments of the invention, the control unit of the electric motor is provided with a primary component which includes the heat generating component and a secondary component, the secondary component being mounted on a front surface or the substrate and the primary component being mounted on a rear surface of the substrate. Additionally, according to one or more embodiments of the invention, the control unit of the electric motor is provided with an inverter control unit, and the substrate is an inverter control substrate. In addition, according to one or more embodiments of the invention, the inverter control unit is provided with an inverter module and a circuit component for controlling the inverter module, the circuit component being mounted on a front surface of the inverter control substrate and the inverter module being mounted on a rear surface of the inverter control substrate, and the inverter control substrate is accommodated in the case in such a manner that a surface of the inverter module is closely contact with the base of the case. Additionally, according to one or more embodiments of the invention, the inverter module includes a semiconductor switching element for supplying electric power to a stator coil of the electric motor, and the circuit component includes a capacitor. In addition, according to one or more embodiments of the invention, the compressor is mounted at a longitudinal end of the motor housing. Additionally, according to one or more embodiments of the invention, the case is made of a material with a good thermal conductivity. In addition, according to one or more embodiments of the invention, the air compressor further includes a radiator plate provided on an external surface of the base of the case and made up of a plurality of cooling fins which extend substantially parallel to the rotating shaft of the electric motor. Additionally, according to one or more embodiments of the invention, the radiator plate is mounted on the base of the case in such a manner as to be closely contact therewith. In addition, according to one or more embodiments of the invention, the radiator plate is provided on the base of the case in such a manner as to be integrated into the case. Additionally, the cooling fan includes a primary fan mounted at one end of the rotating shaft of the electric motor and a secondary fan mounted the other end of the rotating shaft of the electric motor. According to the air compressor of the one or more embodiments of the invention, in the air compressor which is adapted to be driven via the electric motor which is controlled to be driven via the inverter control unit (the inverter control unit), the inverter substrate in which the heat generating components making up the inverter control unit is mounted on the rear surface side of the substrate is accommodated within the case made of the material with the good thermal conductivity in such a manner that the heat generating component is closely contact with the base of the case, the case is provided between the pair of air tanks and on the lower side of at least either of the electric motor and the compressor in such a manner as to be oriented downwards so that the base is located at the upper position, and the heat generating component of the inverter control unit is cooled via the case by introducing the air flow generated by the cooling fan along the base of the case. Because of this, the heat generating component is closely contact with the case which has the high thermal conductivity and the large surface area, and the case is cooled by the cooling fan. As a result, the heat generating component of the inverter control unit can be cooled with good efficiency by the cooling fan for cooling the compressor and the electric motor. In addition, since the heat generating component and the other component which make up the inverter control unit can be disposed on the integral inverter substrate, no wiring is necessary between the heat generating component and the other components which make up the inverter control unit, thereby making it possible to decrease the production costs. Furthermore, the electronic circuit board which makes up the inverter control unit is mounted in the case upside down, whereby a state is produced in which the case is allowed to lie over the electronic circuit board, thereby making it possible to eliminate a risk that an insulation failure is caused by dust and dirt which have built up on the circuit board or substrate to thereby cause a malfunction or operation failure. In addition, an insulation failure can also avoided which would results by water such as rain water dropping on to the substrate. In addition, according to the one or more embodiments of the invention, on the base of the case which accommodates therein the inverter substrate, the radiator plate made up of the plurality of cooling fins which run substantially parallel to the rotating shaft of the electric motor is provided on the external surface of at least the portion to which the heat generating component is contact. Furthermore, as a result of this, the cooling of the heat generating component of the inverter control unit by the cooling fan can be performed with good efficiency. Additionally, according to the one or more embodiments of the invention, the radiator plate is mounted in such a manner as to be closely contact with the base of the case. As a result of this, the radiator plate can easily be provided in any position on the base of the case which faces the radiator plate, thereby making it possible to perform the cooling of the heat generating component effectively. Furthermore, according to the one or more embodiments of the invention, the radiator plate is provided on the base of the case in such a manner as to be integrated into the case. As a result of this, the cooling of the radiator plate and the heat generating component via the case can be performed effectively without damaging the thermal conductivity from the case to the radiator plate. Other aspects and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following description and the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 A plan view of an air compressor with a cover removed. FIG. 2 A partially sectional side view of the air compressor shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 3 A front view of the air compressor shown in FIG. 1 with the cover removed. FIG. 4 A perspective view which shows an inverter substrate, a case which accommodates therein the inverter substrate, and a radiator plate. FIG. 5 A perspective view which shows a state in which the case which accommodates the inverter substrate and the cover are assembled on to the air compressor. DESCRIPTION OF REFERENCE NUMERALS 1 air compressor 2 electric motor 3, 4 compressor 5, 6 air tank 9 inverter control unit (inverter control unit) 20, 21 cooling fan (primary fan, secondary fan) 26 inverter module (heat generating component, primary component) 28 inverter substrate 30 case 32 radiator plate 33 cooling fin BEST MODE FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION Hereinafter, an embodiment of the invention will be described by reference to the drawings. Embodiment 1 FIG. 1 shows an interior arrangement of primary constituent elements of an air compressor with a cover removed which is indicated by alternate long and short dash lines. An air compressor 1 includes an electric motor 2 which is driven to rotate by electric power supplied thereto, two compressors 3, 4 which are driven by virtue of the rotation of the electric motor 2 to thereby let in and compress outside air so as to generate compressed air, a pair of air tanks 5, 6 which are each formed into an elongated barrel shape for storing compressed air that is generated by the compressors 3, 4, compressed air outlet portions 7, 8 for reducing the pressure of compressed air stored in the air tanks 5, 6 to a predetermined pressure for supply to a pneumatic tool or the like and an inverter control unit 9 (shown in FIG. 2) for controlling the rotation of the electric motor. The pair of air tanks 5, 6 is disposed so as to be aligned with each at an interval on a plane in such a manner that their longitudinal axes run substantially parallel to each other and are connected to a frame 10 which is welded between the air tanks 5, 6, and the air tanks 5, 6 are made to be placed on a floor or the like by resting legs 11 attached to respective lower surfaces of the air tanks. Furthermore, the electric motor 2 is disposed above the pair of air tanks 5, 6 in such a manner that a rotating shaft of the electric motor 2 runs substantially parallel to the longitudinal axes of the air tanks 5, 6. A crankcase 12 is formed integrally at one end of a motor housing for the electric motor 2, and furthermore, the two compressors 3, 4 are also mounted on the crankcase 12 which are adapted to let in outside air to produce highly pressurized compressed air. These two compressors 3, 4 constitute a two-stage compressor, in which a first-stage compressor 3 and a second-stage compressor 4 are mounted, respectively, on both side surfaces of the crankcase 12 in such a manner as to face each other substantially in a horizontal direction. The first-stage compressor 3 sucks in outside air by way of the interior of the crankcase 12 to compress it to an intermediate pressure and then supply the air so compressed to the second-stage compressor 4 by way of a primary discharge pipe 13. The second-stage compressor 4 compresses the compressed air which was compressed to the intermediate pressure and has now been supplied thereto by way of the primary discharge pipe 13 by the first-stage compressor 3 to a high pressure region and then supplies the compressed air so compressed to one of the air tanks or the air tank 5 by way of a secondary discharge pipe 14. The two air tanks 5, 6 are configured such that interiors thereof are made to communicate with each other via a communication pipe 15, whereby compressed air supplied into the air tank 5 flows through the communication pipe 15 to flow into the other air tank 6, so that pressures inside both the air tanks 5, 6 are maintained at the same pressure. The compressed air outlet portions 7, 8 for letting out compressed air inside the air tanks 5, 6 to pneumatic tools therefrom are provided on the air tanks 5, 6, respectively. The compressed air outlet portions 7, 8 are each made up of a pressure reducing valve 16 for reducing the pressure of the compressed air stored in the respective air tanks 5, 6 to any suitable pressure for use on a pneumatic tool, a secondary air pressure indicator 17 for indicating the pressure of the compressed air whose pressure is reduced by the pressure reducing valve 16 and socket portions 18 each adapted to connect to a plug which is connected to one end of an air hose which is connected to a pneumatic tool or the like at the other end. Note that in this embodiment, two socket portions 18 are formed on each of the compressed air outlet portions 7, 8 so that compressed air can be simultaneously supplied to two tools or the like from the compressed air outlet portions 7, 8, respectively. In addition, a primary pressure indicator 19 is provided on one of the compressed air outlet portions or the compressed air outlet portion 8 for indicating the pressure value of the compressed air stored in the air tanks 5, 6. As is shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, cooling fans 20, 21 are mounted at both ends of the rotating shaft of the electric motor 2, respectively. The cooling fans 20, 21 constitute, respectively, a primary fan 20 which is provided at one end of the rotating shaft and a secondary fan 21 which is provided at the other end of the rotating shaft of the electric motor 2. Cooling air is generated by the cooling fans 20, 21 by virtue of the rotation of the electric motor 2 so as to cool the compressors 3, 4 and the electric motor 2. The cooling fan 20, which is mounted at an end portion the rotating shaft located on one side of the electric motor 2 which projects from an end portion of the crankcase 12 on which the compressors 3, 4 are mounted, is made up of an axial fan and is made to suck outside air into the interior of a cover 22 from openings 23 formed in the cover 22 in such a way for the air to flow along outer circumferential surfaces of the compressors 3, 4 and the motor housing of the electric motor 2, so as to cool the compressors 3, 4 and the electric motor 2 with the cooling air so flowing. In addition, the cooling fan 21, which is mounted at an end portion of the rotating shaft located on the other side of the electric motor 2, is made up of a sirocco fan and is made to suck out the air inside the motor housing from an end portion of the motor housing to discharge it to the outside of the cover 22 via openings 24 formed in the cover 22 to thereby generate an air flow inside the motor housing to cool a winding portion of the electric motor. The electric motor 2 is designed to be controlled to rotate by detecting the rotational position of a rotor of the electric motor 2 by a detection unit such as a Hall element and inverter controlling the supply of electric power to a stator coil of the electric motor 2 based on a detection output from the detection unit. The electric motor 2 is connected to an external power supply via the inverter control unit 9 (a control circuit for the electric motor, an inverter control circuit) and is designed to be controlled to rotate by electric power supplied to the stator coil via the inverter control unit 9. As is shown in FIGS. 2 and 3, the inverter control unit 9 is made up of inverter modules 26 (a heat generating component, a primary component) which are made up, in turn, of semiconductor switching elements for supply electric power to the stator coil of the electric motor 2, circuit components 27 (a secondary component) which are components other than the inverter modules 26 such as capacitors for controlling the inverter modules 26, an inverter substrate 28 on which the inverter modules 26 and the circuit components 27 are mounted and a control substrate 29 which is made up of a component mounted thereon for controlling the inverter substrate 28. Among the components making up the inverter control unit 9, the inverter modules 26 constitute heat generating components which have a largest heat value, and as is shown in FIG. 4, the inverter modules 26 are mounted on a rear surface side of the inverter substrate 28 which constitutes an opposite surface to a surface of the inverter substrate 28 on which the circuit components 27 such as capacitors other than the inverter modules 26 are mounted in such a manner that metallic surfaces which are formed to be exposed on surfaces of the inverter modules 26 are oriented upwards as viewed in the figure. Note that while in this embodiment, the control substrate 29 for controlling the inverter substrate 28 is formed separately from the inverter substrate 28, the control substrate 29 may be configured so as to be integrated with the inverter substrate 28. No winding is necessary between both the substrates 28, 29 by the configuration in which the two substrates are integrated with each other in this way, thereby making is possible to reduce further the production costs. As is shown in FIGS. 2 and 3, a case 30, which is formed of, for example, aluminum having a high thermal conductivity into a box shape for accommodating therein the inverter substrate 28 and the control substrate 29, is mounted in a space between the pair of air tanks 5, 6 in such a manner that an opening is oriented downwards so that a base is located at an upper position. This case 30 is disposed substantially horizontally in the space between the air tanks 5, 6, and cooling air generated by the cooling fans 20, 21 is made to flow along an external surface of the base of the case 30. In addition, the inverter substrate 28, which makes up the inverter control unit 9, is accommodated in the case 30 in such a manner that the surface of the inverter substrate 28 on which the inverter modules 26 are mounted faces the base of the case so that the metallic surfaces formed on the surfaces of the inverter modules 26 are closely contact with the base of the case 30. Furthermore, as is shown in FIGS. 2, 3 and 5, a cover 31 is mounted on a lower side of the inverter substrate 28 so as to protect the lower side of the substrate. As has been described heretofore, since the inverter modules 26, which have the largest heat value among the components making up the inverter control unit 9, are mounted on the rear surface side of the substrate in such a manner that the inverter modules 26 are closely contact with the case 30 which is made of the metal having the high thermal conductivity and which has the wide surface area, the inverter modules 26 can be cooled with good efficiency by cooling air which flows along the external surface of the case 30 having the broad surface area, thereby making it possible to prevent the thermal failure of the inverter modules 26 and the other components. Furthermore, a radiator plate 32 made up of a number of cooling fins 33 which are formed in such a manner as to run substantially parallel to the rotating shaft of the electric motor 2 is mounted on the external surface of the case 30 in such a manner that a rear surface of the radiator plate 32 is closely contact with the external surface of the base of the case, whereby the cooling efficiency of the inverter modules 26 by the cooling air generated by the cooling fans 20, 21 via the case can be increased further. In addition, the inverter modules 26 are mounted on the rear surface side of the inverter substrate 28, and the inverter substrate 28 is accommodated in the case 30 in such a state that the side of the inverter substrate 28 on which the components other than the inverter modules 26 are mounted is oriented downwards, whereby a problem can be prevented that dust or the like which would otherwise intrude into the case 30 from a gap or gaps between the case 30 and the inverter substrate 28 builds up on the substrate and an insulation failure between the components is caused by the dust to cause, in turn, an operation failure or a malfunction. Furthermore, a problem can also be avoided that water such as rain water drops on to the substrate to cause an insulation failure. In addition, since wires which are connected to various connectors, not shown, provided on the substrate are provided in such a manner as to extend towards the substrate from the lower side of the substrate, a problem can be prevented that water is carried along the wires to the various connectors. While in the description of the embodiment, the two compressors 3, 4 are provided on the crankcase which is formed integrally at the one end of the electric motor in such a manner as to face horizontally with each other across the crankcase so as to make up the two-stage compressor for generating compressed air which is compressed to the high pressure region in two stages, the invention is not limited thereto, and hence, the air compressor may be configured into an air compressor in which such compression is carried out in one stage or three or more stages. Furthermore, the arrangement of the compressors 3, 4 is not limited to the horizontally facing arrangement, and hence, an arrangement may be adopted in which a plurality of compressors are arranged in parallel to one another or in a V-shape. In addition, while the inverter modules 26 are described as an example of the heat generating component, the invention is not limited thereto, and hence, the invention can be applied to various types of heat generating components including rectifier diode elements, motor driving power supply modules and the like. While the invention has been described in detail and by reference to the specific embodiment, it is obvious to those skilled in the art that the invention can be changed or modified variously without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. The invention is based on the Japanese Patent Application (No. 2004-381677) filed on Dec. 28, 2004 and the contents thereof are incorporated herein by reference. INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY The air compressor of the invention can cool the heat generating components on the inverter circuit board which makes up the inverter control unit with good efficiency and, furthermore, can realize the reduction of size, weight and production costs of the air compressor.	F	F04	F04B	17	00
11699879	US20070202121A1-20070830	SPAS-1 cancer antigen	ACCEPTED	20070815	20070830		[]	A61K3900	["A61K3900", "C07K200", "C12Q102"]	7704701	20070129	20100427	435	007230	72579.0	HUFF	SHEELA	[{"inventor_name_last": "Allison", "inventor_name_first": "James", "inventor_city": "Berkeley", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Fasso", "inventor_name_first": "Marcella", "inventor_city": "Oakland", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Shastri", "inventor_name_first": "Nilabh", "inventor_city": "Richmond", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]	Compounds and methods for inducing protective immunity against cancer are disclosed. The compounds provided include polypeptides that contain at least one immunogenic portion of one or more SPAS-1 proteins and DNA molecules encoding such polypeptides. Such compounds may be formulated into vaccines and pharmaceutical compositions for immunization against cancer, or can be used for the diagnosis of cancer and the monitoring of cancer progression	1. A composition comprising an immunogenic portion of a human SPAS-1 polypeptide as set forth in SEQ ID NO:34; and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. 2. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein said SPAS-1 is selected from the group consisting of (SEQ ID NO:35) LLADELITV (LV-9); (SEQ ID NO:36) YMADAASEL (YL-9); (SEQ ID NO:37) LLLEGISST (LT-9); (SEQ ID NO:38) FLTPLRNFL (FL-9); and (SEQ ID NO:39) ILSASASAL (IL-9). 3. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein said SPAS-1 polypeptide is complexed to an MHC molecule. 4. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 3, wherein said MHC molecule is present on an antigen presenting cell. 5. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 4, wherein the antigen presenting cell is a dendritic cell or a macrophage. 6. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 3, wherein said MHC molecule is provided as complex with a multivalent binding entity. 7. A method of inducing an immune response, the method comprising: contacting T cells with an immunologically effective dose of the composition of claim 1. 8. The method of claim 7, wherein said T cells are present in an individual. 9. The method according to claim 7, wherein said individual has cancer. 10. The method according to claim 8, wherein the cancer is prostate, breast, cervix, ovary, placenta, colon, brain, lung, kidney, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and germ cell cancer. 11. The method according to claim 9, wherein said cancer is prostatic adenocarcinoma. 12. The method according to claim 7, wherein said T cells are present in an in vitro culture. 13. A method of detecting immune responsiveness to SPAS-1 in an individual, the method comprising: contacting a sample comprising T cells from said individual with a composition of claim 1; quantitating the presence of T cells reactive with said SPAS-1 polypeptide. 14. The method according to claim 13, wherein said quantitating comprising contacting said T cells with detectably labeled MHC complexes, and quantitating the presence of detectable label. 15. The method according to claim 13, wherein said quantitating comprising contacting said T cells with MHC complexes, and quantitating the proliferation of said T cells. 16. The method according to claim 13, wherein said quantitating comprising contacting said T cells with MHC complexes, and quantitating the release of one or more cytokines from said T cells. 17. The method according to claim 13, wherein said individual is a cancer patient. 18. A method for inhibiting the development of a cancer in a patient, comprising administering to a patient an effective amount of at least an immunogenic portion of a SPAS-1 polypeptide, and thereby inhibiting the development of a cancer in the patient. 19. The method according to claim 18, wherein said polypeptide is administered as a complex with an MHC molecule. 20. The method according to claim 19 wherein said MHC molecule is present on an antigen presenting cell. 21. A method for inhibiting the development of a cancer in a patient, comprising administering to a patient an effective amount of a T cell population specific for SPAS-1. 22. The method according to claim 21, wherein said T cells are autologous T cells. 23. The method according to claim 22, wherein said T cells are stimulated ex vivo with a SPAS-1 polypeptide. 24. A method for determining the presence or absence of a cancer in a patient, comprising the steps of: (a) contacting a biological sample obtained from a patient with a binding agent that binds to a SPAS-1 polypeptide; (b) detecting in the sample an amount of polypeptide that binds to the binding agent; and (c) comparing the amount of polypeptide to a predetermined cut-off value, and therefrom determining the presence or absence of a cancer in the patient. 25. The method according to claim 24, wherein the binding agent is an antibody or soluble T cell receptor. 26. The method according to claim 24, wherein said SPAS-1 polypeptide is present as a complex with an MHC molecule.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates generally to therapy and diagnosis of cancer, such as prostate cancer. The invention is more specifically related to polypeptides comprising at least a portion of a SPAS-1 protein, and to polynucleotides encoding such polypeptides. Such polypeptides and polynucleotides can be used in vaccines and pharmaceutical compositions for prevention and treatment of prostate cancer, and for the diagnosis and monitoring of such cancers including but not limited to prostate cancer and other tumors that express this gene. The present invention also relates to methods of identifying and cloning T cell-defined tumor antigens. Cancer is a significant health problem throughout the world. Although advances have been made in detection and therapy of cancer, no vaccine or other universally successful method for prevention or treatment is currently available. Current therapies, which are generally based on a combination of chemotherapy or surgery and radiation, continue to prove inadequate in many patients. In North America, prostate cancer is the most common type of cancer and the second leading cause of death from cancer among men. Metastatic prostate cancer is initially treated by androgen deprivation, which has temporary beneficial effects in over 80% of patients. However, despite a variety of hormonal treatments, all patients ultimately develop hormone refractory prostate cancer (HRPC) with a median survival of approximately one-year. There is a considerable literature demonstrating immunological targets for a few other types of cancer, including notably melanoma. However, there are very few immunological targets for prostate cancer that have been demonstrated in either animal models or in man. Among the few that have been examined, largely on the basis of fairly restricted expression in prostate, are prostate specific antigen (PSA), and prostatic acid phosphase (PAP), and prostate stem cell antigen (PCSA). Although there have been an occasional reports of induction of T cell responses, there have been no documented cases showing strong therapeutic effects of immunization to any of these proteins. Nor have there been any instances of antigens from prostate cancer cells isolated by virtue of their ability to stimulate T cells. It is clearly very desirable to identify additional targets to be used in immunological therapy of prostate cancer, as well as other cancers. A theme that is emerging in immunological studies of both experimental models in mice and in clinical situations is that immune responses to tumor cells are very often reacted against normal unmutated, normal tissue specific antigens. Many experimental strategies for vaccination against tumors have been devised (see Rosenberg, S., 2000, Development of Cancer Vaccines, ASCO EDUCATIONAL BOOK Spring: 60-62; Logothetis, C., 2000, ASCO EDUCATIONAL BOOK SPRING: 300-302; Khayat, D., 2000, ASCO EDUCATIONAL BOOK Spring: 414-428; Foon, K., 2000, ASCO EDUCATIONAL BOOK Spring: 730-738; see also Restifo, N. and Sznol, M., Cancer Vaccines, Ch. 61, pp. 3023-3043 in DeVita, V. et al. (eds.), 1997, CANCER: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF ONCOLOGY, Fifth Edition (Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia, Pa.). In these strategies, a vaccine is prepared using autologous or allogeneic tumor cells. These cellular vaccines have been shown to be most effective when the tumor cells are transduced to express GM-CSF. GM-CSF has been shown to be a potent activator of antigen presentation for tumor vaccination (Dranoff et al., 1993, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci U.S.A. 90: 3539-43). Previous studies have shown that the T cell activation molecule CTLA-4 is an important down regulator of T cells responses (Thompson C. B. and Allison J. P., 1997, Immunity 7:445-50). Further, blockade of CTLA-4 alone or in combination with a variety of types of vaccines can lead to rejection of both immunogenic as well as tumors considered to be non-immunogenic in experimental tumor models such as mammary carcinoma (Hurwitz et al., 1998, supra) and primary prostate cancer (Hurwitz A. et al., 2000, Cancer Research 60: 2444-8). In these instances, non-immunogenic tumors, such as the B16 melanoma, have been rendered susceptible to destruction by the immune system. One study demonstrated that one could achieve irradication of a murine melanoma B16, an extremely aggressive and non-immunogenic model tumor, by immunizing mice with a vaccine consisting of GM-CSF producing irradiated tumor cells along with CTLA-4 blockade (van Elsas, A et al., 1999, J. Exp. Med. 190:355-66)). Irradication of the tumor was followed development of vitiligo, a progressive depigmentation syndrome often observed in human melanoma patients that undergo spontaneous remission. A peptide was derived from the normal, unmutated trp-2 gene as a major target for the anti-melanoma response. Interestingly, the trp-2 gene has been previously shown to encode a target of T cells regularly detected in human melanoma patients. In spite of considerable research into therapies for these and other cancers, prostate cancer remains difficult to diagnose and treat effectively. Accordingly, there is a need in the art for improved methods for detecting and treating such cancers. The present invention fulfills these needs and further provides other related advantages.	<SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Compositions and methods are provided for the diagnosis and therapy of cancer, such as prostate cancer. In one aspect, the present invention provides polypeptides comprising at least a portion of a SPAS-1 protein, or variants thereof. Polypeptides of interest for diagnosis and therapy include fragments of the SPAS-1 protein, e.g. the human SPAS-1 protein. Such polypeptides may be fragments of from about 7 amino acids in length to about 20 amino acids in length, including, without limitation the polypeptides (SEQ ID NO:35) LLADELITV (LV-9); (SEQ ID NO:36) YMADMSEL (YL-9); (SEQ ID NO:37) LLLEGISST (LT-9); (SEQ ID NO:38) FLTPLRNFL (FL-9); and (SEQ ID NO:39) ILSASASAL (IL-9). For use in diagnosis or therapy, the peptides may be provided as a stable MHC complex. Alternatively, antibodies specific for the SPAS-1 peptide MHC complex, for the SPAS-1 polypeptide or soluble T cell receptors (TCR) specific for the SPAS-1 peptide MHC complex may find use. Such an antibody, peptide, soluble TCR or SPAS-1 peptide MHC complex may be used in a method of determining whether an individual has mounted an immune response against the SPAS-1 antigen, for example by quantitating the presence of T cells immunoreactive with the polypeptide of interest in a patient sample, e.g. a prostate cancer patient sample from blood, lymph, etc. Patient samples may also be evaluated for the expression of SPAS-1 in putative cancer cells, for example by analyzing a sample of such cells for the presence of SPAS-1 encoding mRNA, the presence of SPAS-1 polypeptides, and the like. In such diagnostic methods, the presence of SPAS-1 reactive T cells, mRNA or polypeptide may be compared to a control sample. Such peptides also find use in therapeutic formations, e.g. by administration of an immunologically effective dose of the SPAS-1 polypeptide to an individual. Within further aspects, the present invention provides methods for inhibiting the development of a cancer in a patient, comprising administering to a patient a pharmaceutical composition or vaccine as described herein, comprising an immunogenic portion of a SPAS-1 polypeptide. The patient can be afflicted a cancer, for example prostate cancer, in which case the methods provide treatment for the disease, or a patient considered at risk for such a disease can be treated prophylactically. The present invention further provides an isolated SPAS-1 polynucleotide, wherein said polynucleotide may include (a) a polynucleotide that has the sequence as shown in FIG. 1 ; or (b) a polynucleotide that hybridizes under stringent hybridization conditions to (a) and encodes a polypeptide having the sequence as shown in FIG. 1 or an allelic variant or homologue of a polypeptide having the sequence shown in FIG. 1 ; or (c) a polynucleotide that hybridizes under stringent hybridization conditions to (a) and encodes a polypeptide with at 15 contiguous residues of the polypeptide shown in FIG. 1 ; or (d) a polynucleotide that hybridizes under stringent hybridization conditions to (a) and has at least 15 contiguous bases identical to or exactly complementary the sequence shown in FIG. 1 . Also included are expression vectors comprising such polynucleotides and host cells transformed or transfected with such expression vectors. Within other aspects, the present invention provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising SPAS-1 polypeptides or polynucleotides as described herein, and a physiologically acceptable carrier. Within a related aspect of the present invention, vaccines are provided. Such vaccines include, without limitation, a SPAS-1 polypeptide or polynucleotide as described herein and a non-specific immune response enhancer. The SPAS-1 polypeptide may be complexed with an MHC antigen, presented on a cell, including antigen presenting cells, patient cells genetically modified to overexpress SPAS-1; bacterial cells genetically modified to overexpress SPAS-1; viral particles comprising SPAS-1 polypeptides, and the like The present invention further provides pharmaceutical compositions that comprise: a soluble T cell receptor, an antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof that specifically binds to SPAS-1 or to SPAS-1/MHC complex; and a physiologically acceptable carrier. Within further aspects, the present invention provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising: an antigen presenting cell that expresses a SPAS-1 polypeptide as described above and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient. Antigen presenting cells include dendritic cells, macrophages and B cells. The present invention further provides, within other aspects, methods for removing tumor cells from a biological sample, comprising contacting a biological sample with T cells that specifically react with a SPAS-1 protein or SPAS-1 human homolog protein, wherein the step of contacting is performed under conditions and for a time sufficient to permit the removal of cells expressing the protein from the sample. Methods are further provided, within other aspects, for stimulating and expanding T cells specific for a SPAS-1 protein or SPAS-1 human homolog, comprising contacting T cells with one or more of. (i) a polypeptide as described above; (ii) a polynucleotide encoding such a polypeptide; and/or (iii) an antigen presenting cell that expresses such a polypeptide; under conditions and for a time sufficient to permit the stimulation and expansion of T cells. Isolated T cell populations comprising T cells prepared as described above are also provided. Within further aspects, the present invention provides methods for inhibiting the development of a cancer in a patient, comprising administering to a patient an effective amount of a T cell population as described above. The present invention further provides methods for inhibiting the development of a cancer in a patient, comprising the steps of. (a) incubating CD4 + and/or CD8 + T cells isolated from a patient with one or more of: (i) a polypeptide comprising at least an immunogenic portion of a SPAS-1 human homolog protein; (ii) a polynucleotide encoding such a polypeptide; and (iii) an antigen-presenting cell that expresses such a polypeptide; and (b) administering to the patient an effective amount of the proliferated T cells, and thereby inhibiting the development of a cancer in the patient. Proliferated cells can, but need not, be cloned prior to administration to the patient. The present invention also provides, within other aspects, methods for monitoring the progression of a cancer in a patient. Such methods comprise the steps of: (a) contacting a biological sample obtained from a patient at a first point in time with a binding agent that binds to a SPAS-1 human homolog polypeptide as recited above; (b) detecting in the sample an amount of polypeptide that binds to the binding agent; (c) repeating steps (a) and (b) using a biological sample obtained from the patient at a subsequent point in time; and (d) comparing the amount of polypeptide detected in step (c) with the amount detected in step (b) and therefrom monitoring the progression of the cancer in the patient. The present invention further provides, within other aspects, methods for determining the presence or absence of a cancer in a patient, comprising the steps of: (a) contacting a biological sample obtained from a patient with an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a polynucleotide that encodes a SPAS-1 human homolog protein; (b) detecting in the sample a level of a polynucleotide, preferably mRNA, that hybridizes to the oligonucleotide; and (c) comparing the level of polynucleotide that hybridizes to the oligonucleotide with a predetermined cut-off value, and therefrom determining the presence or absence of a cancer in the patient. Within certain embodiments, the amount of mRNA is detected via polymerase chain reaction using, for example, at least one oligonucleotide primer that hybridizes to a polynucleotide encoding a polypeptide as recited above, or a complement of such a polynucleotide. Within other embodiments, the amount of mRNA is detected using a hybridization technique, employing an oligonucleotide probe that hybridizes to a polynucleotide that encodes a polypeptide as recited above, or a complement of such a polynucleotide. In related aspects, methods are provided for monitoring the progression of a cancer in a patient, comprising the steps of: (a) contacting a biological sample obtained from a patient with an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a polynucleotide that encodes a SPAS-1 human homolog protein; (b) detecting in the sample an amount of a polynucleotide that hybridizes to the oligonucleotide; (c) repeating steps (a) and (b) using a biological sample obtained from the patient at a subsequent point in time; and (d) comparing the amount of polynucleotide detected in step (c) with the amount detected in step (b) and therefrom monitoring the progression of the cancer in the patient. Within further aspects, the present invention provides antibodies, such as monoclonal antibodies, that bind to a polypeptide as described above, as well as diagnostic kits comprising such antibodies. Diagnostic kits comprising one or more oligonucleotide probes or primers as described above are also provided.	CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/952,432, filed Sep. 13, 2001, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/234,472, filed Sep. 21, 2000, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein in their entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to therapy and diagnosis of cancer, such as prostate cancer. The invention is more specifically related to polypeptides comprising at least a portion of a SPAS-1 protein, and to polynucleotides encoding such polypeptides. Such polypeptides and polynucleotides can be used in vaccines and pharmaceutical compositions for prevention and treatment of prostate cancer, and for the diagnosis and monitoring of such cancers including but not limited to prostate cancer and other tumors that express this gene. The present invention also relates to methods of identifying and cloning T cell-defined tumor antigens. Cancer is a significant health problem throughout the world. Although advances have been made in detection and therapy of cancer, no vaccine or other universally successful method for prevention or treatment is currently available. Current therapies, which are generally based on a combination of chemotherapy or surgery and radiation, continue to prove inadequate in many patients. In North America, prostate cancer is the most common type of cancer and the second leading cause of death from cancer among men. Metastatic prostate cancer is initially treated by androgen deprivation, which has temporary beneficial effects in over 80% of patients. However, despite a variety of hormonal treatments, all patients ultimately develop hormone refractory prostate cancer (HRPC) with a median survival of approximately one-year. There is a considerable literature demonstrating immunological targets for a few other types of cancer, including notably melanoma. However, there are very few immunological targets for prostate cancer that have been demonstrated in either animal models or in man. Among the few that have been examined, largely on the basis of fairly restricted expression in prostate, are prostate specific antigen (PSA), and prostatic acid phosphase (PAP), and prostate stem cell antigen (PCSA). Although there have been an occasional reports of induction of T cell responses, there have been no documented cases showing strong therapeutic effects of immunization to any of these proteins. Nor have there been any instances of antigens from prostate cancer cells isolated by virtue of their ability to stimulate T cells. It is clearly very desirable to identify additional targets to be used in immunological therapy of prostate cancer, as well as other cancers. A theme that is emerging in immunological studies of both experimental models in mice and in clinical situations is that immune responses to tumor cells are very often reacted against normal unmutated, normal tissue specific antigens. Many experimental strategies for vaccination against tumors have been devised (see Rosenberg, S., 2000, Development of Cancer Vaccines, ASCO EDUCATIONAL BOOK Spring: 60-62; Logothetis, C., 2000, ASCO EDUCATIONAL BOOK SPRING: 300-302; Khayat, D., 2000, ASCO EDUCATIONAL BOOK Spring: 414-428; Foon, K., 2000, ASCO EDUCATIONAL BOOK Spring: 730-738; see also Restifo, N. and Sznol, M., Cancer Vaccines, Ch. 61, pp. 3023-3043 in DeVita, V. et al. (eds.), 1997, CANCER: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF ONCOLOGY, Fifth Edition (Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia, Pa.). In these strategies, a vaccine is prepared using autologous or allogeneic tumor cells. These cellular vaccines have been shown to be most effective when the tumor cells are transduced to express GM-CSF. GM-CSF has been shown to be a potent activator of antigen presentation for tumor vaccination (Dranoff et al., 1993, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci U.S.A. 90: 3539-43). Previous studies have shown that the T cell activation molecule CTLA-4 is an important down regulator of T cells responses (Thompson C. B. and Allison J. P., 1997, Immunity 7:445-50). Further, blockade of CTLA-4 alone or in combination with a variety of types of vaccines can lead to rejection of both immunogenic as well as tumors considered to be non-immunogenic in experimental tumor models such as mammary carcinoma (Hurwitz et al., 1998, supra) and primary prostate cancer (Hurwitz A. et al., 2000, Cancer Research 60: 2444-8). In these instances, non-immunogenic tumors, such as the B16 melanoma, have been rendered susceptible to destruction by the immune system. One study demonstrated that one could achieve irradication of a murine melanoma B16, an extremely aggressive and non-immunogenic model tumor, by immunizing mice with a vaccine consisting of GM-CSF producing irradiated tumor cells along with CTLA-4 blockade (van Elsas, A et al., 1999, J. Exp. Med. 190:355-66)). Irradication of the tumor was followed development of vitiligo, a progressive depigmentation syndrome often observed in human melanoma patients that undergo spontaneous remission. A peptide was derived from the normal, unmutated trp-2 gene as a major target for the anti-melanoma response. Interestingly, the trp-2 gene has been previously shown to encode a target of T cells regularly detected in human melanoma patients. In spite of considerable research into therapies for these and other cancers, prostate cancer remains difficult to diagnose and treat effectively. Accordingly, there is a need in the art for improved methods for detecting and treating such cancers. The present invention fulfills these needs and further provides other related advantages. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Compositions and methods are provided for the diagnosis and therapy of cancer, such as prostate cancer. In one aspect, the present invention provides polypeptides comprising at least a portion of a SPAS-1 protein, or variants thereof. Polypeptides of interest for diagnosis and therapy include fragments of the SPAS-1 protein, e.g. the human SPAS-1 protein. Such polypeptides may be fragments of from about 7 amino acids in length to about 20 amino acids in length, including, without limitation the polypeptides (SEQ ID NO:35) LLADELITV (LV-9); (SEQ ID NO:36) YMADMSEL (YL-9); (SEQ ID NO:37) LLLEGISST (LT-9); (SEQ ID NO:38) FLTPLRNFL (FL-9); and (SEQ ID NO:39) ILSASASAL (IL-9). For use in diagnosis or therapy, the peptides may be provided as a stable MHC complex. Alternatively, antibodies specific for the SPAS-1 peptide MHC complex, for the SPAS-1 polypeptide or soluble T cell receptors (TCR) specific for the SPAS-1 peptide MHC complex may find use. Such an antibody, peptide, soluble TCR or SPAS-1 peptide MHC complex may be used in a method of determining whether an individual has mounted an immune response against the SPAS-1 antigen, for example by quantitating the presence of T cells immunoreactive with the polypeptide of interest in a patient sample, e.g. a prostate cancer patient sample from blood, lymph, etc. Patient samples may also be evaluated for the expression of SPAS-1 in putative cancer cells, for example by analyzing a sample of such cells for the presence of SPAS-1 encoding mRNA, the presence of SPAS-1 polypeptides, and the like. In such diagnostic methods, the presence of SPAS-1 reactive T cells, mRNA or polypeptide may be compared to a control sample. Such peptides also find use in therapeutic formations, e.g. by administration of an immunologically effective dose of the SPAS-1 polypeptide to an individual. Within further aspects, the present invention provides methods for inhibiting the development of a cancer in a patient, comprising administering to a patient a pharmaceutical composition or vaccine as described herein, comprising an immunogenic portion of a SPAS-1 polypeptide. The patient can be afflicted a cancer, for example prostate cancer, in which case the methods provide treatment for the disease, or a patient considered at risk for such a disease can be treated prophylactically. The present invention further provides an isolated SPAS-1 polynucleotide, wherein said polynucleotide may include (a) a polynucleotide that has the sequence as shown in FIG. 1; or (b) a polynucleotide that hybridizes under stringent hybridization conditions to (a) and encodes a polypeptide having the sequence as shown in FIG. 1 or an allelic variant or homologue of a polypeptide having the sequence shown in FIG. 1; or (c) a polynucleotide that hybridizes under stringent hybridization conditions to (a) and encodes a polypeptide with at 15 contiguous residues of the polypeptide shown in FIG. 1; or (d) a polynucleotide that hybridizes under stringent hybridization conditions to (a) and has at least 15 contiguous bases identical to or exactly complementary the sequence shown in FIG. 1. Also included are expression vectors comprising such polynucleotides and host cells transformed or transfected with such expression vectors. Within other aspects, the present invention provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising SPAS-1 polypeptides or polynucleotides as described herein, and a physiologically acceptable carrier. Within a related aspect of the present invention, vaccines are provided. Such vaccines include, without limitation, a SPAS-1 polypeptide or polynucleotide as described herein and a non-specific immune response enhancer. The SPAS-1 polypeptide may be complexed with an MHC antigen, presented on a cell, including antigen presenting cells, patient cells genetically modified to overexpress SPAS-1; bacterial cells genetically modified to overexpress SPAS-1; viral particles comprising SPAS-1 polypeptides, and the like The present invention further provides pharmaceutical compositions that comprise: a soluble T cell receptor, an antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof that specifically binds to SPAS-1 or to SPAS-1/MHC complex; and a physiologically acceptable carrier. Within further aspects, the present invention provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising: an antigen presenting cell that expresses a SPAS-1 polypeptide as described above and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient. Antigen presenting cells include dendritic cells, macrophages and B cells. The present invention further provides, within other aspects, methods for removing tumor cells from a biological sample, comprising contacting a biological sample with T cells that specifically react with a SPAS-1 protein or SPAS-1 human homolog protein, wherein the step of contacting is performed under conditions and for a time sufficient to permit the removal of cells expressing the protein from the sample. Methods are further provided, within other aspects, for stimulating and expanding T cells specific for a SPAS-1 protein or SPAS-1 human homolog, comprising contacting T cells with one or more of. (i) a polypeptide as described above; (ii) a polynucleotide encoding such a polypeptide; and/or (iii) an antigen presenting cell that expresses such a polypeptide; under conditions and for a time sufficient to permit the stimulation and expansion of T cells. Isolated T cell populations comprising T cells prepared as described above are also provided. Within further aspects, the present invention provides methods for inhibiting the development of a cancer in a patient, comprising administering to a patient an effective amount of a T cell population as described above. The present invention further provides methods for inhibiting the development of a cancer in a patient, comprising the steps of. (a) incubating CD4+ and/or CD8+ T cells isolated from a patient with one or more of: (i) a polypeptide comprising at least an immunogenic portion of a SPAS-1 human homolog protein; (ii) a polynucleotide encoding such a polypeptide; and (iii) an antigen-presenting cell that expresses such a polypeptide; and (b) administering to the patient an effective amount of the proliferated T cells, and thereby inhibiting the development of a cancer in the patient. Proliferated cells can, but need not, be cloned prior to administration to the patient. The present invention also provides, within other aspects, methods for monitoring the progression of a cancer in a patient. Such methods comprise the steps of: (a) contacting a biological sample obtained from a patient at a first point in time with a binding agent that binds to a SPAS-1 human homolog polypeptide as recited above; (b) detecting in the sample an amount of polypeptide that binds to the binding agent; (c) repeating steps (a) and (b) using a biological sample obtained from the patient at a subsequent point in time; and (d) comparing the amount of polypeptide detected in step (c) with the amount detected in step (b) and therefrom monitoring the progression of the cancer in the patient. The present invention further provides, within other aspects, methods for determining the presence or absence of a cancer in a patient, comprising the steps of: (a) contacting a biological sample obtained from a patient with an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a polynucleotide that encodes a SPAS-1 human homolog protein; (b) detecting in the sample a level of a polynucleotide, preferably mRNA, that hybridizes to the oligonucleotide; and (c) comparing the level of polynucleotide that hybridizes to the oligonucleotide with a predetermined cut-off value, and therefrom determining the presence or absence of a cancer in the patient. Within certain embodiments, the amount of mRNA is detected via polymerase chain reaction using, for example, at least one oligonucleotide primer that hybridizes to a polynucleotide encoding a polypeptide as recited above, or a complement of such a polynucleotide. Within other embodiments, the amount of mRNA is detected using a hybridization technique, employing an oligonucleotide probe that hybridizes to a polynucleotide that encodes a polypeptide as recited above, or a complement of such a polynucleotide. In related aspects, methods are provided for monitoring the progression of a cancer in a patient, comprising the steps of: (a) contacting a biological sample obtained from a patient with an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a polynucleotide that encodes a SPAS-1 human homolog protein; (b) detecting in the sample an amount of a polynucleotide that hybridizes to the oligonucleotide; (c) repeating steps (a) and (b) using a biological sample obtained from the patient at a subsequent point in time; and (d) comparing the amount of polynucleotide detected in step (c) with the amount detected in step (b) and therefrom monitoring the progression of the cancer in the patient. Within further aspects, the present invention provides antibodies, such as monoclonal antibodies, that bind to a polypeptide as described above, as well as diagnostic kits comprising such antibodies. Diagnostic kits comprising one or more oligonucleotide probes or primers as described above are also provided. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1. Preliminary SPAS-1 cDNA sequence (A-C). (A) Partial nucleotide and predicted amino acid sequence encoding SPAS-1. The first six nucleotides shown are part of the vector DNA. (B) Nucleotide alignment of the SPAS-1 as shown in FIG. 1A with its human homolog (Accession No. 9910351). The coding region of the partial SPAS-1 cDNA (nucleotides 1-465) was aligned to the DNA segment (nucleotides 783-1245) of the human homolog (Accession No. 9910351) using the Clustal W software (MacVector, Oxford Molecular, Ltd.). The alignment revealed 89% identities at the nucleotide level between SPAS-1 and its human homolog. (C) The translated SPAS-1 cDNA (amino acids 1-155) was aligned to the translated DNA of the human homolog (amino acids 261-415) using the Clustal W software. The alignment revealed 94% identities and 2% similarities at the amino acid level between SPAS-1 and its human homolog. Nucleotide and predicted amino acid sequence of SPAS-1 (D-G); (D) Nucleotide sequence with corresponding predicted amino acid sequence of the full length SPAS-1 cDNA from TRAMP-C2 tumor cells. Nucleotide 6 of the partial sequence (FIG. 1A) corresponds to nucleotide 727 of the fall length SPAS-1 cDNA. This cDNA is also referred to as Tumor SPAS-1 or SPAS-1 (T). The DNA region of SPAS-1 (T) that contains the antigenic epitope capable of activating TRAMP-specific murine T cells is highlighted. (E) Nucleotide sequence with corresponding predicted amino acid sequence of the full length SPAS-1 cDNA from TRAMP-C-2 tumor cells referred to as Normal SPAS-1 or SPAS-1 (N). (F) Nucleotide alignment of SPAS-1 (T) with SPAS-1 (N). (G) Nucleotide alignment of the full length mouse SPAS-1 (T) with its human homolog (Accession No. 9910351). FIG. 2. Generation of anti-TRAMP T cell lines. FIG. 3. The anti-TRAMP T cell line is specific for TRAMP tumor. The function and specificity of the T cells were assessed using standard assays for interferon gamma. (IFN) production (A) and cytotoxicity (B) in response to incubation with a panel of syngeneic, C57BL/6 derived tumors of different cellular origins. FIG. 4. The CD8+ T cell Line Recognizes Naturally Processed Tumor Peptides (NPTPs) from TRAMP prostate tumor but not thymoma cells. FIG. 5. The CD8+ T cell line recognizes three different TRAMP-derived cell lines. FIG. 6. Adoptive transfer of TRAMP-C2-specific CTLs into mice delays ectopic tumor growth. FIG. 7. Schematic for production of T cell hybridomas from the CD8+ T cell line. FIG. 8. The BTZ Hybridomas retain specificity for TRAMP tumors. FIG. 9. Determination of MHC-Restriction of the T cell hybridomas. FIG. 10. HPLC analysis indicates that the hybridomas were reactive with a single peptide peak. FIG. 11. Scheme for expression cloning of the TRAMP antigen. FIG. 12. Isolation of the cDNA clone that encodes for the TRAMP-C2 antigenic peptide. FIG. 13. BTZ5.65 recognizes the ligand encoded by SPAS-1 cDNA only when expressed in context of the relevant MHC class I. FIG. 14. All tested BTZs recognize the ligand encoded by SPAS-1 cDNA in context of Db. FIG. 15. SAGE Tag to gene assignment suggests that SPAS-1 is enriched in a human prostate cancer library. FIG. 16. TRAMP-specific T cells respond to the SPAS-1 peptide (SEQ ID NO:25) STHVNHLHC bound to H-2 Db. FIG. 17. SPAS-1 germline sequence reveals a G to A substitution in the genetic region encoding Residue P8 of the T cell epitope. FIG. 18. H to R substitution in the antigenic peptide results in weak T cell activation. FIG. 19: Prediction of HLA-A2-binding human SPAS-1 peptides: Human SPAS-1 protein regions containing candidate HLA-A2-binding peptides were predicted with the computer algorithms SYFPEITHI, BIMAS and nHLApred. Five peptides (P1 to P5) were synthesized which had high binding scores according to all three algorithms: P1: (SEQ ID NO:35) LLADELITV (LV-9); P2: (SEQ ID NO:36) YMADAASEL (YL-9); P3: (SEQ ID NO:37) LLLEGISST (LT-9); P4: (SEQ ID NO:38) FLTPLRNFL (FL-9); P5: (SEQ ID NO:39) ILSASASAL (IL-9). FIG. 20: T2 assay to determine physical binding of predicted SPAS-1 peptides to HLA-A2: To confirm HLA-A2 binding, the five synthetic peptides were tested in a conventional T2 binding assay. A) T2 assay: due to their TAP deficiency, T2 cells only contain unstable, empty HLA-A2 molecules that do not remain on the cell surface. An HLA-A2 binding peptide will stabilize HLA-A2 cell surface expression, which can then be detected by flow cytometry. B) Four out of the five predicted peptides bound to HLA-A2 as demonstrated by stabilization of surface HLA-A2 expression. Positive controls: Flu peptide and CEA Cap1 peptide; negative control: DMSO. FIG. 21: Strategy for the generation of human cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) specific for candidate human SPAS-1 peptides: In order to determine whether CD8+ T cells specific for human SPAS-1 peptides are present in the periphery of healthy individuals we used an in vitro priming strategy. Briefly, immature Myeloid Dendritic Cells (mDCs) were generated from culturing monocytes isolated from Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells (PBMCs) of a healthy HLA-A2+ donor for 5 days in GM-CSF and IL-4. Upon overnight incubation with CD40 ligand, the mDC were induced to mature as shown by up-regulated cell surface expression of CD80, CD83, CD86 and MHC II (HLA-DR). The mature mDCs were loaded with either of the five candidate T cell epitopes from human SPAS-1 P1 (LV-9); P2 (YL-9); P3 (LT-9); P4 (FL-9); P5 (IL-9), and used to stimulate autologous T cells isolated from the same donor. Five days after first stimulation CD8+ T cells were isolated from the culture and allowed to expand in the presence of 10 U/ml IL-2 and 5 ng/ml IL-7 for another 10 days at which point T cell cultures were assessed for their capacity to produce IFN-γ in response to the corresponding peptide, pulsed onto a HLA-A2 expressing cell line such as A221 or THP-1. FIG. 22: SPAS-1 Derived Epitope P4 (FL-9) is Immunogenic in Humans. Monocyte-derived DC from HLA-A2+ healthy donors were pulsed with each of the five candidate peptides P1 (LV-9); P2 (YL-9); P3 (LT-9); P4 (FL-9); P5 (IL-9) and then incubated separately with autologous PBMC. Following another in vitro restimulation, T cell cultures were assessed for their capacity to produce IFN-γ in response to the corresponding peptide, pulsed onto the HLA-A2 expressing cell line A221. IFN-γ was assessed by ELISA on the cell supernatants in triplicate wells. FIG. 23. Overexpression of human SPAS-1 protein in THP-1 cells infected with the pMGlyt2-huSPAS-1 virus was confirmed by Western Blot analysis. Lane 1: lysate from 50,000 untransduced THP-1 cells. Lane 2: lysate from 50,000 THP-1 cells transduced with pMGlyt2 IRES CD8 empty vector. Lane 3: lysate from 50,000 THP-1 cells transduced with pMGlyt2 huSPAS-1 IRES CD8 vector. Lane 4: lysate from 10,000 cells TRAMP-C2 cells as positive control for SPAS-1 expression. A polyclonal Rabbit anti-huSPAS-1 antibody was used for detection of the 45-50 kDa SPAS-1 protein. As control for loading amounts, the same the same membrane was blotted with an anti-β-Actin antibody. FIG. 24. HuSPAS-1 P4 (FL-9)-specific CD8+ T Cells Recognize Endogenously Processed HuSPAS-1. A) Monocyte-derived DCs from HLA-A2+ healthy donors were pulsed with HuSPAS-1 peptide 4 (FL-9) and then incubated with autologous PBMC. Following another in vitro restimulation, T cell cultures were then assessed for their capacity to produce IFN-γ in response to titrated doses of peptide 4 (FL-9), pulsed onto the HLA-A2 expressing cell line THP-1. IFN-γ was assessed by ELISA on the cell supernatants in triplicate wells. Result: fourteen days after first stimulation these CD8+ T cells specifically produced IFN-γ in response to increasing doses of peptide 4 (FL-9) pulsed onto the HLA-A2 expressing cell line THP-1 but not to increasing doses of irrelevant peptide 1 (LV-9). (100,000 CD8+ T cells/well and 50,000 THP-1 cells/well). B) In order to determine whether these FL-9-specific T cells could also recognize endogenously processed huSPAS-1 peptides, THP-1 cells were stably transduced with either a vector encoding full length human SPAS-1 DNA or with an empty retroviral vector. Responsiveness of the FL-9-reactive CD8+ T cell line was assessed by co-culturing 100,000 CD8+ T cells with titrated numbers of infected THP-1 cells. IFN-γ responses above background were detected only when huSPAS-1 P4-specific T cells were co-cultured in the presence of THP-1 cells overexpressing huSPAS-1 protein, demonstrating that huSPAS-1 peptide 4 (FL-9)-specific CD8+ T cells also recognize endogenously processed huSPAS-1 peptides. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to the isolation, via expression cloning using T cells with specificity for prostatic adenocarcinoma cells, of a cDNA termed “SPAS-1,” that encodes a T cell antigen, as well as identification of the human homolog. The human polynucleotide or polypeptide may be referred to as “SPAS-1” and “SPAS-1 human homolog”. Without intending to be bound to a particular mechanism or limited in any way by type of tumor, the SPAS-1 protein can be used to elicit anti-tumor immune responses that can be exploited in tumor immunotherapy. In another aspect, the present invention provides methods and reagents for detection of SPAS-1 expression, immune responsiveness against SPAS-1, and the presence of SPAS-1-expressing cells. Abnormal immunoreactivity, expression patterns or expression levels are diagnostic the presence of adenocarcinoma, e.g. of prostate adenocarcinoma. As noted above, the present invention is generally directed to compositions and methods for the therapy and diagnosis of cancer, such as prostate cancer. The compositions described herein can include prostate tumor polypeptides, polynucleotides encoding such polypeptides, binding agents such as antibodies, antigen presenting cells (APCs) and/or immune system cells (e.g., T cells). Polypeptides of the present invention generally comprise at least a portion (such as an immunogenic portion) of a SPAS-1 protein or a variant thereof. Certain SPAS-1 proteins are tumor proteins that react detectably (within an immunoassay, such as an ELISA or Western blot) with antisera of a patient afflicted with prostate cancer or other cancers. Polynucleotides of the subject invention generally comprise a DNA or RNA sequence that encodes all or a portion of such a polypeptide, or that is complementary to such a sequence. Antibodies are generally immune system proteins, or antigen-binding fragments thereof, that are capable of binding to a polypeptide as described above. Antigen presenting cells include dendritic cells and macrophages that express a polypeptide as described above. T cells that can be employed within such compositions are generally T cells that are specific for a polypeptide as described above. The present invention is based on the discovery of previously unknown mouse gene product, referred to as SPAS-1, expressed in prostate tumor cells, that elicits T cell responses. Partial and full length sequences of polynucleotides encoding SPAS-1 are provided in FIG. 1. FIG. 1 also shows the full length nucleotide and predicted amino acid sequence of SPAS-1. FIG. 1D shows the nucleotide sequence with corresponding predicted amino acid sequence of the full length SPAS-1 cDNA from TRAMP-C2 tumor cells referred to as Tumor SPAS-1 or SPAS-1 (T). The DNA region of SPAS-1 (T) that contains the antigenic epitope capable of activating TRAMP-specific murine T cells is highlighted in FIG. 1D. FIG. 1E shows the nucleotide sequence with corresponding predicted amino acid sequence of the full length SPAS-1 cDNA from TRAMP-C-2 tumor cells referred to as Normal SPAS-1 or SPAS-1 (N). It was cloned both from TRAMP tumor cells as well as from normal tissues (prostate, liver, heart and lung). SPAS-1 (N) differs from SPAS-1 (T) cDNA by one single nucleotide at position 752 (see. FIG. 1F). Nucleotide alignment of the full length mouse SPAS-1 (T) with its human homolog (Accession No. 9910351) is shown in FIG. 1(G). Mutations in the coding sequence of SPAS-1 or any other gene can have a number of different effects. These effects can include: (1) the generation of new T cell epitopes that might provoke an immune response, and (2) the conferring of oncogenic activity on the gene product. The latter effects could be a result of functional alterations in proteins that regulate, e.g., cell cycle progression and proliferation of the cells, or that play a role in regulating cell death by apoptosis. Changes in function could be either positive or negative and involve acquisition of new activity or loss of normal activity. Examples could include loss of ability to inhibit cell cycle progression or promote cell death, or acquisition of activity that would promote cell cycle progression or that would inhibit cell death. It is possible that mutations that confer oncogenic activity can occur at different positions of the gene in different tumors. In addition, the invention provides SPAS-1 homologs from other species. The human homolog of SPAS-1 is also shown in FIG. 1. Other SPAS-1 homologs of particular interest include monkey, porcine, ovine, bovine, canine, feline, equine and other primate SPAS-1 homolog proteins. The invention also provides naturally occurring alleles of SPAS-1 and SPAS-1 homologs, and SPAS-1 and SPAS-1 homolog variants as described herein, methods for using SPAS-1 and SPAS-1 homolog polynucleotide, polypeptides, antibodies and other reagents. SPAS-1 Polynucleotides Any polynucleotide that encodes a SPAS-1 protein or a portion or other variant thereof as described herein is encompassed by the present invention. Preferred polynucleotides comprise at least 15 consecutive nucleotides, preferably at least 30 consecutive nucleotides and more preferably at least 45 consecutive nucleotides, that encode a portion of a SPAS-1 protein. More preferably, a polynucleotide encodes an immunogenic portion of a SPAS-1 protein. Polynucleotides complementary to any such sequences are also encompassed by the present invention. Polynucleotides can be single-stranded (coding or antisense) or double-stranded, and can be DNA (genomic, cDNA or synthetic) or RNA molecules. RNA molecules include HnRNA molecules, which contain introns and correspond to a DNA molecule in a one-to-one manner, and mRNA molecules, which do not contain introns. Additional coding or non-coding sequences can, but need not, be present within a polynucleotide of the present invention, and a polynucleotide can, but need not, be linked to other molecules and/or support materials. Polynucleotides can comprise a native sequence (i.e., an endogenous sequence that encodes a SPAS-1 protein or a portion thereof) or can comprise a variant of such a sequence. Polynucleotide variants can contain one or more substitutions, additions, deletions and/or insertions such that the immunogenicity of the encoded polypeptide is not diminished, relative to a native tumor protein (discussed below). The effect on the immunogenicity of the encoded polypeptide can generally be assessed as described herein. Variants preferably exhibit at least about 70% identity, more preferably at least about 80% identity and most preferably at least about 90% identity to a polynucleotide sequence that encodes a native SPAS-1 protein or SPAS-1 homolog, or a portion thereof. The SPAS-1 and SPAS-1 homolog variants of the invention can contain alterations in the coding regions, non-coding regions, or both. Especially preferred are polynucleotide variants containing alterations which produce silent substitutions, additions, or deletions, but do not alter the properties or activities of the encoded polypeptide. Nucleotide variants produced by silent substitutions due to the degeneracy of the genetic code are preferred. SPAS-1 polynucleotide variants can be produced for a variety of reasons, e.g., to optimize codon expression for a particular host (change codons in the human mRNA to those preferred by a bacterial host such as E. coli). Exemplary SPAS-1 polynucleotide fragments and SPAS-1 homolog polynucleotide fragments, are preferably at least about 1.5 nucleotides, and more preferably at least about 20 nucleotides, still more preferably at least about 30 nucleotides, and even more preferably, at least about 40 nucleotides in length, or larger 50, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650 nucleotides. In this context “about” includes the particularly recited ranges, larger or smaller by several (5, 4, 3, 2, or 1) nucleotides, at either terminus or at both termini. Preferably, these fragments encode a polypeptide which has biological activity. More preferably, these polynucleotides can be used as probes or primers as discussed herein. The term sequence identity refers to a measure of similarity between amino acid or nucleotide sequences, and can be measured using methods known in the art, such as those described below. The terms “identical” or “percent identity”, in the context of two or more nucleic acids or polypeptide sequences, refer to two or more sequences or subsequences that are the same or have a specified percentage of amino acid residues or nucleotides that are the same (i.e., 60% identity, preferably 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, or 95% identity over a specified region (see, e.g., SEQ ID NO: 1), when compared and aligned for maximum correspondence over a comparison window, or designated region as measured using one of the following sequence comparison algorithms or by manual alignment and visual inspection. The phrase “substantially identical,” in the context of two nucleic acids or polypeptides, refers to two or more sequences or subsequences that have at least of at least 60%, often at least 70%, preferably at least 80%, most preferably at least 90% or at least 95% nucleotide or amino acid residue identity, when compared and aligned for maximum correspondence, as measured using one of the following sequence comparison algorithms or by visual inspection. Preferably, the substantial identity exists over a region of the sequences that is at least about 50 bases or residues in length, more preferably over a region of at least about 100 bases or residues, and most preferably the sequences are substantially identical over at least about 150 bases or residues. In a most preferred embodiment, the sequences are substantially identical over the entire length of the coding regions. The percent identity for two polynucleotide or polypeptide sequences can be readily determined by comparing sequences using computer algorithms well known to those of ordinary skill in the art, such as Megalign, using default parameters. For sequence comparison, typically one sequence acts as a reference sequence, to which test sequences are compared. When using a sequence comparison algorithm, test and reference sequences are entered into a computer, subsequence coordinates are designated, if necessary, and sequence algorithm program parameters are designated. Default program parameters can be used, or alternative parameters can be designated. The sequence comparison algorithm then calculates the percent sequence identities for the test sequences relative to the reference sequence, based on the program parameters. For sequence comparison of nucleic acids and proteins to SPAS-1 nucleic acids and proteins, the BLAST and BLAST 2.0 algorithms and the default parameters discussed below are used. A “comparison window”, as used herein, includes reference to a segment of any one of the number of contiguous positions selected from the group consisting of from 20 to 600, usually about 50 to about 200, more usually about 100 to about 150 in which a sequence may be compared to a reference sequence of the same number of contiguous positions after the two sequences are optimally aligned. Methods of alignment of sequences for comparison are well-known in the art. Optimal alignment of sequences for comparison can be conducted, e.g., by the local homology algorithm of Smith & Waterman, 1981, Adv. Appl. Math. 2: 482), by the homology alignment algorithm of Needleman & 1; 5; Wunsch, 1970, J. Mol. Biol. 48: 443, by the search for similarity method of Pearson & Lipman, 1988, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 85: 2444, by computerized implementations of these algorithms (FASTDB (Intelligenetics), BLAST (National Center for Biomedical Information), GAP, BESTFIT, FASTA, and TFASTA in the Wisconsin Genetics Software Package, Genetics Computer Group, 575 Science Dr., Madison, Wis.), or by manual alignment and visual inspection (see, e.g., Ausubel et al., 1987 (1999 Suppl.), CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY, Greene Publishing Associates and Wiley Interscience, N.Y.) A preferred example of algorithm that is suitable for determining percent sequence identity and sequence similarity are the BLAST and BLAST 2.0 algorithms, which are described in Altschul et al., 1977, Nuc. Acids Res. 25: 3389-3402 and Altschul et al., 1990, J. Mol. Biol. 215: 403-410, respectively. BLAST and BLAST 2.0 are used, with the parameters described herein, to determine percent sequence identity for the nucleic acids and proteins of the invention. Software for performing BLAST analyses is publicly available through the National Center for Biotechnology Information. This algorithm involves first identifying high scoring sequence pairs (HSPs) by identifying short words of length W in the query sequence, which either match or satisfy some positive-valued threshold score T when aligned with a word of the same length in a database sequence. T is referred to as the neighborhood word score threshold (Altschul et al., supra). These initial neighborhood word hits act as seeds for initiating searches to find longer HSPs containing them. The word hits are extended in both directions along each sequence for as far as the cumulative alignment score can be increased. Cumulative scores are calculated using, for nucleotide sequences, the parameters M (reward score for a pair of matching residues; always >0) and N (penalty score for mismatching residues; always <0). For amino acid sequences, a scoring matrix is used to calculate the cumulative score. Extension of the word hits in each direction are halted when: the cumulative alignment score falls off by the quantity X from its maximum achieved value; the cumulative score goes to zero or below, due to the accumulation of one or more negative-scoring residue alignments; or the end of either sequence is reached. The BLAST algorithm parameters W, T, and X determine the sensitivity and speed of the alignment. The BLASTN program (for nucleotide sequences) uses as defaults a wordlength (W) of 11, an expectation (E) of 10, M=5, N=−4 and a comparison of both strands. For amino acid sequences, the BLASTP program uses as defaults a wordlength of 3, and expectation (E) of 10, and the BLOSUM62 scoring matrix (see Henikoff & Henikoff, 1989, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 89:10915) alignments (B) of 50, expectation (E) of 10, M=5, N=−4, and a comparison of both strands. The BLAST algorithm also performs a statistical analysis of the similarity between two sequences (see, e.g., Karlin & Altschul, 1993, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sc. U.S.A. 90: 5873-5787). One measure of similarity provided by the BLAST algorithm is the smallest sum probability (P(N)), which provides an indication of the probability by which a match between two nucleotide or amino acid sequences would occur by chance. For example, a nucleic acid is considered similar to a reference sequence if the smallest sum probability in a comparison of the test nucleic acid to the reference nucleic acid is less than about 0.2, more preferably less than about 0.01, and most preferably less than about 0.001. Another example of a useful algorithm is PILEUP. PILEUP creates a multiple sequence alignment from a group of related sequences using progressive, pairwise alignments to show relationship and percent sequence identity. It also plots a tree or dendogram showing the clustering relationships used to create the alignment. PILEUP uses a simplification of the progressive alignment method of Feng & Doolittle, 1987, J. Mol. Evol. 35: 351-360. The method used is similar to the method described by Higgins & Sharp, 1989, CABIOS 5: 151-153. The program can align up to 300 sequences, each of a maximum length of 5,000 nucleotides or amino acids. The multiple alignment procedure begins with the pairwise alignment of the two most similar sequences, producing a cluster of two aligned sequences. This cluster is then aligned to the next most related sequence or cluster of aligned sequences. Two clusters of sequences are aligned by a simple extension of the pairwise alignment of two individual sequences. The final alignment is achieved by a series of progressive, pairwise alignments. The program is run by designating specific sequences and their amino acid or nucleotide coordinates for regions of sequence comparison and by designating the program parameters. Using PILEUP, a reference sequence is compared to other test sequences to determine the percent sequence identity relationship using the following parameters: default gap weight (3.00), default gap length weight (0.10), and weighted end gaps. PILEUP can be obtained from the GCG sequence analysis software package, e.g., version 7.0 (Devereaux et al., 1984, Nuc. Acids Res. 12: 387-395. Another preferred example of an algorithm that is suitable for multiple DNA and amino acid sequence alignments is the CLUSTALW program (Thompson, J. D. et al., 1994, Nucl. Acids. Res. 22: 4673-4680). ClustalW performs multiple pairwise comparisons between groups of sequences and assembles them into a multiple alignment based on homology. Gap open and Gap extension penalties were 10 and 0.05 respectively. For amino acid alignments, the BLOSUM algorithm can be used as a protein weight matrix (Henikoff and Henikoff, 1992, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 89:10915-10919). Variants can also, or alternatively, be substantially homologous to a native gene, or a portion or complement thereof. Such polynucleotide variants are capable of hybridizing under stringent hybridization conditions to a naturally occurring DNA sequence encoding a native SPAS-1 protein (or a complementary sequence). The phrase “stringent hybridization conditions” refers to conditions under which a probe will hybridize, to its target subsequence, typically in a complex mixture of nucleic acid, but not to other sequences. Stringent conditions are sequence-dependent and will be different in different circumstances. Longer sequences hybridize specifically at higher temperatures. An extensive guide to the hybridization of nucleic acids is found in Tijssen, TECHNIQUES IN BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY—HYBRIDIZATION WITH NUCLEIC PROBES, “Overview of principles of hybridization and the strategy of nucleic acid assays” (Elsevier, N.Y. 1993). Generally, stringent conditions are selected to be about 5-10° C. lower than the thermal melting point (Tm) for the specific sequence at a defined ionic strength pH. The Tm is the temperature (under defined ionic strength, pH, and nucleic concentration) at which 50% of the probes complementary to the target hybridize to the target sequence at equilibrium (as the target sequences are present in excess, at Tm, 50% of the probes are occupied at equilibrium). Stringent conditions will be those in which the salt concentration is less than about 1.0 M sodium ion, typically about 0.01 to 1.0 M sodium ion concentration (or other salts) at pH 7.0 to 8.3 and the temperature is at least about 30° C. for short probes (e.g., 10 to 50 nucleotides) and at least about 60° C. for long probes (e.g, greater than 50 nucleotides). Stringent conditions may also be achieved with the addition of destabilizing agents such as formamide. For high stringency hybridization, a positive signal is at least two times background, preferably 10 times background hybridization. Exemplary high stringency or stringent hybridization conditions include: 50% formamide, 5×SSC and 1% SDS incubated at 42° C. or 5×SSC and 1% SDS incubated at 65° C., with a wash in 0.2×SSC and 0.1% SDS at 65° C. An extensive guide to the hybridization of nucleic acids is found in e.g., Sambrook, ed., MOLECULAR CLONING: A LABORATORY MANUAL (2ND EDITION), Vols. 1-3, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, (1989); CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY, Ausubel, ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1997); LABORATORY TECHNIQUES IN BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY: HYBRIDIZATION WITH NUCLEIC ACID PROBES, PART I. Theory and Nucleic Acid Preparation, Tijssen, ed. (Elsevier, N.Y. 1993). For selective or specific hybridization, a positive signal (e.g., identification of a nucleic acid of the invention) is about 10 times background hybridization. “Stringent” hybridization conditions that are used to identify nucleic acids within the scope of the invention include, e.g., hybridization in a buffer comprising 50% formamide, 5×SSC, and 1% SDS at 42° C., or hybridization in a buffer comprising 5×SSC and 1% SDS at 65° C., both with a wash of 0.2×SSC and 0.1% SDS at 65° C. In the present invention, genomic DNA or cDNA comprising nucleic acids of the invention can be identified in standard Southern blots under stringent conditions using the nucleic acid sequences disclosed here. Additional stringent conditions for such hybridizations (to identify nucleic acids within the scope of the invention) are those which include a hybridization in a buffer of 40% formamide, 1 M NaCl, 1% SDS at 37° C. However, the selection of a hybridization format is not critical—it is the stringency of the wash conditions that set forth the conditions which determine whether a nucleic acid is within the scope of the invention. Wash conditions used to identify nucleic acids within the scope of the invention include, e.g.: a salt concentration of about 0.02 molar at pH 7 and a temperature of at least about 50° C. or about 55° C. to about 60° C.; or, a salt concentration of about 0.15 M NaCl at 72° C. for about 15 minutes; or, a salt concentration of about 0.2×SSC at a temperature of at least about 50° C. or about 55° C. to about 60° C. for about 15 to about 20 minutes; or, the hybridization complex is washed twice with a solution with a salt concentration of about 2×SSC containing 0.1% SDS at room temperature for 15 minutes and then washed twice by 0.1×SSC containing 0.1% SDS at 68° C. for 15 minutes; or, equivalent conditions. See Sambrook, Tijssen and Ausubel for a description of SSC buffer and equivalent conditions. The phrase “selectively (or specifically) hybridizes to” refers to the binding, duplexing, or hybridizing of a molecule only to a particular nucleotide sequence under stringent hybridization conditions when that sequence is present in a complex mixture (e.g., total cellular or library DNA or RNA). It will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art that, as a result of the degeneracy of the genetic code, there are many nucleotide sequences that encode a polypeptide as described herein. Some of these polynucleotides bear minimal homology to the nucleotide sequence of any native gene. Nonetheless, polynucleotides that vary due to differences in codon usage are specifically contemplated by the present invention. Further, alleles of the genes comprising the polynucleotide sequences provided herein are within the scope of the present invention. Alleles are endogenous genes that are altered as a result of one or more mutations, such as deletions, additions and/or substitutions of nucleotides. The resulting mRNA and protein can, but need not, have an altered structure or function. Alleles can be identified using standard techniques (such as hybridization, amplification and/or database sequence comparison). Polynucleotides can be prepared using any of a variety of techniques. For example, a polynucleotide can be identified, as described in more detail below, by screening a microarray of cDNAs for tumor-associated expression. Such screens can be performed using a Synteni microarray (Palo Alto, Calif.) according to the manufacturer's instructions (and essentially as described by Schena et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci U.S.A. 93:10614-10619, 1996 and Heller et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94:2150-2155, 1997). Alternatively, polynucleotides can be amplified from cDNA prepared from cells expressing the proteins described herein, such as prostate tumor cells. Such polynucleotides can be amplified via polymerase chain reaction (PCR). For this approach, sequence-specific primers can be designed based on the sequences provided herein, and can be purchased or synthesized. An amplified portion can be used to isolate a full length gene from a suitable library (e.g., a prostate tumor cDNA library) using well known techniques. Within such techniques, a library (cDNA or genomic) is screened using one or more polynucleotide probes or primers suitable for amplification. Preferably, a library is size-selected to include larger molecules. Random primed libraries can also be preferred for identifying 5′ and upstream regions of genes. Genomic libraries are preferred for obtaining introns and extending 5′ sequences. For hybridization techniques, a partial sequence can be labeled (e.g., by nick-translation or end-labeling with 32P) using well known techniques. A bacterial or bacteriophage library is then screened by hybridizing filters containing denatured bacterial colonies (or lawns containing phage plaques) with the labeled probe (see Sambrook et al., MOLECULAR CLONING: A LABORATORY MANUAL, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989). Hybridizing colonies or plaques are selected and expanded, and the DNA is isolated for further analysis. cDNA clones can be analyzed to determine the amount of additional sequence by, for example, PCR using a primer from the partial sequence and a primer from the vector. Restriction maps and partial sequences can be generated to identify one or more overlapping clones. The complete sequence can then be determined using standard techniques, which can involve generating a series of deletion clones. The resulting overlapping sequences are then assembled into a single contiguous sequence. A full length cDNA molecule can be generated by ligating suitable fragments, using well known techniques. Alternatively, there are numerous amplification techniques for obtaining a full length coding sequence from a partial cDNA sequence. Within such techniques, amplification is generally performed via PCR. Any of a variety of commercially available kits can be used to perform the amplification step. Primers can be designed using, for example, software well known in the art. Primers are preferably 22-30 nucleotides in length, have a GC content of at least 50% and anneal to the target sequence at temperatures of about 68° C. to 72° C. The amplified region can be sequenced as described above, and overlapping sequences assembled into a contiguous sequence. One such amplification technique is inverse PCR (see Triglia et al., Nuc. Acids Res. 16:8186, 1988), which uses restriction enzymes to generate a fragment in the known region of the gene. The fragment is then circularized by intramolecular ligation and used as a template for PCR with divergent primers derived from the known region. Within an alternative approach, sequences adjacent to a partial sequence can be retrieved by amplification with a primer to a linker sequence and a primer specific to a known region. The amplified sequences are typically subjected to a second round of amplification with the same linker primer and a second primer specific to the known region. A variation on this procedure, which employs two primers that initiate extension in opposite directions from the known sequence, is described in WO 96/38591. Another such technique is known as “rapid amplification of cDNA ends” or RACE. This technique involves the use of an internal primer and an external primer, which hybridizes to a polyA region or vector sequence, to identify sequences that are 5′ and 3′ of a known sequence. Additional techniques include capture PCR (Lagerstrom et al., PCR Methods Applic. 1:111-19, 1991) and walking PCR (Parker et al., Nucl. Acids. Res. 19:3055-60, 1991). Other methods employing amplification can also be employed to obtain a full length cDNA sequence. In certain instances, it is possible to obtain a full length cDNA sequence by analysis of sequences provided in an expressed sequence tag (EST) database, such as that available from GenBank. Searches for overlapping ESTs can generally be performed using well known programs (e.g., NCBI BLAST searches), and such ESTs can be used to generate a contiguous full length sequence. Certain nucleic acid sequences of cDNA molecules encoding portions of SPAS-1 proteins are provided in FIG. 1. These polynucleotides were isolated initially by analysis of a cDNA isolated from a murine prostate adenocarcinoma cell library by expression cloning. T cell hybridomas used for the cloning were prepared from T cell lines established from mice immunized by protocols (described below) shown to result in potent anti-tumor immune responses. Polynucleotide variants can generally be prepared by any method known in the art, including chemical synthesis by, for example, solid phase phosphoramidite chemical synthesis. Modifications in a polynucleotide sequence can also be introduced using standard mutagenesis techniques, such as oligonucleotide-directed site-specific mutagenesis (see Adelman et al., DNA 2:183, 1983). Alternatively, RNA molecules can be generated by in vitro or in vivo transcription of DNA sequences encoding a SPAS-1 protein, or portion thereof, provided that the DNA is incorporated into a vector with a suitable RNA polymerase promoter (such as T7 or SP6). Certain portions can be used to prepare an encoded polypeptide, as described herein. In addition, or alternatively, a portion can be administered to a patient such that the encoded polypeptide is generated in vivo (e.g., by transfecting antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells, with a cDNA construct encoding a prostate tumor polypeptide, and administering the transfected cells to the patient). A portion of a sequence complementary to a coding sequence (i.e., an antisense polynucleotide) can also be used as a probe or to modulate gene expression. cDNA constructs that can be transcribed into antisense RNA can also be introduced into cells or tissues to facilitate the production of antisense RNA. An antisense polynucleotide can be used, as described herein, to inhibit expression of a tumor protein. Antisense technology can be used to control gene expression through triple-helix formation, which compromises the ability of the double helix to open sufficiently for the binding of polymerases, transcription factors or regulatory molecules (see Gee et al., In Huber and Carr, MOLECULAR AND IMMUNOLOGIC APPROACHES, Futura Publishing Co. (Mt. Kisco, N.Y.; 1994)). Alternatively, an antisense molecule can be designed to hybridize with a control region of a gene (e.g., promoter, enhancer or transcription initiation site), and block transcription of the gene; or to block translation by inhibiting binding of a transcript to ribosomes. A portion of a coding sequence or of a complementary sequence can also be designed as a probe or primer to detect gene expression. Probes can be labeled with a variety of reporter groups, such as radionuclides and enzymes, and are preferably at least 10 nucleotides in length, more preferably at least 20 nucleotides in length and still more preferably at least 30 nucleotides in length. Primers, as noted above, are preferably 22-30 nucleotides in length. Any polynucleotide can be further modified to increase stability in vivo. Possible modifications include, but are not limited to, the addition of flanking sequences at the 5′ and/or 3′ ends; the use of phosphorothioate or 2′ O-methyl rather than phosphodiesterase linkages in the backbone; and/or the inclusion of nontraditional bases such as inosine, queosine and wybutosine, as well as acetyl- methyl-, thio- and other modified forms of adenine, cytidine, guanine, thymine and uridine. Nucleotide sequences as described herein can be joined to a variety of other nucleotide sequences using established recombinant DNA techniques. For example, a polynucleotide can be cloned into any of a variety of cloning vectors, including plasmids, phagemids, lambda phage derivatives and cosmids. Vectors of particular interest include expression vectors, replication vectors, probe generation vectors and sequencing vectors. In general, a vector will contain an origin of replication functional in at least one organism, convenient restriction endonuclease sites and one or more selectable markers. Other elements will depend upon the desired use, and will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art. Within certain embodiments, polynucleotides can be formulated so as to permit entry into a cell of a mammal, and expression therein. Such formulations are particularly useful for therapeutic purposes, as described below. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that there are many ways to achieve expression of a polynucleotide in a target cell, and any suitable method can be employed. For example, a polynucleotide can be incorporated into a viral vector such as, but not limited to, adenovirus, adeno-associated virus, retrovirus, or vaccinia or other pox virus (e.g., avian pox virus). The polynucleotides can also be administered as naked plasmid vectors. Techniques for incorporating DNA into such vectors are well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. A retroviral vector can additionally transfer or incorporate a gene for a selectable marker (to aid in the identification or selection of transduced cells) and/or a targeting moiety, such as a gene that encodes a ligand for a receptor on a specific target cell, to render the vector target specific. Targeting can also be accomplished using an antibody, by methods known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Other formulations for therapeutic purposes include colloidal dispersion systems, such as macromolecule complexes, nanocapsules, microspheres, beads, and lipid-based systems including oil-in-water emulsions, micelles, mixed micelles, and liposomes. A preferred colloidal system for use as a delivery vehicle in vitro and in vivo is a liposome (i.e., an artificial membrane vesicle). The preparation and use of such systems is well known in the art. SPAS-1 Polypeptides Within the context of the present invention, polypeptides can comprise at least an immunogenic portion of a SPAS-1 protein or a variant thereof, as described herein. As noted above, a “SPAS-1 protein” is a protein that is expressed by cancer tumor cells. Proteins that are SPAS-1 proteins also react detectably within an immunoassay (such as an ELISA) with antisera from a patient with prostate cancer. Polypeptides as described herein can be of any length. Additional sequences derived from the native protein and/or heterologous sequences can be present, and such sequences can (but need not) possess further immunogenic or antigenic properties. An “immunogenic portion,” as used herein is a portion of a protein that is recognized (i.e., specifically bound) by a B-cell and/or T-cell surface antigen receptor and results to activation of that B-cell or T-cell. Such immunogenic portions generally comprise at least 5 amino acid residues, more preferably at least 10, and still more preferably at least 20 amino acid residues of a SPAS-1 protein or a variant thereof. Certain preferred immunogenic portions include peptides in which an N-terminal leader sequence and/or transmembrane domain have been deleted. Other preferred immunogenic portions can contain a small N- and/or C-terminal deletion (e.g., 1-30 amino acids, preferably 5-15 amino acids), relative to the mature protein. Other immunogenic peptides include, without limitation, P1: (SEQ ID NO:35) LLADELITV (LV-9); P2: (SEQ ID NO:36) YMADAASEL (YL-9); P3: (SEQ ID NO:37) LLLEGISST (LT-9); P4: (SEQ ID NO:38) FLTPLRNFL (FL-9); P5: (SEQ ID NO:39) ILSASASAL (IL-9). Immunogenic portions can generally be identified using well known techniques, such as those summarized in Paul, W. E. (ed.), FUNDAMENTAL IMMUNOLOGY, 3rd ed., 243-247 (Raven Press, 1993) and references cited therein. Such techniques include screening polypeptides for the ability to react with antigen-specific antibodies, antisera and/or T-cell lines or clones. The T cell receptor recognizes a complex structure that requires both a major histocompatibility antigen binding pocket and an antigenic peptide to be present. The binding affinity of T cell receptors is lower than that of antibodies, and will usually be at least about 10−4 M, more usually at least about 10−5 M. Methods for determining immunogenicity may include presentation of the epitope in conjunction with an MHC molecule on a cell surface, bead surface, plate surface, as a soluble complex, and the like. T cell responsiveness may include release of cytokines, proliferation, Ca++ changes, and the like, as known in the art. As used herein, antisera and antibodies are “antigen-specific” if they specifically bind to an antigen (i.e., they react with the protein in an ELISA or other immunoassay, and do not react detectably with unrelated proteins). Such antisera and antibodies can be prepared as described herein, and using well known techniques. An immunogenic portion of a native SPAS-1 protein is a portion that reacts with such antisera and/or T-cells at a level that is not substantially less than the reactivity of the full length polypeptide (e.g., in an ELISA and/or T-cell reactivity assay). Such immunogenic portions can react within such assays at a level that is similar to or greater than the reactivity of the fall length polypeptide. Such screens can generally be performed using methods well known to those of ordinary skill in the art, such as those described in Harlow and Lane, 1988, ANTIBODIES: A LABORATORY MANUAL, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. For example, a polypeptide can be immobilized on a solid support and contacted with patient sera to allow binding of antibodies within the sera to the immobilized polypeptide. Unbound sera can then be removed and bound antibodies detected using, for example, 125I-labeled Protein A. An immunogenic portion of a SPAS-1 peptide may be provided a stable complex with an MHC protein. The binding complex may have a wide variety of peptide-MHC combinations. Class I MHC molecules will usually be used to bind CD8+ T cells, and class II will usually be used to bind CD4+ T cells. Non-classical MHC molecules can also be used. The MHC-antigen binding complex comprises monomers or multimers of: an α MHC subunit, a β MHC subunit, and a peptide antigen bound in the cleft formed by the α and β subunits. Complexes of interest may be monomeric, dimeric, trimeric, tetrameric, or higher. In addition, different MHC-peptides can be pooled and spotted together or alternatively, different peptides can be pooled prior to their incorporation into the MHC complex. The MHC proteins may be from any mammalian or avian species, e.g. primate sp., particularly humans; rodents, including mice, rats and hamsters; rabbits; equines, bovines, canines, felines; etc. Of particular interest are the human HLA proteins, and the murine H-2 proteins. Included in the HLA proteins are the class II subunits HLA-DPα, HLA-DPβ, HLA-DQα, HLA-DQβ, HLA-DRα and HLA-DRβ, and the class I proteins HLA-A, HLA-B, HLA-C, and β2-microglobulin. Included in the murine H-2 subunits are the class I H-2K, H-2D, H-2L, and the class II I-Aα, I-Aβ, I-Ek, I-Eα and I-Eβ, and β2-microglobulin. Usually the MHC protein subunits are soluble forms of the membrane-bound protein. Optionally the complexes are labeled. Methods of producing such complexes are known in the art. Human Class I HLA alleles include, without limitation, HLA-A1 (A0101); HLA-A2 (A0206); HLA-A2 (A0201); HLA-A2 (A0207); HLA-A2 (A02011); HLA-A3 (A0301); HLA-A11 (A11011); HLA-A24 (A24021); HLA-A24 (A2420); HLA-A26 (A2601); HLA-A26 (A2603); HLA-A31 (A31012); HLA-A33 (A3303); HLA-B7 (B07021); HLA-B8 (B0801); HLA-B15 (B15011); HLA-B35 (B35011); HLA-B38 (B3801); HLA-B39 (B39011); HLA-B40 (B40012); HLA-B40 (B4002); HLA-B44 (B4401); HLA-B44 (B44031); HLA-B46 (B4601); HLA-B48 (B4801); HLA-B51 (B51011); HLA-B52 (B52011); HLA-B54 (B5401); HLA-B55 (B5502); HLA-B59 (B5901); HLA-Cw1 (Cw0102); HLA-Cw1 (Cw0103); HLA-Cw3 (Cw03031); HLA-Cw3 (Cw03041); HLA-Cw4 (Cw04011); HLA-Cw6 (Cw0602); HLA-Cw7 (Cw0702); HLA-Cw8 (Cw0801); HLA-Cw12 (Cw12022); HLA-Cw14 (Cw14021); HLA-Cw14 (Cw1403); HLA-Cw15 (Cw15021); HLA-Cx 52 (Cw 12) (Cw1201); HLA-Cx52 (Cw12) (Cw1201). Human Class II HLA alleles include, without limitation, HLA-DA alpha 1-4 (pDA alpha 1-4); HLA-DA alpha 1-5 (pDA alpha 1-5); HLA-DA beta 5 (pDA beta 5); HLA-DC alpha 107 (pDC alpha 107); HLA-DO alpha 20 (pDO alpha 20); HLA-DQ beta155 (pDQ beta155); HLA-DR alpha 11 (pDR alpha 11); HLA-DR beta 134 (pDR beta 134); HLA DR beta 5 (TOK H5 DR beta); HLA-DR beta 4 (YT158); HLA-DQA1 (pgDQ4A); HLA-DQB1 (pg DQ1B); HLA-DQB1 (pg DQ1BS); HLA-DRA (DRA2EH); HLA-DPA1 (DPA 02022); HLA-DPB1 (DPB0202); HLA-DRB1 (Kˆb DRB10803); HLA-DRB1 (Kˆb DRB11201); HLA-DRB1 (Kˆb DRB11302); HLA-DRB3 (DRB30301 EMJ-4); HLA-DQA1 (DQA10501 AMALA-4); HLA-DQB1 (DQB10301 AMALA-4); HLA-DQA1 (DQA10101 KAS1163-6); and HLA-DQB1 (DQB10503 EK2-4). The antigenic peptide will be from about 6 to about 20 amino acids in length for complexes with class I MHC proteins, usually from about 8 to about 16 amino acids, or from about 9 to about 11 amino acids in length. The peptide will be from about 6 to 25 amino acids in length for complexes with class II MHC proteins, usually from about 10 to 20 amino acids. The epitopic sequence may be empirically determined, by isolating and sequencing peptides bound to native MHC proteins, by synthesis of a series of peptides from the target sequence, then assaying for T cell reactivity to the different peptides, or by producing a series of binding complexes with different peptides and quantitating the T cell binding. The peptides may be prepared in a variety of ways as known in the art. The peptide MHC complex may be multimerized by through fusion of the MHC portion to a multivalent protein, e.g. immunoglobulin, or by binding the monomers to a multivalent entity through specific attachment sites, as are known in the art. A multimer may also be formed by chemical cross-linking. The attachment site for binding to a multivalent entity may be naturally occurring, or may be introduced through genetic engineering. The site can be a specific binding pair member or one that is modified to provide a specific binding pair member, where the complementary pair has a multiplicity of specific binding sites. Binding to the complementary binding member can be a chemical reaction, epitope-receptor binding or hapten-receptor binding where a hapten is linked to the subunit chain. One of the subunits can be fused to an amino acid sequence providing a recognition site for a modifying enzyme, for example BirA, various glycosylases, farnesyl protein transferase, protein kinases and the like. The subunit may be reacted with the modifying enzyme at any convenient time, usually after formation of the monomer. The group introduced by the modifying enzyme, e.g. biotin, sugar, phosphate, farnesyl, etc. provides a complementary binding pair member, or a unique site for further modification, such as chemical cross-linking, biotinylation, etc. that will provide a complementary binding pair member. Commercially available complexes include biotinylated complexes bound to streptavidin or avidin; and immunoglobulin fusion proteins. A composition can comprise a variant of a native SPAS-1 protein. A polypeptide “variant,” as used herein, is a polypeptide that differs from a native SPAS-1 protein in one or more substitutions, deletions, additions and/or insertions, such that the immunogenicity of the polypeptide is not substantially diminished. In other words, the ability of a variant to react with antigen-specific antisera can be enhanced or unchanged, relative to the native protein, or can be diminished by less than 50%, and preferably less than 20%, relative to the native protein. Such variants can generally be identified by modifying one of the above polypeptide sequences and evaluating the reactivity of the modified polypeptide with antigen-specific antibodies or antisera as described herein. Preferred variants include those in which one or more portions, such as an N-terminal leader sequence or transmembrane domain, have been removed. Other preferred variants include variants in which a small portion (e.g., 1-30 amino acids, preferably 5-amino acids) has been removed from the N- and/or C-terminal of the mature protein. Polypeptide variants preferably exhibit at least about 70%, more preferably at least about 90% and most preferably at least about 95% identity to the native polypeptide. The percent identity can be determined as described above. Preferably, a variant contains conservative substitutions. A “conservative substitution” is one in which an amino acid is substituted for another amino acid that has similar properties, such that one skilled in the art of peptide chemistry would expect the secondary structure and hydropathic nature of the polypeptide to be substantially unchanged. Amino acid substitutions can generally be made on the basis of similarity in polarity, charge, solubility, hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity and/or the amphipathic nature of the residues. For example, negatively charged amino acids include aspartic acid and glutamic acid; positively charged amino acids include lysine and arginine; and amino acids with uncharged polar head groups having similar hydrophilicity values include leucine, isoleucine and valine; glycine and alanine; asparagine and glutamine; and serine, threonine, phenylalanine and tyrosine. Other groups of amino acids that can represent conservative changes include: (1) ala, pro, gly, glu, asp, gin, asn, ser, thr; (2) cys, ser, tyr, thr; (3) val, ile, leu, met, ala, phe; (4) lys, arg, his; and (5) phe, tyr, trp, his. A variant can also, or alternatively, contain nonconservative changes. In a preferred embodiment, variant polypeptides differ from a native sequence by substitution, deletion or addition of five amino acids or fewer. Variants can also (or alternatively) be modified by, for example, the deletion or addition of amino acids that have minimal influence on the immunogenicity, secondary structure and hydropathic nature of the polypeptide. As noted above, polypeptides can comprise a signal (or leader) sequence at the N-terminal end of the protein, which co-translationally or post-translationally directs transfer of the protein. The polypeptide can also be conjugated to a linker or other sequence for ease of synthesis, purification or identification of the polypeptide (e.g., poly-His), or to enhance binding of the polypeptide to a solid support. For example, a polypeptide can be conjugated to an immunoglobulin Fc region. Polypeptides can be prepared using any of a variety of well known techniques. Recombinant polypeptides encoded by DNA sequences as described above can be readily prepared from the DNA sequences using any of a variety of expression vectors known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Expression can be achieved in any appropriate host cell that has been transformed or transfected with an expression vector containing a DNA molecule that encodes a recombinant polypeptide. Suitable host cells include prokaryotes, yeast and higher eukaryotic cells, such as mammalian or plant cells. Preferably, the host cells employed are E. coli, yeast or a mammalian cell line such as COS or CHO. Supernatants from suitable host/vector systems which secrete recombinant protein or polypeptide into culture media can be first concentrated using a commercially available filter. Following concentration, the concentrate can be applied to a suitable purification matrix such as an affinity matrix or an ion exchange resin. Finally, one or more reverse phase HPLC steps can be employed to further purify a recombinant polypeptide. Portions and other variants having less than about 100 amino acids, and generally less than about 50 amino acids, can also be generated by synthetic means, using techniques well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. For example, such polypeptides can be synthesized using any of the commercially available solid-phase techniques, such as the Merrifield solid-phase synthesis method, where amino acids are sequentially added to a growing amino acid chain. See Merrifield, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 85:2149-2146, 1963. Equipment for automated synthesis of polypeptides is commercially available from suppliers such as Perkin Elmer/Applied BioSystems Division (Foster City, Calif.), and can be operated according to the manufacturer's instructions. Within certain specific embodiments, a polypeptide can be a fusion protein that comprises multiple polypeptides as described herein, or that comprises at least one polypeptide as described herein and an unrelated sequence, such as a known tumor protein. A fusion partner can, for example, assist in providing T helper epitopes (an immunological fusion partner), preferably T helper epitopes recognized by humans, or can assist in expressing the protein (an expression enhancer) at higher yields than the native recombinant protein. Certain preferred fusion partners are both immunological and expression enhancing fusion partners. Other fusion partners can be selected so as to increase the solubility of the protein or to enable the protein to be targeted to desired intracellular compartments. Still further fusion partners include affinity tags, which facilitate purification of the protein. Fusion proteins can generally be prepared using standard techniques, including chemical conjugation. Preferably, a fusion protein is expressed as a recombinant protein, allowing the production of increased levels, relative to a non-fused protein, in an expression system. Briefly, DNA sequences encoding the polypeptide components can be assembled separately, and ligated into an appropriate expression vector. The 3′ end of the DNA sequence encoding one polypeptide component is ligated, with or without a peptide linker, to the 5′ end of a DNA sequence encoding the second polypeptide component so that the reading frames of the sequences are in phase. This permits translation into a single fusion protein that retains the biological activity of both component polypeptides. A peptide linker sequence can be employed to separate the first and second polypeptide components by a distance sufficient to ensure that each polypeptide folds into its secondary and tertiary structures. Such a peptide linker sequence is incorporated into the fusion protein using standard techniques well known in the art. Suitable peptide linker sequences can be chosen based on the following factors: (1) their ability to adopt a flexible extended conformation; (2) their inability to adopt a secondary structure that could interact with functional epitopes on the first and second polypeptides; and (3) the lack of hydrophobic or charged residues that might react with the polypeptide functional epitopes. Preferred peptide linker sequences contain Gly, Asn and Ser residues. Other near neutral amino acids, such as Thr and Ala can also be used in the linker sequence. Amino acid sequences which can be usefully employed as linkers include those disclosed in Maratea et al., Gene 40:3946, 1985; Murphy et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 1986, 83:8258-8262; U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,935,233 and 4,751,180. The linker sequence can generally be from 1 to about 50 amino acids in length. Linker sequences are not required when the first and second polypeptides have non-essential N-terminal amino acid regions that can be used to separate the functional domains and prevent steric interference. The ligated DNA sequences are operably linked to suitable transcriptional or translational regulatory elements. The regulatory elements responsible for expression of DNA are located only 5′ to the DNA sequence encoding the first polypeptides. Similarly, stop codons required to end translation and transcription termination signals are only present 3′ to the DNA sequence encoding the second polypeptide. Also provided are fusion proteins that comprise a polypeptide as described herein together with an unrelated immunogenic protein. Preferably, the immunogenic protein is capable of eliciting a recall response. Examples of such proteins include tetanus, tuberculosis and hepatitis proteins (see, e.g., Stoute et al., New Engl. J. Med. 336:86-91, 1997). Within preferred embodiments, an immunological fusion partner is derived from protein D, a surface protein of the gram-negative bacterium Haemophilus influenza B (WO 91/18926). Preferably, a protein D derivative comprises approximately the first third of the protein (e.g., the first N-terminal 100-110 amino acids), and a protein D derivative can be lipidated. Within certain preferred embodiments, the first 109 residues of a Lipoprotein D fusion partner is included on the N-terminus to provide the polypeptide with additional exogenous T-cell epitopes and to increase the expression level in E. coli (thus functioning as an expression enhancer). The lipid tail ensures optimal presentation of the antigen to antigen present cells. Other fusion partners include the non-structural protein from influenzae virus, NS1 (hemaglutinin). Typically, the N-terminal 81 amino acids are used, although different fragments that include T-helper epitopes can be used. In another embodiment, the immunological fusion partner is the protein known as LYTA, or a portion thereof (preferably a C-terminal portion). LYTA is derived from Streptococcus pneumoniae, which synthesizes an N-acetyl-L-alanine amidase known as amidase LYTA (encoded by the LytA gene; Gene 43:265-292, 1986). LYTA is an autolysin that specifically degrades certain bonds in the peptidoglycan backbone. The C-terminal domain of the LYTA protein is responsible for the affinity to the choline or to some choline analogues such as DEAE. This property has been exploited for the development of E. coli C-LYTA expressing plasmids useful for expression of fusion proteins. Purification of hybrid proteins containing the C-LYTA fragment at the amino terminus has been described (see Biotechnology 10:795-798, 1992). Within a preferred embodiment, a repeat portion of LYTA can be incorporated into a fusion protein. A repeat portion is found in the C-terminal region starting at residue 178. A particularly preferred repeat portion incorporates residues 188-305. In general, polypeptides (including fusion proteins) and polynucleotides as described herein are isolated. The terms “isolated,” or “purified,” refer to material that is substantially free from components that normally accompany it as found in its native state (e.g., recombinantly produced or purified away from other cell components with which it is naturally associated). Purity and homogeneity are typically determined using analytical chemistry techniques such as polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis or high performance liquid chromatography. The term “purified” denotes that a nucleic acid or protein gives rise to essentially one band in an electrophoretic gel. Particularly, it means that the nucleic acid or protein is at least 85% pure, more preferably at least 95% pure, and most preferably at least 99% pure. The terms “nucleic acid” and “polynucleotide” are used interchangeably” and refer to refers to DNA, RNA and nucleic acid polymers containing known nucleotide analogs or modified backbone residues or linkages, which are synthetic, naturally occurring, and non-naturally occurring, which have similar binding properties as the reference nucleic acid, and which are metabolized in a manner similar to the reference nucleotides. Examples of such analogs include, without limitation; phosphorothioates, phosphoramidates, methyl phosphonates, chiral-methyl phosphonates, 2-O-methyl ribonucleotides, peptide-nucleic acids (PNAs). The terms “polypeptide,” “peptide” and “protein” are used interchangeably herein to refer to a polymer of amino acid residues. The amino acids may be natural amino acids, or include an artificial chemical mimetic of a corresponding naturally occurring amino acid. SPAS-1 Binding Agents The present invention further provides agents, such as antibodies and antigen-binding fragments thereof, that specifically bind to a SPAS-1 protein of the SPAS-1 human homolog. The term antibody is used to include intact antibodies and binding fragments thereof. Typically, fragments compete with the intact antibody from which they were derived and with other antibodies for specific binding to an antigen. The term antibody includes polyclonal antibodies, monoclonal antibodies, chimeric antibodies and humanized antibodies, produced by immunization, from hybridomas, or recombinantly. The term “molecule” is used broadly to mean an organic or inorganic chemical such as a drug; a peptide, including a variant or modified peptide or peptide-like substance such as a peptidomimetic or peptoid; or a protein such as an antibody or a growth factor receptor or a fragment thereof, such as an Fv, Fc or Fab fragment of an antibody, which contains a binding domain. A molecule can be nonnaturally occurring, produced as a result of in vitro methods, or can be naturally occurring, such as a protein or fragment thereof expressed from a cDNA library. The phrase “specifically (or selectively) binds” to an antibody refers to a binding reaction that is determinative of the presence of the protein in a heterogeneous population of proteins and other biologics. Thus, under designated immunoassay conditions, the specified antibodies bind to a particular protein at least two times the background and do not substantially bind in a significant amount to other proteins present in the sample. The phrase “specifically bind(s)” or “bind(s) specifically” when referring to a peptide refers to a peptide molecule which has intermediate or high binding affinity, exclusively or predominately, to a target molecule. The phrases “specifically binds to” refers to a binding reaction which is determinative of the presence of a target protein in the presence of a heterogeneous population of proteins and other biologics. Thus, under designated assay conditions, the specified binding moieties bind preferentially to a particular target protein and do not bind in a significant amount to other components present in a test sample. Specific binding to a target protein under such conditions may require a binding moiety that is selected for its specificity for a particular target antigen. A variety of assay formats may be used to select ligands that are specifically reactive with a particular protein. For example, solid-phase ELISA immunoassays, immunoprecipitation, Biacore and Western blot are used to identify peptides that specifically react with SPAS-1 domain-containing proteins. Typically a specific or selective reaction will be at least twice background signal or noise and more typically more than 10 times background. Specific binding between a monovalent peptide and a SPAS-1-containing protein means a binding affinity of at least 104 M−1, and preferably 105 or 106 M−1. Binding agents can be further capable of differentiating between patients with and without a cancer, such as prostate cancer, using the representative assays provided herein. In other words, antibodies or other binding agents that bind to a SPAS-1 protein will generate a signal indicating the presence of a cancer in at least about 20% of patients with the disease, and will generate a negative signal indicating the absence of the disease in at least about 90% of individuals without the cancer. To determine whether a binding agent satisfies this requirement, biological samples (e.g., blood, sera, urine and/or tumor biopsies and the like) from patients with and without a cancer (as determined using standard clinical tests) can be assayed as described herein for the presence of polypeptides that bind to the binding agent. It will be apparent that a statistically significant number of samples with and without the disease should be assayed. Each binding agent should satisfy the above criteria; however, those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that binding agents can be used in combination to improve sensitivity. Any agent that satisfies the above requirements can be a binding agent. For example, a binding agent can be a ribosome, with or without a peptide component, an RNA molecule or a polypeptide. In a preferred embodiment, a binding agent is an antibody or an antigen-binding fragment thereof. Antibodies can be prepared by any of a variety of techniques known to those of ordinary skill in the art. See, e.g., Harlow and Lane, 1988, ANTIBODIES: A LABORATORY MANUAL, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. In general, antibodies can be produced by cell culture techniques, including the generation of monoclonal antibodies as described herein, or via transfection of antibody genes into suitable bacterial or mammalian cell hosts, in order to allow for the production of recombinant antibodies. In one technique, an immunogen comprising the polypeptide is initially injected into any of a wide variety of mammals (e.g., mice, rats, rabbits, sheep or goats). In this step, the polypeptides of this invention can serve as the immunogen without modification. Alternatively, particularly for relatively short polypeptides, a superior immune response can be elicited if the polypeptide is joined to a carrier protein, such as bovine serum albumin or keyhole limpet hemocyanin. The immunogen is injected into the animal host, preferably according to a predetermined schedule incorporating one or more booster immunizations, and the animals are bled periodically. Polyclonal antibodies specific for the polypeptide can then be purified from such antisera by, for example, affinity chromatography using the polypeptide coupled to a suitable solid support. Monoclonal antibodies specific for an antigenic polypeptide of interest can be prepared, for example, using the technique of Kohler and Milstein, Eur. J. Immunol. 6:511-519, 1976, and improvements thereto. Briefly, these methods involve the preparation of immortal cell lines capable of producing antibodies having the desired specificity (i.e., reactivity with the polypeptide of interest). Such cell lines can be produced, for example, from spleen cells obtained from an animal immunized as described above. The spleen cells are then immortalized by, for example, fusion with a myeloma cell fusion partner, preferably one that is syngeneic with the immunized animal. A variety of fusion techniques can be employed. For example, the spleen cells and myeloma cells can be combined with a nonionic detergent for a few minutes and then plated at low density on a selective medium that supports the growth of hybrid cells, but not myeloma cells. A preferred selection technique uses HAT (hypoxanthine, aminopterin, thymidine) selection. After a sufficient time, usually about 1 to 2 weeks, colonies of hybrids are observed. Single colonies are selected and their culture supernatants tested for binding activity against the polypeptide. Hybridomas having high reactivity and specificity are preferred. Monoclonal antibodies can be isolated from the supernatants of growing hybridoma colonies. In addition, various techniques can be employed to enhance the yield, such as injection of the hybridoma cell line into the peritoneal cavity of a suitable vertebrate host, such as a mouse. Monoclonal antibodies can then be harvested from the ascites fluid or the blood. Contaminants can be removed from the antibodies by conventional techniques, such as chromatography, gel filtration, precipitation, and extraction. The polypeptides of this invention can be used in the purification process in, for example, an affinity chromatography step. Within certain embodiments, the use of antigen-binding fragments of antibodies can be preferred. Such fragments include Fab fragments, which can be prepared using standard techniques. Briefly, immunoglobulins can be purified from rabbit serum by affinity chromatography on Protein A bead columns (Harlow and Lane, 1988, ANTIBODIES: A LABORATORY MANUAL, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press) and digested by papain to yield Fab and Fc fragments. The Fab and Fc fragments can be separated by affinity chromatography on protein A bead columns. Monoclonal antibodies of the present invention can be coupled to one or more therapeutic agents. Suitable agents in this regard include radionuclides, differentiation inducers, drugs, toxins, and derivatives thereof. Preferred radionuclides include 90Y, 123I, 125I, 131I, 186Re, 188Re, 211At, and 212Bi. Preferred drugs include methotrexate, and pyrimidine and purine analogs. Preferred differentiation inducers include phorbol esters and butyric acid. Preferred toxins include ricin, abrin, diptheria toxin, cholera toxin, gelonin, Pseudomonas exotoxin, Shigella toxin, and pokeweed antiviral protein. A therapeutic agent can be coupled (e.g., covalently bonded) to a suitable monoclonal antibody either directly or indirectly (e.g., via a linker group). A direct reaction between an agent and an antibody is possible when each possesses a substituent capable of reacting with the other. For example, a nucleophilic group, such as an amino or sulfhydryl group, on one can be capable of reacting with a carbonyl-containing group, such as an anhydride or an acid halide, or with an alkyl group containing a good leaving group (e.g., a halide) on the other. Alternatively, it can be desirable to couple a therapeutic agent and an antibody via a linker group. A linker group can function as a spacer to distance an antibody from an agent in order to avoid interference with binding capabilities. A linker group can also serve to increase the chemical reactivity of a substituent on an agent or an antibody, and thus increase the coupling efficiency. An increase in chemical reactivity can also facilitate the use of agents, or functional groups on agents, which otherwise would not be possible. It will be evident to those skilled in the art that a variety of bifunctional or polyfunctional reagents, both homo- and hetero-functional (such as those described in the catalog of the Pierce Chemical Co., Rockford, Ill.), can be employed as the linker group. Coupling can be effected, for example, through amino groups, carboxyl groups, sulfhydryl groups or oxidized carbohydrate residues. There are numerous references describing such methodology, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,671,958, to Rodwell et al. Where a therapeutic agent is more potent when free from the antibody portion of the immunoconjugates of the present invention, it can be desirable to use a linker group which is cleavable during or upon internalization into a cell. A number of different cleavable linker groups have been described. The mechanisms for the intracellular release of an agent from these linker groups include cleavage by reduction of a disulfide bond (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,489,710, to Spitler), by irradiation of a photolabile bond (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,625,014, to Senter et al.), by hydrolysis of derivatized amino acid side chains (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,638,045, to Kohn et al.), by serum complement-mediated hydrolysis (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,671,958, to Rodwell et al.), and acid-catalyzed hydrolysis (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,569,789, to Blattler et al.). It can be desirable to couple more than one agent to an antibody. In one embodiment, multiple molecules of an agent are coupled to one antibody molecule. In another embodiment, more than one type of agent can be coupled to one antibody. Regardless of the particular embodiment, immunoconjugates with more than one agent can be prepared in a variety of ways. For example, more than one agent can be coupled directly to an antibody molecule, or linkers that provide multiple sites for attachment can be used. Alternatively, a carrier can be used. A carrier can bear the agents in a variety of ways, including covalent bonding either directly or via a linker group. Suitable carriers include proteins such as albumins (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,507,234, to Kato et al.), peptides and polysaccharides such as aminodextran (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,699,784, to Shih et al). A carrier can also bear an agent by noncovalent bonding or by encapsulation, such as within a liposome vesicle (e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,429,008 and 4,873,088). Carriers specific for radionuclide agents include radiohalogenated small molecules and chelating compounds. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,735,792 discloses representative radiohalogenated small molecules and their synthesis. A radionuclide chelate can be formed from chelating compounds that include those containing nitrogen and sulfur atoms as the donor atoms for binding the metal, or metal oxide, radionuclide. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,673,562, to Davison et al., discloses representative chelating compounds and their synthesis. A variety of routes of administration for the antibodies and immunoconjugates can be used. Typically, administration will be intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous or in the bed of a resected tumor. It will be evident that the precise dose of the antibody/immunoconjugate will vary depending upon the antibody used, the antigen density on the tumor, and the rate of clearance of the antibody. Immunotherapeutic compositions can also, or alternatively, comprise T cells specific for a SPAS-1 protein or SPAS-1 human homolog. Such cells can generally be prepared in vitro or ex vivo, using standard procedures. For example, T cells can be isolated from bone marrow, peripheral blood or a fraction of bone marrow or peripheral blood of a patient, using a commercially available cell separation system, such as the CEPRATE™ system, available from CellPro Inc., Bothell Wash. (see also U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,240,856 and 5,215,926; and PCT applications WO 89/06280; WO 91/16116 and WO 92/07243). Alternatively, T cells can be derived from related or unrelated humans, non-human mammals, cell lines or cultures. T cells can be stimulated with a prostate tumor polypeptide, polynucleotide encoding a prostate tumor polypeptide and/or an antigen presenting cell (APC) that expresses such a polypeptide. Such stimulation is performed under conditions and for a time sufficient to permit the generation of T cells that are specific for the polypeptide. Preferably, a prostate tumor polypeptide or polynucleotide is present within a delivery vehicle, such as a microsphere, to facilitate the generation of specific T cells. T cells are considered to be specific for a prostate tumor polypeptide if the T cells kill target cells coated with the polypeptide or expressing a gene encoding the polypeptide. T cell specificity can be evaluated using any of a variety of standard techniques. For example, within a chromium release assay or proliferation assay, a stimulation index of more than two fold increase in lysis and/or proliferation, compared to negative controls, indicates T cell specificity. Such assays can be performed, for example, as described in Chen et al., 1994, Cancer Res. 54:1065-1070. Alternatively, detection of the proliferation of T cells can be accomplished by a variety of known techniques. For example, T cell proliferation can be detected by measuring an increased rate of DNA synthesis (e.g., by pulse-labeling cultures of T cells with tritiated thymidine and measuring the amount of tritiated thymidine incorporated into DNA). Contact with a prostate tumor polypeptide (100 ng/ml-100 μg/ml, preferably 200 ng/ml-25 μg/ml) for 3-7 days should result in at least a two fold increase in proliferation of the T cells. Contact as described above for 2-3 hours should result in activation of the T cells, as measured using standard cytokine assays in which a two fold increase in the level of cytokine release (e.g., TNF or IFN.gamma.) is indicative of T cell activation (see Coligan et al., CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN IMMUNOLOGY, Vol. 1, Wiley Interscience (Greene 1998)). T cells that have been activated in response to a prostate tumor polypeptide, polynucleotide or polypeptide-expressing APC can be CD4+ and/or CD8+. SPAS-1 protein-specific T cells can be expanded using standard techniques. Within preferred embodiments, the T cells are derived from a patient, or from a related or unrelated donor, and are administered to the patient following stimulation and expansion. For therapeutic purposes, CD4+ or CD8+ T cells that proliferate in response to a prostate tumor polypeptide, polynucleotide or APC can be expanded in number either in vitro or in vivo. Proliferation of such T cells in vitro can be accomplished in a variety of ways. For example, the T cells can be re-exposed to a prostate tumor polypeptide (e.g., a short peptide corresponding to an immunogenic portion of such a polypeptide) with or without the addition of T cell growth factors, such as interleukin-2, and/or stimulator cells that synthesize a prostate tumor polypeptide. Alternatively, one or more T cells that proliferate in the presence of a SPAS-1 protein or SPAS-1 human homolog can be expanded in number by cloning. Methods for cloning cells are well known in the art, and include limiting dilution. Following expansion, the cells can be administered back to the patient as described, for example, by Chang et al., 1996, Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol. 22:213. CTLA-4 blockade is most effective when combined with a vaccination protocol. Many experimental strategies for vaccination against tumors have been devised (see Rosenberg, S., 2000, Development of Cancer Vaccines, ASCO EDUCATIONAL BOOK Spring: 60-62; Logothetis, C., 2000, ASCO EDUCATIONAL BOOK Spring: 300-302; Khayat, D., 2000, ASCO EDUCATIONAL BOOK Spring: 414-428; Foon, K. 2000, ASCO EDUCATIONAL BOOK Spring: 730-738; see also Restifo, N. and Sznol, M., Cancer Vaccines, Ch. 61, pp. 3023-3043 in DeVita, V. et al. (eds.), 1997, CANCER: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF ONCOLOGY, Fifth Edition). In one of these strategies, a vaccine is prepared using autologous or allogeneic tumor cells. These cellular vaccines have been shown to be most effective when the tumor cells are transduced to express GM-CSF. GM-CSF has been shown to be a potent activator of antigen presentation for tumor vaccination (Dranoff et al, 1993, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci U.S.A. 90:3539-43). Anti-CTLA-4 blockade together with the use of GMCSF-modified tumor cell vaccines has been shown to be effective in a number of experimental tumor models such as mammary carcinoma (Hurwitz et al., 1998, supra), primary prostate cancer (Hurwitz A. et al., 2000, Cancer Research 60: 2444-8) and melanoma (van Elsas, A et al., 1999, J. Exp. Med. 190: 355-66). In these instances, non-immunogenic tumors, such as the B16 melanoma, have been rendered susceptible to destruction by the immune system. The tumor cell vaccine can also be modified to express other immune activators such as IL2, and costimulatory molecules, among others. CTLA-4 blockade can be used in conjunction with the SPAS-1 proteins of the invention to generate an immune response to these proteins. Other tumor vaccines can include the proteins from viruses implicated in human cancers such a Human Papilloma Viruses (HPV), Hepatitis Viruses (HBV and HCV) and Kaposi's Herpes Sarcoma Virus (KHSV). Another form of tumor specific antigen which can be used in conjunction with CTLA-4 blockade is purified heat shock proteins (HSP) isolated from the tumor tissue itself. These heat shock proteins contain fragments of proteins from the tumor cells and these HSPs are highly efficient at delivery to antigen presenting cells for eliciting tumor immunity (Suot, R & Srivastava, P., 1995, Science 269: 1585-1588; Tamura, Y. et al., 1997, Science 278: 117-120. Pharmaceutical Compositions and Vaccines Within certain aspects, polypeptides, including polypeptide MHC complexes as described herein, antibodies specific for SPAS-1 peptide/MHC complex; soluble T cell receptors specific for SPAS-1/MHC complex; polynucleotides, cells expressing or complexed with SPAS-1, T cells and/or binding agents described herein can be incorporated into pharmaceutical compositions or immunogenic compositions (i.e., vaccines). Specific vaccine agents of interest include, without limitation, dendritic cells (peptide pulsed, protein pulsed, RNA transfected, virally infected, bacterial infected, DNA transfected, protein electroporated); dendritophages, activated macrophages; whole cell vaccine (e.g. GVAX); adjuvanted protein (adjuvants, TLR agonists such as CpG, Polyl:C, etc); protein conjugated to TLR agonists; microbial cells expressing SPAS-1, e.g. Listeria, Salmonella, Clostridium, E. coli; yeast; viral particles expressing SPAS-1, e.g. adenovirus, alphavirus (Semliki Forest virus, VEE, Sindbis virus, etc), vaccinia virus (Modified ankara virus, MVA); DNA vaccination (naked, gene gun, etc); TCR/MHC complexes; and the like. Pharmaceutical compositions comprise one or more such compounds and a physiologically acceptable carrier. Vaccines can comprise one or more such compounds and a non-specific immune response enhancer. A non-specific immune response enhancer can be any substance that enhances an immune response to an exogenous antigen. Examples of non-specific immune response enhancers include adjuvants, biodegradable microspheres (e.g., polylactic galactide) and liposomes (into which the compound is incorporated; see e.g., Fullerton, U.S. Pat. No. 4,235,877). Vaccine preparation is generally described in, for example, M. F. Powell and M. J. Newman, eds., VACCINE DESIGN: THE SUBUNIT AND ADJUVANT APPROACH, Plenum Press (NY, 1995). Vaccines can be designed to generate antibody immunity and/or cellular immunity such as that arising from CTL or CD4+ T cells. Pharmaceutical compositions and vaccines within the scope of the present invention can also contain other compounds, which can be biologically active or inactive. For example, one or more immunogenic portions of other tumor antigens can be present, either incorporated into a fusion polypeptide or as a separate compound, within the composition or vaccine. Polypeptides can, but need not, be conjugated to other macromolecules as described, for example, within U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,372,945 and 4,474,757. Pharmaceutical compositions and vaccines can generally be used for prophylactic and therapeutic purposes. In prophylactic applications, pharmaceutical compositions or medicaments are administered to a patient susceptible to, or otherwise at risk of a disease or condition (i.e., cancer) in an amount sufficient to eliminate or reduce the risk, lessen the severity, or delay the outset of the disease (including biochemical or histologic), its complications and intermediate pathological phenotypes presenting during development of the disease. In therapeutic applications, compositions or medicants are administered to a patient suspected of, or already suffering from such a disease in an amount sufficient to cure, or at least partially arrest, the symptoms of the disease (including biochemical or histologic), including its complications and intermediate pathological phenotypes in development of the disease. An amount adequate to accomplish therapeutic or prophylactic treatment is defined as a therapeutically- or prophylactically-effective dose. In both prophylactic and therapeutic regimes, agents are usually administered in several dosages until a sufficient immune response has been achieved. Typically, the immune response is monitored and repeated dosages are given if the immune response starts to wane. The pharmaceutical compositions of the invention are generally formulated as sterile, substantially isotonic and in full compliance with all Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) regulations of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. A pharmaceutical composition or vaccine can contain a polynucleotide encoding one or more of the polypeptides as described above, such that the polypeptide is generated in situ. Such a polynucleotide can comprise DNA, RNA, a modified nucleic acid or a DNA/RNA hybrid. As noted above, a polynucleotide can be present within any of a variety of delivery systems known to those of ordinary skill in the art, including nucleic acid expression systems, bacteria and viral expression systems. Numerous gene delivery techniques are well known in the art, such as those described by Rolland, 1998, Crit. Rev. Therap. Drug Carrier Systems 15:143-198, and references cited therein. Appropriate nucleic acid expression systems contain the necessary DNA sequences for expression in the patient (such as a suitable promoter and terminating signal). Bacterial delivery systems involve the administration of a bacterium (such as Bacillus-Calmette-Guerrin) that expresses an immunogenic portion of the polypeptide on its cell surface or secretes such an epitope. In a preferred embodiment, the DNA can be introduced using a viral expression system (e.g., vaccinia or other pox virus, retrovirus, or adenovirus), which can involve the use of a non-pathogenic (defective), replication competent virus. Suitable systems are disclosed, for example, in Fisher-Hoch et al., 1989, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 86:317-321; Flexner et al., 1989, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci 569:86-103; Flexner et. al., Vaccine 8:17-21, 1990; U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,603,112, 4,769,330, 4,777,127 and 5,017,487; WO 89/01973; GB 2,200,651; EP 0,345,242; WO 91/02805; Berkner, 1988, Biotechniques 6:616-627; Rosenfeld et al., 1991, Science 252:431-434; Kolls et al., 1994, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 91:215-219; Kass-Eisler et al., 1993, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 90:11498-11502; Guzman et al., 1993, Circulation 88:2838-2848; and Guzman et al., 1993, Cir. Res. 73:1202-1207. Techniques for incorporating DNA into such expression systems are well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. The DNA can also be “naked,” as described, for example, in Ulmer et al., 1993, Science 259:1745-1749 and reviewed by Cohen, 1993, Science 259:1691-1692. The uptake of naked DNA can be increased by coating the DNA onto biodegradable beads, which are efficiently transported into the cells. It will be apparent that a vaccine can comprise both a polynucleotide and a polypeptide component. Such vaccines can provide for an enhanced immune response. It will be apparent that a vaccine can contain pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the polynucleotides and polypeptides provided herein. Such salts can be prepared from pharmaceutically acceptable non-toxic bases, including organic bases (e.g., salts of primary, secondary and tertiary amines and basic amino acids) and inorganic bases (e.g., sodium, potassium, lithium, ammonium, calcium and magnesium salts). While any suitable carrier known to those of ordinary skill in the art can be employed in the pharmaceutical compositions of this invention, the type of carrier will vary depending on the mode of administration. Compositions of the present invention can be formulated for any appropriate manner of administration, including for example, topical, oral, nasal, intravenous, intracranial, intraperitoneal, subcutaneous or intramuscular administration. For parenteral administration, such as subcutaneous injection, the carrier preferably comprises water, saline, alcohol, a fat, a wax or a buffer. For oral administration, any of the above carriers or a solid carrier, such as mannitol, lactose, starch, magnesium stearate, sodium saccharine, talcum, cellulose, glucose, sucrose, and magnesium carbonate, can be employed. Biodegradable microspheres (e.g., polylactate polyglycolate) can also be employed as carriers for the pharmaceutical compositions of this invention. Suitable biodegradable microspheres are disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,897,268; 5,075,109; 5,928,647; 5,811,128; 5,820,883; 5,853,763; 5,814,344 and 5,942,252. Such compositions can also comprise buffers (e.g., neutral buffered saline or phosphate buffered saline), carbohydrates (e.g., glucose, mannose, sucrose or dextrans), mannitol, proteins, polypeptides or amino acids such as glycine, antioxidants, bacteriostats, chelating agents such as EDTA or glutathione, adjuvants (e.g., aluminum hydroxide), solutes that render the formulation isotonic, hypotonic or weakly hypertonic with the blood of a recipient, suspending agents, thickening agents and/or preservatives. Alternatively, compositions of the present invention can be formulated as a lyophilizate. Compounds can also be encapsulated within liposomes using well known technology. Any of a variety of non-specific immune response enhancers can be employed in the vaccines of this invention. For example, an adjuvant can be included. Most adjuvants contain a substance designed to protect the antigen from rapid catabolism, such as aluminum hydroxide or mineral oil, and a stimulator of immune responses, such as lipid A, Bortadella pertussis or Mycobacterium tuberculosis derived proteins. Suitable adjuvants are commercially available as, for example, Freund's Incomplete Adjuvant and Complete Adjuvant (Difco Laboratories, Detroit, Mich.); Merck Adjuvant 65 (Merck and Company, Inc., Rahway, N.J.); AS-2 (SmithKline Beecham); aluminum salts such as aluminum hydroxide gel (alum) or aluminum phosphate; salts of calcium, iron or zinc; an insoluble suspension of acylated tyrosine; acylated sugars; cationically or anionically derivatized polysaccharides; polyphosphazenes; biodegradable microspheres; monophosphoryl lipid A and quil A. Cytokines, such as GM-CSF or interleukin-2, -7; or -12, can also be used as adjuvants. Within the vaccines provided herein, the adjuvant composition is preferably designed to induce an immune response predominantly of the TH1 type. High levels of TH1-type cytokines (e.g., IFN-.gamma., TNF-α, IL-2 and IL-12) tend to favor the induction of cell mediated immune responses to an administered antigen. In contrast, high levels of TH2-type cytokines (e.g., IL-4, IL-5, IL-6 and IL-10) tend to favor the induction of humoral immune responses. Following application of a vaccine as provided herein, a patient will support an immune response that includes TH1- and TH2-type responses. Within a preferred embodiment, in which a response is predominantly TH1-type, the level of TH1-type cytokines will increase to a greater extent than the level of TH2-type cytokines. The levels of these cytokines can be readily assessed using standard assays. For a review of the families of cytokines, see Mosmann and Coffman, 1989, Ann. Rev. Immunol. 7:145-173. Immunogenic agents of the invention, such as peptides, are sometimes administered in combination with an adjuvant. A variety of adjuvants can be used in combination with a peptide, such as a SPAS-1 human homolog or other cancer proteins of the invention, to elicit an immune response. Preferred adjuvants augment the intrinsic response to an immunogen without causing conformational changes in the immunogen that affect the qualitative form of the response. Preferred adjuvants include aluminum hydroxide and aluminum phosphate, 3 De-O-acylated monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL™) (see GB 2220211 (RIB ImmunoChem Research Inc., Hamilton, Mont.). Stimulon™ QS-21 is a triterpene glycoside or saponin isolated from the bark of the Quillaja Saponaria Molina tree found in South America (see Kensil et al, in VACCINE DESIGN: THE SUBUNIT AND ADJUVANT APPROACH (eds.), (Powell & Newman, Plenum Press, NY, 1995); U.S. Pat. No. 5,057,540; Aquila BioPharmaceuticals, Framingham, Mass.). Other adjuvants are oil in water emulsions (such as squalene or peanut oil), optionally in combination with immune stimulants, such as monophosphoryl lipid A (see Stoute et al., 1997, N. Engl. J. Med. 336:86-91). Another adjuvant is CpG (WO 98/40100). Adjuvants can be administered as a component of a therapeutic composition with an active agent or can be administered separately, before, concurrently with, or after administration of the therapeutic agent. Other preferred classes of adjuvants include aluminum salts (alum), such as aluminum hydroxide, aluminum phosphate, aluminum sulfate. Such adjuvants can be used with or without other specific immunostimulating agents such as MPL or 3-DMP, QS-21, polymeric or monomeric amino acids such as polyglutamic acid or polylysine. Another class of adjuvants is oil-in-water emulsion formulations. Such adjuvants can be used with or without other specific immunostimulating agents such as muramyl peptides (e.g., N-acetylmuramyl-L-threonyl-D-isoglutamine (thr-MDP), N-acetyl-normuramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine (nor-MDP), N-acetylmuramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutaminyl-L-alanine-2-(1′-2′dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-hydroxyphosphoryloxy)-ethylamine (MTP-PE), N-acetylglucsaminyl-N-acetylmuramyl-L-Al-D-isoglu-L-Ala-dipalmitoxy propylamide (DTP-DPP) theramide™), or other bacterial cell wall components. Oil-in-water emulsions include (a) MF59 (WO 90/14837), containing 5% Squalene, 0.5% Tween 80, and 0.5% Span 85 (optionally containing various amounts of MTP-PE) formulated into submicron particles using a microfluidizer such as Model 110Y microfluidizer (Microfluidics, Newton Mass.), (b) SAF, containing 10% Squalene, 0.4% Tween 80, 5% pluronic-blocked polymer L121, and thr-MDP, either microfluidized into a submicron emulsion or vortexed to generate a larger particle size emulsion, and (c) Ribi™ adjuvant system (RAS), (Ribi ImmunoChem, Hamilton, Mont.) containing 2% squalene, 0.2% Tween 80, and one or more bacterial cell wall components from the group consisting of monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL), trehalose dimycolate (TDM), and cell wall skeleton (CWS), preferably MPL+CWS (Detox™). Another class of preferred adjuvants is saponin adjuvants, such as Stimulon™ (QS-21, Aquila, Framingham, Mass.) or particles generated therefrom such as ISCOMs (immunostimulating complexes) and ISCOMATRIX. Other adjuvants include Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA) and Incomplete Freund's Adjuvant (IFA). Other adjuvants include cytokines, such as interleukins (IL-1, IL-2, and IL-12), macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF), tumor necrosis factor (TNF). An adjuvant can be administered with an immunogen as a single composition, or can be administered before, concurrent with or after administration of the immunogen. Immunogen and adjuvant can be packaged and supplied in the same vial or can be packaged in separate vials and mixed before use. Immunogen and adjuvant are typically packaged with a label indicating the intended therapeutic application. If immunogen and adjuvant are packaged separately, the packaging typically includes instructions for mixing before use. The choice of an adjuvant and/or carrier depends on the stability of the immunogenic formulation containing the adjuvant, the route of administration, the dosing schedule, the efficacy of the adjuvant for the species being vaccinated, and, in humans, a pharmaceutically acceptable adjuvant is one that has been approved or is approvable for human administration by pertinent regulatory bodies. For example, Complete Freund's adjuvant is not suitable for human administration. Alum, MPL and QS-21 are preferred. Optionally, two or more different adjuvants can be used simultaneously. Preferred combinations include alum with MPL, alum with QS-21, MPL with QS-21, and alum, QS-21 and MPL together. Also, Incomplete Freund's adjuvant can be used (Chang et al., 1998, Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 32:173-186), optionally in combination with any of alum, QS-21, and MPL and all combinations thereof. Any vaccine provided herein can be prepared using well known methods that result in a combination of antigen, immune response enhancer and a suitable carrier or excipient. The compositions described herein can be administered as part of a sustained release formulation (i.e., a formulation such as a capsule or sponge that effects a slow release of compound following administration). Such formulations can generally be prepared using well known technology (see, e.g., Coombes et al., 1996, Vaccine 14:1429-1438) and administered by, for example, oral, rectal or subcutaneous implantation, or by implantation at the desired target site. Sustained-release formulations can contain a polypeptide, polynucleotide or antibody dispersed in a carrier matrix and/or contained within a reservoir surrounded by a rate controlling membrane. Carriers for use within such formulations are biocompatible, and can also be biodegradable; preferably the formulation provides a relatively constant level of active component release. Such carriers include microparticles of poly(lactide-co-glycolide), as well as polyacrylate, latex, starch, cellulose and dextran. Other delayed-release carriers include supramolecular biovectors, which comprise a non-liquid hydrophilic core (e.g., a cross-linked polysaccharide or oligosaccharide) and, optionally, an external layer comprising an amphiphilic compound, such as a phospholipid (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,151,254 and PCT applications WO 94/20078, WO/94/23701 and WO 96/06638). The amount of active compound contained within a sustained release formulation depends upon the site of implantation, the rate and expected duration of release and the nature of the condition to be treated or prevented. Any of a variety of delivery vehicles can be employed within pharmaceutical compositions and vaccines to facilitate production of an antigen-specific immune response that targets tumor cells. Delivery vehicles include antigen presenting cells (APCs), such as dendritic cells, macrophages, B cells, monocytes and other cells that can be engineered to be efficient APCs. Such cells can, but need not, be genetically modified to increase the capacity for presenting the antigen, to improve activation and/or maintenance of the T cell response, to have anti-tumor effects per se and/or to be immunologically compatible with the receiver (i.e., matched HLA haplotype). APCs can generally be isolated from any of a variety of biological fluids and organs, including tumor and peritumoral tissues, and can be autologous, allogeneic, syngeneic or xenogeneic cells. Certain preferred embodiments of the present invention use dendritic cells or progenitors thereof as antigen-presenting cells. Dendritic cells are highly potent APCs (Banchereau and Steinman, 1998, Nature 392:245-251) and have been shown to be effective as a physiological adjuvant for eliciting prophylactic or therapeutic antitumor immunity (see Timmerman and Levy, 1999, Ann. Rev. Med. 50:507-529). In general, dendritic cells can be identified based on their typical shape (stellate in situ, with marked cytoplasmic processes (dendrites) visible in vitro), their ability to take up process and present antigens with high efficiency and their ability to activate naive T cell responses. Dendritic cells can, of course, be engineered to express specific cell-surface receptors or ligands that are not commonly found on dendritic cells in vivo or ex vivo, and such modified dendritic cells are contemplated by the present invention. As an alternative to dendritic cells, secreted vesicles antigen-loaded dendritic cells (called exosomes) can be used within a vaccine (see Zitvogel et al., 1998, Nature Med. 4:594-600). Dendritic cells and progenitors can be obtained from peripheral blood, bone marrow, tumor-infiltrating cells, peritumoral tissues-infiltrating cells, lymph nodes, spleen, skin, umbilical cord blood or any other suitable tissue or fluid. For example, dendritic cells can be differentiated ex vivo by adding a combination of cytokines such as GM-CSF, IL-4, IL-13 and/or TNFα to cultures of monocytes harvested from peripheral blood. Alternatively, CD34 positive cells harvested from peripheral blood, umbilical cord blood or bone marrow can be differentiated into dendritic cells by adding to the culture medium combinations of GM-CSF, IL-3, TNFα, CD40 ligand, LPS, flt3 ligand and/or other compound(s) that induce maturation and proliferation of dendritic cells. Dendritic cells are conveniently categorized as “immature” and “mature” cells, which allows a simple way to discriminate between two well characterized phenotypes. However, this nomenclature should not be construed to exclude all possible intermediate stages of differentiation. Immature dendritic cells are characterized as APC with a high capacity for antigen uptake and processing, which correlates with the high expression of Fc.gamma. receptor and mannose receptor. The mature phenotype is typically characterized by a lower expression of these markers, but a high expression of cell surface molecules responsible for T cell activation such as class I and class II MHC, adhesion molecules (e.g., CD54 and CD11) and costimulatory molecules (e.g., CD40, CD80, CD86 and 4-1BB). APCs can generally be transfected with a polynucleotide encoding a SPAS-1 protein or SPAS-1 human homolog (or portion or other variant thereof) such that the SPAS-1 polypeptide or SPAS-1 human homolog polypeptide, or an immunogenic portion thereof, is expressed on the cell surface. Such transfection can take place ex vivo, and a composition or vaccine comprising such transfected cells can then be used for therapeutic purposes, as described herein. Alternatively, a gene delivery vehicle that targets a dendritic or other antigen presenting cell can be administered to a patient, resulting in transfection that occurs in vivo. In vivo and ex vivo transfection of dendritic cells, for example, can generally be performed using any methods known in the art, such as those described in WO 97/24447, or the gene gun approach described by Mahvi et al., 1997, Immunology and Cell Biology 75:456-460. Antigen loading of dendritic cells can be achieved by incubating dendritic cells or progenitor cells with the prostate tumor polypeptide, DNA (naked or within a plasmid vector) or RNA; or with antigen-expressing recombinant bacterium or viruses (e.g., vaccinia, fowlpox, adenovirus or lentivirus vectors). Prior to loading, the polypeptide can be covalently conjugated to an immunological partner that provides T cell help (e.g., a carrier molecule). Alternatively, a dendritic cell can be pulsed with a non-conjugated immunological partner, separately or in the presence of the polypeptide. Vaccines and pharmaceutical compositions can be presented in unit-dose or multi-dose containers, such as sealed ampoules or vials. Such containers are preferably hermetically sealed to preserve sterility of the formulation until use. In general, formulations can be stored as suspensions, solutions or emulsions in oily or aqueous vehicles. Alternatively, a vaccine or pharmaceutical composition can be stored in a freeze-dried condition requiring only the addition of a sterile liquid carrier immediately prior to use. The dosage can vary within this range depending upon the dosage form employed and the route of administration utilized. The exact formulation, route of administration and dosage can be chosen by the individual physician in view of the patient's condition. (See, e.g., Fingl et al., 1975, In: THE PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS OF THERAPEUTICS, Ch. 1, p. 1). Cancer Therapy In further aspects of the present invention, the compositions described herein can be used for immunotherapy of cancer, such as prostate cancer. The SPAS-1 gene is expressed in in human and mouse cancers as shown in Table 1 and Table 2 below: TABLE 1 Source of human ESTs that when BLASTed with SPAS-1 lead to a smallest Sum Probability P(N) < e−10 Organ Tissue type Prostate Fully malignant prostate cancer cells Breast Pectoral muscle after mastectomy Cervix Cervix tumor Ovary Ovary Tumor Placenta Choricarcinoma Colon Colon tumor metastasis Colon Colonic mucosa from patients with Crohn's disease Brain Neuroblastoma Brain Meningioma Lung Neuroendocrine lung carcinoid Lung Small cell carcinoma Kidney Renal cell tumor B cell Chronic Lymphatic Leukemia Germinal Center Germ cell tumors The coding region of SPAS-1 cDNA (nucleotides 1-465 from the partial cDNA sequence shown in FIG. 1) was BLASTed against a human EST Database. Hits leading to a smallest Sum Probability P(N) < e−10 were retrieved. Displayed in the table are the retrieved ESTs which originated from tumor tissues. TABLE 2 Source of mouse ESTs that when BLASTed with SPAS-1 lead to a smallest Sum Probability P(N) < e−10 Organ: Tissue type: Mammary Infiltrating ductal carcinoma Mammary gland Mammary gland tumors The coding region of SPAS-1 cDNA (nucleotides 1-465 from the partial cDNA sequence shown in FIG. 1) was BLASTed against a mouse EST Database. Hits leading to a smallest Sum Probability P(N) < e−10 were retrieved. Displayed in the table are the retrieved ESTs which originated from tumor tissues. Within such methods, pharmaceutical compositions and vaccines are typically administered to a patient. The term patient includes mammals, such as humans, domestic animals (e.g., dogs or cats), farm animals (cattle, horses, or pigs), monkeys, rabbits, rats, mice, and other laboratory animals. A patient can or can not be afflicted with cancer. Accordingly, the above pharmaceutical compositions and vaccines can be used to prevent the development of a cancer or to treat a patient afflicted with a cancer. A cancer can be diagnosed using criteria generally accepted in the art, including the presence of a malignant tumor. Pharmaceutical compositions and vaccines can be administered either prior to or following surgical removal of primary tumors and/or treatment such as administration of radiotherapy or conventional chemotherapeutic drugs. Administration can be by any suitable method, including administration by intravenous, intraperitoneal, intramuscular, subcutaneous, intranasal, intradermal, anal, vaginal, topical and oral routes. Within certain embodiments and described above, immunotherapy can be active immunotherapy, in which treatment relies on the in vivo stimulation of the endogenous host immune system to react against tumors with the administration of immune response-modifying agents (such as polypeptides and polynucleotides as provided herein). Within other embodiments, immunotherapy can be passive immunotherapy as described above, in which treatment involves the delivery of agents with established tumor-immune reactivity (such as effector cells or antibodies) that can directly or indirectly mediate antitumor effects and does not necessarily depend on an intact host immune system. Examples of effector cells include T cells as discussed above, T lymphocytes (such as CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes and CD4+ T-helper tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes), killer cells (such as Natural Killer cells and lymphokine-activated killer cells), B cells and antigen-presenting cells (such as dendritic cells and macrophages) expressing a polypeptide provided herein. T cell receptors and antibody receptors specific for the polypeptides recited herein can be cloned, expressed and transferred into other vectors or effector cells for adoptive immunotherapy. The polypeptides provided herein can also be used to generate antibodies or anti-idiotypic antibodies (as described above and in U.S. Pat. No. 4,918,164) for passive immunotherapy. Effector cells can generally be obtained in sufficient quantities for adoptive immunotherapy by growth in vitro, as described herein. Culture conditions for expanding single antigen-specific effector cells to several billion in number with retention of antigen recognition in vivo are well known in the art. Such in vitro culture conditions typically use intermittent stimulation with antigen, often in the presence of cytokines (such as IL-2) and non-dividing feeder cells. As noted above, immunoreactive polypeptides as provided herein can be used to rapidly expand antigen-specific T cell cultures in order to generate a sufficient number of cells for immunotherapy. In particular, antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic, macrophage or B cells, can be pulsed with immunoreactive polypeptides or transfected with one or more polynucleotides using standard techniques well known in the art. For example, antigen-presenting cells can be transfected with a polynucleotide having a promoter appropriate for increasing expression in a recombinant virus or other expression system. Cultured effector cells for use in therapy must be able to grow and distribute widely, and to survive long term in vivo. Studies have shown that cultured effector cells can be induced to grow in vivo and to survive long term in substantial numbers by repeated stimulation with antigen supplemented with IL-2 (see, for example, Cheever et al., 1997, Immunological Reviews 157:177). Alternatively, a vector expressing a polypeptide recited herein can be introduced into antigen presenting cells taken from a patient and clonally propagated ex vivo for transplant back into the same patient. Transfected cells can be reintroduced into the patient using any means known in the art, preferably in sterile form by intravenous, intracavitary, intraperitoneal or intratumor administration. Routes and frequency of administration of the therapeutic compositions described herein, as well as dosage, will vary from individual to individual, and can be readily established using standard techniques. In general, the pharmaceutical compositions and vaccines can be administered by injection (e.g., intracutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous or subcutaneous), intranasally (e.g., by aspiration) or orally. Preferably, between 1 and 10 doses can be administered over a 52 week period. Preferably, 6 doses are administered, at intervals of 1 month, and booster vaccinations can be given periodically thereafter. Alternate protocols can be appropriate for individual patients. A suitable dose is an amount of a compound that, when administered as described above, is capable of promoting an anti-tumor immune response, and is at least 10-50% above the basal (i.e., untreated) level. Such response can be monitored by measuring the anti-tumor antibodies in a patient or by vaccine-dependent generation of cytolytic effector cells capable of killing the patient's tumor cells in vitro. Such vaccines should also be capable of causing an immune response that leads to an improved clinical outcome (e.g., more frequent remissions, complete or partial or longer disease-free survival) in vaccinated patients as compared to non-vaccinated patients. In general, for pharmaceutical compositions and vaccines comprising one or more polypeptides, the amount of each polypeptide present in a dose ranges from about 1 μg to 5 mg, preferably 100 μg to 5 mg per kg of host. Suitable dose sizes will vary with the size of the patient, but will typically range from about 0.1 mL to about 5 mL. In general, an appropriate dosage and treatment regimen provides the active compound(s) in an amount sufficient to provide therapeutic and/or prophylactic benefit. Such a response can be monitored by establishing an improved clinical outcome (e.g., more frequent remissions, complete or partial, or longer disease-free survival) in treated patients as compared to non-treated patients. Increases in preexisting immune responses to a SPAS-1 protein or SPAS-1 human homolog generally correlate with an improved clinical outcome. Such immune responses can generally be evaluated using standard proliferation, cytotoxicity or cytokine assays, which can be performed using samples obtained from a patient before and after treatment. Cancer Diagnosis In general, a cancer can be detected in a patient based on the presence of one or more SPAS-1 proteins and/or polynucleotides (and SPAS-1 human homolog proteins and/or polynucleotides) encoding such proteins in a biological sample (such as blood, sera, urine and/or tumor biopsies) obtained from the patient. In other words, such proteins can be used as markers to indicate the presence or absence of a cancer such as prostate cancer. In addition, such proteins can be useful for the detection of other cancers. The binding agents provided herein generally permit detection of the level of antigen that binds to the agent in the biological sample. Polynucleotide primers and probes can be used to detect the level of mRNA encoding a tumor protein, which is also indicative of the presence or absence of a cancer. In general, a prostate tumor sequence should be present at a level that is at least three fold higher in tumor tissue than in normal tissue There are a variety of assay formats known to those of ordinary skill in the art for using a binding agent to detect polypeptide markers in a sample. See, e.g., Harlow and Lane, 1988, ANTIBODIES: A LABORATORY MANUAL, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. In general, the presence or absence of a cancer in a patient can be determined by (a) contacting a biological sample obtained from a patient with a binding agent; (b) detecting in the sample a level of polypeptide that binds to the binding agent; and (c) comparing the level of polypeptide with a predetermined cut-off value. In a preferred embodiment, the assay involves the use of binding agent immobilized on a solid support to bind to and remove the polypeptide from the remainder of the sample. The bound polypeptide can then be detected using a detection reagent that contains a reporter group and specifically binds to the binding agent/polypeptide complex. Such detection reagents can comprise, for example, a binding agent that specifically binds to the polypeptide or an antibody or other agent that specifically binds to the binding agent, such as an anti-immunoglobulin, protein G, protein A or a lectin. Alternatively, a competitive assay can be utilized, in which a polypeptide is labeled with a reporter group and allowed to bind to the immobilized binding agent after incubation of the binding agent with the sample. The extent to which components of the sample inhibit the binding of the labeled polypeptide to the binding agent is indicative of the reactivity of the sample with the immobilized binding agent. Suitable polypeptides for use within such assays include full length SPAS-1 proteins and portions thereof to which the binding agent binds, as described above. The solid support can be any material known to those of ordinary skill in the art to which the tumor protein can be attached. For example, the solid support can be a test well in a microtiter plate or a nitrocellulose or other suitable membrane. Alternatively, the support can be a bead or disc, such as glass, fiberglass, latex or a plastic material such as polystyrene or polyvinylchloride. The support can also be a magnetic particle or a fiber optic sensor, such as those disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,359,681. The binding agent can be immobilized on the solid support using a variety of techniques known to those of skill in the art, which are amply described in the patent and scientific literature. In the context of the present invention, the term “immobilization” refers to both noncovalent association, such as adsorption, and covalent attachment (which can be a direct linkage between the agent and functional groups on the support or can be a linkage by way of a cross-linking agent). Immobilization by adsorption to a well in a microtiter plate or to a membrane is preferred. In such cases, adsorption can be achieved by contacting the binding agent, in a suitable buffer, with the solid support for a suitable amount of time. The contact time varies with temperature, but is typically between about 1 hour and about 1 day. In general, contacting a well of a plastic microtiter plate (such as polystyrene or polyvinylchloride) with an amount of binding agent ranging from about 10 ng to about 10 μg, and preferably about 100 ng to about 1 μg, is sufficient to immobilize an adequate amount of binding agent. Covalent attachment of binding agent to a solid support can generally be achieved by first reacting the support with a bifunctional reagent that will react with both the support and a functional group, such as a hydroxyl or amino group, on the binding agent. For example, the binding agent can be covalently attached to supports having an appropriate polymer coating using benzoquinone or by condensation of an aldehyde group on the support with an amine and an active hydrogen on the binding partner (see, e.g., PIERCE IMMUNOTECHNOLOGY CATALOG AND HANDBOOK, 1991, at A12-A13). In certain embodiments, the assay is a two-antibody sandwich assay. This assay can be performed by first contacting an antibody that has been immobilized on a solid support, commonly the well of a microtiter plate, with the sample, such that polypeptides within the sample are allowed to bind to the immobilized antibody. Unbound sample is then removed from the immobilized polypeptide-antibody complexes and a detection reagent (preferably a second antibody capable of binding to a different site on the polypeptide) containing a reporter group is added. The amount of detection reagent that remains bound to the solid support is then determined using a method appropriate for the specific reporter group. More specifically, once the antibody is immobilized on the support as described above, the remaining protein binding sites on the support are typically blocked. Any suitable blocking agent known to those of ordinary skill in the art, such as bovine serum albumin or Tween 20™ (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, Mo.). The immobilized antibody is then incubated with the sample, and polypeptide is allowed to bind to the antibody. The sample can be diluted with a suitable diluent, such as phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) prior to incubation. In general, an appropriate contact time (i.e., incubation time) is a period of time that is sufficient to detect the presence of polypeptide within a sample obtained from an individual with prostate cancer. Preferably, the contact time is sufficient to achieve a level of binding that is at least about 95% of that achieved at equilibrium between bound and unbound polypeptide. Those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that the time necessary to achieve equilibrium can be readily determined by assaying the level of binding that occurs over a period of time. At room temperature, an incubation time of about 30 minutes is generally sufficient. Unbound sample can then be removed by washing the solid support with an appropriate buffer, such as PBS containing 0.1% Tween 20™. The second antibody, which contains a reporter group, can then be added to the solid support. Preferred reporter groups include those groups recited above. The detection reagent is then incubated with the immobilized antibody-polypeptide complex for an amount of time sufficient to detect the bound polypeptide. An appropriate amount of time can generally be determined by assaying the level of binding that occurs over a period of time. Unbound detection reagent is then removed and bound detection reagent is detected using the reporter group. The method employed for detecting the reporter group depends upon the nature of the reporter group. For radioactive groups, scintillation counting or autoradiographic methods are generally appropriate. Spectroscopic methods can be used to detect dyes, luminescent groups and fluorescent groups. Biotin can be detected using avidin, coupled to a different reporter group (commonly a radioactive or fluorescent group or an enzyme). Enzyme reporter groups can generally be detected by the addition of substrate (generally for a specific period of time), followed by spectroscopic or other analysis of the reaction products. To determine the presence or absence of a cancer, such as prostate cancer, the signal detected from the reporter group that remains bound to the solid support is generally compared to a signal that corresponds to a predetermined cut-off value. In one preferred embodiment, the cut-off value for the detection of a cancer is the average mean signal obtained when the immobilized antibody is incubated with samples from patients without the cancer. In general, a sample generating a signal that is three standard deviations above the predetermined cut-off value is considered positive for the cancer. In an alternate preferred embodiment, the cut-off value is determined using a Receiver Operator Curve, according to the method of Sackett et al., CLINICAL EPIDEMIOLOGY: A BASIC SCIENCE FOR CLINICAL MEDICINE, Little Brown and Co., 1985, p. 106-7. Briefly, in this embodiment, the cut-off value can be determined from a plot of pairs of true positive rates (i.e., sensitivity) and false positive rates (100%-specificity) that correspond to each possible cut-off value for the diagnostic test result. The cut-off value on the plot that is the closest to the upper left-hand corner (i.e., the value that encloses the largest area) is the most accurate cut-off value, and a sample generating a signal that is higher than the cut-off value determined by this method can be considered positive. Alternatively, the cut-off value can be shifted to the left along the plot, to minimize the false positive rate, or to the right, to minimize the false negative rate. In general, a sample generating a signal that is higher than the cut-off value determined by this method is considered positive for a cancer. In a related embodiment, the assay is performed in a flow-through or strip test format, wherein the binding agent is immobilized on a membrane, such as nitrocellulose. In the flow-through test, polypeptides within the sample bind to the immobilized binding agent as the sample passes through the membrane. A second, labeled binding agent then binds to the binding agent-polypeptide complex as a solution containing the second binding agent flows through the membrane. The detection of bound second binding agent can then be performed as described above. In the strip test format, one end of the membrane to which binding agent is bound is immersed in a solution containing the sample. The sample migrates along the membrane through a region containing second binding agent and to the area of immobilized binding agent. Concentration of second binding agent at the area of immobilized antibody indicates the presence of a cancer. Typically, the concentration of second binding agent at that site generates a pattern, such as a line, that can be read visually. The absence of such a pattern indicates a negative result. In general, the amount of binding agent immobilized on the membrane is selected to generate a visually discernible pattern when the biological sample contains a level of polypeptide that would be sufficient to generate a positive signal in the two-antibody sandwich assay, in the format discussed above. Preferred binding agents for use in such assays are antibodies and antigen-binding fragments thereof. Preferably, the amount of antibody immobilized on the membrane ranges from about 25 ng to about 1 μg, and more preferably from about 50 ng to about 500 ng. Such tests can typically be performed with a very small amount of biological sample. Of course, numerous other assay protocols exist that are suitable for use with the tumor proteins or binding agents of the present invention. The above descriptions are intended to be exemplary only. For example, it will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art that the above protocols can be readily modified to use prostate tumor polypeptides to detect antibodies that bind to such polypeptides in a biological sample. The detection of such SPAS-1 protein specific antibodies can correlate with the presence of a cancer. A cancer can also, or alternatively, be detected based on the presence of T cells that specifically react with a SPAS-1 protein or SPAS-1 human homolog in a biological sample. Within certain methods, a biological sample comprising CD4+ and/or CD8+ T cells isolated from a patient is incubated with a prostate tumor polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding such a polypeptide and/or an APC that expresses at least an immunogenic portion of such a polypeptide, and the presence or absence of specific activation of the T cells is detected. Suitable biological samples include, but are not limited to, isolated T cells. For example, T cells can be isolated from a patient by routine techniques (such as by Ficoll/Hypaque density gradient centrifugation of peripheral blood lymphocytes). T cells can be incubated in vitro for 2-9 days (typically 4 days) at 37° C. with Mtb-81 or Mtb-67.2 polypeptide (e.g., 5-25 μg/ml). It can be desirable to incubate another aliquot of a T cell sample in the absence of prostate tumor polypeptide to serve as a control. For CD4+ T cells, activation is preferably detected by evaluating proliferation of the T cells. For CD8+ T cells, activation is preferably detected by evaluating cytolytic activity. A level of proliferation that is at least two fold greater and/or a level of cytolytic activity that is at least 20% greater than in disease-free patients indicates the presence of a cancer in the patient. As noted above, a cancer can also, or alternatively, be detected based on the level of mRNA encoding a SPAS-1 protein or SPAS-1 human homolog in a biological sample. For example, at least two oligonucleotide primers can be employed in a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based assay to amplify a portion of a prostate tumor cDNA derived from a biological sample, wherein at least one of the oligonucleotide primers is specific for (i.e., hybridizes to) a polynucleotide encoding the SPAS-1 protein or SPAS-1 human homolog. The amplified cDNA is then separated and detected using techniques well known in the art, such as gel electrophoresis. Similarly, oligonucleotide probes that specifically hybridize to a polynucleotide encoding a SPAS-1 protein or SPAS-1 human homolog can be used in a hybridization assay to detect the presence of polynucleotide encoding the tumor protein in a biological sample. To permit hybridization under assay conditions, oligonucleotide primers and probes should comprise an oligonucleotide sequence that has at least about 60%, preferably at least about 75% and more preferably at least about 90%, identity to a portion of a polynucleotide encoding a SPAS-1 protein that is at least 10 nucleotides, and preferably at least 20 nucleotides, in length. Preferably, oligonucleotide primers and/or probes hybridize to a polynucleotide encoding a polypeptide described herein under moderately stringent conditions, as defined above. Oligonucleotide primers and/or probes which can be usefully employed in the diagnostic methods described herein preferably are at least 10-40 nucleotides in length. In a preferred embodiment, the oligonucleotide primers comprise at least 10 contiguous nucleotides, more preferably at least 15 contiguous nucleotides, of a DNA molecule having a sequence recited in FIG. 1. Techniques for both PCR based assays and hybridization assays are well known in the art (see, for example, Mullis et al., Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol., 51:263, 1987; Erlich ed., PCR TECHNOLOGY, Stockton Press, NY, 1989). One preferred assay employs RT-PCR, in which PCR is applied in conjunction with reverse transcription. Typically, RNA is extracted from a biological sample such as a biopsy tissue and is reverse transcribed to produce cDNA molecules. PCR amplification using at least one specific primer generates a cDNA molecule, which can be separated and visualized using, for example, gel electrophoresis. Amplification can be performed on biological samples taken from a test patient and from an individual who is not afflicted with a cancer. The amplification reaction can be performed on several dilutions of cDNA spanning two orders of magnitude. A two-fold or greater increase in expression in several dilutions of the test patient sample as compared to the same dilutions of the non-cancerous sample is typically considered positive. In another embodiment, SPAS-1 proteins and polynucleotides and SPAS-1 human homolog proteins and polynucleotides encoding such proteins can be used as markers for monitoring the progression of cancer. In this embodiment, assays as described above for the diagnosis of a cancer can be performed over time, and the change in the level of reactive polypeptide(s) evaluated. For example, the assays can be performed every 24-72 hours for a period of 6 months to 1 year, and thereafter performed as needed. In general, a cancer is progressing in those patients in whom the level of polypeptide detected by the binding agent increases over time. In contrast, the cancer is not progressing when the level of reactive polypeptide either remains constant or decreases with time. Certain in vivo diagnostic assays can be performed directly on a tumor. One such assay involves contacting tumor cells with a binding agent. The bound binding agent can then be detected directly or indirectly via a reporter group. Such binding agents can also be used in histological applications. Alternatively, polynucleotide probes can be used within such applications. As noted above, to improve sensitivity, multiple SPAS-1 protein markers and SPAS-1 human homolog markers can be assayed within a given sample. It will be apparent that binding agents specific for different proteins provided herein can be combined within a single assay. Further, multiple primers or probes can be used concurrently. The selection of tumor protein markers can be based on routine experiments to determine combinations that results in optimal sensitivity. In addition, or alternatively, assays for tumor proteins provided herein can be combined with assays for other known tumor antigens. Methods of Identifying and Cloning T Cell-Defined Tumor Antigens The methods disclosed herein to clone the SPAS-1 gene can be used as a general method for identifying other T cell tumor targets. This strategy exploits the ability of CTLA-4 blockade to greatly enhance T cell responses to tumor antigens in order to facilitate the production of T cell lines which would not normally be possible due to low frequency or to peripheral T cell tolerance. This strategy consists of six main components: 1. As was the case with the TRAMP murine model before, human prostatic adenocarcinoma, an appropriate mouse model of the relevant human cancer is chosen. 2. Mice are immunized with the tumor cells as a vaccine or with tumor cells genetically engineered to express cytokines, costimulatory molecules, and alike together with blockade of CTLA-4 using appropriate blocking antibodies. 3. Both CD8+ and CD4+ T cell lines are established from the immunized mice using conventional in vitro methods of restimulation and culture. 4. These T cell lines are fused with an appropriate T cell hybridoma fusion partner expressing a reporter gene for T cell activation and T cell hybridoma are selected for specificity of the original T cells (see Karttunen, J., 1992, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 89:6020-6024). 5. The hybridomas described in (4) above are then used to screen CHO cells or other readily transfectable cells engineered to express a cDNA library from the tumor cells used for the original immunization along with the DNA encoding the restricting element used by the original T cells (see Karttunen, J., 1992, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 89:6020-6024). 6. cDNAs obtained in (5) can be sequenced and full length and partial length clones can be obtained; full length genes can be obtained by conventional molecular methods. The human homologs can be obtained either by conventional molecular methods such as low stringency hybridization or by scanning available genomic or proteomic databases. Exemplary genes such as SPAS-1 can be isolated and characterized (see Examples). 7. With either the human or the mouse gene cDNA, a minimal T cell epitope can then be defined by transfection of appropriate cells with truncated variants of the cDNA and epitopes confirmed by analysis of synthetic peptides as described (see Examples). Methods of Diagnosis The invention provides methods of detecting an immune response against prostate tumor peptide, for example in a patient suffering from or susceptible to cancer (i.e. prostate cancer). The methods may be used for monitoring a course of treatment being administered to a patient, in prognostic methods, etc. The methods can be used to monitor both therapeutic treatment on symptomatic patients and prophylactic treatment on asymptomatic patients. The methods are useful for monitoring naturally occurring immune responsiveness against SPAS-1; active immunization of SPAS-1 (e.g., an immune response produced in response to administration of immunogen) and passive immunization (e.g., measuring level of administered immunologic agent). Various methods known in the art may be used to determine the presence of an immune response. The tissue sample for analysis is typically blood, plasma, serum, mucous or cerebrospinal fluid from the patient. The sample is analyzed for indication of an immune response to any form of a SPAS-1 peptide of the invention. The immune response can be determined from the presence of, e.g., antibodies or T-cells that specifically bind to the prostate tumor peptide. Where T cell responses are of interest, the sample is a sample comprising lymphocytes, e.g. the cellular portion of a blood sample, etc. T cells may be stained with a peptide/MHC complex, for example using detectably labeled MHC reagents (i•TAg™ MHC Tetramers, Beckman Coulter; BD™ DimerX reagents; ProImmune Pro5® MHC class I Pentamers etc.) to determine the presence of T cells having specificity for a SPAS-1 peptide. Alternatively, T cells may be assayed in vitro for reactivity to a SPAS-1 peptide, using methods known in the art. For example, a sample comprising T cells may be contacted with a SPAS-1 antigen presented by an antigen presenting cell; or provided as a stable MHC complex; and the response of the cells quantitated, for example by proliferation, cytokine synthesis, cytotoxicity and the like. Measured values may thus include quantitation of antigen specific T cells, quantitation of T cell proliferation in response to the antigen, quantitation of cytokine release, e.g. IFN-γ, IL-2, etc. in response to presented antigen, percentage of specific cell lysis and the like. Some methods may entail determining a baseline value of an immune response in a normal control, or in a patient before administering a dosage of agent, and comparing this with a value for the test immune response, i.e. after treatment, in a patient sample, etc. A significant increase (i.e., greater than the typical margin of experimental error in repeat measurements of the same sample, expressed as one standard deviation from the mean of such measurements) in value of the immune response signals the presence of an immune response against SPAS-1 in the sample. If the value for immune response does not change significantly, or decreases, signals the lack of an immune response against SPAS-1 in the sample. In other methods, a control value (i.e., a mean and standard deviation) of immune response is determined for a control population. Typically the individuals in the control population are free of the cancer of interest. Measured values of immune response in a patient may be compared with the control value. In general, patients undergoing an initial course of treatment with an immunogenic agent are expected to show an increase in immune response with successive dosages, which eventually reaches a plateau. Patients have a naturally occurring immune response against SPAS-1 will also show a positive response. Administration of agent is generally continued while the immune response is increasing. Attainment of the plateau is an indicator that the administered of treatment can be discontinued or reduced in dosage or frequency. In other methods, a control value of immune response (e.g., a mean and standard deviation) is determined from a control population of individuals who have undergone treatment with a therapeutic agent. Measured values of immune response in a patient are compared with the control value. If the measured level in a patient is not significantly different (e.g., more than one standard deviation) from the control value, treatment can be discontinued. If the level in a patient is significantly below the control value, continued administration of agent is warranted. If the level in the patient persists below the control value, then a change in treatment regime, for example, use of a different adjuvant can be indicated. In other methods, a patient who is not presently receiving treatment but has undergone a previous course of treatment is monitored for immune response to determine whether a resumption of treatment is required. The measured value of immune response in the patient can be compared with a value of immune response previously achieved in the patient after a previous course of treatment. A significant decrease relative to the previous measurement (i.e., greater than a typical margin of error in repeat measurements of the same sample) is an indication that treatment can be resumed. Alternatively, the value measured in a patient can be compared with a control value (mean plus standard deviation) determined in a population of patients after undergoing a course of treatment. Alternatively, the measured value in a patient can be compared with a control value in populations of prophylactically treated patients who remain free of symptoms of disease, or populations of therapeutically treated patients who show amelioration of disease characteristics. In all of these cases, a significant decrease relative to the control level (i.e., more than a standard deviation) is an indicator that treatment should be resumed in a patient. In general, the procedures for monitoring passive immunization are similar to those for monitoring active immunization described above. However, the antibody profile following passive immunization typically shows an immediate peak in antibody concentration followed by an exponential decay. Without a further dosage, the decay approaches pretreatment levels within a period of days to months depending on the half-life of the antibody administered. For example the half-life of some human antibodies is of the order of 20 days. In some methods, a baseline measurement of antibody to the prostate tumor peptide in the patient is made before administration, a second measurement is made soon thereafter to determine the peak antibody level, and one or more further measurements are made at intervals to monitor decay of antibody levels. When the level of antibody has declined to baseline or a predetermined percentage of the peak less baseline (e.g., 50%, 25% or 10%), administration of a further dosage of antibody is administered. In some methods, peak or subsequent measured levels less background are compared with reference levels previously determined to constitute a beneficial prophylactic or therapeutic treatment regime in other patients. If the measured antibody level is significantly less than a reference level (e.g., less than the mean minus one standard deviation of the reference value in population of patients benefiting from treatment) administration of an additional dosage of antibody is indicated. Diagnostic Kits The present invention further provides kits for use within any of the above diagnostic methods. Such kits typically comprise two or more components necessary for performing a diagnostic assay for the detection of immune responses specific to SPAS-1, or to the expression of SPAS-1. Components can be compounds, reagents, containers and/or equipment. Kits also typically contain labeling providing directions for use of the kit. For example, one container within a kit can contain a monoclonal antibody or fragment thereof or soluble T cell receptor that specifically binds to a SPAS-1 protein, to a SPAS-1 genetic sequence; or to a SPAS-1/MHC complex. Alternatively, an MHC/SPAS-1 peptide complex may be included. Such reagents can be provided attached to a support material, as described above. One or more additional containers can enclose elements, such as reagents or buffers, to be used in the assay. Such kits can also, or alternatively, contain a detection reagent as described above that contains a reporter group suitable for direct or indirect detection of antibody binding. The term labeling refers to any written or recorded material that is attached to, or otherwise accompanies a kit at any time during its manufacture, transport, sale or use. For example, the term labeling encompasses advertising leaflets and brochures, packaging materials, instructions, audio or video cassettes, computer discs, as well as writing imprinted directly on kits. Alternatively, a kit can be designed to detect the level of mRNA encoding a SPAS-1 protein in a biological sample. Such kits generally comprise at least one oligonucleotide probe or primer, as described above, that hybridizes to a polynucleotide encoding a SPAS-1 protein. Such an oligonucleotide can be used, for example, within a PCR or hybridization assay. Additional components that can be present within such kits include a second oligonucleotide, a diagnostic reagent or container to facilitate the detection of a polynucleotide encoding a SPAS-1 protein. The following Examples are offered by way of illustration and not by way of limitation. EXAMPLE 1 Generation of Anti-TRAMP T Cell Lines Normal C57/BL6 male mice were immunized with GMCSF-producing TRAMP-C2 cells and CTLA-4 according to standard protocols (see, for example, Kwon. et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., U.S.A., 1997, 94: 8099-8103; Kwon et al., 1999, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 1999, 96: 15074-15079; and Hurwitz et al., 2000, Cancer Research 6: 2444-2448. Briefly, as shown in FIG. 2, three C57/BL6 male mice were immunized subcutaneously with 2×106 irradiated GMCSF-producing TRAMP-C2 cells on day 1. On days 3, 6 and 9, 100 μg anti-CTLA-4 antibody (9H10) were injected intraperitonally in the same mice. On day 12, 26 and 54, the mice were re-immunized with 2×106 irradiated GMCSF-producing TRAMP-C2 cells. 8 days later, the spleen and lymph nodes were harvested, pooled, and put in single cell suspension in 6 well plates at 20×106 cells/well with 106 MitomycinC-treated B7-expressing TRAMP-C2 cells as antigen-presenting cells and 5% final concentration of ConA supernatant. The T cell line was restimulated every 7 days by adding to each well 106 MitomycinC-treated B7-expressing TRAMP-C2 cells in 5% ConA supernatant. EXAMPLE 2 The T Cell Line is Specific for TRAMP Tumor Normal C57/BL6 male mice were immunized with GMCSF-producing TRAMP-C2 cells and CTLA-4 according to standard procedures described. T cells lines were generated by stimulating spleen and lymph node cells from immunized mice with B7-expressing TRAMP cells in vitro. These cells were propagated in vitro by standard techniques. FACS analysis of the cell line showed the cells were uniformly CD8+, indicating that the cells were likely to be cytotoxic T lymphocytes and the target antigen a peptide restricted by Class I MHC molecules. The function and specificity of the T cells were assessed using standard assays for interferon gamma. (IFN) production (A) and cytotoxicity (B) in response to incubation with a panel of syngeneic, C57BL/6 derived tumors of different cellular origins. As shown in FIG. 3 in both assays the T cell line recognized only the TRAMP-C2 tumor line, and did not react with other tumors, including a melanoma (B16), a colon carcinoma (MC38), or a lymphoma (EL-4). This demonstrates that the T cell line is specific for the TRAMP prostatic tumor cells. EXAMPLE 3 The CD8+ T Cell Line Recognizes Naturally Processed Tumor Peptides (NPTPs) from TRAMP Prostate Tumor but not Thymoma Cells To determine the nature of the antigen detected by the T cell line, and to further examine specificity, peptides were eluted from TRAMP-C2 cells or from EL-4 thymoma cells by standard conditions. These peptides were then pulsed onto RMA-S cells, a cell line that does not express a critical peptide transporter and thus has on its surface empty MHC molecules that efficiently take up exogenously added peptide. Naturally Processed Tumor Peptides (NPTPs) were isolated by treating 10.sup.8 TRAMP-C2 and as a control 108 EL-4 tumor cells with 4% TFA, pelleting the cell debris and passing the supernatant through a 10 kD-cutoff filter. As shown in FIG. 4, naturally processed peptides (NPTPs) from TRAMP-C2, but not EL-4 cells, sensitized RMA-S cells to lysis. This indicates the specificity of the T cell line for TRAMP-C2 peptides. EXAMPLE 4 The CD8+ T Cell Line Recognizes Three Different TRAMP-Derived Cell Lines To determine whether reactivity of the T cell line was restricted to TRAMP-C2, the tumor cell line used for immunization, the response of the T cells to two additional prostatic tumor lines derived from TRAMP mice was examined. As shown in FIG. 5, the T cell line responded to all three cell lines. This suggests that the T cells are not specific for an antigen restricted to a single tumor cell line, but is directed to an antigen generally expressed by prostatic tumor cells. EXAMPLE 5 Adoptive Transfer of TRAMP-C2-Specific CTLs into Mice Delays Ectopic Tumor Growth On day 0, C57BL6 mice were injected subcutaneously with 4×106 TRAMP-C2 CD8+ T cells. On day 0 and 14 the mice received 2×106 TRAMP-specific T cells in PBS or PBS alone intravenously. In order to provide a source of T cell help to the TRAMP-specific CD8+ T cells the mice were injected daily from day 0 to day 14 with 10000 U of recombinant human IL-2 in PBS subcutaneously. The results in FIG. 6 show that during the two weeks where both the TRAMP-specific T cells and IL-2 were present, 100% of the mice remained tumor free versus 60% when only IL-2 was present. This demonstrates the in vivo anti-tumor effect of the TRAMP-specific T cells. EXAMPLE 6 Scheme for Production of T Cell Hybridomas from the CD8+ T Cell Line To facilitate expression cloning of antigens responsible for stimulating the CD.sup.8+ T cells lines, cells were fused with the LacZ-inducible Fusion Partner BWZ.36 (see FIG. 7). This Fusion Partner was stably transfected with a DNA construct containing the LacZ coding sequence under the direct transcriptional control of three tandemly arranged IL-2 enhancer elements (NFAT). In the resultant hybridomas, engagement of the clonally expressed T cell antigen receptors by specific Ag/MHC complexes results in induction of expression of the LacZ enzyme, allowing rapid detection of T cell responses by calorimetric measurement of substrate conversion. EXAMPLE 7 The BTZ Hybridomas Retain Specificity for TRAMP Tumors Eight T cells hybridoma clones produced as described above were tested for retention of reactivity by measuring induction of LacZ activity upon incubation with tumor cells. As shown in FIG. 8, seven of eight clones reacted with TRAMP-C2 cells, and not with MC38 or B16 cells. This confirms that the hybridomas retain the specificity of the original T cell line. EXAMPLE 8 Determination of MHC-Restriction of the T Cell Hybridomas In order to determine the MHC restriction of antigen recognition, T hybridoma cells were incubated with TRAMP-C2 cells in the presence of antibodies specific for H-2 Kb or H-2 Db molecules. Briefly, 2×104 TRAMP-C2 cells were incubated for 1 hour with anti-Kb (Y3, ATCC, HB176) or anti-Db antibody (B22.249.RI, Cedar Lane, Calif.) before addition of BTZs (1×106/well). Plates were incubated overnight and the T cell response measured as the LacZ activity by the conversion of the substrate chlorophenol red b-pyranoside (CPRG) at 595 nm and 655 nm as reference. As shown in FIG. 9, only anti-Db, and not anti-Kb, resulted in inhibition. This indicated that all the hybridomas tested were restricted to an antigen expressed in the context of Db MHC molecules. EXAMPLE 9 HPLC Analysis Indicates that the Hybridomas were Reactive with a Single Peptide Peak To determine the complexity of antigens responsible for stimulation of the anti-TRAMP T cell hybridomas, total cell surface peptides were eluted from TRAMP-C2 cells and fractionated by reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography. Briefly, in order to extract the whole acid soluble peptide pool from TRAMP-C2 cells, 1×10.sup.8 TRAMP-C2 cells were induced overnight with IFN-.gamma. (50 U/ml), then washed with PBS and extracted with 1 ml of 10% Formic acid in water. Cellular debris were removed by centrifugation and fractionated by HPLC after filtration through a 10 kD filter. Reverse Phase C18 narrow bore column was run in 0.1% TFA in water (solvent A) and 0.1% TFA acetonitrile (solvent B). Flow rate was maintained at 0.25 ml/min and fractions were collected in 96 well flat bottom plates, dried in a vacuum centrifuge and resuspended in 30 μl PBS+12% DMSO. Individual fractions were used to pulse Db-expressing L-cells, and the pulsed antigen presenting cells incubated with T cell hybrids BTZ5.65 or BTZ6.18 (8.5×104/well) and Db-expressing L-cells as APCs (3×104/well). Mock injections with sample buffer alone were performed before each extract sample using the same column and identical run conditions to demonstrate the absence of cross-contamination between samples. The collected fractions of both cell extracts and mocks were assayed in the same experiment, using the same APC and T cell Hybrids. As shown in FIG. 10, both hybridomas reacted with a single, and the same, peak. This strongly suggested that the T cell specificity was for a single antigenic peptide. EXAMPLE 10 Scheme for Expression Cloning of the TRAMP Antigen A cDNA library was prepared from TRAMP-C2 cells. Briefly, as shown in FIG. 11, poly A+ mRNA was derived from IFN-.gamma.-treated TRAMP-C2 tumor cells using standard protocols and a unidirectional cDNA Library was constructed in the BstXI/NotI sites of the mammalian expression vector pcDNA1 (Invitrogen, San Diego, Calif.). The cDNAs were screened by transforming competent bacteria with recombinant plasmids and culturing them in pools of 30-100 cfu in 96 well U-bottom plates. Miniscale preparation of the bacterial plasmid DNA was performed directly in the 96 well plates and subsequently transfected into 3×104 LMtk-cells co-transfected with the relevant Db MHC class I cDNA and B7-2 cDNA. Two days later, 8.5×104 BTZ5.65 were added per well and their response measured by standard techniques. This allowed the initial identification of positive pools. Repeating the screen with individual colonies obtained from the positive cDNA pool allowed final confirmation and isolation of the cDNA. DNA from stimulating pools was recycled through the process until a single clone was obtained as described above. This clone was designated SPAS-1 (see FIG. 12; see also FIG. 1 for the partial and full length SPAS-1 nucleotide and predicted amino acid sequences). EXAMPLE 11 BTZ5.65 Recognizes the Ligand Encoded by SPAS-1 cDNA Only when Expressed in Context of the Relevant MHC Class I To confirm the ability of SPAS-1 as the gene encoding the antigen defined by BTZ5.65, the T hybridoma used for the expression cloning, 8.5×104 hybridoma cells were incubated with 3.0×104 L cells which were transiently transfected with either SPAS-1 cDNA alone, or together with an irrelevant (Kb) or correct (Db) MHC cDNA. As shown in FIG. 13, only the combination of SPAS-1 cDNA and the correct restricting element conferred the ability to stimulate the T cell hybridoma. This indicates that SPAS-1 cDNA encodes the relevant antigen recognized by BTZ5.65. EXAMPLE 12 All Tested BTZs Recognize the Ligand Encoded by SPAS-1 cDNA in Context of Db Seven additional T hybridomas were also stimulated in similar assays described above, providing additional confirmation that SPAS-1 cDNA encodes the H-2 Db-restricted antigen recognized by the original anti-TRAMP T cell line (see FIG. 14). EXAMPLE 13 Virtual Northern obtained by submitting the human SPAS-1 cDNA sequence-lacking the 3′-terminal region encoding for an SH3 domain to the SAGE Tab libraries provided by the NCBI. The virtual Northern shown in FIG. 15 suggests that the human SPAS-1 SAGE Tag is predominantly found in libraries from cancer tissues, particularly in one prostate cancer library of an advanced stage of prostate cancer. EXAMPLE 14 The minimal antigenic T cell epitope of SPAS-1 capable of activating the TRAMP-specific T cell hybridomas was identified using standard techniques. The antigenic peptide was found to be encoded by nucleotides 730 to 756 of the SPAS-1 (T) cDNA and had the following amino acid sequence: Ser Thr His Val Asn His Leu His Cys. The synthetic peptide (SEQ ID NO:25) STHVNHLHC corresponding to the identified minimal T cell epitope was synthesized and pulsed on L-cells expressing the restricted MHC class I molecule H-2 Db and used to activate the TRAMP-C2-specific T cell hybridoma BTZ1.4. FIG. 16 shows that while the peptide (SEQ ID NO:25) STHVNHLHC acted as a strong antagonist of T cell activation, another H-2 Db-binding peptide from the same SPAS-1 protein did not induce T cell activation. EXAMPLE 15 SPAS-1 RNA was isolated from C57/B16 mouse normal tissues including liver, lung, prostate and heart and cDNA was made by RT PCR following standard procedures. The nucleotide sequence of the SPAS-1 cDNA derived from normal tissues (SPAS-1 (N)) was compared to that of the SPAS-1 cDNA originally isolated from the TRAMP-C2 cDNA library (SPAS-1 (T)). The sequence analysis of SPAS-1 cDNA from normal tissues revealed a G to A nucleotide substitution at position 752 in the genetic region encoding the antigenic T cell epitope (see FIG. 17). The three available TRAMP tumor cell lines TRAMP-C1, C2, and C3 expressed both versions of SPAS-1 cDNA (SPAS-1 (N) and SPAS-1 (T)). Importantly, FIG. 17 shows the single genetic substitution at position 752 resulted in an amino acid change at position P8 of the T cell epitope: Arginine (normal tissue) to Histidine (TRAMP tumor lines) substitution. EXAMPLE 16 In order to determine the reactivity of TRAMP-specific T cell hybridomas with tumor and normal cell derived SPAS-1 epitopes, minigenes were constructed corresponding to nucleotides 730 to 752 of SPAS-1 (T) and SPAS-1 (N) cDNAs. L cells were transiently transfected with these minigenes for processing and presentation of the respectively encoded peptides following standard procedures. T cell hybridoma BTZ.14 was added to the cultures 48 hours later and its specific activation was measured as described previously. While the minigene from SPAS-1 (T) cDNA lead to strong activation of the T cell hybridoma, FIG. 18 shows that the minigene derived from SPAS-1 (N) cDNA only poorly activated the same hybridoma. Taken together, this data shows that only SPAS-1 (T) cDNA was the source of the anti-TRAMP tumor response in mice. Mutations in the coding sequence of SPAS-1 or any other gene have a number of different effects. These effects can include: (1) the generation of new T cell epitopes that might provoke an immune response, and (2) the conferring of oncogenic activity on the gene product. The latter effects could be a result of functional alterations in proteins that regulate, e.g., cell cycle progression and proliferation of the cells, or that play a role in regulating cell death by apoptosis. Changes in function could be either positive or negative and involve acquisition of new activity or loss of normal activity. Example could include loss of ability to inhibit cell cycle progression or promote cell death, or acquisition of activity that would promote cell cycle progression or that would inhibit cell death. It is possible that mutations that confer oncogenic activity can occur at different positions of the gene in different tumors. EXAMPLE 17 The goal of immunological approaches to cancer therapy is the induction of anti-tumor responses of sufficient strength to eradicate disseminated tumors. However, the application of immunotherapy to prostate cancer has been hampered by the lack of immunologically validated targets for T cell responses. We have applied our efforts in developing a strategy for the identification of novel T cell targets in the Transgenic Adenocarcinoma of Mouse Prostate (TRAMP) model based on the rationale that identified murine targets will have human orthologs with potential relevance for the development of immunotherapy in human prostate cancer. We have generated TRAMP-specific T cells by immunizing mice with a GM-CSF producing TRAMP tumor cell vaccine in the presence of CTLA-4 antibody blockade and used these cells to identify the first T cell-defined TRAMP tumor antigen, which we designated SPAS-1 (for stimulator of prostatic adenocarcinoma specific T cells). This protein is also known as SH3GLB2 (SH3-domain, GRB2-like, endophilin B2). The human homolog gene (SEQ ID NO:33) is described in (Genbank Accession No. AF257319; Pierrat, B. et al., SH3GLB, a new endophilin-related protein family featuring an SH3 domain). We determined that the immunodominant SPAS-1/SH3GLB2 epitope arose from a point mutation in one allele of the SPAS-1 gene in TRAMP tumor cells and that immunization with dendritic cells (DCs) pulsed with mutant SPAS-1 peptide resulted in protection against TRAMP-C2 tumor challenge. SPAS-1/SH3GLB2 has a human ortholog that is over-expressed in lymph node metastasis of prostate cancer. Human SPAS-1 protein regions containing candidate HLA-A2-binding peptides were predicted with the computer algorithms SYFPEITHI, BIMAS and nHLApred. Five peptides (P1 to P5) were synthesized which had high binding scores according to all three algorithms: P1: (SEQ ID NO:35) LLADELITV (LV-9); P2: (SEQ ID NO:36) YMADAASEL (YL-9); P3: (SEQ ID NO:37) LLLEGISST (LT-9); P4: (SEQ ID NO:38) FLTPLRNFL (FL-9); P5: (SEQ ID NO:39) ILSASASAL (IL-9). To confirm HLA-A2 binding, the five synthetic peptides were tested in a conventional T2 binding assay. A) T2 assay: due to their TAP deficiency, T2 cells only contain unstable, empty HLA-A2 molecules that do not remain on the cell surface. An HLA-A2 binding peptide will stabilize HLA-A2 cell surface expression, which can then be detected by flow cytometry. B) Four out of the five predicted peptides bound to HLA-A2 as demonstrated by stabilization of surface HLA-A2 expression. Positive controls: Flu peptide and CEA Cap1 peptide; negative control: DMSO. In order to determine whether CD8+ T cells specific for human SPAS-1 peptides are present in the periphery of healthy individuals we used an in vitro priming strategy. Briefly, immature Myeloid Dendritic Cells (mDCs) were generated from culturing monocytes isolated from Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells (PBMCs) of a healthy HLA-A2+ donor for 5 days in GM-CSF and IL-4. Upon overnight incubation with CD40 ligand, the mDC were induced to mature as shown by up-regulated cell surface expression of CD80, CD83, CD86 and MHC II (HLA-DR). The mature mDCs were loaded with either of the five candidate T cell epitopes from human SPAS-1 P1 (LV-9); P2 (YL-9); P3 (LT-9); P4 (FL-9); P5 (IL-9), and used to stimulate autologous T cells isolated from the same donor. Five days after first stimulation CD8+ T cells were isolated from the culture and allowed to expand in the presence of 10 U/ml IL-2 and 5 ng/ml IL-7 for another 10 days at which point T cell cultures were assessed for their capacity to produce IFN-γ in response to the corresponding peptide, pulsed onto a HLA-A2 expressing cell line such as A221 or THP-1. Monocyte-derived DC from HLA-A2+ healthy donors were pulsed with each of the five candidate peptides P1 (LV-9); P2 (YL-9); P3 (LT-9); P4 (FL-9); P5 (IL-9) and then incubated separately with autologous PBMC. Following another in vitro restimulation, T cell cultures were assessed for their capacity to produce IFN-γ in response to the corresponding peptide, pulsed onto the HLA-A2 expressing cell line A221. IFN-γ was assessed by ELISA on the cell supernatants in triplicate wells. Overexpression of human SPAS-1 protein in THP-1 cells infected with the pMGlyt2-huSPAS-1 virus was confirmed by Western Blot analysis. Shown in FIG. 23, Lane 1: lysate from 50,000 untransduced THP-1 cells. Lane 2: lysate from 50,000 THP-1 cells transduced with pMGlyt2 IRES CD8 empty vector. Lane 3: lysate from 50,000 THP-1 cells transduced with pMGlyt2 huSPAS-1 IRES CD8 vector. Lane 4: lysate from 10,000 cells TRAMP-C2 cells as positive control for SPAS-1 expression. A polyclonal Rabbit anti-huSPAS-1 antibody was used for detection of the 45-50 kDa SPAS-1 protein. As control for loading amounts, the same the same membrane was blotted with an anti-β-Actin antibody. Monocyte-derived DCs from HLA-A2+ healthy donors were pulsed with HuSPAS-1 peptide 4 (FL-9) and then incubated with autologous PBMC. Following another in vitro restimulation, T cell cultures were then assessed for their capacity to produce IFN-γ in response to titrated doses of peptide 4 (FL-9), pulsed onto the HLA-A2 expressing cell line THP-1. IFN-γ was assessed by ELISA on the cell supernatants in triplicate wells. Result: fourteen days after first stimulation these CD8+ T cells specifically produced IFN-γ in response to increasing doses of peptide 4 (FL-9) pulsed onto the HLA-A2 expressing cell line THP-1 but not to increasing doses of irrelevant peptide 1 (LV-9). (100,000 CD8+ T cells/well and 50,000 THP-1 cells/well). B) In order to determine whether these FL-9-specific T cells could also recognize endogenously processed huSPAS-1 peptides, THP-1 cells were stably transduced with either a vector encoding full length human SPAS-1 DNA or with an empty retroviral vector. Responsiveness of the FL-9-reactive CD8+ T cell line was assessed by co-culturing 100,000 CD8+ T cells with titrated numbers of infected THP-1 cells. IFN-γ responses above background were detected only when huSPAS-1 P4-specific T cells were co-cultured in the presence of THP-1 cells overexpressing huSPAS-1 protein, demonstrating that huSPAS-1 P4 (FL-9)-specific CD8+ T cells also recognize endogenously processed huSPAS-1 peptides. Detection of circulating SPAS-1/SH3GLB2 reactive T cells. Patients with varying stages of prostate cancer are recruited. Blood from these patients is screened for HLA-A2 expression by antibody staining and flow cytometry. Approximately 50% of the clinic population will be HLA-A2 positive. HLA-A2+ patients from 3 categories defined by extent of disease are evaluated. These three categories are: 1) pre-prostatectomy (localized disease), 2) hormone-naïve recurrent prostate cancer, and 3) HRPC. The hormone-naïve recurrent prostate cancer cohort will include patients with PSA-only as well as metastatic disease. The null hypothesis for defining a sample size is set at 15% of the subset and only a large proportion with a positive response is of importance. Analysis of 10 samples in each of the 3 subsets allows for testing for a positive outcome in at least 50% of the primary tumor samples compared with a null hypothesis of 15%. This assumes a level of significance of 0.05 for a directional test and power of 0.83. Exploratory analyses characterize the T cell response and investigate whether there is any trend due to grade in the proportion having a positive response. PBMC are isolated with a Ficoll gradient. The frequency of SPAS-1/SH3GLB2 peptide P4 reactive-T cells is determined by standard IFN-γ ELISPOT. Briefly, PBMC are cultured in 96-well PVDF-based plates (BD Biosciences, San Jose, Calif.) coated with an anti-IFN-γ antibody (BD Biosciences Pharmingen) at 5×105 cells/well. After 18 hrs of incubation, the cells are washed and the captured IFN-γ is detected with a secondary biotinylated anti-IFN-γ mAb (BD Biosciences Pharmingen). After incubation at RT for 4 hrs, the plates are washed, and goat anti-biotin:1 nm Gold conjugate (GAB1; Ted Pella, Miliville, N.J.) is added for 1 hour at RT. After extensive washing, 30 μL of the silver substrate (Silver Enhancing Kit; Ted Pella) is added into each well and the spot development monitored. Spots are counted using an automated ELISPOT plate reader (AID, Columbia Md.). The cytokine response is expressed as the number of IFN-γ-spot-forming cells (SFCs) per 106 cells. A positive ELISPOT response is defined as >10 background-subtracted spots. Descriptive statistics characterize parameters of interest. PBMC are also stained with MHC-peptide tetramer (Coulter, San Diego, Calif.) folded with the P4 peptide using established staining techniques. Tetramers for 1) SPAS-1/SH3GLB2 P4 epitope and 2) viral antigens (i.e. CMV, HIV and flu) as controls are used to identify the corresponding antigen-specific CD8 T cells. In addition to quantifying their presence, tetramer+ T cells are co-stained with mAbs against CD3, CD8, CD62L, CD27, CD28, CD56, CD57, CCR7, and NKG2D. A flow cytometry-based assay combining tetramer staining, intracellular cytokine immunofluorescence and CD107a staining will also be performed to determine the proportion of tetramer+ T cells that produce cytokine in response to in vitro stimulation with PMA/ionomycin to determine their capacity to function. A positive tetramer response is defined as >0.5% tetramer+ CD8+ T cells. The present invention is not to be limited in scope by the exemplified embodiments which are intended as illustrations of single aspects of the invention, and any clones, DNA or amino acid sequences which are functionally equivalent are within the scope of the invention. Indeed, various modifications of the invention in addition to those described herein will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the foregoing description and accompanying drawings. Such modifications are intended to fall within the scope of the appended claims. It is also to be understood that all base pair sizes given for nucleotides are approximate and are used for purposes of description. All publications and patent documents cited above are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes to the same extent as if each were so individually denoted.	A	A61	A61K	39	00
11811442	US20090004184A1-20090101	Polynucleotides and polypeptides associated with the development of rheumatoid arthritis	ACCEPTED	20081216	20090101		[]	C12Q168	["C12Q168", "G01N3353", "A61K39395", "A61P1902"]	7670785	20070607	20100302	536	023100	92084.0	HUYNH	PHUONG	[{"inventor_name_last": "Carman", "inventor_name_first": "Julie", "inventor_city": "Lawrenceville", "inventor_state": "NJ", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Nadler", "inventor_name_first": "Steven G.", "inventor_city": "Princeton", "inventor_state": "NJ", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Bowen", "inventor_name_first": "Michael", "inventor_city": "Rockville", "inventor_state": "MD", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Neubauer", "inventor_name_first": "Michael G.", "inventor_city": "Skillman", "inventor_state": "NJ", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Lu", "inventor_name_first": "Pin", "inventor_city": "New York", "inventor_state": "NY", "inventor_country": "US"}]	The present invention is directed to polynucleotides encoding polypeptides associated with the development of rheumatoid arthritis and homologs thereof. The invention further relates to diagnostic and therapeutic methods for utilizing these polynucleotides and polypeptides in the diagnosis, treatment, and/or prevention of rheumatoid arthritis and related disease states. The invention further relates to screening methods for identifying agonists and antagonists of the polynucleotides and polypeptides of the present invention, and compounds identified thereby.	1. An assay for identifying a compound that modulates the activity of a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, comprising: (a) providing a cell expressing a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein the nucleic acid sequence of said gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis is at least 95% identical to a nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:41 and SEQ ID NO:61, (b) contacting said cell expressing said gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis with a test compound; and (c) determining whether said test compound modulates the activity of said gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis. 2. The assay of claim 1, wherein said assay is a cell-based assay. 3. The assay of claim 1, wherein said assay is a cell-free assay. 4. The assay of claim 3, wherein said cell-free assay is a ligand-binding assay. 5. The assay of claim 1, wherein said test compound modulates the activity of said gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis. 6. The assay of claim 1, wherein said test compound is an antagonist of a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis. 7. The assay of claim 1, wherein said test compound is an agonist of a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis. 8. The assay of claim 1, wherein said test compound binds to said gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis. 9. The assay of claim 1, wherein said assay is useful for identifying compounds which are useful for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. 10. An assay for identifying a compound that modulates the activity of a protein associated with rheumatoid arthritis, comprising: (a) providing a cell expressing a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein said gene encodes a polypeptide having an amino acid sequence which is at least 95% identical to an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:42 and SEQ ID NO:62; (b) contacting said cell expressing said gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis with a test compound; and (c) determining whether said test compound modulates the activity of said protein associated with rheumatoid arthritis. 11. The assay of claim 10, wherein said assay is a cell-based assay. 12. The assay of claim 10, wherein said assay is a cell-free assay. 13. The assay of claim 12, wherein said cell-free assay is a ligand-binding assay. 14. The assay of claim 10, wherein said test compound modulates the activity of said polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis. 15. The assay of claim 10, wherein said test compound is an antagonist of a polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis. 16. The assay of claim 10, wherein said test compound is an agonist of a polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis. 17. The assay of claim 10, wherein said test compound binds to said polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis. 18. The assay of claim 10, wherein said assay is useful for identifying compounds which are useful for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. 19. A method for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, comprising: (a) identifying a patient suffering from rheumatoid arthritis; and (b) administering to said patient a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator of a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein said gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis has a nucleic acid sequence which is at least 95% identical to a nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:41 and SEQ ID NO:61. 20. The method of claim 19, wherein said patient is identified as suffering from rheumatoid arthritis by measuring the expression level of said gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis in said patient. 21. The method of claim 19, wherein said modulator is an antagonist of a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis. 22. A method for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, comprising: (a) identifying a patient suffering from rheumatoid arthritis; and (b) administering to said patient suffering from rheumatoid arthritis a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator of a polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein said polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis has an amino acid sequence which is at least 95% identical to an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:42 and SEQ ID NO:62. 23. The method of claim 22, wherein said patient is identified as suffering from rheumatoid arthritis by measuring the expression level of said polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis. 24. The method of claim 22, wherein said modulator is an antagonist of a polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis. 25. A method for the prevention of rheumatoid arthritis, comprising: (a) identifying a patient at risk for rheumatoid arthritis; and (b) administering to said patient at risk for rheumatoid arthritis a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator of a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein said gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis has a nucleic acid sequence which is at least 95% identical to a nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:41 and SEQ ID NO:61. 26. The method of claim 25, wherein said patient is identified as being at risk for rheumatoid arthritis by measuring the expression level of said gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis in said patient. 27. The method of claim 25, wherein said modulator is an antagonist of said gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis. 28. A method for the prevention of rheumatoid arthritis, comprising: (a) identifying a patient at risk for rheumatoid arthritis; and (b) administering to said patient at risk for rheumatoid arthritis a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator of a polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein said polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis has an amino acid sequence which is at least 95% identical to an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:42 and SEQ ID NO:62. 29. The method of claim 28, wherein said patient is identified as being at risk for rheumatoid arthritis by measuring the expression level of said polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis in said patient. 30. The method of claim 28, wherein said modulator is an antagonist of said polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis. 31. A compound useful for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, wherein said compound is identified by: (a) providing a cell expressing a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein said gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis has a nucleic acid sequence which is at least 95% identical to a nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:41 and SEQ ID NO:61; (b) contacting said cell expressing said gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis with said compound; and (c) determining whether said compound modulates the activity of said gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis. 32. The compound of claim 31, wherein said compound is an antagonist of said gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis. 33. The compound of claim 31, wherein said compound is an agonist of said gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis. 34. A compound useful for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, wherein said compound is identified by: (a) providing a cell expressing a polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein said polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis has an amino acid sequence which is at least 95% identical to an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:42 and SEQ ID NO:62; (b) contacting said cell expressing said polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis with said compound; and (c) determining whether said compound modulates the activity of said polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis. 35. The compound of claim 34, wherein said compound is an antagonist of said polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF RELATED TECHNOLOGY <EOH>Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by progressive joint destruction. Initial destruction of cartilage and bone is associated with the formation of a pannus, consisting of a hypertrophic synovial membrane containing hyperplastic synoviocytes and an infiltrate of inflammatory cells including T cells, B cells, CD68+ macrophages, mast cells, and endothelial cells. The causes of RA are not well understood. Genetic studies have linked expression of specific major histocompatibility complex class II antigens to the development of RA, suggesting the involvement of antigen-specific mechanisms in disease progression (Zanelli et al., Hum. Immunol. 61:1254-1261 (2000)). CD4+ T cells are thought to play a key role in initiation and progression of disease. Although many putative self antigens have been proposed, none have been definitively associated with the initiation of disease. Antigen-activated T cells stimulate monocytes, macrophages, and synovial fibroblasts to secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines including interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and TNF-α. These cytokines stimulate synovial fibroblasts, osteoclasts, and chondrocytes to release matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) that destroy surrounding tissue. Activated CD4+ T cells stimulate osteoclastogenesis that can also contribute to joint damage. The activated T cells also stimulate B cells present in the synovium via the CD40 pathway to differentiate into antibody secreting cells producing rheumatoid factor, which may also contribute to disease pathology. Many of the cytokines found in rheumatoid synovium have been directly linked to disease pathology. For example, TNF-α promotes inflammation by inducing secretion of other inflammatory cytokines including IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, GM-CSF, as well as by upregulating adhesion molecule expression on endothelial cells and synovial fibroblasts. These two events promote increased migration of lymphocytes including neutrophils, monocytes, and T cells into the synovium. Neutrophils release elastase and proteases that degrade proteoglycan and contribute to joint destruction. Therapies targeting TNF-α include the use of soluble TNF-α receptor (Etanercept) and neutralizing antibodies specific for TNF-α (Infliximab), and result in a significant decrease in the number of swollen joints, as well as the numbers of T cells and plasma cells in the synovium of RA patients. Such therapies also result in a decrease in the expression of VCAM-1 and IL-1 in the synovium of treated patients (Bathon, et al., New Engl. J. Med. 343:1586-1593 (2000); Lipsky, et al., New Engl. J. Med. 343:1594-1602 (2000); Richard-Miceli, et al., Biodrugs 15:251-259 (2001)). IL-1 has also been closely linked to the pathophysiology of RA. IL-1 induces synovial cell proliferation and activates MMP and prostaglandin production in vitro (Mizel et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78:2474-2477 (1981)). In several mouse models of arthritis, IL-1 is believed to play a dominant role in cartilage destruction, whereas TNF-α is primarily proinflammatory (Joosten et al., J. Immunol. 163:5049-5055 (1999)). Transgenic mice constitutively expressing human IL-1α in various organs develop a severe polyarthritic phenotype with a predominance of neutrophils and macrophages in the diseased joints (Niki et al., J. Clin. Invest. 107:1127-1135 (2001)). Synovitis developed within two weeks of birth, followed by pannus formation and cartilage destruction within 8 weeks after birth. Treatment of RA patients with a natural inhibitor of IL-1, recombinant human IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra), significantly reduced clinical symptoms and the rate of progressive joint damage (Jiang et al., Arthritis Rheum. 43:1001-1009 (2000); Bresnihan et al., Biodrugs 15:87-97 (2001)). A number of studies have sought to identify genes whose expression is associated with the development of RA. cDNA microarrays have been used to compare expression profiles between tissue samples derived from RA and inflammatory bowel disease patients. Such studies have found that prominently upregulated genes in RA samples include: IL-6; the MMPs stromelysin-1, collagenase-1, gelatinase A, and human matrix metallo-elastase; tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases, including TIMP-1 and TIMP-3; the adhesion molecule VCAM-1; and chemokines including MCP-1, MIF, and RANTES (Heller et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94: 2150-2155 (1997)). Further, a cDNA library has been generated from monocytes obtained from a RA patient with active disease (Stuhlmuller et al., Arthritis Rheum. 43:775-790 (2000)). Genes found to be upregulated in these cells include IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, growth-related oncogene α, macrophage inflammatory protein 2, ferritin, α1-antitrypsin, lysozyme, transaldolase, Epstein-Barr virus-encoded RNA 1-associated protein, thrombospondin 1, angiotensin receptor II C-terminal homologue, and RNA polymerase II elongation factor. In one study, a cDNA library was generated by subtracting cDNA derived from noninflammatory osteoarthritis (OA) synoviocytes from cDNA derived from cultured RA fibroblastoid synoviocytes (Seki et al., Arthritis Rheum. 41:1356-1364 (1998)). Genes found to be constitutively overexpressed in the rheumatoid synoviocyte line include: chemokine stromal cell-derived factor 1α; adhesion molecule VCAM-1; interferon-inducible 56-kD protein; 2′-5′-oligoadenylate synthetase; Mac-2 binding protein; extracellular matrix components biglycan, lumican, and IGFBP5; and semaphorin VI. Studies have also been conducted using suppression subtractive hybridization to identify genes that are highly expressed in RA synovium relative to OA synovium (Justen et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. Res. Comm. 3:165-172 (2000)). Genes found to be specifically upregulated in RA synovium include: cytoskeletal γ-actin; the extracellular matrix components fibronectin and collagen IIIα1; superficial zone protein; elongation factor α1; granulin precursor; interferon-γ inducible lysosomal thiol reductase; the protease cathepsin B; phospholipase A2 group IIA; and annexin II. Accordingly, there is a continuing need to identify genes whose expression is associated with the development and progression of RA. The identification of such genes permits the development of clones expressing such genes, thereby permitting the identification of compounds capable of modulating the activity of such genes and/or their expression products. Such compounds may have therapeutic utility in the diagnosis and/or treatment of RA and related disease states. The present invention is directed to meeting these and other needs.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one aspect, the present invention is directed to an assay for identifying a compound that modulates the activity of a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, including the steps of: (1) providing a cell expressing a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein the nucleic acid sequence of the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis is at least 95% identical to a nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:37, SEQ ID NO:39, SEQ ID NO:41, SEQ ID NO:43, SEQ ID NO:45, SEQ ID NO:47, SEQ ID NO:49, SEQ ID NO:51, SEQ ID NO:53, SEQ ID NO:55, SEQ ID NO:57, SEQ ID NO:59, SEQ ID NO:61, SEQ ID NO:63, SEQ ID NO:65, SEQ ID NO:67, SEQ ID NO:69, SEQ ID NO:70, SEQ ID NO:71, SEQ ID NO:73, and SEQ ID NO:74; (2) contacting the cell expressing the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis with a test compound; and (3) determining whether the test compound modulates the activity of the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis. The assay may be cell-based assay or may be a cell-free assay, such as a ligand-binding assay. The test compound desirably modulates the activity of the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, may be an antagonist or an agonist of the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, and may bind to the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis. The assay is desirably useful for identifying compounds which are useful for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to an assay for identifying a compound that modulates the activity of a protein associated with rheumatoid arthritis, including the steps of: (1) providing a cell expressing a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein the gene encodes a polypeptide having an amino acid sequence which is at least 95% identical to an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:38, SEQ ID NO:40, SEQ ID NO:42, SEQ ID NO:44, SEQ ID NO:46, SEQ ID NO:48, SEQ ID NO:50, SEQ ID NO:52, SEQ ID NO:54, SEQ ID NO:56, SEQ ID NO:58, SEQ ID NO:60, SEQ ID NO:62, SEQ ID NO:64, SEQ ID NO:66, SEQ ID NO:68, SEQ ID NO:72, and SEQ ID NO:75; (2) contacting the cell expressing the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis with a test compound; and (3) determining whether the test compound modulates the activity of the protein associated with rheumatoid arthritis. The test compound desirably modulates the activity of the protein associated with rheumatoid arthritis, may be an antagonist or an agonist of the protein associated with rheumatoid arthritis, and may bind to the protein associated with rheumatoid arthritis. The assay is desirably useful for identifying compounds which are useful for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, including the steps of: (1) identifying a patient suffering from rheumatoid arthritis; and (2) administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator of a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis has a nucleic acid sequence which is at least 95% identical to a nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:37, SEQ ID NO:39, SEQ ID NO:41, SEQ ID NO:43, SEQ ID NO:45, SEQ ID NO:47, SEQ ID NO:49, SEQ ID NO:51, SEQ ID NO:53, SEQ ID NO:55, SEQ ID NO:57, SEQ ID NO:59, SEQ ID NO:61, SEQ ID NO:63, SEQ ID NO:65, SEQ ID NO:67, SEQ ID NO:69, SEQ ID NO:70, SEQ ID NO:71, SEQ ID NO:73, and SEQ ID NO:74. The patient is desirably identified as suffering from rheumatoid arthritis by measuring the expression level of the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis in the patient. The modulator is desirably an antagonist of a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, including the steps of: (1) identifying a patient suffering from rheumatoid arthritis; and (2) administering to the patient suffering from rheumatoid arthritis a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator of a polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein the polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis has an amino acid sequence which is at least 95% identical to an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:38, SEQ ID NO:40, SEQ ID NO:42, SEQ ID NO:44, SEQ ID NO:46, SEQ ID NO:48, SEQ ID NO:50, SEQ ID NO:52, SEQ ID NO:54, SEQ ID NO:56, SEQ ID NO:58, SEQ ID NO:60, SEQ ID NO:62, SEQ ID NO:64, SEQ ID NO:66, SEQ ID NO:68, SEQ ID NO:72, and SEQ ID NO:75. The patient is desirably identified as suffering from rheumatoid arthritis by measuring the expression level of the polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis. The modulator is desirably an antagonist of a polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method for the prevention of rheumatoid arthritis, including the steps of: (1) identifying a patient at risk for rheumatoid arthritis; and (2) administering to the patient at risk for rheumatoid arthritis a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator of a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis has a nucleic acid sequence which is at least 95% identical to a nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:37, SEQ ID NO:39, SEQ ID NO:41, SEQ ID NO:43, SEQ ID NO:45, SEQ ID NO:47, SEQ ID NO:49, SEQ ID NO:51, SEQ ID NO:53, SEQ ID NO:55, SEQ ID NO:57, SEQ ID NO:59, SEQ ID NO:61, SEQ ID NO:63, SEQ ID NO:65, SEQ ID NO:67, SEQ ID NO:69, SEQ ID NO:70, SEQ ID NO:71, SEQ ID NO:73, and SEQ ID NO:74. The patient is desirably identified as being at risk for rheumatoid arthritis by measuring the expression level of the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis in the patient. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method for the prevention of rheumatoid arthritis, including the steps of: (1) identifying a patient at risk for rheumatoid arthritis; and (2) administering to the patient at risk for rheumatoid arthritis a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator of a polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein the polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis has an amino acid sequence which is at least 95% identical to an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:38, SEQ ID NO:40, SEQ ID NO:42, SEQ ID NO:44, SEQ ID NO:46, SEQ ID NO:48, SEQ ID NO:50, SEQ ID NO:52, SEQ ID NO:54, SEQ ID NO:56, SEQ ID NO:58, SEQ ID NO:60, SEQ ID NO:62, SEQ ID NO:64, SEQ ID NO:66, SEQ ID NO:68, SEQ ID NO:72, and SEQ ID NO:75. The patient is desirably identified as being at risk for rheumatoid arthritis by measuring the expression level of the polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis in the patient. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a compound useful for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, wherein the compound is identified by: (1) providing a cell expressing a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis has a nucleic acid sequence which is at least 95% identical to a nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:37, SEQ ID NO:39, SEQ ID NO:41, SEQ ID NO:43, SEQ ID NO:45, SEQ ID NO:47, SEQ ID NO:49, SEQ ID NO:51, SEQ ID NO:53, SEQ ID NO:55, SEQ ID NO:57, SEQ ID NO:59, SEQ ID NO:61, SEQ ID NO:63, SEQ ID NO:65, SEQ ID NO:67, SEQ ID NO:69, SEQ ID NO:70, SEQ ID NO:71, SEQ ID NO:73, and SEQ ID NO:74; (2) contacting the cell expressing the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis with the compound; and (3) determining whether the compound modulates the activity of the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a compound useful for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, wherein the compound is identified by: (1) providing a cell expressing a polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein the polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis has an amino acid sequence which is at least 95% identical to an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:38, SEQ ID NO:40, SEQ ID NO:42, SEQ ID NO:44, SEQ ID NO:46, SEQ ID NO:48, SEQ ID NO:50, SEQ ID NO:52, SEQ ID NO:54, SEQ ID NO:56, SEQ ID NO:58, SEQ ID NO:60, SEQ ID NO:62, SEQ ID NO:64, SEQ ID NO:66, SEQ ID NO:68, SEQ ID NO:72, and SEQ ID NO:75; (2) contacting the cell expressing the polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis with the compound; and (3) determining whether the compound modulates the activity of the polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis.	CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/308,279 filed Dec. 3, 2002, now allowed, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/337,429, filed Dec. 3, 2001, and hereby expressly incorporated by reference in its entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides polynucleotides encoding polypeptides associated with the development and progression of rheumatoid arthritis and homologs thereof. Also provided are vectors, host cells, antibodies, and recombinant and synthetic methods for producing said polypeptides. The invention further relates to diagnostic and therapeutic methods for utilizing these polypeptides in the diagnosis, treatment, and/or prevention of rheumatoid arthritis and related disease states. The invention further relates to screening methods for identifying agonists and antagonists of the polynucleotides and polypeptides of the present invention. BACKGROUND OF RELATED TECHNOLOGY Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by progressive joint destruction. Initial destruction of cartilage and bone is associated with the formation of a pannus, consisting of a hypertrophic synovial membrane containing hyperplastic synoviocytes and an infiltrate of inflammatory cells including T cells, B cells, CD68+ macrophages, mast cells, and endothelial cells. The causes of RA are not well understood. Genetic studies have linked expression of specific major histocompatibility complex class II antigens to the development of RA, suggesting the involvement of antigen-specific mechanisms in disease progression (Zanelli et al., Hum. Immunol. 61:1254-1261 (2000)). CD4+ T cells are thought to play a key role in initiation and progression of disease. Although many putative self antigens have been proposed, none have been definitively associated with the initiation of disease. Antigen-activated T cells stimulate monocytes, macrophages, and synovial fibroblasts to secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines including interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and TNF-α. These cytokines stimulate synovial fibroblasts, osteoclasts, and chondrocytes to release matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) that destroy surrounding tissue. Activated CD4+ T cells stimulate osteoclastogenesis that can also contribute to joint damage. The activated T cells also stimulate B cells present in the synovium via the CD40 pathway to differentiate into antibody secreting cells producing rheumatoid factor, which may also contribute to disease pathology. Many of the cytokines found in rheumatoid synovium have been directly linked to disease pathology. For example, TNF-α promotes inflammation by inducing secretion of other inflammatory cytokines including IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, GM-CSF, as well as by upregulating adhesion molecule expression on endothelial cells and synovial fibroblasts. These two events promote increased migration of lymphocytes including neutrophils, monocytes, and T cells into the synovium. Neutrophils release elastase and proteases that degrade proteoglycan and contribute to joint destruction. Therapies targeting TNF-α include the use of soluble TNF-α receptor (Etanercept) and neutralizing antibodies specific for TNF-α (Infliximab), and result in a significant decrease in the number of swollen joints, as well as the numbers of T cells and plasma cells in the synovium of RA patients. Such therapies also result in a decrease in the expression of VCAM-1 and IL-1 in the synovium of treated patients (Bathon, et al., New Engl. J. Med. 343:1586-1593 (2000); Lipsky, et al., New Engl. J. Med. 343:1594-1602 (2000); Richard-Miceli, et al., Biodrugs 15:251-259 (2001)). IL-1 has also been closely linked to the pathophysiology of RA. IL-1 induces synovial cell proliferation and activates MMP and prostaglandin production in vitro (Mizel et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78:2474-2477 (1981)). In several mouse models of arthritis, IL-1 is believed to play a dominant role in cartilage destruction, whereas TNF-α is primarily proinflammatory (Joosten et al., J. Immunol. 163:5049-5055 (1999)). Transgenic mice constitutively expressing human IL-1α in various organs develop a severe polyarthritic phenotype with a predominance of neutrophils and macrophages in the diseased joints (Niki et al., J. Clin. Invest. 107:1127-1135 (2001)). Synovitis developed within two weeks of birth, followed by pannus formation and cartilage destruction within 8 weeks after birth. Treatment of RA patients with a natural inhibitor of IL-1, recombinant human IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra), significantly reduced clinical symptoms and the rate of progressive joint damage (Jiang et al., Arthritis Rheum. 43:1001-1009 (2000); Bresnihan et al., Biodrugs 15:87-97 (2001)). A number of studies have sought to identify genes whose expression is associated with the development of RA. cDNA microarrays have been used to compare expression profiles between tissue samples derived from RA and inflammatory bowel disease patients. Such studies have found that prominently upregulated genes in RA samples include: IL-6; the MMPs stromelysin-1, collagenase-1, gelatinase A, and human matrix metallo-elastase; tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases, including TIMP-1 and TIMP-3; the adhesion molecule VCAM-1; and chemokines including MCP-1, MIF, and RANTES (Heller et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94: 2150-2155 (1997)). Further, a cDNA library has been generated from monocytes obtained from a RA patient with active disease (Stuhlmuller et al., Arthritis Rheum. 43:775-790 (2000)). Genes found to be upregulated in these cells include IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, growth-related oncogene α, macrophage inflammatory protein 2, ferritin, α1-antitrypsin, lysozyme, transaldolase, Epstein-Barr virus-encoded RNA 1-associated protein, thrombospondin 1, angiotensin receptor II C-terminal homologue, and RNA polymerase II elongation factor. In one study, a cDNA library was generated by subtracting cDNA derived from noninflammatory osteoarthritis (OA) synoviocytes from cDNA derived from cultured RA fibroblastoid synoviocytes (Seki et al., Arthritis Rheum. 41:1356-1364 (1998)). Genes found to be constitutively overexpressed in the rheumatoid synoviocyte line include: chemokine stromal cell-derived factor 1α; adhesion molecule VCAM-1; interferon-inducible 56-kD protein; 2′-5′-oligoadenylate synthetase; Mac-2 binding protein; extracellular matrix components biglycan, lumican, and IGFBP5; and semaphorin VI. Studies have also been conducted using suppression subtractive hybridization to identify genes that are highly expressed in RA synovium relative to OA synovium (Justen et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. Res. Comm. 3:165-172 (2000)). Genes found to be specifically upregulated in RA synovium include: cytoskeletal γ-actin; the extracellular matrix components fibronectin and collagen IIIα1; superficial zone protein; elongation factor α1; granulin precursor; interferon-γ inducible lysosomal thiol reductase; the protease cathepsin B; phospholipase A2 group IIA; and annexin II. Accordingly, there is a continuing need to identify genes whose expression is associated with the development and progression of RA. The identification of such genes permits the development of clones expressing such genes, thereby permitting the identification of compounds capable of modulating the activity of such genes and/or their expression products. Such compounds may have therapeutic utility in the diagnosis and/or treatment of RA and related disease states. The present invention is directed to meeting these and other needs. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS. 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, 28, 31, 34, 37, 40, 43, 46, 49, 52, 55, 58, 61, 64, 67, 69, 71, 74, 76, 79, 82 and 85 show microarray data for genes of the present invention shown to be upregulated and downregulated in rheumatoid arthritis synovial fluid. FIGS. 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20, 23, 26, 29, 32, 35, 38, 41, 44, 47, 50, 53, 56, 59, 62, 65, 68, 70, 72, 75, 77, 80, 83 and 86 show polynucleotide sequences for genes of the present invention shown to be upregulated and downregulated in rheumatoid arthritis synovial fluid. FIGS. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39, 42, 45, 48, 51, 54, 57, 60, 63, 66, 73, 78, 81, 84 and 87 show amino acid sequences for the expression product of genes of the present invention shown to be upregulated and downregulated in rheumatoid arthritis synovial fluid. FIG. 88 shows the regulation of GBP-1 and GBP-5 expression by NFkB. FIG. 89 shows the time course of GBP-1 and GBP-5 expression. FIG. 90 shows GBP-1 and GBP-5 expression in mouse embryonic fibroblast lines derived from NFkB and IkBax germline knockouts. FIG. 91 shows tissue expression patterns of GBP-1 and GBP-5. FIG. 92 shows expression of GBP-1 and GBP-5 in resting and stimulated THP-1 monocytes. FIG. 93 shows expression of GBP-1 and GBP-5 in resting and stimulated human microvascular endothelial cells. FIG. 94 shows expression of GBP-1 and GBP-5 in resting and stimulated fibroblasts derived from rheumatoid arthritis synovium. FIG. 95 shows expression of GBP-1 and GBP-5 in resting and stimulated peripheral blood T cells. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one aspect, the present invention is directed to an assay for identifying a compound that modulates the activity of a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, including the steps of: (1) providing a cell expressing a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein the nucleic acid sequence of the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis is at least 95% identical to a nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:37, SEQ ID NO:39, SEQ ID NO:41, SEQ ID NO:43, SEQ ID NO:45, SEQ ID NO:47, SEQ ID NO:49, SEQ ID NO:51, SEQ ID NO:53, SEQ ID NO:55, SEQ ID NO:57, SEQ ID NO:59, SEQ ID NO:61, SEQ ID NO:63, SEQ ID NO:65, SEQ ID NO:67, SEQ ID NO:69, SEQ ID NO:70, SEQ ID NO:71, SEQ ID NO:73, and SEQ ID NO:74; (2) contacting the cell expressing the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis with a test compound; and (3) determining whether the test compound modulates the activity of the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis. The assay may be cell-based assay or may be a cell-free assay, such as a ligand-binding assay. The test compound desirably modulates the activity of the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, may be an antagonist or an agonist of the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, and may bind to the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis. The assay is desirably useful for identifying compounds which are useful for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to an assay for identifying a compound that modulates the activity of a protein associated with rheumatoid arthritis, including the steps of: (1) providing a cell expressing a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein the gene encodes a polypeptide having an amino acid sequence which is at least 95% identical to an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:38, SEQ ID NO:40, SEQ ID NO:42, SEQ ID NO:44, SEQ ID NO:46, SEQ ID NO:48, SEQ ID NO:50, SEQ ID NO:52, SEQ ID NO:54, SEQ ID NO:56, SEQ ID NO:58, SEQ ID NO:60, SEQ ID NO:62, SEQ ID NO:64, SEQ ID NO:66, SEQ ID NO:68, SEQ ID NO:72, and SEQ ID NO:75; (2) contacting the cell expressing the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis with a test compound; and (3) determining whether the test compound modulates the activity of the protein associated with rheumatoid arthritis. The test compound desirably modulates the activity of the protein associated with rheumatoid arthritis, may be an antagonist or an agonist of the protein associated with rheumatoid arthritis, and may bind to the protein associated with rheumatoid arthritis. The assay is desirably useful for identifying compounds which are useful for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, including the steps of: (1) identifying a patient suffering from rheumatoid arthritis; and (2) administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator of a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis has a nucleic acid sequence which is at least 95% identical to a nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:37, SEQ ID NO:39, SEQ ID NO:41, SEQ ID NO:43, SEQ ID NO:45, SEQ ID NO:47, SEQ ID NO:49, SEQ ID NO:51, SEQ ID NO:53, SEQ ID NO:55, SEQ ID NO:57, SEQ ID NO:59, SEQ ID NO:61, SEQ ID NO:63, SEQ ID NO:65, SEQ ID NO:67, SEQ ID NO:69, SEQ ID NO:70, SEQ ID NO:71, SEQ ID NO:73, and SEQ ID NO:74. The patient is desirably identified as suffering from rheumatoid arthritis by measuring the expression level of the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis in the patient. The modulator is desirably an antagonist of a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, including the steps of: (1) identifying a patient suffering from rheumatoid arthritis; and (2) administering to the patient suffering from rheumatoid arthritis a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator of a polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein the polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis has an amino acid sequence which is at least 95% identical to an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:38, SEQ ID NO:40, SEQ ID NO:42, SEQ ID NO:44, SEQ ID NO:46, SEQ ID NO:48, SEQ ID NO:50, SEQ ID NO:52, SEQ ID NO:54, SEQ ID NO:56, SEQ ID NO:58, SEQ ID NO:60, SEQ ID NO:62, SEQ ID NO:64, SEQ ID NO:66, SEQ ID NO:68, SEQ ID NO:72, and SEQ ID NO:75. The patient is desirably identified as suffering from rheumatoid arthritis by measuring the expression level of the polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis. The modulator is desirably an antagonist of a polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method for the prevention of rheumatoid arthritis, including the steps of: (1) identifying a patient at risk for rheumatoid arthritis; and (2) administering to the patient at risk for rheumatoid arthritis a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator of a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis has a nucleic acid sequence which is at least 95% identical to a nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:37, SEQ ID NO:39, SEQ ID NO:41, SEQ ID NO:43, SEQ ID NO:45, SEQ ID NO:47, SEQ ID NO:49, SEQ ID NO:51, SEQ ID NO:53, SEQ ID NO:55, SEQ ID NO:57, SEQ ID NO:59, SEQ ID NO:61, SEQ ID NO:63, SEQ ID NO:65, SEQ ID NO:67, SEQ ID NO:69, SEQ ID NO:70, SEQ ID NO:71, SEQ ID NO:73, and SEQ ID NO:74. The patient is desirably identified as being at risk for rheumatoid arthritis by measuring the expression level of the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis in the patient. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method for the prevention of rheumatoid arthritis, including the steps of: (1) identifying a patient at risk for rheumatoid arthritis; and (2) administering to the patient at risk for rheumatoid arthritis a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator of a polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein the polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis has an amino acid sequence which is at least 95% identical to an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:38, SEQ ID NO:40, SEQ ID NO:42, SEQ ID NO:44, SEQ ID NO:46, SEQ ID NO:48, SEQ ID NO:50, SEQ ID NO:52, SEQ ID NO:54, SEQ ID NO:56, SEQ ID NO:58, SEQ ID NO:60, SEQ ID NO:62, SEQ ID NO:64, SEQ ID NO:66, SEQ ID NO:68, SEQ ID NO:72, and SEQ ID NO:75. The patient is desirably identified as being at risk for rheumatoid arthritis by measuring the expression level of the polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis in the patient. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a compound useful for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, wherein the compound is identified by: (1) providing a cell expressing a gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis has a nucleic acid sequence which is at least 95% identical to a nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:37, SEQ ID NO:39, SEQ ID NO:41, SEQ ID NO:43, SEQ ID NO:45, SEQ ID NO:47, SEQ ID NO:49, SEQ ID NO:51, SEQ ID NO:53, SEQ ID NO:55, SEQ ID NO:57, SEQ ID NO:59, SEQ ID NO:61, SEQ ID NO:63, SEQ ID NO:65, SEQ ID NO:67, SEQ ID NO:69, SEQ ID NO:70, SEQ ID NO:71, SEQ ID NO:73, and SEQ ID NO:74; (2) contacting the cell expressing the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis with the compound; and (3) determining whether the compound modulates the activity of the gene associated with rheumatoid arthritis. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a compound useful for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, wherein the compound is identified by: (1) providing a cell expressing a polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis, wherein the polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis has an amino acid sequence which is at least 95% identical to an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:38, SEQ ID NO:40, SEQ ID NO:42, SEQ ID NO:44, SEQ ID NO:46, SEQ ID NO:48, SEQ ID NO:50, SEQ ID NO:52, SEQ ID NO:54, SEQ ID NO:56, SEQ ID NO:58, SEQ ID NO:60, SEQ ID NO:62, SEQ ID NO:64, SEQ ID NO:66, SEQ ID NO:68, SEQ ID NO:72, and SEQ ID NO:75; (2) contacting the cell expressing the polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis with the compound; and (3) determining whether the compound modulates the activity of the polypeptide associated with rheumatoid arthritis. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to the identification of genes associated with Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA). Such genes and their polypeptide expression products are hereinafter referred to as “RA-associated genes and polypeptides”. In the present invention, RA-associated genes and polypeptides have been identified by probing Affymetrix chips (describe) with mRNA derived from the synovia of RA patients, as set forth in Section A of “Materials and Methods”, hereinbelow. Gene expression patterns were compared to those obtained using mRNA derived from synovia of control joint trauma patients. Several genes were identified as having significantly increased expression in the RA synovium relative to the controls, as further described hereinbelow. Several genes have also been identified as having significantly decreased expression in the RA synovium relative to the controls, as further described hereinbelow. The present invention provides synthetic methods for producing RA-associated genes and polypeptides. Also provided are diagnostic methods for detecting diseases, disorders, and/or conditions related to RA-associated genes and polypeptides, and therapeutic methods for treating such diseases, disorders, and/or conditions. The invention further relates to screening methods for identifying binding partners of RA-associated genes and polypeptides. Examples of functional assays useful in the present invention include LPS-induced TNFα and TNFα-induced IL-1β secretion by THP-1 monocytes, anti-CD3/anti-CD28-induced IL-2 secretion by Jurkat T cells, TNFα-induced IL-1, secretion by synovial fibroblasts, TNFα-induced E-selectin expression by endothelial cells, and anti-CD40-induced homotypic aggregation of Raji B cells. One of skill in the art will recognize that RA-associated genes and polypeptides of the present invention are desirably murine or human, but may be from any suitable organism. The genomic and protein sequences of RA-associated genes and polypeptides from these organisms are readily accessed via Genbank or The National Center for Biotechnology Information. Further, derivatives and homologues of RA-associated genes and polypeptides may be used in the present invention. For example, nucleic acid sequences of RA-associated genes of the present invention may be altered by substitutions, additions, or deletions that provide for functionally equivalent-conservative variants of such genes. Further, one or more amino acid residues within the amino acid sequence of RA-associated polypeptides can be substituted by another amino acid of similar properties, such as, for example, positively charged amino acids (arginine, lysine, and histidine); negatively charged amino acids (aspartate and glutamate); polar neutral amino acids; and non-polar amino acids. Other conservative amino acid substitutions can be taken from the Table 1, below. TABLE 1 Conservative Amino Acid Replacements For Amino Acid Code Replace with any of: Alanine A D-Ala, Gly, beta-Ala, L-Cys, D-Cys Arginine R D-Arg, Lys, D-Lys, homo-Arg, D-homo-Arg, Met, Ile, D-Met, D-Ile, Orn, D-Orn Asparagine N D-Asn, Asp, D-Asp, Glu, D-Glu, Gln, D-Gln Aspartic Acid D D-Asp, D-Asn, Asn, Glu, D-Glu, Gln, D-Gln Cysteine C D-Cys, S-Me-Cys, Met, D-Met, Thr, D-Thr Glutamine Q D-Gln, Asn, D-Asn, Glu, D-Glu, Asp, D-Asp Glutamic Acid E D-Glu, D-Asp, Asp, Asn, D-Asn, Gln, D-Gln Glycine G Ala, D-Ala, Pro, D-Pro, β-Ala, Acp Isoleucine I D-Ile, Val, D-Val, Leu, D-Leu, Met, D-Met Leucine L D-Leu, Val, D-Val, Met, D-Met Lysine K D-Lys, Arg, D-Arg, homo-Arg, D-homo-Arg, Met, D-Met, Ile, D-Ile, Orn, D-Orn Methionine M D-Met, S-Me-Cys, Ile, D-Ile, Leu, D-Leu, Val, D-Val Phenylalanine F D-Phe, Tyr, D-Thr, L-Dopa, His, D-His, Trp, D-Trp, Trans-3,4, or 5-phenylproline, cis-3,4, or 5-phenylproline Proline P D-Pro, L-1-thioazolidine-4-carboxylic acid, D- or L-1-oxazolidine-4-carboxylic acid Serine S D-Ser, Thr, D-Thr, allo-Thr, Met, D-Met, Met(O), D-Met(O), L-Cys, D-Cys Threonine T D-Thr, Ser, D-Ser, allo-Thr, Met, D-Met, Met(O), D-Met(O), Val, D-Val Tyrosine Y D-Tyr, Phe, D-Phe, L-Dopa, His, D-His Valine V D-Val, Leu, D-Leu, Ile, D-Ile, Met, D-Met Other analogs within the present invention are those with modifications which increase protein stability; such analogs may contain, for example, one or more non-peptide bonds (which replace the peptide bonds) in the protein sequence. Also included are analogs that include residues other than naturally occurring L-amino acids, e.g., D-amino acids or non-naturally occurring or synthetic amino acids, e.g., β or γ amino acids. RA-associated polypeptides of the present invention may be modified by, for example, phosphorylation, sulfation, acylation, or other protein modifications. They may also be modified with a label capable of providing a detectable signal, either directly or indirectly, including, but not limited to, radioisotopes and fluorescent compounds. It will be apparent to one of skill in the art that conventional screening assays may be used in methods of the present invention for the identification of modulators of RA-associated genes and polypeptides. In the present invention, techniques for screening large gene libraries may include cloning the gene library into replicable expression vectors, transforming appropriate cells with the resulting library of vectors, and expressing the genes under conditions for detection of a desired activity. Techniques known in the art are amenable to high throughput analysis for screening large numbers of sequences created, e.g., by random mutagenesis techniques. High throughput assays can be followed by secondary screens in order to identify further biological activities which will, e.g., allow one skilled in the art to differentiate agonists from antagonists. The type of a secondary screen used will depend on the desired activity that needs to be tested. Drug screening assays are also provided in the present invention. By producing purified and recombinant forms of RA-associated genes and polypeptides of the present invention, or fragments thereof, one skilled in the art can use these to screen for drugs which are either agonists or antagonists of the normal cellular function or their role in cellular signaling. In one aspect, the assay evaluates the ability of a compound to modulate binding between RA-associated genes and polypeptides of the present invention and a naturally occurring ligand. The term “modulating” encompasses enhancement, diminishment, activation or inactivation of activity of RA-associated genes and polypeptides. Assays useful for identifying ligands to RA-associated genes and polypeptides of the present invention are encompassed herein. Such ligands include peptides, proteins, small molecules, and antibodies, which are capable of binding to RA-associated genes and polypeptides of the present invention and modulating their activity. A variety of assay formats may be used in the present invention and are known by those skilled in the art. In many drug screening programs which test libraries of compounds and natural extracts, high throughput assays are desirable in order to maximize the number of compounds surveyed in a given period of time. Assays which are performed in cell-free systems, such as may be derived with purified or semi-purified proteins, are often preferred as primary screens in that they can be generated to permit rapid development and relatively easy detection of an alteration in a molecular target which is mediated by a test compound. Compounds identified using assays, as discussed hereinabove, may be antagonists or agonists of RA-associated genes and polypeptides. These compounds are useful in modulating the activity of RA-associated genes and polypeptides and in treating disorders associated with RA-associated genes and polypeptides. “Disorders associated with RA-associated genes and polypeptides” refers to any disorder or disease state in which RA-associated genes and polypeptides play a regulatory role in the metabolic pathway of that disorder or disease. As used herein, the term “treating” refers to the alleviation of symptoms of a particular disorder in a patient, the improvement of an ascertainable measurement associated with a particular disorder, or the prevention of a particular immune, inflammatory or cellular response. A compound which acts as a modulator of RA-associated genes and polypeptides may be administered for therapeutic use as a raw chemical or may be the active ingredient in a pharmaceutical formulation. Such formulations of the present invention may contain other therapeutic agents as described below, and may be formulated, for example, by employing conventional solid or liquid vehicles or diluents, as well as pharmaceutical additives of a type appropriate to the mode of desired administration (for example, excipients, binders, preservatives, stabilizers, flavors, etc.) according to techniques such as those well known in the art of pharmaceutical formulation. Compounds of the present invention may be administered by any suitable means, for example, orally, such as in the form of tablets, capsules, granules or powders; sublingually; buccally; parenterally, such as by subcutaneous, intravenous, intramuscular, or intrasternal injection or infusion techniques (e.g., as sterile injectable aqueous or non-aqueous solutions or suspensions); nasally such as by inhalation spray; topically, such as in the form of a cream or ointment; or rectally such as in the form of suppositories; in dosage unit formulations containing non-toxic, pharmaceutically acceptable vehicles or diluents. Such compounds may, for example, be administered in a form suitable for immediate release or extended release. Immediate release or extended release may be achieved by the use of suitable pharmaceutical compositions comprising compounds of the present invention, or, particularly in the case of extended release, by the use of devices such as subcutaneous implants or osmotic pumps. Compounds of the present invention may also be administered liposomally. Exemplary compositions for oral administration include suspensions which may contain, for example, microcrystalline cellulose for imparting bulk, alginic acid or sodium alginate as a suspending agent, methylcellulose as a viscosity enhancer, and sweeteners or flavoring agents such as those known in the art; and immediate release tablets which may contain, for example, microcrystalline cellulose, dicalcium phosphate, starch, magnesium stearate and/or lactose and/or other excipients, binders, extenders, disintegrants, diluents and lubricants such as those known in the art. Compounds of the present invention may also be delivered through the oral cavity by sublingual and/or buccal administration. Molded tablets, compressed tablets or freeze-dried tablets are exemplary forms which may be used. Exemplary compositions include those formulating the compound(s) of the present invention with fast dissolving diluents such as mannitol, lactose, sucrose and/or cyclodextrins. Also included in such formulations may be high molecular weight excipients such as celluloses (avicel) or polyethylene glycols (PEG). Such formulations may also include an excipient to aid mucosal adhesion such as hydroxy propyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxy propyl methyl cellulose (HPMC), sodium carboxy methyl cellulose (SCMC), maleic anhydride copolymer (e.g., Gantrez), and agents to control release such as polyacrylic copolymer (e.g., Carbopol 934). Lubricants, glidants, flavors, coloring agents and stabilizers may also be added for ease of fabrication and use. Exemplary compositions for nasal aerosol or inhalation administration include solutions in saline which may contain, for example, benzyl alcohol or other suitable preservatives, absorption promoters to enhance bioavailability, and/or other solubilizing or dispersing agents such as those known in the art. Exemplary compositions for parenteral administration include injectable solutions or suspensions which may contain, for example, suitable non-toxic, parenterally acceptable diluents or solvents, such as mannitol, 1,3-butanediol, water, Ringer's solution, an isotonic sodium chloride solution, or other suitable dispersing or wetting and suspending agents, including synthetic mono- or diglycerides, and fatty acids, including oleic acid. Exemplary compositions for rectal administration include suppositories which may contain, for example, a suitable non-irritating excipient, such as cocoa butter, synthetic glyceride esters or polyethylene glycols, which are solid at ordinary temperatures, but liquefy and/or dissolve in the rectal cavity to release the drug. Exemplary compositions for topical administration include a topical carrier such as Plastibase (mineral oil gelled with polyethylene). The effective amount of a compound of the present invention may be determined by one of ordinary skill in the art, and includes exemplary dosage amounts for an adult human of from about 0.1 to 100 mg/kg of body weight of active compound per day, which may be administered in a single dose or in the form of individual divided doses, such as from 1 to 4 times per day. It will be understood that the specific dose level and frequency of dosage for any particular subject may be varied and will depend upon a variety of factors including the activity of the specific compound employed, the metabolic stability and length of action of that compound, the species, age, body weight, general health, sex and diet of the subject, the mode and time of administration, rate of excretion, drug combination, and severity of the particular condition. Preferred subjects for treatment include animals, most preferably mammalian species such as humans, and domestic animals such as dogs, cats and the like, subject to disorders associated with RA-associated genes and polypeptides. The compounds of the present invention may be employed alone or in combination with each other and/or other suitable therapeutic agents useful in the treatment of disorders associated with RA-associated genes and polypeptides. In another aspect, the present invention relates to the use of an isolated nucleic acid in “antisense” therapy. As used herein, “antisense” therapy refers to administration or in situ generation of oligonucleotides or their derivatives which specifically hybridize under cellular conditions with the cellular mRNA and/or genomic DNA of RA-associated genes so as to inhibit expression of the proteins encoded by such genes, e.g., by inhibiting transcription and/or translation. In general, “antisense” therapy refers to the range of techniques generally employed in the art, and includes any therapy which relies on specific binding to oligonucleotide sequences. Gene constructs useful in antisense therapy may be administered may be administered in any biologically effective carrier, e.g., any formulation or composition capable of effectively delivering a nucleic acid sequence to cells in vivo. Approaches include insertion of the subject gene in viral vectors including recombinant retroviruses, adenoviruses, adeno-associated viruses, and herpes simplex virus-1, or recombinant bacterial or eukaryotic plasmids. Viral vectors transfect cells directly; an advantage of infection of cells with a viral vector is that a large proportion of the targeted cells can receive the nucleic acid. Several viral delivery systems are known in the art and can be utilized by one practicing the present invention. In addition to viral transfer methods, non-viral methods may also be employed. Most non-viral methods of gene transfer rely on normal mechanisms used by mammalian cells for the uptake and intracellular transport of macromolecules. Exemplary gene delivery systems of this type include liposomal derived systems, poly-lysine conjugates, and artificial viral envelopes. Nucleic acid sequences may also be introduced to cell(s) by direct injection of the gene construct or by electroporation. In clinical settings, the gene delivery systems can be introduced into a patient by any of a number of methods, each of which is known in the art. For instance, a pharmaceutical preparation of the gene delivery system can be introduced systemically, e.g., by intravenous injection, and specific transduction of the protein in the target cells occurs predominantly from specificity of transfection provided by the gene delivery vehicle, cell-type or tissue-type expression due to the transcriptional regulatory sequences controlling expression of the receptor gene, or a combination thereof. The pharmaceutical preparation of the gene therapy construct can consist essentially of the gene delivery system in an acceptable diluent, or can comprise a slow release matrix in which the gene delivery vehicle is embedded. Alternatively, where the complete gene delivery system can be produced intact from recombinant cells, e.g., retroviral vectors, the pharmaceutical preparation can comprise one or more cells which produce the gene delivery system. The following sections sets forth the materials and methods utilized in the present invention. Materials and Methods A. Microarray Experimentation 1. RNA Isolation Human knee biopsy samples were homogenized in 3 ml TRIZOL® Reagent (Life Technologies, Rockville, Md.) and frozen in liquid nitrogen. The samples were thawed, one-third (1 ml) of the sample was removed and mixed with 1 ml TRIZOL®. The mixture was then homogenized and snap frozen in liquid nitrogen. Following a thaw, the samples were spun at 14,000 rpm for 10 minutes at 4° C. The supernatants were transferred to new microfuge tubes, extracted with chloroform, and precipitated with isopropanol overnight at −20° C. The RNA was pelleted by centrifugation at 14,000 rpm for 30 minutes. The supernatant was aspirated, and the samples washed two times with 75% ethanol. Following the last spin, the pellets were air-dried, and resuspended in 20 ul of ultra-pure RNase-free water. The RNA samples were further purified using Qiagen RNease mini columns (Qiagen Inc., Valencia Calif.), according to manufacturer's instructions. The RNA was eluted with 50 ul of RNase-free water. 2. Probe Preparation The RNA was treated in a total reaction volume of 100 ul with RNase Inhibitor (Invitrogen Corp., Carlsbad, Calif.), DNase I (Ambion, Houston, Tex.) for 30 minutes at 37° C. The treated RNA was purified using Qiagen RNease mini columns, according to the manufacturer's instructions. For the first strand cDNA synthesis, the RNA was incubated with T7-(dT)24 primer, having the sequence: 5′GGCCAGTGAATTGTAATACGACTCACTATAGGGAGGCGGTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT3′ (SEQ ID NO:1) for 10 minutes at 70° C., followed by one minute on ice. First strand buffer, DTT, dNTP and RNase were added, and the samples incubated for 2 minutes at 45° C. Superscript II reverse transcriptase (Invitrogen Corp, Carlsbad, Calif.) was added, and the samples incubated for an additional 60 minutes at 45° C. For the second strand synthesis, the first strand cDNA was incubated with second strand buffer, dNTPs, E. Coli ligase, E. Coli RNase H, E. coli Polymerase I in a total volume of 150 ul for two hours at 16° C. T4 polymerase was added, and the incubation continued for an additional 5 minutes. Following this incubation, EDTA was added, and the samples placed on ice. The cDNA samples were extracted with phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol and precipitated by addition of 0.5 volumes of 7.5 M ammonium acetate and 2.5 volumes of 100% ethanol. The samples were pelleted by a 30 minute room temperature spin at 12,000×g. The pelleted samples were washed with 0.5 ml 80% ethanol, spun for 10 minutes at 12,000×g, and air dried. The samples were resuspended in 12 ul RNase free water. The cDNA was labeled using the Enzo Bio Array High Yield RNA transcript labeling kit (Enzo Therapeutics, Farmingdale, N.Y.). The cDNA was incubated with HY reaction buffer, biotin labeled NTP, DTT, RNase mix, and T7 DNA polymerase for six hours at 37° C. Unincorporated nucleotides were removed using Qiagen RNeasy columns according to manufacturer's instructions. The cRNA was fragmented by addition of fragmentation buffer, and incubated for 35 minutes at 95° C. The fragmented cRNA (0.05 mg/ml) was added to a hybridization solution master mix that included 0.1 mg/ml herring sperm DNA, 5 nM oligo B2, 1× standard curve pool, 0.5 mg/ml acetylated BSA, 1×MES hybridization buffer. The Affymetrix human U95v2 A, B, and C GeneChips® were probed with the hybridization master mix. The hybridization, washing, and Phycoerythrin streptavidin staining were performed using the Affymetrix hybridization oven and fluidics workstation according to manufacturer's instructions. Stained chips were scanned on the Affymetrix GeneChip scanner, and data was analyzed using the Affymetrix GeneChip software to determine the specifically hybridizing signal for each gene. The differentially expressed genes demonstrated at least a three-fold change in signal when comparing between tissue samples. The differences were all statistically significant (p<0.001) when compared to controls using a T-test. 3. Real Time PCR Analysis Reverse transcription reactions were performed using up to 3.6 ug mRNA. The RNA was incubated for five minutes at 70° C. and then chilled on ice. A master mix was added containing dNTPs, RT buffer (259 mM Tris-HCl pH 8.3, 375 mM KCl, 15 mM MgCl2), dithiothreitol, random hexamers, RNasin, and reverse transcriptase (Life Technologies, Rockville, Md.). The reactions were incubated for 60 minutes at 37° C., denatured for 5 minutes at 90° C., then chilled on ice for 5 minutes. PCR reactions were performed on ABI Prism® 5700 Sequence Detection System with SYBR green core reagents (PE Applied Biosystem, Foster City, Calif.). All PCR was done at 40 cycles with a pre-incubation period of 50° C. for 2 minutes followed by 95° C. for 10 minutes. Cycling conditions were 95° C. for 15 seconds, 55° C. for 20 seconds, and 75° C. for one minute. Some reactions were done with cycling conditions of 95° C. for 15 seconds and 60° C. for 60 seconds. All data was normalized relative to the signal for the housekeeping gene human hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase I (“HPRT”) (Accession No. BC000578; GI: 12653602) (SEQ ID NO:2), the nucleotide sequence of which is set forth in Table 2, below. TABLE 2 Human Hypoxanthine Phosphoribosyltransferase I: Nucleotide Sequence Accession No. BC000578; GI: 12653602 (SEQ ID NO:2) 1 ggcacgaggc ctcctgagca gtcagcccgc gcgccggccg gctccgttat ggcgacccgc 61 agccctggcg tcgtgattag tgatgatgaa ccaggttatg accttgattt attttgcata 121 cctaatcatt atgctgagga tttggaaagg gtgtttattc ctcatggact aattatggac 181 aggactgaac gtcttgctcg agatgtgatg aaggagatgg gaggccatca cattgtagcc 241 ctctgtgtgc tcaagggggg ctataaattc tttgctgacc tgctggatta catcaaagca 301 ctgaatagaa atagtgatag atccattcct atgactgtag attttatcag actgaagagc 361 tattgtaatg accagtcaac aggggacata aaagtaattg gtggagatga tctctcaact 421 ttaactggaa agaatgtctt gattgtggaa gatataattg acactggcaa aacaatgcag 481 actttgcttt ccttggtcag gcagtataat ccaaagatgg tcaaggtcgc aagcttgctg 541 gtgaaaagga ccccacgaag tgttggatat aagccagact ttgttggatt tgaaattcca 601 gacaagtttg ttgtaggata tgcccttgac tataatgaat acttcaggga tttgaatcat 661 gtttgtgtca ttagtgaaac tggaaaagca aaatacaaag cctaagatga gagttcaagt 721 tgagtttgga aacatctgga gtcctattga catcgccagt aaaattatca atgttctagt 781 tctgtggcca tctgcttagt agagcttttt gcatgtatct tctaagaatt ttatctgttt 841 tgtactttag aaatgtcagt tgctgcattc ctaaactgtt tatttgcact atgagcctat 901 agactatcag ttccctttgg gcggattgtt gtttaacttg taaatgaaaa aattctctta 961 aaccacagca ctattgagtg aaacattgaa ctcatatctg taagaaataa agagaagata 1021 tattagtttt ttaattggta ttttaatttt tatatatgca ggaaagaata gaagtgattg 1081 aatattgtta attataccac cgtgtgttag aaaagtaaga agcagtcaat tttcacatca 1141 aagacagcat ctaagaagtt ttgttctgtc ctggaattat tttagtagtg tttcagtaat 1201 gttgactgta ttttccaact tgttcaaatt attaccagtg aatctttgtc agcagttccc 1261 ttttaaatgc aaatcaataa attcccaaaa atttaaaaaa aaaaaaaaaa aaaaaa Primer sets were as follows: HPRT: Forward: GGTATACTGCCTGACCAAGG (SEQ ID NO:3) Reverse: CGAGATGTGATGAAGGAGATGG (SEQ ID NO:4) Name: gi475254 homo sapiens Transcription Factor ISGF-3 mRNA Forward exon 3 CCCCATGGAAATCAGACAGT (SEQ ID NO:5) Reverse exon 4 TTGCTTTTCCGTATGTTGTG (SEQ ID NO:6) Name: gi28965 Human Alpha-1-Antitrypsin Gene (S Variant) Forward TGAAGAGCGTCCTGGGTC (SEQ ID NO:7) Reverse CGTCGATGGTCAGCACAG (SEQ ID NO:8) Name: gi5595355 Human ADO37 Protein Forward GCCCATCAGTGACAGCAAG (SEQ ID NO:9) Reverse CCCAGGCAATGTTGAGGAG (SEQ ID NO:10) Name: gi2185828 Human Hypothetical Protein FLJ14834 Forward 417-436 CCTTCCCCTGTCATTGTTC Tm = 58 (SEQ ID NO:11) Reverse 515-534 GACAGTAACCCTGCCACAC Tm = 60 (SEQ ID NO:12) Name: gi183001 Human Guanylate Binding Protein Isoform I Forward 124-132 GGCGACTGATGGCGAATC Tm = 58 (SEQ ID NO:13) Reverse 264-282 CACCGTGGAGCCCAGAGA Tm = 60 (SEQ ID NO:14) Name: gi2138110 Human Cysteine Dioxygenease Forward 321-341 exon 1 GGCGATGAGGTCAATGTAGA Tm = 60 SEQ ID NO:15) Reverse 473-493 exon 2 CTGTGTCCTTCACCCCAACA Tm = 62 (SEQ ID NO:16) Name: gi180278 IgG Fc Receptor I Forward GGACACCACAAAGGCAGTGAT (SEQ ID NO:17) Reverse GCAGATGGAGCACCTCACAGT (SEQ ID NO:18) Name: gi1382379 MRP-14 Forward AGCTCAGCTGCTTGTCTGCAT (SEQ ID NO:19) Reverse TTCAAAGAGCTGGTGCGAAA (SEQ ID NO:20) Name: gi1382285 Early B Cell Factor Forward GGCCAGGGCAATGTTATGC (SEQ ID NO:21) Reverse ACATTCTGGCCCTCTGATCCT (SEQ ID NO:22) Name: gi2185828 Human Hypothetical Protein FLJ14834 Forward 417-436 CCTTCCCCTGTCATTGTTC (SEQ ID NO:23) Reverse 515-534 GACAGTAACCCTGCCACAC (SEQ ID NO:24) B. Further Characterization of GBP-1 (SEQ ID NOS. 41 and 42): and GBP-5 (SEQ ID NOS. 61 and 62) 1. Cell Culture For real time PCR analyses, THP-1 cells (107/group) were cultured at 106/ml in RPMI containing 10% heat inactivated fetal calf serum, 2 mM L-glutamine with either medium, BMS-205820 (2 uM), or dexamethasone (100 nM) for 30 minutes at 37° C. in 5% CO2. LPS was added to each group (100 ng/ml), and the incubation continued for 0.5-8 hr. At the end of each time point, cells were pelleted, washed one time with 10 ml PBS, and stored at −80° C. Wild type 3T3 fibroblasts and immortalized fibroblast lines derived from p65 and IkBα germline knockouts were cultured in DMEM with 10% calf serum, glutamax and penicillin/streptomycin. Primary embryonic fibroblasts derived from germline knockouts of relB and p50 were cultured in DMEM with 10% fetal calf serum, glutamax and penicillin/streptomycin. The fibroblasts were plated at 5×105/well of a 6 well plate and cultured overnight at 37° C. in 5% CO2. Cells were stimulated for 2 or 8 hours with either medium, human TNFα (10 ng/ml) or PMA (10 ng/ml). At each time point, cells were harvested using trypsin/EDTA, washed one time with PBS, and stored at −80° C. For the microarray analyses, THP-1 cells (107/group) were cultured at 106/ml as above for 1, 6, 24, or 48 hours with either medium, TNFα (10 ng/ml), IFN-γ(100 U/ml), or LPS (100 ng/ml). At each time point, mRNA was isolated, labeled, and used to probe Affymetrix HG_U95Av2, HG_U95B, and HG_U95C chips. Human microvascular endothelial cells from three different donors were obtained from Clonetics (Walkersville, Md.), and cultured in EGM-2 medium (Clonetics). Cells were cultured in 100 mm dishes coated with mouse type IV collagen and allowed to grow to approximately 80% confluency. The cells were then stimulated for 1, 6, or 24 hours with either medium, TNFα (10 ng/ml), or IL-1β (10 ng/ml). At each time point, mRNA was isolated, labeled and used to probe Affymetrix HG_U95Av2 and HG_U95B chips. For VEGF and bFGF stimulations, microvascular endothelial cells from three independent donors were obtained, cultured in 100 mm dishes coated with mouse type IV collagen and allowed to grow to 30% confluency. At this time, the media was replaced with DMEM containing 2% fetal calf serum, and the cells were cultured an additional day. The cells were stimulated for 1, 6, or 24 hours with either medium, VEGF (30 ng/ml) or bFGF (10 ng/ml). At each time point, mRNA was isolated, labeled, and used to probe Affymetrix chips as described above. Synovial fibroblasts were obtained from Cell Applications, Inc. (San Diego, Calif.), and cultured for 1, 6, or 24 hours with either medium, TNFα (10 ng/ml), IL-1α (10 ng/ml, Peprotech), IL-17 (10 ng/ml, R&D Systems, Minneapolis, Minn.), or IL-17b-Ig fusion protein (5 ng/ml). The IL-17b protein was produced by fusing the full length IL-17b sequence (Shi et al., J. Biol. Chem. 275:19167-19176 (2000)) to the human IgG1 Fc region. At each time point, mRNA was isolated, labeled, and used to probe Affymetrix HG_U95Av2, HG_U95B, HG_U95C, HG_U95D, and HG_U95E chips. T cells were isolated from the blood of 4 donors. Lymphocytes were isolated by centrifugation over Accu-prep lymphocyte separation medium (Accurate Chemical and Scientific Corporation, Westbury, N.Y.). The T cells were isolated by rosetting with sheep red blood cells. The isolated T cells were cultured for 6 hours with either medium, or immobilized anti-CD3 (1 ug/ml) plus soluble anti-CD28 (1 ug/ml) antibodies. After 6 hours, mRNA was isolated, labeled, and used to probe Affymetrix HG_U133A and HG_U133B chips. 2. cDNA Synthesis for Real Time PCR Analysis Total RNA was isolated from cells using the RNeasy® Kit from Qiagen (Valencia, Calif.), including the on-the-column DNase digestion procedure. RNA quality and quantity were evaluated using UV spectrometry. Total RNA was used for first-strand cDNA synthesis using the SuperScript™ First-Strand Synthesis System for RT-PCR (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) following the manufacturer's instructions with 50 ng of random hexamers. For tissue expression analyses, Human Multiple Tissue cDNA Panel I and Human Immune System MTC Panels were obtained from Clontech (Palo Alto, Calif.). PCR reactions were performed using 2 microliters of cDNA sample (diluted with six microliters of water). 3. Primers Gene specific primers were designed using the Primer Express software and synthesized by Sigma Genosys (The Woodlands, Tex.). Primer Sets were as Follows: Name: mGBP-1 Forward GGAACAGGAAAGACTTCTCAAGCA (SEQ ID NO:82) Reverse CTTGACGTAGTTGCAAGCTCTCA (SEQ ID NO:83) Name: mGBP-5 Forward GCTGAAGCAAGGTAGCGATGA (SEQ ID NO:84) Reverse CCTCGTTGCTGAGTGTTGGA (SEQ ID NO:85) Name: mHPRT Forward TCAGACTGAAGAGCTACTGTAATGATCA (SEQ ID NO:86) Reverse CAACAATCAAGACATTCTTTCCAGTT (SEQ ID NO:87) Name: hGBP-5 Forward TGCTTTCACTTGTGCCTCTTTC (SEQ ID NO:88) Reverse CAGGCTCTCACAGAGACGGAA (SEQ ID NO:89) Name: hGAPDH Forward AGCCGAGCCACATCGCT (SEQ ID NO:90) Reverse GTGACCAGGCGCCCAATAC (SEQ ID NO:91) 3. PCR Assay Conditions Reactions were performed in a total volume of 40 μl. The master mix contained SYBR Green I Dye, 50 mM Tris-HCl pH8.3, 75 mM KCl, DMSO, Rox reference dye, 5 mM MgCl2, 2 mM dNTP, Platinum Taq High Fidelity (1 U/reaction), and 0.5 μM of each primer. Eight microliters of diluted cDNA was used in each PCR reaction. The amplification program consisted of a 10 minute incubation at 95° C. followed by forty cycles of incubations at 95° C. for 15 seconds and 60° C. for 1 minute. Amplification was followed by melting curve analysis at 60° C. to demonstrate that the amplification was specific to a single amplicon. A negative control without cDNA template was run to assess the overall specificity. 4. Data Analysis A relative value for the initial target concentration in each reaction was determined using the TaqMan 5700 software. The threshold value was set to 0.5 to obtain cycle threshold values that were used to assign relative message levels for each target. The message levels of hGAPDH were used to normalize all other genes tested from the same cDNA. Message levels from the mouse fibroblast experiment were normalized using mouse HPRT values. EXAMPLE 1 Upregulated Genes and Downregulated Genes in RA 1. α-1 Antitrypsin Expression Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), increases in expression of α-1 antitrypsin were detected in the RA synovium. This increased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 1. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:25) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:26) of α-1 antitrypsin are shown in FIGS. 2 and 3, respectively. Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), Real Time PCR was conducted to quantify the expression of (−1 antitrypsin in the RA synovium, the results of which are set forth in Table 3, below. As used in Table 3 and hereinafter, “OA” stands for “Osteoarthritis”. TABLE 3 α-1 antitrypsin: Real Time PCR Results Expression Level T test Normal 1 OA 1.02 0.9574 RA 5.94 0.0034 α-1 Antitrypsin is the major endogenous inhibitor of the serine protease elastase. It also inhibits other circulating proteases including cathepsin G, thrombin, trypsin, and chymotrypsin. α-1 Antitrypsin is primarily synthesized by the liver. However, neutrophils, monocytes, and alveolar macrophages also increase expression of α-1 antitrypsin in response to proinflammatory stimuli including TNF-α, IL-6 and endotoxin (Knoell, et al., Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 157:246-255 (1998)). The deficiency of α-1 antitrypsin is associated with connective tissue destruction and the development of emphysema (Crystal, J. Clin. Invest. 85:1343-1352 (1990)). At physiological concentrations, α-1 antitrypsin is a potent stimulator of fibroblast proliferation and collagen production (Dabbagh et al., J Cell Physiol. 186:73-81 (2001)). High levels of the elastase-α-1 antitrypsin complex have been measured in the serum and synovial fluid of RA patients (Beyeler, et al., J. Rheumatol. 27:15-19 (2000)). α-1 Antitrypsin has also been isolated in a subtraction library examining genes upregulated in monocytes from RA patients (Stuhlmuller, et al., Arthritis Rheum. 43:775-790 (2000)). 2. B Lymphocyte Stimulator Expression Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), increases in expression of B Lymphocyte Stimulator (BLyS, TNSF13B) were detected in the RA synovium. This increased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 4. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:27) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:28) of BLyS are shown in FIGS. 5 and 6, respectively. BLyS is a member of the TNF family produced by activated T cells, monocytes, and dendritic cells that stimulates B cell expansion and function. Serum BLyS levels have been shown to be elevated in patients with systemic autoimmune diseases, including lupus erythematosus (Zhang, et al., J. Immunol. 166:6-10 (2001)) and RA (Cheema, et al., Arthritis Rheum. 44:1313-1319 (2001)). Mice deficient for the BLyS receptor are resistant to collagen-induced arthritis (Wang, et al., Nature Immunol. 2:632-637 (2001)). 3. Fc Gamma RI Expression Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), increases in expression of Fc gamma RI were detected in the RA synovium. This increased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 7. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:29) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:30) of Fc gamma RI are shown in FIGS. 8 and 9, respectively. Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), Real Time PCR was conducted to quantify the expression of Fc gamma RI in the RA synovium, the results of which are set forth in Table 4, below. TABLE 4 Fc gamma RI: Real Time PCR Results Expression Level T test Normal 1 1 OA 1.89 0.35 RA 6.57 0.02 Fc gamma RI receptors bind IgG immune complexes and trigger cell activation and IL-8 secretion (Salmon, et al., Arthritis Rheum. 44:739-750 (2001)). The expression of Fc gamma RI was increased on monocytes derived from RA patients as compared to healthy controls. A significant correlation between Fc gamma RI, C-reactive protein, and blood platelet count was found in the RA patients. Furthermore, treatment with the steroid prednisolone induced down-regulation of Fc gamma RI expression suggesting that increased expression is associated with disease activity (Torsteinsdottir et al. (1999) Clin. Exp. Immunol. 115:554-560). Mice lacking functional Fc gamma RI and RIII receptors are resistant to collagen-induced arthritis (Kleinau et al. (2000) J. Exp. Med. 191:1611-1616). 4. Migration Inhibitory Factor-Related Protein 14 Expression Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), increases in expression of Migration inhibitory factor-related protein 14 (MRP-14) were detected in the RA synovium. This increased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 10. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:31) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:32) of MRP-14 are shown in FIGS. 11 and 12, respectively. Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), Real Time PCR was conducted to quantify the expression of MRP-14 in the RA synovium, the results of which are set forth in Table 5, below. TABLE 5 MRP-14: Real Time PCR Results Expression Level T test Normal 1 1 OA 0.64 0.49 RA 4.37 0.07 MRP-14 is a calcium binding protein expressed primarily by circulating neutrophils and monocytes that belongs to the S100 family of proteins (Kerkhoff, et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1448:200-211 (1998); Hessian, et al., J. Leuk. Biol. 53:197-204 (1993)). MRP-14 is strongly expressed by infiltrating neutrophils and monocytes within the inflamed joints of juvenile RA patients (Youssef, et al., J. Rheumatol. 26:2523-2528 (1999)). MRP14 is specifically released during the interaction of monocytes with inflammatory activated endothelium, and is found in high concentrations in the synovial fluid of juvenile RA patients (Frosch, et al., Arthritis Rheum. 43:628-637 (2000)). 5. Skin Collagenase Expression Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), increases in expression of Skin Collagenase (MMP-1) were detected in the RA synovium. This increased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 13. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:33) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:34) of MRP-14 are shown in FIGS. 14 and 15, respectively. MMP-1 is an enzyme that degrades interstitial collagens types I, II, and III. Elevated expression of MMP-1 was detected in synovium from patients with early inflammatory arthritis and with established erosive arthritis. Little expression was detected in normal synovium (Cunnane, et al., Rheumatology 38:34-42 (1999)). Primary cultures of rheumatoid synoviocytes produced MMP-1 as detected using immunohistochemistry. Expression has also been detected in the rheumatoid lesion (Tetlow, et al., Br. J. Rheum. 37:64-70 (1998)). 6. Cysteine Dioxygenase Expression Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), decreases in expression of cysteine dioxygenase were detected in the RA synovium. This decreased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 16. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:35) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:36) of cysteine dioxygenase are shown in FIGS. 17 and 18, respectively. Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), Real Time PCR was conducted to quantify the expression of Cysteine Dioxygenase in the RA synovium, the results of which are set forth in Table 6, below. TABLE 6 Cysteine Dioxygenase: Real Time PCR Results Expression Level T test Normal 1 OA 1.21 0.77 RA 0.19 0.06 Cysteine dioxygenase is an enzyme involved in sulphate metabolism whose activity has been shown to be decreased in RA patients (Bradley, et al., J. Rheumatol. 21:1192-1196 (1994)). EXAMPLE 2 Upregulated Genes and Downregulated Genes in RA 1. HLA-DR2/Dw12 Expression Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), significant increases in expression of HLA-DR2/Dw12 were detected in the RA synovium. This increased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 19. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:37) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:38) of HLA-DR2/Dw12 are shown in FIGS. 20 and 21, respectively. Upregulation of MHC class II alleles, specifically HLA-DRB1 and HLA-DR4 subtypes, has previously been associated with development of RA (Kerlan-Candon, et al., Arthritis Rheum. 44:1281-1292 (2001)). Evidence suggests that expression of the DRB1*0401 and related haplotypes predisposes individuals to RA (Nepom, Adv. Immunol. 68:315-332 (1998)). This allele is also associated with the most severe form of RA leading to extraarticular manifestations (Weyand, et al., J. Clin. Invest. 89:2033-2039 (1992)). Specific associations of HLA-DR2 expression with RA, shown in the present invention, have not been previously demonstrated. 2. Stimulator of Iron Transport Expression Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), increases in expression of Stimulator of Iron Transport were detected in the RA synovium. This increased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 22. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:39) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:40) of Stimulator of Iron Transport are shown in FIGS. 23 and 24, respectively. Stimulator of Iron Transport is a regulator of ferric and ferrous iron uptake (Yu et al., J. Biol. Chem. 273:21380-21385 (1998); Gutierrez, et al., J. Cell Biol. 139:895-905 (1997)). 3. Guanylate Binding Protein Isoform 1 Expression Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), increases in expression of Guanylate Binding Protein Isoform 1 (GBP-1) were detected in the RA synovium. This increased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 25. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:41) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:42) of GBP-1 are shown in FIGS. 26 and 27 respectively. Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), Real Time PCR was conducted to quantify the expression of GBP-1 in the RA synovium, the results of which are set forth in Table 7, below. TABLE 7 Guanylate Binding Protein Isoform 1: Real Time PCR Results Expression Level T test Normal 1 OA 1.00 0.985 RA 3.89 0.003 GBP-1 is an interferon-inducible protein that binds guanine nucleotides and possesses GTPase activity (Cheng, et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 11:4717-4725 (1991)). The regulation of GBP-1 was further characterized using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section B), the results of which are set forth in Example 3 below. 4. ISGF-3 p91 (STAT1) Expression Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), increases in expression of ISGF-3 p91 (STAT1) were detected in the RA synovium. This increased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 28. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:43) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:44) of ISGF-3 p91 (STAT1) are shown in FIGS. 29 and 30, respectively. Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), Real Time PCR was conducted to quantify the expression of ISGF-3 p91 in the RA synovium, the results of which are set forth in Table 8, below. TABLE 8 ISGF-3 p91: Real Time PCR Results Expression Level T test Normal 1 OA 0.93 0.720 RA 3.91 0.002 ISGF-3 p91 (STAT1) is a transcription factor involved in interferon signaling pathways (Schindler, et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 89:7836-7839 (1992)). Continuous activation of STAT1 has been seen in synovial fluid cells derived from RA but not osteoarthritis patients (Yokota, et al., J. Rheumatol. 28:1952-1959 (2001)). 5. Mad Protein Homolog-3 Expression Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), decreases in expression of Mad Protein Homolog (MAD-3) were detected in the RA synovium. MAD-3 is also known as Mothers Against Decapentaplegic Homolog 3 (Smad-3). This decreased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 31. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:45) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:46) of MAD-3 are shown in FIGS. 32 and 33, respectively. Mad-3 is an intracellular mediator downstream of the TGF-β/activin receptors that appears to be important for monocyte chemotaxis in response to TGF-β (Zhang, et al., Nature 383:168-172 (1996); Ashcroft, et al., Nature Cell Biol. 1:260-266 (1999). 6. Human Transforming Growth Factor-Beta Type III Receptor Expression Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), decreases in expression of Human Transforming Growth Factor-Beta Type III Receptor (TGF-β type III receptor) were detected in the RA synovium. This decreased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 34. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:47) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:48) of TGF-β type III receptor are shown in FIGS. 35 and 36, respectively. 7. Early B Cell Factor Expression Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), decreases in expression of Early B Cell Factor (EBF) were detected in the RA synovium. This decreased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 37. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:49) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:50) of EBF are shown in FIGS. 38 and 39, respectively. Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), Real Time PCR was conducted to quantify the expression of EBF in the RA synovium, the results of which are set forth in Table 9, below. TABLE 9 EBF: Real Time PCR Results Expression Level T test Normal 1 1 OA 0.72 0.66 RA 0.20 0.05 EBF is a transcription factor required for B cell differentiation (Gisler, et al., Blood 96:1457-1464 (2000)). 8. Duodenal Cytochrome b Expression Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), decreases in expression of Duodenal Cytochrome b were detected in the RA synovium. This decreased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 40. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:51) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:52) of Duodenal Cytochrome b are shown in FIGS. 41 and 42, respectively. Duodenal cytochrome b is a protein localized to the duodenal mucosa possessing ferric reductase activity (McKie, et al., Science 291:1755-1759 (2001)). 9. Nuclear LIM Interactor-Interactinp Factor Expression Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), decreases in expression of Nuclear LIM Interactor-Interacting Factor (NLI-IF) were detected in the RA synovium. This decreased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 43. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:53) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:54) of NLI-IF are shown in FIGS. 44 and 45, respectively. The NLI-IF amino acid sequence has homology to the nuclear Lim interactor interacting factor from Gallus gallus. It is one of a family of four related proteins of unknown function (Marquet, et al., Mamm. Genome 11:755-762 (2000)). 10. Deleted in Liver Cancer 1 Expression Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), decreases in expression of Deleted in Liver Cancer 1 (DLC 1) were detected in the RA synovium. This decreased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 46. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:55) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:56) of DLC1 are shown in FIGS. 47 and 48, respectively. DLC1 is a candidate tumor suppressor gene possessing a high degree of sequence similarity to the rat p122 Rho Gap gene (Yuan, et al., Cancer Res. 58:2196-2199 (1998); Ng, et al., Cancer Res. 60:6581-6584 (2000)). 11. GI: 12005907 Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), increases in expression of the polynucleotide identified by Genbank Accession No. AF260335 (GI: 12005907) were detected in the RA synovium. This increased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 49. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:57) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:58) are shown in FIGS. 50 and 51, respectively. Further, Real Time PCR was conducted to quantify the expression of this polynucleotide in the RA synovium, the results of which are set forth in Table 10. TABLE 10 GI: 12005907: Real Time PCR Results Expression Level T test Normal 1 OA 1.44 0.34 RA 2.39 0.04 12. Apolipoprotein L Expression Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), increases in expression of Apolipoprotein L (APOL) (Genbank Accession No. NM—003661) were detected in the RA synovium. This increased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 52. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:59) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:60) of APOL are shown in FIGS. 53 and 54, respectively. Apolipoprotein L is a component of human plasma lipoproteins (Duchateau, et al., J. Biol. Chem. 272:25576-25582 (1997)). 13. Homo Sapiens Guanylate Binding Protein 5 Expression Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), increases in expression of Homo Sapiens Guanylate Binding Protein 5 (Genbank Accession No. AF288815) (GBP-5) were detected in the RA synovium. This increased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 55. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:61) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:62) of Homo Sapiens GBP-5 are shown in FIGS. 56 and 57, respectively. GBP-5 is highly homologous to GBP-1 described above (SEQ ID NO: 42). The regulation of GBP-5 was further characterized using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section B), the results of which are set forth in Example 3 below. 14. Human Proteasome Activator hPA28 Subunit Beta Expression Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), increases in expression of HPA28 subunit beta (HPA28) (Genbank Accession No. D45248) were detected in the RA synovium. This increased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 58. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:63) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:64) of HPA28 are shown in FIGS. 59 and 60, respectively. HPA28 beta subunits associate with alpha subunits to form PA28, an activator of the 20S proteasome. Both subunits are coordinately regulated by interferon-γ (Ahn, et al., FEBS Lett. 366:37-42 (1995)). 15. Homo Sapiens FYN Binding Protein Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), increases in expression of Homo Sapiens FYN Binding Protein (Genbank Accession No. AF001862) were detected in the RA synovium. This increased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 61. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:65) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:66) of Homo Sapiens FYN Binding Protein are shown in FIGS. 62 and 63, respectively. FYN Binding Protein is a hematopoietic specific adapter protein that associates in a T cell receptor-inducible manner with another hematopoietic-specific adapter, SLP-76 (daSilva, et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:7493-7498 (1997)). T cells from mice lacking FYN Binding Protein exhibit impaired proliferative responses and impaired integrin clustering following T cell receptor crosslinking (Peterson, et al., Science 293:2263-2265 (2001)). 16. VAMP5 Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), increases in expression of VAMP5 (GI:4027902) were detected in the RA synovium. This increased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 64. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:67) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:68) of VAMP5 are shown in FIGS. 65 and 66, respectively. VAMP5 is a novel synaptobrevin protein that is preferentially expressed in skeletal muscle and heart. Its expression is increased during myogenesis and it localizes to the plasma membrane as well as intracellular perinuclear and peripheral vesicular structures of myotubes (Zeng, et al., Mol. Biol. Cell 9:2423-2437 (1998)). 17. GI: 2466183 Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), decreases in expression of the polynucleotide identified by GI:2466183 were detected in the RA synovium. This decreased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 67. The sequence of this polynucleotide is shown in FIG. 68 (SEQ ID NO:69). 18. GI: 2219283 Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), decreases in expression of the polynucleotide identified by GI: 2219283 were detected in the RA synovium. This decreased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 69. The sequence of this polynucleotide is shown in FIG. 70 (SEQ ID NO:70). 19. Hypothetical Protein FLJ20152 (GI: 9506660) Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), decreases in expression of the Hypothetical Protein FLJ20152 identified by GI: 9506660 were detected in the RA synovium. This decreased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 71. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:71) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:72) of Hypothetical Protein FLJ20152 are shown in FIGS. 72 and 73, respectively. 20. GI: 5876137 Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), decreases in expression of the polynucleotide identified by GI: 5876137 were detected in the RA synovium. This decreased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 74. The sequence of this polynucleotide is shown in FIG. 75 (SEQ ID NO:73). 21. GI: 2185828 Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), decreases in expression of the polynucleotide identified by GI: 2185828 were detected in the RA synovium. This decreased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 76. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:74) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:75) are shown in FIGS. 77 and 78, respectively. Further, Real Time PCR was conducted to quantify the expression of this polynucleotide in the RA synovium, the results of which are set forth in Table 11. TABLE 11 GI: 2185828 Real Time PCR Results Expression Level T test Normal 1 OA 0.87 0.632 RA 0.21 0.014 22. Homo sapiens Proteasome (Prosome, Macropain) Subunit, Beta Type, 9 Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), increases in expression of the Homo sapiens proteasome (prosome, macropain) subunit, beta type, 9 (GI: 14754802) were detected in the RA synovium. This increased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 79. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:76) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:77) of homo sapiens proteasome (prosome, macropain) subunit, beta type, 9 are shown in FIGS. 80 and 81, respectively. The of homo sapiens proteasome (prosome, macropain) subunit, beta type, 9 is encoded by a gene within the major histocompatibility complex. This subunit replaces beta subunit PSMB6 following interferon gamma stimulation, thereby altering the proteasome specificity. 23. TYRO Protein Tyrosine Kinase Binding Protein (TYROBP); GI:4507754 Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), increases in expression of the TYRO protein tyrosine kinase binding protein (TYROBP) (GI:4507754) were detected in the RA synovium. This increased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 82. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:78) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:79) are shown in FIGS. 83 and 84, respectively. TYRO protein tyrosine binding protein (TYROBP) is an ITAM-bearing transmembrane adaptor protein that associates non-covalently with receptors in natural killer and myeloid cells (Lanier, et al., Nature 391:703-707 (1998)). Mice deficient for TYROBP have normal lymphoid and myeloid development, however activating Ly49 receptors on NK cells are downregulated and nonfunctional. The TYROBP deficient mice are resistant to induction of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and exhibit decreased interferon-γ production by antigen-primed CD4+ T cells due to inadequate T cell priming in vivo (Bakker, et al., Immunity 13:345-353 (2000)). Humans expressing loss of function mutations in TYROBP exhibit presenile dementia with bone cysts (Paloneva, et al., Nat. Genet. 25:357-361 (2000)). 24. Interleukin 15 Receptor, Alpha Using the materials and methods described hereinabove (Materials and Methods, Section A), increases in expression of Interleukin 15 Receptor, alpha were detected in the RA synovium. This increased expression is shown in the microarray data in FIG. 85. The polynucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:80) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:81) are shown in FIGS. 86 and 87, respectively. IL-15 is a T cell growth factor that shares many functional similarities with IL-2. The IL-15 receptor consists of a high affinity binding alpha chain and the common IL-2 receptor beta and gamma chains (Anderson, et al., J. Biol. Chem. 270:29862-29869 (1995)). Elevated levels of IL-15 have been detected in the serum from systemic lupus erythematosus patients (Aringer, et al., Rheumatology 40:876-881 (2001)), in the synovial tissue of rheumatoid arthritis patients (Thurkow, et al., J. Pathol. 181:444-450 (1997)), and in synovial fluid from rheumatoid arthritis patients (McInnes, et al., Nat. Med. 2:175-182 (1996)). Administration of soluble IL-15 receptor alpha chain to mice prevented collagen-induced arthritis (Ruchatz, et al., J. Immunol. 160:5654-5660 (1998)), suggesting that IL-15 plays a role in the development of rheumatoid arthritis. Upregulation of the IL-15 receptor alpha chain in rheumatoid arthritis has not been previously described. EXAMPLE 3 Characterization of RA-Associated Genes GBP-1 and GBP5 As stated above, GBP-1 and GBP-5 were further characterized using the materials and methods set forth above (Materials and Methods, Section B). GBP-1 has been identified as an interferon-inducible protein in human fibroblasts (Cheng et al., J. Biol. Chem. 258:7746-7750 (1983)). GBP-1 mRNA has been shown to be induced in endothelial cells in response to the pro-inflammatory stimuli, TNFα and IL-1a (Guenzi et al., EMBO J. 20:5568-5577 (2001)). This study also suggested that GBP-1 mediates the anti-proliferative effects of these cytokines. As TNFα and IL-1α are known to activate the transcription factor NF-kB, it was determined whether NF-kB was required for induction of GBP-1 and GBP-5 in the human THP-1 monocyte line. THP-1 monocytes were stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a known inducer of NF-kB, in the presence and absence of a selective peptide inhibitor of NF-kB nuclear translocation, which is set forth in Fujihara et al., J. Immunol. 165:1004-1012 (2000) and designated “BMS-205820”. Following a 2 hour stimulation, RNA was isolated from 2 sets of independently treated THPs, and real time PCR was performed using primers specific for either GBP-1 or GBP-5, as shown in FIG. 88. Treatment of THP-1 cells with LPS significantly increased steady-state mRNA levels of both GBP-1 (FIGS. 88A and 88B) and GBP-5 (FIGS. 88C and 88D). Expression of both genes was significantly inhibited by BMS-205820, suggesting that LPS-mediated induction of GBP-1 and GBP-5 expression is dependent on NF-kB activity. An extended time course was performed to further characterize GBP-1 and GBP-5 expression, as shown in FIG. 89. THP-1 cells were stimulated for 0.5, 1, 4, 6, and 8 hours with LPS. Some groups included either BMS-205820 or the steroid dexamethasone for 2 or 6 hours. Dexamethasone is also known to inhibit NF-kB activity (Scheinman et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 15:943-953 (1995)). At each time point, mRNA was isolated and real time PCR was performed using primers specific for either GBP-1 (FIG. 89A) or GBP-5 (FIG. 89B). Steady state mRNA levels for both GBP-1 and GBP-5 peaked at 6 hours post stimulation. Addition of either BMS-205820 or dexamethasone significantly inhibited mRNA induction of both genes at 2 and 6 hours. The ability of two different NF-kB inhibitors to block GBP-1 and GBP-5 expression further confirms that LPS-mediated induction of these genes is dependent on NF-kB activity. To further confirm that GBP-1 and GBP-5 are NF-kB target genes, expression in mouse embryonic fibroblasts derived from germline knockouts of members of the NF-kB family was examined (FIG. 90). Wild type 3T3 cells, embryonic fibroblasts derived from knockouts of p65, RelB, p50, and IkBα were stimulated for 2 or 8 hours with either TNFα or PMA. At each time point, mRNA was isolated and real time PCR was performed using primers specific for either mouse GBP-1 (FIG. 90A) or GBP-5 (FIG. 90B). Stimulation with TNFα but not PMA induced increased steady-state levels of both GBP-1 and GBP-5 mRNA. Induction of GBP-1 mRNA was completely ablated in cells lacking either p65 or RelB. GBP-1 mRNA was superinduced in cells lacking either p50 or IkBα, suggesting that these proteins negatively regulate GBP-1 mRNA. IkBα is a known inhibitor of NF-kB activity (Baeuerle et al., Science 242:540-545 (1988)). Homodimers of p50 have also been shown to repress certain genes (Plaksin et al., J. Exp. Med. 177:1651-1662 (1993)). Similar to GBP-1, induction of GBP-5 mRNA was completely ablated in cells lacking p65. In contrast to GBP-1, GBP-5 mRNA was superinduced in cells lacking RelB. Similar to GBP-1, GBP-5 mRNA was also superinduced in cells lacking either p50 or IkBα. These data suggest that p65 expression is required for the induction of both GBP-1 and GBP-5. Complexes containing RelB appear to differentially regulate GBP-1 and GBP-5 expression. Taken together, these data are consistent with NF-kB-dependent regulation of GBP-1 and GBP-5 expression. The tissue expression profiles of GBP-1 and GBP-5 were further characterized. Human tissue cDNA panels were analyzed by real time PCR with primers selective for GBP-1 (FIG. 91A) and GBP-5 (FIG. 91B). Both genes had very similar patterns of expression. The highest steady state mRNA levels were detected in hematopoietic tissues including spleen, peripheral blood leukocytes, and lymph nodes. Lower levels of expression were detected in lung, followed by liver, thymus, tonsil, bone marrow, placenta, fetal liver, tonsil, and pancreas. Based on the high expression detected in hematopoietic tissue, the expression of GBP-1 and GBP-5 in panels of resting and stimulated immune cells was examined. Consistent with the identification of GBP-1 as an interferon response gene (Cheng et al., J. Biol. Chem. 258:7746-7750 (1983)), steady state levels of GBP-1 and GBP-5 mRNA were strongly induced by interferon-γ treatment of THP-1 monocytes, as shown in FIGS. 92A and 92B. Much lower levels of expression were induced by TNFα and LPS. Consistent with published reports (Guenzi et al., EMBO J 20:5568-5577 (2001)), GBP-1 expression was strongly induced by TNFα and IL-1β in human microvascular endothelial cells (FIG. 93A). No induction was seen in response to either VEGF or basic FGF. In contrast to GBP-1, induction of GBP-5 by TNFα and IL-1β was variable (FIG. 93B). Cells from two out of three donors upregulated GBP-5 mRNA in response to TNFαc. Only one donor significantly induced GBP-5 mRNA in response to IL-1β. Synovial fibroblasts derived from rheumatoid arthritis patients were stimulated with either TNFα, IL-1α, IL-17, or IL-17b. GBP-1 mRNA was induced at 1 and 6 hours by stimulation with either TNFα or IL-1a, but not in response to either IL-17 or IL-17b (FIG. 94A). Low levels of GBP-5 expression were detected in synovial fibroblasts (FIG. 94B). Induction of GBP-5 in response to the different stimuli was variable and not sustained. GBP-1 and GBP-5 had similar patterns of expression in T cells (FIG. 95). Peripheral blood T cells were isolated from 4 different donors and stimulated for 6 hours with antibodies to CD3 and CD28 as a mimic of antigen stimulation. Steady state levels of GBP-1 (FIG. 95A) and GBP-5 (FIG. 95B) mRNA were strongly induced by antigen receptor crosslinking. The induction of GBP-1 and GBP-5 by pro-inflammatory stimuli including LPS, IL-1, TNFα, and antigen receptor crosslinking is consistent with NF-kB-dependent regulation of these genes. Overexpression of these genes in synovium from rheumatoid arthritis patients is also consistent with NF-kB-dependent regulation. NF-kB is activated in the inflamed synovium of rheumatoid arthritis patients (Marok et al., Arthritis Rheum. 39:583-591 (1996)) and animal models of arthritis (Miagkov et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:13859-13864 (1998)). The regulation of GBP-1 and GBP-5 by NF-kB coupled with the involvement of NF-kB in the development of arthritis indicates that these genes play a role in disease pathology. While the invention has been described in connection with specific embodiments therefore, it will be understood that it is capable of further modifications and this application is intended to cover any variations, uses, or adaptations of the invention following, in general, the principles of the invention and including such departures from the present disclosure as come within known or customary practice within the art to which the invention pertains and as may be applied to the essential features hereinbefore set forth and as follows in the scope of the appended claims. All references cited herein are expressly incorporated in their entirety.	C	C12	C12Q	1	68
11770545	US20080202898A1-20080828	INPUT DEVICE AND MOBILE COMMUNICATION DEVICE HAVING SAME	ACCEPTED	20080814	20080828		[]	H01H300	["H01H300"]	7737374	20070628	20100615	200	00500R	75036.0	FRIEDHOFER	MICHAEL	[{"inventor_name_last": "CHEON", "inventor_name_first": "Jee Young", "inventor_city": "Seoul", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Lee", "inventor_name_first": "Kyung Ik", "inventor_city": "Kwangmyung-si", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}]	An input device is provided. The input device includes a first input unit configured to provide at least two directional signals, a second input unit located in the first input unit, the second input unit being configured to provide at least two directional signals different from the at least two directional signals of the first input unit, and a circuitry supporting substrate configured to receive a signal that is input through the first input unit and the second input unit. In addition, a mobile communication device having an input device is also provided.	1. An input device, comprising: a first input unit configured to provide at least two directional signals; a second input unit located in the first input unit, the second input unit being configured to provide at least two directional signals different from the at least two directional signals of the first input unit; and a circuitry supporting substrate configured to receive a signal that is input through the first input unit and the second input unit. 2. The input device according to claim 1, wherein the second input unit includes: a pole configured to move in at least two directions; and a direction detection unit configured to detect movement of the pole. 3. The input device according to claim 1, wherein the first input unit includes: a panel that surrounds the second input unit; and a contact detection unit located on the circuitry supporting substrate, the contact detection unit being arranged to detect movement of the panel in at least two directions. 4. The input device according to claim 1, wherein the first input unit includes: a panel configured to perform an input function when touched by a user; and a sensor located adjacent the panel, the sensor being configured to detect when the panel is touched by a user. 5. A mobile communication device comprising: a body; a display located on the body; and an input device configured to control the display, the input device including: a first input unit configured to provide at least two directional signals; a second input unit located in the first input unit, the second input unit being configured to provide at least two directional signals different from the at least two directional signals of the first input unit; and a circuitry supporting substrate configured to receive a signal that controls the display that is input through the first input unit and the second input unit. 6. The mobile communication device according to claim 5, wherein the second input unit includes: a pole configured to move in at least two directions; and a direction detection unit configured to detect movement of the pole. 7. The mobile communication device according to claim 6, wherein the second unit is configured to perform a function corresponding to one of a confirmation key, a selection key, and a mode switching key when pressed in an axial direction of the pole. 8. The mobile communication device according to claim 6, wherein the direction detection unit includes one of a magnetic sensor and a plurality of dome switches. 9. The mobile communication device according to claim 5, wherein the first input unit is configured to perform at least two input operations, each input operation being associated with a different directional signal of the first input unit. 10. The mobile communication device of claim 9, wherein the first input unit includes: a panel that surrounds the second input unit; and a contact detection unit located on the circuitry supporting substrate, the contact detection unit being arranged to detect movement of the panel in at least two directions. 11. The mobile communication device according to claim 10, wherein the second input unit includes: a pole configured to move in at least two directions; and a direction detection unit configured to detect movement of the pole. 12. The mobile communication device of claim 5, wherein the first input unit is configured to perform an input operation when touched by a user. 13. The mobile communication device according to claim 12, wherein the first input unit includes: a panel; and a sensor located adjacent the panel, the sensor being configured to detect when the panel is touched by a user. 14. The mobile communication device according to claim 13, wherein the second input unit includes: a pole configured to move in at least two directions; and a direction detection unit configured to detect movement of the pole. 15. The mobile communication device according to claim 5, wherein the first input unit is configured to perform at least two input operations when pressed by a user and another input operation when touched by a user. 16. The mobile communication device according to claim 15, wherein the first input unit includes: a panel that surrounds the second input unit; a contact detection unit located on the circuitry supporting substrate, the contact detection unit being arranged to detect movement of the panel in at least two directions when pressed by a user; and a sensor located adjacent the panel, the sensor being configured to detect when the panel is touched by a user. 17. The mobile communication device according to claim 16, wherein the second input unit is configured to switch the first input unit between a first mode for performing an input operation when pressed by a user and a second mode for performing an input operation when touched by a user. 18. A mobile communication device comprising: a body; a display located on the body; and an input device configured to control the display, the input device including: a first input unit configured to move in at least two directions; a second input unit located in the first input unit, the second input unit being configured to move in at least two directions, the second input unit including: a pole configured to move in the at least two directions; and a direction detection unit configured to detect movement of the pole; and a circuitry supporting substrate configured to receive a signal that controls the display that is input through the first input unit and the second input unit, wherein the first input unit includes: a panel that surrounds the second input unit; and a contact detection unit located on the circuitry supporting substrate, the contact detection unit being arranged to detect movement of the panel in the at least two directions. 19. The mobile communication device according to claim 18, wherein the first input unit includes a sensor located adjacent the panel, the sensor being configured to detect when the panel is touched by a user.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to an input device and to a mobile communication having the same, and more particularly, to an input device having two input units and a mobile communication device having the same. 2. Description of Related Art In general, a mobile communication device includes a mobile phone, a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA), and a mobile PC, and may be an advanced communication appliance that can perform various computer works through a network connection as well as wireless communication independent of location. Nowadays, the mobile communication device has various additional functions such as the capability to perform an Internet search, play a game, and send/receive E-mail in addition to a communication function for transferring a voice. Accordingly, the mobile communication device has a navigation key that functions as a direction key for enabling a user to easily use various additional functions. However, in order to move a curser to a desired position using a conventional button type navigation key, the user is required to perform many repeated operations, and it is inconvenient to use the conventional button type navigation key in an Internet mode and a game mode, which requires quick and minute direction control.	<SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention solves the above problems by providing an input device and a mobile communication device that can implement various user interfaces and also improve ease of manipulation. According to principles of the present invention, an input device is provided. The input device includes a first input unit configured to provide at least two directional signals, a second input unit located in the first input unit, the second input unit being configured to provide at least two directional signals different from the at least two directional signals of the first input unit, and a circuitry supporting substrate configured to receive a signal that is input through the first input unit and the second input unit. In another aspect, the second input unit includes a pole configured to move in at least two directions, and a direction detection unit configured to detect movement of the pole. In another aspect, the first input unit includes a panel that surrounds the second input unit, and a contact detection unit located on the circuitry supporting substrate. The contact detection unit is arranged to detect movement of the panel in at least two directions. In a different aspect, the first input unit includes a panel configured to perform an input function when touched by a user, and a sensor located adjacent the panel. The sensor is configured to detect when the panel is touched by a user. According to principles of the present invention, a mobile communication device is provided. The mobile communication device includes a body, a display located on the body, and an input device configured to control the display. The input device includes a first input unit configured to provide at least two directional signals, a second input unit located in the first input unit, the second input unit is configured to provide at least two directional signals different from the at least two directional signals of the first input unit, and a circuitry supporting substrate configured to receive a signal that controls the display that is input through the first input unit and the second input unit. In a further aspect, the second input unit includes a pole configured to move in at least two directions, and a direction detection unit configured to detect movement of the pole. The second unit may be configured to perform a function corresponding to one of a confirmation key, a selection key, and a mode-switching key when pressed in an axial direction of the pole. In still a further aspect, the direction detection unit may include one of a magnetic sensor and a plurality of dome switches. In a different aspect, the first input unit is configured to perform at least two input operations, each input operation being associated with a different directional signal of the first input unit. The first input unit may include a panel that surrounds the second input unit, and a contact detection unit located on the circuitry supporting substrate. The contact detection unit may be arranged to detect movement of the panel in at least two directions. In yet another aspect, the first input unit may be configured to perform an input operation when touched by a user. The first input unit may include a panel, and a sensor located adjacent the panel that is configured to detect when the panel is touched by a user. In still another aspect, the first input unit may be configured to perform at least two input operations when pressed by a user and another input operation when touched by a user. The first input unit may include a panel that surrounds the second input unit, a contact detection unit located on the circuitry supporting substrate, the contact detection unit being arranged to detect movement of the panel in at least two directions when pressed by a user, and a sensor located adjacent the panel, the sensor being configured to detect when the panel is touched by a user. The second input unit may be configured to switch the first input unit between a first mode for performing an input operation when pressed by a user and a second mode for performing an input operation when touched by a user. According to principles of the present invention, another mobile communication device is provided. The mobile communication device includes a body, a display located on the body, and an input device configured to control the display. The input device includes a first input unit configured to move in at least two directions, a second input unit located in the first input unit that is configured to move in at least two directions, and a circuitry supporting substrate configured to receive a signal that controls the display that is input through the first input unit and the second input unit. The second input unit includes a pole configured to move in the at least two directions, and a direction detection unit configured to detect movement of the pole. The first input unit includes a panel that surrounds the second input unit, and a contact detection unit located on the circuitry supporting substrate, the contact detection unit being arranged to detect movement of the panel in the at least two directions. In a further aspect, the first input unit may include a sensor located adjacent the panel, and the sensor may be configured to detect when the panel is touched by a user. Further scope of applicability of the present application will become more apparent from the detailed description given hereinafter. However, it should be understood that the detailed description and specific examples, while indicating preferred embodiments of the invention, are given by way of illustration only, since various changes and modifications within the spirit and scope of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the detailed description.	CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of Korean Application No. 10-2007-0019735, filed Feb. 27, 2007, and is herein incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to an input device and to a mobile communication having the same, and more particularly, to an input device having two input units and a mobile communication device having the same. 2. Description of Related Art In general, a mobile communication device includes a mobile phone, a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA), and a mobile PC, and may be an advanced communication appliance that can perform various computer works through a network connection as well as wireless communication independent of location. Nowadays, the mobile communication device has various additional functions such as the capability to perform an Internet search, play a game, and send/receive E-mail in addition to a communication function for transferring a voice. Accordingly, the mobile communication device has a navigation key that functions as a direction key for enabling a user to easily use various additional functions. However, in order to move a curser to a desired position using a conventional button type navigation key, the user is required to perform many repeated operations, and it is inconvenient to use the conventional button type navigation key in an Internet mode and a game mode, which requires quick and minute direction control. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention solves the above problems by providing an input device and a mobile communication device that can implement various user interfaces and also improve ease of manipulation. According to principles of the present invention, an input device is provided. The input device includes a first input unit configured to provide at least two directional signals, a second input unit located in the first input unit, the second input unit being configured to provide at least two directional signals different from the at least two directional signals of the first input unit, and a circuitry supporting substrate configured to receive a signal that is input through the first input unit and the second input unit. In another aspect, the second input unit includes a pole configured to move in at least two directions, and a direction detection unit configured to detect movement of the pole. In another aspect, the first input unit includes a panel that surrounds the second input unit, and a contact detection unit located on the circuitry supporting substrate. The contact detection unit is arranged to detect movement of the panel in at least two directions. In a different aspect, the first input unit includes a panel configured to perform an input function when touched by a user, and a sensor located adjacent the panel. The sensor is configured to detect when the panel is touched by a user. According to principles of the present invention, a mobile communication device is provided. The mobile communication device includes a body, a display located on the body, and an input device configured to control the display. The input device includes a first input unit configured to provide at least two directional signals, a second input unit located in the first input unit, the second input unit is configured to provide at least two directional signals different from the at least two directional signals of the first input unit, and a circuitry supporting substrate configured to receive a signal that controls the display that is input through the first input unit and the second input unit. In a further aspect, the second input unit includes a pole configured to move in at least two directions, and a direction detection unit configured to detect movement of the pole. The second unit may be configured to perform a function corresponding to one of a confirmation key, a selection key, and a mode-switching key when pressed in an axial direction of the pole. In still a further aspect, the direction detection unit may include one of a magnetic sensor and a plurality of dome switches. In a different aspect, the first input unit is configured to perform at least two input operations, each input operation being associated with a different directional signal of the first input unit. The first input unit may include a panel that surrounds the second input unit, and a contact detection unit located on the circuitry supporting substrate. The contact detection unit may be arranged to detect movement of the panel in at least two directions. In yet another aspect, the first input unit may be configured to perform an input operation when touched by a user. The first input unit may include a panel, and a sensor located adjacent the panel that is configured to detect when the panel is touched by a user. In still another aspect, the first input unit may be configured to perform at least two input operations when pressed by a user and another input operation when touched by a user. The first input unit may include a panel that surrounds the second input unit, a contact detection unit located on the circuitry supporting substrate, the contact detection unit being arranged to detect movement of the panel in at least two directions when pressed by a user, and a sensor located adjacent the panel, the sensor being configured to detect when the panel is touched by a user. The second input unit may be configured to switch the first input unit between a first mode for performing an input operation when pressed by a user and a second mode for performing an input operation when touched by a user. According to principles of the present invention, another mobile communication device is provided. The mobile communication device includes a body, a display located on the body, and an input device configured to control the display. The input device includes a first input unit configured to move in at least two directions, a second input unit located in the first input unit that is configured to move in at least two directions, and a circuitry supporting substrate configured to receive a signal that controls the display that is input through the first input unit and the second input unit. The second input unit includes a pole configured to move in the at least two directions, and a direction detection unit configured to detect movement of the pole. The first input unit includes a panel that surrounds the second input unit, and a contact detection unit located on the circuitry supporting substrate, the contact detection unit being arranged to detect movement of the panel in the at least two directions. In a further aspect, the first input unit may include a sensor located adjacent the panel, and the sensor may be configured to detect when the panel is touched by a user. Further scope of applicability of the present application will become more apparent from the detailed description given hereinafter. However, it should be understood that the detailed description and specific examples, while indicating preferred embodiments of the invention, are given by way of illustration only, since various changes and modifications within the spirit and scope of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the detailed description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention will become more fully understood from the detailed description given hereinbelow and the accompanying drawings which are given by way of illustration only, and thus are not limitative of the present invention and wherein: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a mobile communication device according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is an exploded perspective view of an input device of a mobile communication device according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view of the input device shown in FIG. 2; FIG. 4 is a schematic view illustrating an example of using the input device shown in FIG. 2 in an Internet mode; FIG. 5 is an exploded perspective view of an input device of a mobile communication device according to another exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view of the input device shown in FIG. 5; FIG. 7 is an exploded perspective view of an input device of a mobile communication device according to another exemplary embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 8 is a cross-sectional view of the input device shown in FIG. 7. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Hereinafter, exemplary embodiments according to the present invention will be first described in detail with reference to FIGS. 1 to 4. FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a mobile communication device according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. The mobile communication device shown in FIG. 1 is a folder type mobile phone, and includes a main body 10 and a folder body 20. In a front case 11 of the main body 10, one of input devices 100, 200, and 300 for inputting various information to a controller (not shown) and a plurality of button keys 13 are provided. The folder unit 20 includes a display unit 21 for displaying various visible information. While FIG. 1 shows a mobile communication device as a folding type phone, it is understood that the input device 100, 200, 300 are not limited to such use. For example, the input device 100, 200, 300 may also be provided in bar type phones, sliding type phones, combination of the various type phones, as well as in other mobile phones, PDAs and mobile PCs. FIG. 2 is an exploded perspective view of an input device 100 of a mobile communication device according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view of the input device 100 shown in FIG. 2. Referring to FIGS. 2 and 3, the input device 100 includes a joystick unit 110 (second input unit) for performing an input operation in various directions including vertical, lateral, and diagonal directions by providing different directional signals to a controller (not shown). The input device 100 also includes a navigation key input unit 120 (first input unit) that is adjacently disposed to an outer circumference of the joystick unit 110 and is configured to perform at least two input operations using a press method, and a circuitry supporting substrate (CSS) 130, such as a printed circuit board, for receiving a signal that is input through the joystick unit 110 and the navigation key input unit 120. The joystick unit 110 includes a pole 112 for manipulating in various directions including vertical, lateral, and diagonal directions, i.e. 360° direction and a direction detection unit 114 for detecting a manipulation direction of the pole 112. The joystick unit 110 further includes a cylindrical frame unit 118 that is disposed at the center of the CSS 130. The frame unit 118 defines a space for inserting and manipulating the pole 112. A direction detection unit 114 for detecting a manipulation direction of the pole 112 is provided within the frame unit 118. A lower end of the direction detection unit 114 is electrically connected to the CSS 130 to transfer a manipulation direction of the pole 112 by manipulation of a user to the CSS 130. The pole 112 is provided to be manipulated in 360° direction within the frame unit 118, and an upper end of the pole 112 has a height to be exposed above the navigation key input unit 120. A direction projection 112a extends outward at the side of the pole 112 so that a manipulation direction of the pole 112 may be detected by the direction detection unit 114. While the direction projection 112a is shown as an annular ring it may also be formed in segments divided into a plurality of pieces without detracting from the function of the direction projection. In the present exemplary embodiment, the direction detection unit 114 includes a magnetic sensor divided into 8 pieces at the inside of the frame unit 118, for sensing 8 directions of vertical, lateral, and diagonal directions, and the direction projection 112a corresponding to the magnetic sensor is made of a magnetic substance capable of being sensed by the magnetic sensor. When the pole 112 is leaned toward a specific direction by the user, the direction projection 112a made of the magnetic substance is approached to the direction detection unit 114 including the magnetic sensor divided into 8 pieces, and the direction detection unit 114 detects a manipulation direction of the pole 112 and transfers the corresponding signal to the CSS 130. While the joystick unit 110 has been described as capable of performing an input operation in 8 directions, the present invention is not limited thereto and can use a magnetic sensor divided into more pieces than 8 pieces or employ a different type of sensing system, thereby performing an input operation in more divided directions. Alternatively, the direction detection unit 114 of the joystick unit 110 may be embodied using a plurality of dome switches having a simple structure instead of a sensing system such as the magnetic sensor. In this case, each dome switch is disposed in a position corresponding to the direction projection 112a of the pole 112. The joystick unit 110 further includes a dome switch 116 for performing a function corresponding to any one of a confirmation key, a selection key, a mode-switching key, or any other desirable function when the pole 112 is pressed downward in an axial direction of the pole 112. The dome switch 116 is disposed on the CSS 130 in a position corresponding to the pole 112. For example, the dome switch 116 may be provided in a space defined by the frame unit 118. The navigation key input unit 120 includes a panel 122 disposed to surround the pole 112 and a contact detection unit 124 disposed on the CSS to detect the manipulation of the panel 122. As shown in the exemplary embodiment, the panel 122 may be a circular plate, which is supported by an upper end of the frame unit 118, and has vertical and lateral sides to be pressed down towards the CSS 130. At the center of the panel 122, a central hole 122a is formed to receive the pole 112 and to expose the pole 112 to the outside. Further, an upper surface of the panel 122 has a concave central portion so as not to prevent the direction manipulation toward vertical and lateral sides of the panel 122 by the pole 112. In addition, arrows for indicating vertical and lateral directions are displayed on the upper surface of the panel 122, as shown in FIG. 2. Four contact detection units 124 are disposed on the CSS 130 corresponding to vertical and lateral sides of the panel 122. That is, four contact detection units 124 are disposed on and spaced at an interval of 90° on the CSS 130. When the vertical and lateral sides of the panel 122 are pressed down by the user, the contact detection units 124 perform a function of transferring the corresponding signal to the CSS 130. As seen in FIGS. 2 and 3, a general touch switch can be used as the contact detection unit 124; however, any switch for detecting the movement of the panel 122 and transferring a direction signal to the CSS 130 may be used. For example, as the contact detection unit 124, a dome switch may be used. FIG. 4 is a schematic view illustrating an example of using the input device 100 in an Internet mode. Referring to FIG. 4, the joystick unit 110 disposed within the input device 100 performs a function of controlling a direction of a cursor displayed on web contents, and the navigation key input unit 120 disposed at the outside of the input device 100 performs a vertical and lateral scroll control function on web contents. Further, the joystick unit 110 enables a user to click on desired web contents. Because the input device 100 is divided into two independent input means of the joystick unit 110 and the navigation key input unit 120, the direction control of a curse displayed in the display unit can be allocated to the joystick unit 110 for performing an input operation in various directions including vertical, lateral, and diagonal directions. Accordingly, the input device 100 can perform quick and convenient direction control in an Internet mode and a game mode. Particularly, because the display unit of the mobile communication device has a size much smaller than a monitor of a computer, a scroll function is frequently used during an Internet search, whereby the input device 100 can allocate a vertical and lateral scroll function to the navigation key input unit 120, thereby providing excellent manipulation response. The input device 100 can be embodied with a user interface of various combinations such as an Internet mode, a game mode, and a camera mode in addition to the example shown in FIG. 4. Furthermore, while a particular web page has been shown, it is merely illustrative of the control functions attributed to the input device 100. Hereinafter, another exemplary embodiment of the present invention will be described in detail with reference to FIGS. 5 and 6. FIG. 5 is an exploded perspective view of an input device 200 of a mobile communication device according to another exemplary embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view of the input device 200 shown in FIG. 5. The configuration of the input device 200 is substantially identical to that of the input device 100 shown in FIG. 2, except that a navigation key input unit 220 performs an input operation using a touch or sensing method, therefore similar reference numerals have been used to designate substantially identical elements, and descriptions thereof will be briefly described. The input device 200 includes a joystick unit 210 configure to perform an input operation in various directions including vertical, lateral, and diagonal directions by providing different directional signals to a controller (not shown). The input device 100 also includes a navigation key input unit 220 that is adjacently disposed to an outer circumference of the joystick unit 210 and is configured to perform an input operation using a touch method, and a CSS 230 for receiving a signal that is input through the joystick unit 210 and the navigation key input unit 220. The joystick unit 210 includes a pole 212 configured to be manipulated in various directions including vertical, lateral, and diagonal directions, i.e. 360° direction and a direction detection unit 214 for detecting a manipulation direction of the pole 212. The joystick unit 210 further includes a dome switch 216 for performing a function corresponding to any one of a confirmation key, a selection key, a mode-switching key, or any other desirable function when the pole 212 is pressed downward in an axial direction of the pole 212. The dome switch 216 is disposed on the CSS 230 in a position corresponding to the pole 212. The navigation key input unit 220 includes a panel 222 that is disposed to surround the pole 212 and a sensor 226 that is disposed on the CSS 230 to sense a signal changing when the user's finger contacts the panel 222. That is, the navigation key input unit 220 performs an input operation using a touch method. Here, the touch method may include a touch screen method widely used in various terminals and a touch wheel method similar to that utilized by an iPod product of the Apple company. Both methods can be used in selecting a menu with a soft touch of a finger. The sensor 226 has a cylindrical shape to surround a circumference of a frame unit 218, and uses a pressure detection sensor for sensing an input direction using the pressure change generating when the user's finger contacts with an upper surface of the panel 222 or uses a static electricity detection sensor for sensing an input direction using the static electricity change generated when the user's finger contacts with the upper surface of the panel 222. While two specific types of sensors for providing a touch method have been described, it is understood that any type sensor suitable for use in a touch method can be applied to the present invention. The navigation key input unit 220 using the touch method can perform a scroll function in an Internet mode. That is, as the user's finger contacts with the upper surface of the panel 222 and rotates the upper surface in a vertical or lateral direction, a vertical or lateral scroll function can be embodied in an Internet mode. Hereinafter, another exemplary embodiment of the present invention will be described in detail with reference to FIGS. 7 and 8. FIG. 7 is an exploded perspective view of an input device 300 of a mobile communication device according to another exemplary embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 8 is a cross-sectional view of the input device 300 shown in FIG. 7. The configuration of the input device 300 is substantially identical to that of the input device 100 shown in FIG. 2, except that a navigation key input unit 320 performs an input operation using both a press method and a touch method, therefore similar reference numerals designating substantially identical elements have been used, and descriptions thereof will be briefly described. The input device 300 includes a joystick unit 310 configured to perform an input operation in various directions including vertical, lateral, and diagonal directions by providing different directional signals to a controller (not shown). The input device 100 also includes a navigation key input unit 320 that is adjacently disposed to an outer circumference of the joystick unit 310 and is configured to perform at least two input operations with a pressing method and an input operation with a touching method, and a CSS 330 for receiving a signal that is input through the joystick unit 310 and the navigation key input unit 320. The joystick unit 310 includes a pole 312 configured to be manipulated in various directions including vertical, lateral, and diagonal directions, i.e. 360° direction and a direction detection unit 314 for detecting a manipulation direction of the pole 312. The joystick unit 310 further includes a dome switch 316 for performing a function corresponding to any one of a confirmation key, a selection key, a mode-switching key, or any other desirable function when the pole 312 is pressed downward in the axial direction of the pole 312. The dome switch 316 is disposed on the CSS 330 in a position corresponding to the pole 312. The navigation key input unit 320 includes a panel 322 that is disposed to surround the pole 312 and that has vertical and lateral sides to be pressed down towards the CSS 330, four contact detection units 324 that are disposed in a position on the CSS 330 corresponding to vertical and lateral sides of the panel 322 to detect the manipulation of the panel 322, and a sensor 326 that is disposed on the CSS 330 to detect a signal changing when the user's finger contacts the panel 322. The sensor 326 may be disposed between the frame unit 318 and the four contact detection units 324, as shown in FIG. 7. Because the navigation key input unit 320 can perform both the input operation using a pressing method according to the exemplary embodiment shown in FIG. 2 and the input operation using a touching method according to the exemplary embodiment shown in FIG. 5, interfaces of various combinations can be embodied. The joystick unit 310 can also be used as a mode switching key for performing the switch between a first mode (a direction key mode) of performing an input operation with only a pressing method in the navigation key input unit 320 and a second mode (a touch mode) of performing an input operation with only a touching method in the navigation key input unit 320. This can prevent the user's confusion that may be generated by mixing a press method and a touch method in a specific mode. Particularly, a user unfamiliar with a touch method can use the navigation key input unit 320 with only a press method. As described above, an input device of a mobile communication device according to the present invention includes two independent input means of a joystick unit and a navigation key input, thereby embodying various user interfaces and improving manipulation response. The embodiments of the invention being thus described, it will be obvious that the same may be varied in many ways. Such variations are not to be regarded as a departure from the spirit and scope of the invention, and all such modifications as would be obvious to one skilled in the art are intended to be included within the scope of the following claims.	H	H01	H01H	3	00
11788461	US20080261433A1-20081023	Interconnect detection system	ACCEPTED	20081008	20081023		[]	H01R1362	["H01R1362"]	8226443	20070420	20120724	439	630000	59121.0	NGUYEN	PHUONG CHI	[{"inventor_name_last": "Pipho", "inventor_name_first": "David A.", "inventor_city": "Tomball", "inventor_state": "TX", "inventor_country": "US"}]	An interconnect detection system comprises a first connector member having a set of laterally spaced-apart contacts for communicatively engaging a corresponding set of contacts of a second connector member, at least two of the contacts of the first connector member offset a predetermined distance in a non-lateral direction away from at least two respective contacts of the second connector member. The system also comprises an indicator configured to provide an indication of contact between the at least two offset contacts of the first connector member with respective contacts of the second connector member to verify a valid interconnect between the first and second connector members.	1. An interconnect detection system, comprising: a first connector member having a set of laterally spaced-apart contacts for communicatively engaging a corresponding set of contacts of a second connector member, at least two of the contacts of the first connector member offset a predetermined distance in a non-lateral direction away from at least two respective contacts of the second connector member; and an indicator configured to provide an indication of contact between the at least two offset contacts of the first connector member with respective contacts of the second connector member to verify a valid interconnect between the first and second connector members. 2. The system of claim 1, wherein the at least two offset contacts are disposed at opposite ends of the set of contacts of the first connector member. 3. The system of claim 1, wherein the at least two offset contacts have at least one non-offset contact disposed therebetween. 4. The system of claim 1, wherein the indicator comprises at least one light emitting diode. 5. The system of claim 1, wherein the indicator is configured to signal a conductive path through the at least two offset contacts and the at least two respective contacts of the second connector member. 6. The system of claim 1, wherein the at least two offset contacts are conductively coupled together on the first connector member. 7. The system of claim 6, wherein one of the at least two respective contacts on the second connector member is coupled to a voltage source and another one of the at least two respective contacts of the second connector member is coupled to a ground. 8. The system of claim 1, wherein the indicator is disposed on the first connector member. 9. An interconnect detection system, comprising: a memory module having a set of laterally spaced-apart contacts for communicatively engaging a corresponding set of contacts of a connector member, at least two of the contacts of the memory module offset a predetermined distance in a non-lateral direction away from a direction of engagement with the connector member; and an indicator configured to provide an indication of contact between the at least two offset contacts with respective contacts of the connector member to verify a valid interconnect between the memory module and the connector member. 10. The system of claim 9, wherein the indicator is disposed on the memory module. 11. The system of claim 9, wherein the indicator comprises a light emitting diode disposed on the memory module. 12. The system of claim 9, wherein the indicator is configured to provide an indication of a conductive path between the at least two offset contacts and the respective contacts of the connector member. 13. The system of claim 9, wherein the at least two offset contacts are conductively coupled to each other. 14. The system of claim 9, wherein the indicator is configured to provide the indication in response to one of the offset contacts engaging one of the respective contacts of the connector member coupled to a power source and another one of the offset contacts engaging another respective contact of the connector member coupled to a ground. 15. An interconnect detection system, comprising: a printed circuit board (PCB) having a connector member disposed thereon, the PCB connector member having a set of laterally spaced apart contacts for communicatively engaging a corresponding set of contacts of another connector member, at least two of the contacts of the PCB connector member offset a predetermined distance in a non-lateral direction away from a direction of engagement with the another connector member; and an indicator configured to signal contact between the at least two offset contacts with respective contacts of the another connector member to verify a valid interconnect between the PCB connector member and the another connector member. 16. The system of claim 15, wherein the indicator is disposed on the PCB. 17. The system of claim 15, wherein the indicator comprises a light emitting diode disposed on the PCB. 18. The system of claim 15, wherein one of the offset contacts is coupled to a power source and another one of the offset contacts is coupled to a ground. 19. The system of claim 15, wherein the indicator is configured to signal a closed circuit between the at least two offset contacts and the respective contacts of the another connector member.	<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>In electronic devices, components are often coupled together via a type of connector. For example, such connectors generally comprise a set of conductive contacts that engage corresponding conductive contacts of another component when the two components/connectors are brought into engagement with each other (e.g., a memory card or module inserted into a connector disposed on a printed circuit board). However, if the components/connectors are not properly seated, intermittent and/or a complete disengagement may result. For example, if the components/connectors are not properly seated, shock or vibration during use or even during shipping of the electronic device may cause a disengagement of the components/connectors.	<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIGS. 1A-1C are diagrams illustrating an embodiment of an interconnect detection system; and FIGS. 2A-2C are diagrams illustrating another embodiment of an interconnect detection system. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?	BACKGROUND In electronic devices, components are often coupled together via a type of connector. For example, such connectors generally comprise a set of conductive contacts that engage corresponding conductive contacts of another component when the two components/connectors are brought into engagement with each other (e.g., a memory card or module inserted into a connector disposed on a printed circuit board). However, if the components/connectors are not properly seated, intermittent and/or a complete disengagement may result. For example, if the components/connectors are not properly seated, shock or vibration during use or even during shipping of the electronic device may cause a disengagement of the components/connectors. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS. 1A-1C are diagrams illustrating an embodiment of an interconnect detection system; and FIGS. 2A-2C are diagrams illustrating another embodiment of an interconnect detection system. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS. 1A-1C are diagrams illustrating an embodiment of an interconnect detection system 10. In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 1A-1C, system 10 comprises a connector member 12 configured to communicatively and/or conductively engage a connector member 14. In FIGS. 1A-1C, connector member 12 comprises an edge connector 16 of a memory card or module 18, and connector member 14 comprises a connector element 20 coupled to a printed circuit board (PCB) 22. However, it should be understood that connector members 12 and 14 may be otherwise configured based on the type of components and/or connectors configured to be electrically coupled together. In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 1A-1C, connector member 12 comprises a set of conductive contacts 30 disposed in a spaced-apart relationship to each other and extending along a lateral dimension, indicated by arrow 32, along and/or on an edge 34 of memory module 18 for communicative and/or conductive engagement with a set of conductive contacts 36 of connector member 14. For example, as illustrated in FIGS. 1A-1C, contacts 30 are positioned to align with respective contacts 36 of connector member 14 when memory module 18 is inserted into connector member 14. As illustrated in FIGS. 1A-1C, contacts 36 are disposed in a spaced apart relationship relative to each other and extending along a lateral dimension of connector member 14 corresponding to the lateral dimension 32 of memory module 18 to facilitate conductive engagement of respective and/or aligned contacts 30 and 36. In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 1A-1C, memory module 18 comprises at least two detect contacts 301 and 302 that are disposed in a setback or offset direction by a predetermined distance away from an engagement direction with connector member 14. For example, in the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 1A-1C, contacts 30, and 302 are set back and/or offset a distance D1 from edge 34 of memory module 18 in a direction indicated by arrow 38 (e.g., a non-lateral dimension or a dimension perpendicular to dimension 32) away from the direction of engagement of memory module 18 with connector element 20. In FIGS. 1A-1C, contacts 301 and 302 are located on opposite ends of connector member 12 and/or on opposite ends of the set of contacts 30, thereby having one or more remaining contacts 30 disposed between contacts 301 and 302. However, it should be understood that 301 and 302 may be otherwise located. Referring to FIG. 1B and FIG. 1C, contacts 301 and 302 are conductively coupled together through an indicator 50 disposed on memory module 18. In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 1A-1C, indicator 50 comprises a light emitting diode 52. However, it should be understood that another type of indicator may be used. Referring to FIG. 1B and FIG. 1C, two detect contacts 361 and 362 are located on connector element 20 to conductively engage respective and/or corresponding contacts 301 and 302 of memory module 18. In FIGS. 1B and 1C, contact 362 is coupled to a power source, indicated by VCC in FIGS. 1B and 1C, and contact 361 is coupled to ground. However, it should be understood that the particular contacts 361 and 362 of connector element 20 coupled to a power source or ground may be reversed. In some embodiments of operation, power VCC and ground are provided through PCB 22 (FIG. 1A). However, it should be understood that contact probes or other devices may be used to conductively engage contacts 361 and 362 to provide power and ground contact. In operation, if memory module 18 is properly seated in connector element 20, contacts 301 and 302 are located in a position to engage respective contacts 361 and 362 despite the offset condition of contacts 301 and 302. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 1B, memory module 18 is illustrated in a properly seated position relative to connector element 20 such that contacts 361 and 362 are in engagement with respective contacts 301 and 302. In some embodiments, power source VCC is used to illuminate indicator 50, thereby providing a signal indicative of a properly seated memory module 18 within connector element 20. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 1B, in response to a properly seated condition of memory module 18 within connector element 20, engagement of contacts 301 and 302 with respective contacts 361 and 362 closes a circuit formed by power source VCC, contacts 301 and 302, contacts 361 and 362, and ground. Thus, in response to establishing a conductive path from power source VCC to ground through contacts 301 and 302 and contacts 361 and 362, light emitting diode 52 is illuminated, thereby indicating a proper interconnect between memory module 18 and connector element 20. As a further illustration, referring to FIGURE IC, if memory module 18 is improperly seated within connector element 20, one or the other of contacts 301 and 302 will be in a disengaged condition with one of respective contacts 361 and 362. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 1C, memory module 18 is illustrated in an improperly seated condition relative to connector element 20 such that, because of the setback or offset condition of contact 301, contact 301 is in a disengaged condition relative to contact 361. Thus, even though contact 302 may be in engagement with 362, the disengaged condition of contact 301 relative to contact 361 results in an open circuit and a lack of illumination of indicator 50. FIGS. 2A-2C are diagrams illustrating another embodiment of interconnection detection system 10. In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 1A-1C, contacts 361 and 362 of connector element 20 are disposed in a setback or offset condition relative to remaining contacts 36 of connector element 20. For example, in the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 2A-2C, contacts 361 and 362 are disposed setback and/or offset a distance D2 from remaining contacts 36 in a direction away from an engagement direction with memory module 18 (e.g., in a non-lateral dimension such as the direction indicated by arrow 60, which is perpendicular to the lateral dimension 32). In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 2A-2C, contacts 361 and 362 are located at opposite ends of connector element 20 and/or at opposite ends of the set of contacts 361 thereby resulting in one or more of the remaining contacts 36 disposed between contacts 361 and 362. However, it should be understood that the locations of contacts 361 and 362 in a setback or offset condition may be otherwise located on connector element 20. It should also be understood that locating the setback or offset contacts 361 and 362 of connector element 20 as far apart as possible (the contacts 301 and 302 as well) having other contacts 36 disposed therebetween facilitates a greater likelihood of an indication of whether memory module 18 is properly seated within connector element 20. Referring to FIGS. 2B and 2C, contacts 301 and 302 that are positioned on memory module 18 to engage respective contacts 361 and 362 are conductively coupled together via a conductive path 68. In FIGS. 2B and 2C, contact 362 is coupled to a power source VCC, and contact 361 is connected to ground via an indicator 70, such as a light emitting diode 72 disposed on PCB 22 (FIG. 2A). However, it should be understood that the particular setback or offset contacts 361 and 362 of connector element 20 coupled to a power source or ground may be reversed. In some embodiments of operation, power VCC and ground are provided through PCB 22 (FIG. 1A). However, it should be understood that contact probes or other devices may be used to conductively engage contacts 361 and 362 to provide power and ground contact. In operation, if memory module 18 is properly seated in connector element 20, contacts 361 and 362 are located in a position to engage respective contacts 301 and 302 despite the offset condition of contacts 361 and 362. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 2B, memory module 18 is illustrated in a properly seated position relative to connector element 20 such that contacts 361 and 362 are in engagement with respective contacts 301 and 302. In some embodiments, power source VCC is used to illuminate indicator 70, thereby providing a signal indicative of a properly seated memory module 18 within connector element 20. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 2B, in response to a properly seated condition of memory module 18 within connector element 20, engagement of contacts 301 and 302 with respective contacts 361 and 362 closes a circuit formed by power source VCC, contacts 301 and 302, contacts 361 and 362, and ground. Thus, in response to establishing a conductive path from power source VCC to ground through contacts 301 and 302 and contacts 361 and 362, light emitting diode 72 is illuminated, thereby indicating a proper interconnect between memory module 18 and connector element 20. As a further illustration, referring to FIG. 2C, if memory module 18 is improperly seated within connector element 20, one or the other of contacts 361 and 362 will be in a disengaged condition with one of respective contacts 301 and 302. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 2C, memory module 18 is illustrated in an improperly seated condition relative to connector element 20 such that, because of the setback or offset condition of contact 361, contact 361 is in a disengaged condition relative to contact 301. Thus, even though contact 302 is in engagement with 362, the disengaged condition of contact 361 relative to contact 301 results in an open circuit and a lack of illumination of indicator 70. In the embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 1B, 1C, 2B and 2C, contacts 301 and 302 are conductively coupled together on memory module 18 so that a conductive path is established through contacts 301 and 302 in response to a properly seated memory module 18 within connector element 20. However, it should be understood that system 10 may be otherwise configured. For example, in some embodiments, contacts 361 and 362 may be conductively coupled together on connector element 20 such that in response to a properly seated memory module 18 within connector element 20, a conductive path is established through contacts 361 and 362 and contacts 301 and 302. In this embodiment, for example, contact probes or other methods/devices may be used to engage contacts 301 and 302 for power and ground. Thus, it should be understood that a variety of different configurations may be used for system 10 to verify an interconnect between memory module 18 and connector element 20. Thus, embodiments of system 10 enable a visual indication of a proper seating condition between respective connector members. In the embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 1A-1C and 2A-2C, two contacts 301 and 302 and two contacts 361 and 362 are used to verify the interconnection between memory module 18 and connector element 20; however, it should be understood that other contacts 30 and 36 and/or additional contacts 30 and 36 on memory module 18 and/or connector element 20 may be used.	H	H01	H01R	13	62
11999527	US20080136572A1-20080612	Micro-electromechanical switched tunable inductor	ACCEPTED	20080530	20080612		[]	H01F2100	["H01F2100", "H01F2702"]	7847669	20071206	20101207	336	200000	96696.0	LIAN	MANG TIN BIK	[{"inventor_name_last": "Ayazi", "inventor_name_first": "Farrokh", "inventor_city": "Atlanta", "inventor_state": "GA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Raieszadeh", "inventor_name_first": "Mina", "inventor_city": "Atlanta", "inventor_state": "GA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Kohl", "inventor_name_first": "Paul A.", "inventor_city": "Atlanta", "inventor_state": "GA", "inventor_country": "US"}]	Disclosed is an integrated tunable inductor having mutual micromachined inductances fabricated in close proximity to a tunable inductor that is switched in and out by micromechanical ohmic switches to change the inductance of the integrated tunable inductor. To achieve a large tuning range and high quality factor, silver is preferably used as the structural material to co-fabricate the inductors and micromachined switches, and silicon is selectively removed from the backside of the substrate. Using this method, exemplary tuning of 47% at 6 GHz is achievable for a 1.1 nH silver inductor fabricated on a low-loss polymer membrane. The effect of the quality factor on the tuning characteristic of the integrated inductor is evaluated by comparing the measured result of substantially identical inductors fabricated on various substrates. To maintain the quality factor of the silver inductor, the device may be encapsulated using a low-cost wafer-level polymer packaging technique.	1. A microelectromechanical tunable inductor apparatus comprising: a substrate; a dielectric layer disposed on the substrate; a first conductive layer disposed on the dielectric layer; a second conductive layer comprising: a primary inductor; a plurality of secondary inductors positioned in proximity to the primary inductor; and a plurality of micromechanical switches coupled to the plurality of secondary inductors, each switch having an actuation air gap, and wherein each switch is switched on and off to change the effective inductance of the primary inductor; and an outer protective member that contacts the dielectric layer and encapsulates the inductors and switches inside a cavity. 2. The apparatus recited in claim 1 wherein the substrate is selected from a group including silicon, CMOS, BiCMOS, gallium arsenide, indium phosphide, glass, ceramic, silicon carbide, sapphire, organic and polymer. 3. The apparatus recited in claim 1 wherein the dielectric layer is selected from a group including silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, hafnium dioxide, zirconium oxide and low-loss polymer. 4. The apparatus recited in claim 1 wherein the conductive layers are selected from a group including polysilicon, silver, gold, aluminum, nickel, and copper. 6. The apparatus recited in claim 1 wherein the outer protective member comprises a polymer. 7. The apparatus is claim 1 wherein the primary inductor and the secondary inductors are planar spiral inductors. 8. The apparatus in claim 1 wherein the primary inductor and the secondary inductors are out-of-plane solenoid inductors. 9. The apparatus in claim 1 wherein the secondary inductors are multi-turn inductors. 10. The apparatus in claim 1 wherein the substrate comprises a cavity closely formed underneath the conductive layers to reduce the substrate loss. 11. The apparatus recited in claim 1 wherein the switches have an electrically isolated actuation port formed using the first conductive layer. 12. A microelectromechanical tunable inductor apparatus comprising: a substrate; a dielectric layer disposed on the substrate; a first conductive layer disposed on the dielectric layer forming the routing for the inductors and the first plate of plurality of micromechanical switches; a second conductive layer comprising: a primary inductor; a plurality of secondary inductors positioned in proximity to the primary inductor; and a second plate of vertical micromechanical switches that are coupled to the plurality of secondary inductors, each switch having an actuation air gap, and wherein each switch is switched on and off to change the effective inductance of the primary inductor; and an outer protective member that contacts the dielectric layer and encapsulates the inductors and switches inside a cavity. 13. The apparatus recited in claim 12 wherein the switches have an electrically isolated actuation port formed using the routing layer. 14. The apparatus recited in claim 12 wherein the switches are coupled to the secondary inductors by way of suspended conductive springs. 15. The apparatus recited in claim 12 wherein the substrate is silicon. 16. The apparatus recited in claim 12 wherein the conductive layers are silver. 17. The apparatus recited in claim 12 wherein the outer protective member comprises a polymer. 18. The apparatus is claim 12 wherein the primary inductor and the secondary inductors are planar spiral inductors. 19. The apparatus in claim 12 wherein the secondary inductors are multi-turn inductors. 20. The apparatus in claim 12 wherein the substrate comprises a cavity closely formed underneath the conductive layers to reduce the substrate loss.	<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The present invention relates generally to tunable inductors, and more particularly, to microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) switched tunable inductors. Tunable inductors can find application in frequency-agile radios, tunable filters, voltage controlled oscillators, and reconfigurable impedance matching networks. The need for tunable inductors becomes more critical when optimum tuning or impedance matching in a broad frequency range is desired. Both discrete and continuous tuning of passive inductors using micromachining techniques have been reported in the literature. Discrete tuning of inductors is usually achieved by changing the length or configuration of a transmission line using micromachined switches. The incorporation of switches in the body of the tunable inductor increases the resistive loss and hence reduces the quality factor (Q). Alternatively, continuous tuning of inductors may be realized by displacing a magnetic core, changing the permeability of the core, or using movable structures with large traveling range. Although significant tuning has been reported using these methods, the fabrication or the actuation techniques are complex, making the on-chip implementation of the tunable inductors difficult. In addition, Q of the reported tunable inductors is not sufficiently high for many wireless and RF integrated circuit applications. Therefore, there is a need for high-performance small form-factor tunable inductors. Also, to overcome the shortcomings of prior art tunable inductors, an improved design and micro-fabrication method for tunable inductors is necessary.	<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>The various features and advantages of the present invention may be more readily understood with reference to the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein like reference numerals designate like structural elements, and in which: FIG. 1 illustrates an electrical model of an exemplary switched tunable inductor; FIG. 2 is a SEM view of a 20 μm thick silver switched tunable inductor fabricated on an Avatrel polymer membrane; FIG. 3 is a close-up SEM view of the switch, showing the actuation gap; FIGS. 4 a - h illustrate an exemplary method for fabricating a packaged switched tunable inductor; FIG. 5 is a micrograph of the switched silver inductor taken from the backside of the Avatrel membrane; FIG. 6 a and 6 b are graphs that illustrate simulated inductance and Q of a switched tunable inductor on Avatrel membrane, respectively, showing a maximum tuning of 47.5% at 6 GHz; FIG. 7 illustrates measured inductance showing a maximum tuning of 47% at 6 GHz when both inductors are on; FIG. 8 illustrates measured embedded Q showing the Q drops as the inductor is tuned; FIG. 9 illustrates measured Q of the inductors at port two on Avatrel membrane; FIG. 10 a and 10 b illustrate measured inductance and embedded Q, respectively, of substantially identical tunable inductors fabricated on passivated silicon substrate (A), and 20 μm thick silicon dioxide membrane; FIG. 11 a is a SEM view of an exemplary packaged switched inductor and FIG. 11 b is a close-up SEM view of a package showing the air cavity inside; FIG. 12 illustrates measured embedded Q of two substantially identical inductors, before decomposition, one packaged and one un-packaged; FIG. 13 illustrates measured embedded Q of two substantially identical inductors when both switches are off, one packaged and one un-packaged; and FIG. 14 illustrates measured embedded Q of the packaged silver tunable inductor, showing no degradation in Q after about 10 months. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?	BACKGROUND The present invention relates generally to tunable inductors, and more particularly, to microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) switched tunable inductors. Tunable inductors can find application in frequency-agile radios, tunable filters, voltage controlled oscillators, and reconfigurable impedance matching networks. The need for tunable inductors becomes more critical when optimum tuning or impedance matching in a broad frequency range is desired. Both discrete and continuous tuning of passive inductors using micromachining techniques have been reported in the literature. Discrete tuning of inductors is usually achieved by changing the length or configuration of a transmission line using micromachined switches. The incorporation of switches in the body of the tunable inductor increases the resistive loss and hence reduces the quality factor (Q). Alternatively, continuous tuning of inductors may be realized by displacing a magnetic core, changing the permeability of the core, or using movable structures with large traveling range. Although significant tuning has been reported using these methods, the fabrication or the actuation techniques are complex, making the on-chip implementation of the tunable inductors difficult. In addition, Q of the reported tunable inductors is not sufficiently high for many wireless and RF integrated circuit applications. Therefore, there is a need for high-performance small form-factor tunable inductors. Also, to overcome the shortcomings of prior art tunable inductors, an improved design and micro-fabrication method for tunable inductors is necessary. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The various features and advantages of the present invention may be more readily understood with reference to the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein like reference numerals designate like structural elements, and in which: FIG. 1 illustrates an electrical model of an exemplary switched tunable inductor; FIG. 2 is a SEM view of a 20 μm thick silver switched tunable inductor fabricated on an Avatrel polymer membrane; FIG. 3 is a close-up SEM view of the switch, showing the actuation gap; FIGS. 4a-h illustrate an exemplary method for fabricating a packaged switched tunable inductor; FIG. 5 is a micrograph of the switched silver inductor taken from the backside of the Avatrel membrane; FIG. 6a and 6b are graphs that illustrate simulated inductance and Q of a switched tunable inductor on Avatrel membrane, respectively, showing a maximum tuning of 47.5% at 6 GHz; FIG. 7 illustrates measured inductance showing a maximum tuning of 47% at 6 GHz when both inductors are on; FIG. 8 illustrates measured embedded Q showing the Q drops as the inductor is tuned; FIG. 9 illustrates measured Q of the inductors at port two on Avatrel membrane; FIG. 10a and 10b illustrate measured inductance and embedded Q, respectively, of substantially identical tunable inductors fabricated on passivated silicon substrate (A), and 20 μm thick silicon dioxide membrane; FIG. 11a is a SEM view of an exemplary packaged switched inductor and FIG. 11b is a close-up SEM view of a package showing the air cavity inside; FIG. 12 illustrates measured embedded Q of two substantially identical inductors, before decomposition, one packaged and one un-packaged; FIG. 13 illustrates measured embedded Q of two substantially identical inductors when both switches are off, one packaged and one un-packaged; and FIG. 14 illustrates measured embedded Q of the packaged silver tunable inductor, showing no degradation in Q after about 10 months. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Disclosed are small form-factor high-Q switched tunable inductors 10 for use in a frequency range of about 1-10 GHz. In this frequency range, the permeability of most magnetic materials degrades, making them unsuitable for use at low RF frequencies. Also, small displacement is preferred to simplify the encapsulation process of the tunable inductors 10. Tunable inductors 10 are disclosed based on transformer action using on-chip micromachined vertical switches with an actuation gap of a few micrometers. Silver (Ag) is preferably used since it has high electrical conductivity and low Young's modulus compared with other metals. To encapsulate the tunable inductors 10, a wafer-level polymer packaging technique or method 30 (FIG. 4) is employed. The fabrication method 30 is simple and requires only six lithography steps, including packaging steps, and is post-CMOS compatible. Using this method 30, a reduced-to-practice 1.1 nH silver tunable inductor 10 is switched to four discrete values and shows a maximum tuning of 47% at 6 GHz. This inductor 10 exhibits an embedded Q in the range of 20 to 45 at 6 GHz and shows no degradation in Q after packaging. The disclosed switched tunable inductor 10 outperforms reported tunable inductors with respect to its high embedded quality factor at radio frequencies. Design FIG. 1 shows a schematic view of an exemplary switched tunable inductor 10. The inductance is taken from port one, and a plurality of inductors at port two (secondary inductors) are switched in and out (two inductors in this case). Inductors may be one-turn or multi-turn having spiral or solenoid configurations and the switches are micromachined. Inductors at port two are different in size, and thus have a different mutual inductance effect on port one when activated. The effective inductance of port one can have 1+n(n+1)/2 different states, where n is the number of inductors at port two. In the case of two inductors at port two, four discrete values can be achieved. The equivalent inductance and series resistance seen from port one are found from L eq = L 1  ( 1 - ∑ i = 2 n + 1  b i  k i 2  L i 2  ω 2 R i 2 + L i 2  ω 2 )   b i = 0   or   1 ( 1 ) R eq = R 1 + ∑ i = 2 n + 1  b i  R i  k i 2  L 1  L i  ω 2 R i 2 + L i 2  ω 2   b i = 0   or   1 ( 2 ) where L1 is the inductance at port one; Li is the inductance value of the secondary inductors; Ri represents the series resistance of each secondary inductor plus the contact resistance of its corresponding switch; ki is the coupling coefficient; bi represents the state of the switch and is 1 (or 0) when the switch is on (or off), and ω is the angular frequency. In equations (1) and (2), the parasitic capacitances are not considered. If the parasitic capacitances are taken into account, it can be shown that the equivalent inductance seen from port one when all of the switches at port two are open (Leq(off-state)) is given by L eq  ( off - state ) = L 1  ( 1 + ∑ i = 1 n + 1  k i 2  1 - ω 2 ω SRi 2 ω 2 Q i 2  ω SRi 2 - 2 + ω 2 ω SRi 2 + ω SRi 2 ω 2 ) ( 3 ) where Qi=Li—/Ri is the quality factor of the secondary inductors; ωSRi is defined as ω SRi = 1 L i  ( C i + C swi ) ( 4 ) where Ci denotes the self-capacitance of each inductor and Cswi is the off-state capacitance of its associated switch. If secondary inductors are high Q and have a resonance frequency much larger than the operating frequency (ω<<ωSRi), Leq(off-state) can be approximated by L eq  ( off - state )  ≈ ω  << ω SRi  L 1  ( 1 + ∑ i = 1 n + 1  k i 2  ω 2 ω SRi 2 - 2   ω 2 ) ≈ L 1 ( 5 ) In this case, the largest change in the effective inductance occurs when all switches at port two are on and the percentage tuning can be found from %   tuning = ∑ i = 2 n + 1  b i  k i 2  L i 2  ω 2 ( R i 2 + L i 2  ω 2 ) × 100 ( 6 ) From equations (5) and (6) it can be seen that to achieve large tuning, Ri should be much smaller than the reactance of the secondary inductors (Liω), which requires high-Q inductors and low-contact resistance switches that are best implemented using micromachining technology. For this reason, as disclosed herein, silver, which has the highest electrical conductivity of all materials at room temperature, is used to co-implement high-Q inductors and micromachined ohmic switches using a low-temperature fabrication process. The switches are actuated by applying a DC voltage to port two. The use of silver also offers the advantage of having a smaller tuning voltage compared to the other high conductivity metals (e.g., copper) because of its lower Young's modulus. However, it is to be understood that the disclosed switched tunable inductors can be made of other metals such as gold and/or copper at the expense of lower quality factor and smaller tuning range. FIG. 2 shows a scanning electron microscope (SEM) view of a silver switched tunable inductor 10. The inductors at port two are in series connection with a micromachined vertical ohmic switch through a narrow spring. Springs are designed to have a small series resistance and stiffness. The actuation voltage of the vertical switch with an actuation gap of 3.8 μm is 40 V. This voltage can be reduced to less than 5 V by reducing the gap size to ˜0.9 μm. A close-up view of the switch showing the actuation gap is shown in FIG. 3. Fabrication A schematic diagram illustrating the process flow of an exemplary fabrication method 30 for producing an exemplary inductor 10 is shown in FIGS. 4a-h. A substrate 11 is provided 31. The substrate 11 is spin-coated 32 with a thick low-loss dielectric 12 such as polymer 12 (20 μm in this case), such as Avatrel (available from Promerus, LLC, Brecksville, Ohio), for example. A routing metal layer 14 is formed 33 by evaporating a thick silver layer 14 (2 μm in this case), for example. A thin adhesion layer 13 (˜100 A°) such as titanium (Ti), for example, may be used to promote the adhesion between the routing metal layer 14 (silver layer 14) and the polymer layer 12. An actuation gap 20 is then defined by depositing 34 a layer of plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposited (PECVD) sacrificial silicon dioxide layer 15 at 160° C. (3.8 μm thick in this case). The deposition temperature of silicon dioxide layer 15 was reduced to preserve the quality of the polymer layer 12, which provides mechanical support for the released device. Inductors and switches are formed 35 by electroplating silver 17 into a photoresist mold 16 (20 μm thick in this case). A thin layer 18 of Ti/Ag/Ti (100 A°/300 A°/100 A°) is sputter deposited to serve as a seed layer 18 for plating. The top titanium layer of the seed layer 18 prevents the electroplating of silver 17 underneath the electroplating mold 16, and may be dry etched from open areas in a reactive ion etching system (RIE). The use of the titanium layer is important when the distance between the silver lines is less than 10 μm. An exemplary plating bath consists of 0.35 mol/L of potassium silver cyanide (KAgCN) and 1.69 mol/L of potassium cyanide (KCN). A current density of 1 mA/cm2 may be used in the plating process. The electroplating mold 16 is subsequently removed 36. The seed layer 18 may be removed 37 using a combination of wet and dry etching processes. Compared to sputtered silver, the electroplated silver layer 17 has a larger grain size resulting in a higher wet etch rate using an H2O2:NH4OH solution. The hydrogen peroxide oxidizes the silver and the ammonium hydroxide solution complexes and dissolves the silver ions. When wet etched, the thick high-aspect ratio lines of electroplated silver 17 etch much faster than the sputtered seed layer 18 that is between the walls of thick electroplated silver 17. Dry etching silver on the other hand, decouples the oxidation and dissolution steps resulting in almost the same removal rate for the small-grained sputtered layer 18 as the large-grained plated silver 17. The silver is first oxidized in an oxygen plasma (dry etch) and then the resultant silver oxide layer is dissolved in dilute ammonium hydroxide solution. Using this etching method, the seed layer 18 is removed 37 without losing excess electroplated silver 17. The device 10 is then released 38 in dilute hydrofluoric acid. The released device 10 is then wafer-level packaged 41-43 (FIGS. 4e-4g). This may be done as disclosed by P. Monajemi, et al., in “A low-cost wafer-level packaging technology,” IEEE International Conference on Microelectromechanical Systems, Miami, Fla. January 2005, pp. 634-637, for example. A thermally-decomposable sacrificial polymer 21, Unity (available from Promerus LLC, Brecksville, Ohio, 44141), is applied and patterned 41 (FIG. 4e). Then, the over-coat polymer 22 (Avatrel), which is thermally stable at the decomposition temperature of the decomposable sacrificial polymer 21, is spin-coated and patterned 42 (FIG. 4f). Finally, the sacrificial polymer 21 is decomposed 43 at 180° C. (FIG. 4g). As discussed in the P. Monajemi, et al. paper, the resulting gaseous products diffuse out through a solid Avatrel over-coat 22 with no perforations. The loss caused by the silicon substrate 11 may be eliminated, if necessary, by selective backside etching 44 (FIG. 4h), to form an optional backside cavity 24, leaving a polymer membrane 12 under the device 10. Alternatively, the loss caused by the silicon substrate 11 may be eliminated, if necessary, by selective etching 50 of the substrate before encapsulating the device (FIG. 4d′), to form an optional cavity 51 under the device 10. A micrograph of an un-packaged inductor taken from the backside of the Avatrel polymer membrane 12 is shown in FIG. 5. The highest processing temperature, including the packaging steps, is 180° C. and thus the process is post-CMOS compatible. Regarding materials that may be employed to fabricate the inductor 10, the substrate 11 may be silicon, CMOS, BiCMOS, gallium arsenide, indium phosphide, glass, ceramic, silicon carbide, sapphire, organic or polymer. The dielectric layer 12 may be silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, hafnium dioxide, zirconium oxide or low-loss polymer. The conductive layers may be polysilicon, silver, gold, aluminum, nickel or copper. Simulation Results The tunable inductors 10 were simulated in the Sonnet electromagnetic tool. FIGS. 6a and 6b shows the simulated effective inductance and Q seen from port one at four states of the tunable inductor (State (A) is when all the switches are off). As shown in FIG. 6a, a maximum inductance change of 47% is expected at the frequency of the peak Q, when both switches are on. At low frequencies, Ri is not negligible compared to Liω and, according to equation (6), the percent tuning is small. At higher frequencies, Liω>>Ri and magnetic coupling is stronger. Therefore, the amount of tuning increases at higher frequencies. The outer inductor at Port 2 is larger in size than the inner inductor at Port 2, and its peak Q occurs at lower frequencies. As a result, the outer inductor has a larger effect on the effective inductance at lower frequencies. In contrast, the frequency of the peak Q for the inner inductor is higher. Thus, the inner inductor at Port 2 has a larger effect at this frequency range. Measurement Results Several switched tunable inductors 10 were fabricated and tested. On-wafer S-parameter measurements were carried out using an hp 8510C VNA and Cascade GSG microprobes. Pad parasitics were not de-embedded. Each switched tunable inductor 10 was tested several times to ensure repeatability of the measurements. FIG. 7 shows the measured inductance of a switched silver inductor 10 fabricated on an Avatrel polymer membrane 12. The inductance is switched to four different values and is tuned from 1.1 nH at 6 GHz to 0.54 nH, which represents a maximum tuning of 47% at 6 GHz. The maximum tuning was achieved when both secondary inductors were switched on. At 6 GHz, the effective inductance drops to 0.79 nH when the outer inductor (the larger inductor at Port 2) is on, and 0.82 nH when the inner inductor (the smaller inductor at port 2) is on. The measured results are in good agreement with the simulated response as shown in FIGS. 6 and 7. The measured embedded Q of this inductor 10 in different states is shown in FIG. 8. As shown, the inductor 10 exhibits a peak Q of 45 when the inductors at port two are both off. The Q drops to 20 when both switches are on. The drop of Q is consistent with Equation (2). When any of the inductors at port two are switched on, Leq decreases while the effective resistance increases resulting in a drop in Q as the inductor 10 is tuned. FIG. 9 shows the measured Q of the inductors at port two. From FIG. 9, it can be seen that the peak Q of the inner inductor (smaller inductor at port 2) is at frequencies >7 GHz. Thus, the maximum change in the effective inductance resulting from switching on the inner inductor occurs (smaller inductor at port 2) at this frequency range (FIG. 7). Effect of Q on Tuning To demonstrate the effect of the quality factor on the tuning ratio of the switched tunable inductors 10, substantially identical devices were fabricated on different substrates 11. On sample A, inductors 10 were fabricated on a CMOS-grade silicon substrate 11 passivated with a 20 μm thick PECVD silicon dioxide layer. The silicon substrate 11 was removed from the backside of the primary and secondary inductors of sample B to enhance their Q, leaving behind a 20 μm thick silicon dioxide membrane beneath the inductors. Silicon dioxide has a higher loss tangent than Avatrel polymer 12, which results in a higher substrate loss. Therefore, the Q of inductors on a silicon dioxide membrane (sample B) is lower than that of inductors on an Avatrel polymer membrane 12 as shown in FIG. 8. FIG. 10 compares the effective inductance and Q of the tunable inductors 10 on samples A and B at two different states. As shown in FIG. 10, the percent tuning is lower for sample A that has a lower Q. The inductance of sample A changes by 36.8% at 4.7 GHz when the outer inductor is switched on (State A_). At this frequency, the tuning resulting from switching on the outer inductor of sample B (State B_) is only 9.7%. Consequently, employing low-loss materials such as Avatrel polymer helps improving the tuning characteristic of the switched tunable inductors 10. The performance of the tunable inductors 10 may be further improved. The routing metal layer 14 of the fabricated inductors 10 is less than three times the skin depth of silver at low frequencies, where the metal loss is the dominant Q-limiting mechanism. Therefore, the quality factor (Q) of the switched tunable inductors 10 is limited by the metal loss of the routing metal layer 14 and can be improved by increasing the thickness of this layer 14. Packaging Results Hermetic or semi-hermetic sealing of silver microstructures increases the lifetime of the silver devices by decreasing its exposure to the corrosive gases and humidity. Silver is very sensitive to hydrogen sulfide (H2S), which forms silver sulfide (Ag2S), even at a very low concentration of corrosive gas. The decomposition of the contact surfaces leads to an increase of the surface resistance, hence, to a lower Q and for tunable inductors a lower tuning range. Another problem that impedes the wide use of silver is electrochemical migration which occurs in the presence of wet surface and applied bias. Silver migration usually occurs between adjacent conductors/electrodes, which leads to the formation of dendrites and finally results in an electrical short-circuit failure. The failure time is related to the relative humidity, temperature, and the strength of the electric field. For the structure of the tunable inductor 10 disclosed herein, a possible location of failure is between the switch pads only when the switch is in contact. When off, there is an air gap between the switch pads which blocks the path for the growth of dendrites. A semi-hermetic packaging technique may be used to prevent or lower their exposure to the corrosive gases, and to encapsulate the tunable inductor 10. If necessary, subsequent over-molding can provide additional strength and resilience, and ensures long-term hermeticity. FIG. 11a is a SEM view of the packaged switched tunable inductor 10 and a close-up view of a broken package is presented in FIG. 11b showing the air cavity 23 inside. The inductor trace was peeled during the cleaving process. FIG. 12 shows the Q of two identical inductors 10 before decomposition of the sacrificial polymer 21. The two inductors 10, one packaged and one un-packaged were fabricated on silicon nitride-passivated high-resistivity (—=1 kΩcm) silicon substrate 11. The un-decomposed packaged inductor 10 has a lower Q at higher frequencies because of the dielectric loss of the Unity sacrificial polymer 21. When the Unity sacrificial polymer 21 was decomposed and the packaging process was completed, the two inductors 10 were measured again. As shown in FIG. 13, the switched tunable inductor 10 showed no degradation in Q after packaging, indicating the Unity sacrificial polymer 21 was fully decomposed. To demonstrate the effect of packaging on preserving the Q of the silver tunable inductor 10, the performance of the packaged inductor 10 was measured after ten months and is shown in FIG. 14. The performance of the packaged inductor 10 did not change during this time period. Thus, improved microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) switched tunable inductors have been disclosed. It is to be understood that the above-described embodiments are merely illustrative of some of the many specific embodiments that represent applications of the principles discussed above. Clearly, numerous and other arrangements can be readily devised by those skilled in the art without departing from the scope of the invention.	H	H01	H01F	21	00
11805197	US20080023316A1-20080131	Switch structure and electronic device	ACCEPTED	20080116	20080131		[]	H01H114	["H01H114"]	7405373	20070521	20080729	200	517000	99291.0	LEE	KYUNG	[{"inventor_name_last": "Konishi", "inventor_name_first": "Hiroyuki", "inventor_city": "Chiba-shi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Fujieda", "inventor_name_first": "Hisashi", "inventor_city": "Chiba-shi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Nagakura", "inventor_name_first": "Fumiyoshi", "inventor_city": "Chiba-shi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Asahata", "inventor_name_first": "Akiko", "inventor_city": "Chiba-shi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Kondo", "inventor_name_first": "Masaji", "inventor_city": "Chiba-shi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Yagi", "inventor_name_first": "Shigeki", "inventor_city": "Chiba-shi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]	The switch structure according to the present invention is obtained by interposing an elastic connection member between the circuit board provided with electrodes and a push switch fixed to a case of an electronic device. The elastic connection member has a structure in which conductive layers and insulation layers are alternately laminated. The conductive layers of a first lamination layer surface on which the conductive layers and the insulation layers of the elastic connection member are exposed abut against the electrodes so that the electric connections therebetween are established. The push switch is pushed down, and a contact portion thereof abuts against the plurality of conductive layers on a second lamination layer surface, whereby the electrodes are in a conductive state. Even if the push switch is pushed strongly, the elastic connection member deforms to absorb the force. As a result, the switch structure which hardly breaks is obtained.	1. A switch structure, comprising: a circuit board; at least a pair of electrodes formed on the circuit board; a push switch provided to face an end surface of the circuit board, and having a contact portion which moves forward and backward; and an elastic connection member provided between the end surface of the circuit board and the contact portion, and has a structure in which conductive layers including a first conductive layer and a second conductive layer and insulation layers are laminated alternately, wherein the elastic connection member is constituted such that, the first conductive layer abuts against one electrode of the pair of electrodes out of the plurality of electrodes, and the second conductive layer insulated from the first conductive layer abuts against another electrode of the pair of electrodes out of the plurality of electrodes, and when the push switch is pushed, the contact portion abuts against the first conductive layer and the second conductive layer so that electric connections therebetween are established. 2. A switch structure according to claim 1, wherein the electrodes are provided on the end surface of the circuit board. 3. A switch structure according to claim 1, wherein the electrodes are provided on a circuit pattern formation surface of the circuit board, and abut against a lamination layer surface of the elastic connection member where the conductive layers and the insulation layer are exposed. 4. A switch structure according to claim 3, wherein the elastic connection member abuts against an opposite surface of the surface of the circuit board, on which the electrodes are formed. 5. A switch structure according to claim 3, further comprising a support member on an opposite surface of the surface of the circuit board, on which the electrodes are provided. 6. A switch structure according to claim 5, wherein the support member has a length larger than a width of the elastic connection member, and includes a convex portion adjacent to the end surface of the elastic connection member. 7. A switch structure according to claim 6, wherein the elastic connection member includes the plurality of conductive layers and the plurality of insulation layers. 8. A switch structure according to claim 7, wherein the plurality of conductive layers of the elastic connection member abut against the electrodes so that the electric connections therebetween are established. 9. An electronic device, which is equipped with the switch structure according to claim 1.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a switch structure of an electronic device and an electronic device equipped with the switch structure. 2. Description of the Related Art An electronic device such as a portable phone or an electronic metronomemay include a push-button-type side switch on a side surface thereof. FIG. 7 is a sectional view showing a constitutional example of a conventional side switch (see JP 2004-79503 A). As shown in FIG. 7 , in a conventional side switch 23 , a switch module 24 , which is pushed so that the switch module freely moves forward and backward in a surface direction of a circuit board surface, is mounted on a circuit. In the side switch 23 shown in FIG. 7 , the switch module 24 , which is pushed so that the switch module freely moves forward and backward in the surface direction of the circuit board surface, is soldered on an electrode formed on a circuit board 1 . By pushing a push switch projecting portion 25 projecting from a push switch hole 22 formed in a case 21 , the switch-module 24 becomes in an ON state. In the conventional switch structure, in a case where the push switch projecting portion 25 is pushed by a force stronger than a force which is presumed when designing, the switch module 24 main body is pushed toward the surface of the circuit board. Therefore, there caused problems such that, in a case where the push switch projecting portion 25 is pushed strongly or an impact is given thereto, the switch module 24 itself may break, and the solder or the like for fixing the switch module 24 and the circuit board 1 may peel off. Accordingly, there is a problem in that, in the electronic devices including a side switch, the side switch easily breaks due to a drop impact.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Therefore, an object of the present invention is to provide a switch structure which hardly breaks even if the switch is pushed strongly and has a strong resistance to a drop impact, and an electronic device equipped with the switch structure. In order to achieve the above-mentioned object, according to a first aspect of the present invention, there is provided a switch structure including: a circuit board; at least a pair of electrodes formed on the circuit board; a push switch provided to face an end surface of the circuit board, and having a contact portion which moves forward and backward; and an elastic connection member provided between the end surface of the circuit board and the contact portion, and has a structure in which conductive layers including a first conductive layer and a second conductive layer and insulation layers are laminated alternately, in which the elastic connection member is constituted such that, the first conductive layer abuts against one electrode of the pair of electrodes out of the plurality of electrodes, and the second conductive layer insulated from the first conductive layer abuts against another electrode of the pair of electrodes out of the plurality of electrodes, and when the push switch is pushed, the contact portion abuts against the first conductive layer and the second conductive layer so that electric connections therebetween are established. Further, in order to achieve the above-mentioned object, according to a second aspect of the present invention, in the first aspect of the present invention, the electrodes are provided on the end surface of the circuit board. Still further, in order to achieve the above-mentioned object, according to a third aspect of the present invention, in the first aspect of the present invention, the electrodes are provided on a circuit pattern formation surface of the circuit board, and abut against a lamination layer surface of the elastic connection member where the conductive layers and the insulation layer are exposed. Yet further, in order to achieve the above-mentioned object, according to a fourth aspect of the present invention, in the third aspect of the present invention, the elastic connection member abuts against an opposite surface of the surface of the circuit board, on which the electrodes are formed. Yet still further, in order to achieve the above-mentioned object, according to a fifth aspect of the present invention, in the third or fourth aspect of the present invention, the switch structure further includes a support member on an opposite surface of the surface of the circuit board, on which the electrodes are provided. Yet still further, in order to achieve the above-mentioned object, according to a sixth aspect of the present invention, in the fifth aspect of the present invention, the support member has a length larger than a width of the elastic connection member, and includes a convex portion adjacent to the end surface of the elastic connection member. Yet still further, in order to achieve the above-mentioned object, according to a seventh aspect of the present invention, in any one of the first to sixth aspects of the present invention, the elastic connection member includes the plurality of conductive layers and the plurality of insulation layers. Moreover, in order to achieve the above-mentioned object, according to an eighth aspect of the present invention, in the seventh aspect of the present invention, the plurality of conductive layers of the elastic connection member abut against the electrodes so that the electric connections therebetween are established. Furthermore, in order to achieve the above-mentioned object, according to a ninth aspect of the present invention, there is provided an electronic device which is equipped with the switch structure according to any one of the first to eighth aspects of the present invention. The switch structure according to the present invention is obtained by providing the elastic connection member between the push switch and the end surface of the circuit board. With this constitution, when the push switch is pushed, the elastic connection member deforms to absorb the force. Therefore, even if the push switch is pushed strongly, the switch portion hardly breaks. Further, unlike the conventional example, the switch module is not soldered on the circuit board 1 . As a result, even in the case of the strong depression described above, there occurs no failure including a case where soldered portions of the electrodes are damaged. Consequently, there can be provided the switch structure resistant to a strong pressure and impact compared to the conventional example, and the electronic device including the side switch excellent in impact resistance.	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a switch structure of an electronic device and an electronic device equipped with the switch structure. 2. Description of the Related Art An electronic device such as a portable phone or an electronic metronomemay include a push-button-type side switch on a side surface thereof. FIG. 7 is a sectional view showing a constitutional example of a conventional side switch (see JP 2004-79503 A). As shown in FIG. 7, in a conventional side switch 23, a switch module 24, which is pushed so that the switch module freely moves forward and backward in a surface direction of a circuit board surface, is mounted on a circuit. In the side switch 23 shown in FIG. 7, the switch module 24, which is pushed so that the switch module freely moves forward and backward in the surface direction of the circuit board surface, is soldered on an electrode formed on a circuit board 1. By pushing a push switch projecting portion 25 projecting from a push switch hole 22 formed in a case 21, the switch-module 24 becomes in an ON state. In the conventional switch structure, in a case where the push switch projecting portion 25 is pushed by a force stronger than a force which is presumed when designing, the switch module 24 main body is pushed toward the surface of the circuit board. Therefore, there caused problems such that, in a case where the push switch projecting portion 25 is pushed strongly or an impact is given thereto, the switch module 24 itself may break, and the solder or the like for fixing the switch module 24 and the circuit board 1 may peel off. Accordingly, there is a problem in that, in the electronic devices including a side switch, the side switch easily breaks due to a drop impact. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Therefore, an object of the present invention is to provide a switch structure which hardly breaks even if the switch is pushed strongly and has a strong resistance to a drop impact, and an electronic device equipped with the switch structure. In order to achieve the above-mentioned object, according to a first aspect of the present invention, there is provided a switch structure including: a circuit board; at least a pair of electrodes formed on the circuit board; a push switch provided to face an end surface of the circuit board, and having a contact portion which moves forward and backward; and an elastic connection member provided between the end surface of the circuit board and the contact portion, and has a structure in which conductive layers including a first conductive layer and a second conductive layer and insulation layers are laminated alternately, in which the elastic connection member is constituted such that, the first conductive layer abuts against one electrode of the pair of electrodes out of the plurality of electrodes, and the second conductive layer insulated from the first conductive layer abuts against another electrode of the pair of electrodes out of the plurality of electrodes, and when the push switch is pushed, the contact portion abuts against the first conductive layer and the second conductive layer so that electric connections therebetween are established. Further, in order to achieve the above-mentioned object, according to a second aspect of the present invention, in the first aspect of the present invention, the electrodes are provided on the end surface of the circuit board. Still further, in order to achieve the above-mentioned object, according to a third aspect of the present invention, in the first aspect of the present invention, the electrodes are provided on a circuit pattern formation surface of the circuit board, and abut against a lamination layer surface of the elastic connection member where the conductive layers and the insulation layer are exposed. Yet further, in order to achieve the above-mentioned object, according to a fourth aspect of the present invention, in the third aspect of the present invention, the elastic connection member abuts against an opposite surface of the surface of the circuit board, on which the electrodes are formed. Yet still further, in order to achieve the above-mentioned object, according to a fifth aspect of the present invention, in the third or fourth aspect of the present invention, the switch structure further includes a support member on an opposite surface of the surface of the circuit board, on which the electrodes are provided. Yet still further, in order to achieve the above-mentioned object, according to a sixth aspect of the present invention, in the fifth aspect of the present invention, the support member has a length larger than a width of the elastic connection member, and includes a convex portion adjacent to the end surface of the elastic connection member. Yet still further, in order to achieve the above-mentioned object, according to a seventh aspect of the present invention, in any one of the first to sixth aspects of the present invention, the elastic connection member includes the plurality of conductive layers and the plurality of insulation layers. Moreover, in order to achieve the above-mentioned object, according to an eighth aspect of the present invention, in the seventh aspect of the present invention, the plurality of conductive layers of the elastic connection member abut against the electrodes so that the electric connections therebetween are established. Furthermore, in order to achieve the above-mentioned object, according to a ninth aspect of the present invention, there is provided an electronic device which is equipped with the switch structure according to any one of the first to eighth aspects of the present invention. The switch structure according to the present invention is obtained by providing the elastic connection member between the push switch and the end surface of the circuit board. With this constitution, when the push switch is pushed, the elastic connection member deforms to absorb the force. Therefore, even if the push switch is pushed strongly, the switch portion hardly breaks. Further, unlike the conventional example, the switch module is not soldered on the circuit board 1. As a result, even in the case of the strong depression described above, there occurs no failure including a case where soldered portions of the electrodes are damaged. Consequently, there can be provided the switch structure resistant to a strong pressure and impact compared to the conventional example, and the electronic device including the side switch excellent in impact resistance. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In the accompanying drawings: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a portable device including a switch structure according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is an exploded view showing a mounting structure of the switch structure according to the embodiment of the present invention onto the portable device; FIG. 3A is an enlarged view showing the switch structure according to the embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3B is a sectional view showing the switch structure according to the embodiment of the present invention taken along the line A-A of FIG. 3A; FIG. 4 is a sectional view showing the switch structure according to the embodiment of the present invention taken along the line B-B of FIG. 3A; FIG. 5 is a sectional view of the switch structure according to a first modification example of the embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a sectional view of the switch structure according to a second modification example of the embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 7 is a sectional view of a switch structure of a related art. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS A switch structure according to embodiments of the present invention and an electronic device including the switch structure according to the embodiment of the present invention will be explained referring to FIGS. 1 to 6. FIG. 1 is an outer perspective view of the electronic device including the switch structure of the embodiment of the present invention. The electronic devices such as a portable phone, an electronic metronome, and a stopwatch may include a push-button-type side switch 23 on a side surface of a case of the electronic device. To use the side switch 23, one side surface of the case of the electronic device is held by a palm or a finger, and the side switch 23 on an opposite side surface is pushed by a finger. FIG. 2 is an exploded view showing amounting structure of the switch structure according to the embodiment of the present invention onto the portable device. Further, FIG. 3A is an enlarged view showing the switch structure according to the embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3B is a sectional view of FIG. 3A taken along the line A-A. FIG. 4 is a sectional view showing the switch mechanism according to the embodiment of the present invention taken along the line B-B of FIG. 3A. A schematic structure of the switch structure according to the embodiment of the present invention will be explained referring to FIGS. 2, 3A, 3B, and 4. A circuit board 1 is provided with a pair of electrodes 2 and a support member 6. The pair of electrodes 2 are provided on a circuit pattern formation surface or an opposite surface of the circuit board 1. The support member 6 is provided on an opposite surface of the surface on which the pair of electrodes 2 are provided. An elastic connection member 3 having a squared C shape is provided so as to sandwich the pair of electrodes 2 and the support member 6. A push switch 11 constituting the side switch 23 is fixed so that a push switch base portion 15 is interposed in a case 21. The elastic connection member 3 presents between the push switch 11 and a circuit board end surface 7. The push switch 11 is fixed so that a contact portion 12 abuts against a second lamination layer surface 5 of the elastic connection member 3 when the push switch 11 is in a pushed state (ON state). A push switch upper portion 13 is ejected outside of the case 21 through a switch hole 22 of the case 21. The elastic connection member 3 is structured by alternately laminating conductive layers 3a and insulation layers 3b. Surfaces on which both the conductive layers 3a and the insulation layers 3b are exposed are referred to as lamination layer surfaces. Among the lamination layer surfaces, a surface abutting against the electrodes 2 and a surface adjacent to the surface and abutting against the circuit board 1 are both referred to as first lamination layer surfaces 4. In a case where the electrodes 2 are formed on the circuit board end surface 7, only a surface abutting against the circuit board end surface 7 constitutes the first lamination layer surface 4. Further, a surface opposing the first lamination layer surface 4 against which the contact portion 12 of the push switch 11 abuts is referred to as the second lamination layer surface 5. As shown in FIG. 3, one first conductive layer or a plurality of first conductive layers may be provided, and one second conductive layer or a plurality of second conductive layers may be provided. In a case where the first lamination layer surface 4 abuts against the electrodes 2, the electric connections between the conductive layers 3a of the first lamination layer surface 4 and the electrodes 2 are established. There are the plurality of conductive layers 3a, and each of the pair of electrodes 2 abuts against the different conductive layers 3a. In this case, the conductive layer 3a abutting against one electrode 2 is referred to as a first conductive layer, and the conductive layer 3a abutting against another electrode 2 is referred to as a second conductive layer. In a case where the push switch 11 is pushed, the contact portion 12 of the push switch 11 abuts against the second lamination layer surface 5 of the elastic connection member 3 so that the electric connections between the first conductive layer and the second conductive layer are established. As a result, in the case where the push switch 11 is pushed, the pair of electrodes 2 on the circuit board 1 are conductive to each other via the plurality of conductive layers 3a being electrically connective due to the contact portion 12. The circuit board 1 is a board such as a print circuit board on which electric components of an electronic device are implemented. The electrodes 2 are formed on an implementation surface of the circuit board 1 on which electronic components are implemented or on an opposite surface of a surface on which the electrodes 2 are provided. In FIG. 2, the electrodes 2 are formed in an end surface of the circuit board 1 to the vicinity thereof. The electrodes 2 can be formed on a position of the circuit board 1 where the electrodes 2 can abut against the elastic connection member 3. The electrodes 2 are provided as a pair. The switch structure of the embodiment of the present invention can establish the electric connections between the pair of electrodes 2. In this embodiment, the elastic connection member 3 has a squared C shape, but the elastic connection member 3 may take an alternate shape as long as the elastic connection member 3 sandwiches the electrodes 2 provided on the circuit board 1 and the support member 6. Each of the conductive layers 3a of the elastic connection member 3 is formed by mixing a conductive material in an elastic base material such as a rubber or a thermoplastic elastomer. For example, each of the conductive layers 3a can be formed by kneading carbon in a silicon rubber. Each of the conductive layers 3a of the elastic connection member 3 can alternatively be formed by not only those materials but also other conductive and elastic materials. Similarly, each of the insulation layers 3b can be formed by a rubber or the like having an insulating property and elasticity. Further, in the embodiment of the present invention, the conductive layers 3a and the insulation layers 3b have the same thickness. However, they do not necessarily have the same thickness. For example, even if each of the insulation layers 3b is a thin layer formed of an insulating membrane or the like, the elastic connection member 3 of the embodiment of the present invention can be structured. In this case, awidthof each of the conductive layers 3a can be enlarged, and there is an advantage in that a contact resistance between the conductive layers 3a and the electrodes 2 or the contact portion 12 can be lowered. The elastic connection member 3 includes, in order to conduct the pair of electrodes 2, at least the two conductive layers 3a and the insulation layer 3b therebetween. In the embodiment of FIG. 2, the plurality of conductive layers 3a and the plurality of insulation layers 3b are provided. The thickness of each of the conductive layers 3a is approximately equal to or smaller than a width of each of the electrodes 2. The first lamination layer surface 4 on which the conductive layers 3a and the insulation layers 3b of the elastic connection member 3 are exposed abuts against the circuit board 1. The conductive layers 3a on the first lamination layer surface 4 abut against the electrodes 2 so that the electric connections therebetween are established. Electrode of the pair of electrodes 2 abut against the different conductive layers 3a, respectively. In the case where the elastic connection member 3 is formed of the plurality of different conductive layers 3a, one or a plurality of the conductive layers 3a of those abut against the electrodes 2 so that the electric connections therebetween are established. The support member 6 is provided on a surface of the circuit board 1 which is an opposite surface of the surface on which the electrodes 2 are provided. On a surface of the support member 6 of the circuit board 1 side, there is provided a first convex portion 6a which can be inserted in and fixed to a hole provided in the circuit board 1. The support member 6 also includes a second convex portion 6b which abuts against the elastic connection member 3 on a surface opposing the first convex portion 6a. The push switch 11 is formed of an insulating elastic body such as a rubber or an elastomer resin. The push switch 11 includes a swelled portion, the contact portion 12, a skirt portion 14, and a push switch base portion 15. The swelled portion includes a button upper portion having a dome shape. The contact portion 12 is formed on a lower surface side of a button. The skirt portion 14 surrounds the contact portion 12. The push switch base portion 15 supports the skirt portion 14. In the push switch 11, the push switch skirt portion 14 has elasticity. When the push switch upper portion 13 is pushed, the push switch skirt portion 14 deforms, the contact portion 12 is pushed down, and the contact portion 12 abuts against the elastic connection member 3. Upon releasing a force for pushing the push switch upper portion 13, the push switch skirt portion 14 return to the original position, and therefore the contact portion 12 moves backward and is detached from the elastic connection member 3. In FIG. 2, the push switch upper portion 13 has a flat shape. However, the shape thereof is not restricted as long as the button upper portion has a dome like shape and the button can be pushed down. The contact portion 12 has conductivity and is formed by carbon, a metal, or the like. It should be noted that in FIG. 2, the push switch 11 is fixed by being interposed in the case 21. However, the push switch 11 may be fixed in a different manner as long as the contact portion 12 abut against the elastic connection member 3 by pushing the push switch upper portion 13. For example, the switch structure is attained by directly fixing the push switch 11 to the elastic connection member 3. Further, in a case where there are the plurality of switch structures according to the embodiment of the present invention as shown in FIG. 2, the push switches 11 may be structured by connecting with each other with the respective push switch base portions 15. In this case, by using a long member as the support member 6, it is possible to incorporate the plurality of elastic connection members 3 into one support member 6. In this case, a convex portion, which is used to decide an installation position of each of the elastic connection members 3, may be provided. Still further, in the case where there are the plurality of switch structures according to the embodiment of the present invention, it is possible to attain the switch structure by using a long elastic connection member 3 and the plurality of pairs of electrodes 2. In this case, one elastic connection member 3 contacts the plurality of electrodes 2 aligning on one circuit board 1. The elastic connection member 3 has a constitution in which the conductive layers 3a and the insulation layers 3b are alternately laminated. Accordingly, the plurality of pairs of electrodes 2 can compose a plurality of switches by using the one elastic connection member 3. Referring to FIGS. 3A, 3B, and 4, the electric connections established between the pair of electrodes 2 in the switch structure constituted as mentioned above will be explained. The pair of electrodes 2 abut against two conductive layers 3a of elastic connection member 3 exposed on the first lamination layer surface 4 so that the electric connections therebetween are established, respectively (FIG. 3B). In a case where the push switch 11 is in an unpushed state (OFF state), the contact portion 12 does not abut against the second lamination layer surface 5 of the elastic connection member 3, and the conductive layers 3a are insulated with each other. When the push switch upper portion 13 is pushed down with a finger or the like, the skirt portion 14 of the push switch 11 deforms, and the contact portion 12 abuts against the elastic connection member 3. The contact portion 12 abuts against the plurality of conductive layers 3a of the elastic connection member 3 so that the electric connections therebetween are established, whereby the electric connections between conductive layers 3a are established. In a state where the push switch 11 is pushed, all of four conductive layers 3a shown in FIG. 3B abut against the contact portion 12, and the electric connections between the conductive layers 3a are established. As a result, the electric connections between two electrodes 2 are established. In this case, as the number of the conductive layers 3a and the insulation layers 3b contacting the electrodes 2 is larger, precision of the positional relation between the electrodes 2 and the elastic connection member 3 in a perpendicular direction with respect to the lamination layer surface can be lower. The reason is as follows. That is, in the positional relation between the elastic connection member 3 and the electrodes 2, even if the elastic connection member 3 shifts in the perpendicular direction with respect to the lamination layer surface, the electrical connections therebetween can be secured as long as any one of the conductive layers 3a connects each of the electrodes 2. Therefore, it is possible to readily incorporate the elastic connection member 3 into the circuit board 1. Further, the use of the support member 6 enables the elastic connection member 3 to abut against the electrodes 2 with stability. In addition, the second convex portion 6b of the support member 6 makes it possible to decide the installation position of the elastic connection member 3, whereby the elastic connection member 3 can be readily installed. The support member 6 can also be installed in and fixed to the circuit board 1 as follows. That is, An installation hole is provided to the circuit board 1 and the first convex portion 6a of the support member 6 is inserted therein. According to the structure of the embodiment of the present invention, even if the push switch 11 is pushed strongly, the elastic connection member 3 deforms to absorb most of the force and the impact. Therefore, a switch structure having a high impact resistance can be obtained. Further, the switch structure also has an advantage in that there are few damaged portions as compared to the conventional switch having an adherence portion between the electrodes 2 and a switch portion due to soldering or the like. Further, according to the switch structure of the embodiment of the present invention, the elastic connection member 3 deforms in the ON state and abuts against the contact portion 12 in a bouncing manner. Therefore, there is also an advantage in that contacting and abutting is stably performed to prevent momentarily blackout and chattering from occurring. FIG. 5 is a sectional view of a first modification example of the embodiment of the present invention. It should be noted that in this modification example and also in the following modification example, components similar to those in the above-mentioned embodiment are denoted by the similar reference numerals and description thereof will be omitted. The electrodes 2 are provided on the circuit board end surface 7 perpendicular to a pattern printing surface of the circuit board 1. The elastic connection member 3 is interposed between the push switch 11 and the electrodes 2. The first modification example has such a structure that the electrodes 2, the elastic connection member 3, and the push switch 11 are provided in a straight line. Therefore, the elastic connection member 3 does not need to have the above-mentioned squared C shape. It is only necessary that the first lamination layer surface 4 abut against the electrodes 2 so that the electric connections between are established, and the second lamination layer surface 5 abut against the contact portion 12 of the push switch 11 pushed so that the electric connections therebetween are established. For example, in a case of the elastic connection member 3 having a shape of a rectangular parallelepiped, the switch structure according to the present invention can be constituted. In the first modification example, the switch structure of the present invention can be achieved even without the support member 6. However, in a case where the circuit board 1 is thin and the like, the support member 6 can be used for stably fixing the elastic connection member 3. FIG. 6 is a sectional view of a second modification example of the embodiment of the present invention. In this modification example, the electrodes 2 of the first modification example are provided on the pattern printing surface of the circuit board 1. Therefore, the elastic connection member 3 abuts against two surfaces, that is, the circuit board end surface 7 of the circuit board 1 and the implementation surface on which the electrodes 2 are provided. In FIG. 6, the elastic connection member 3 has an L shape. The elastic connection member 3 may have an alternative shape as long as the elastic connection member 3 abuts against the circuit board end surface 7 and the implementation surface on which the electrodes 2 are provided of the circuit board 1. With the elastic connection member 3 having the L shape, there is an effect that the area of the electrodes is increased compared with a case of the first modification example in which the electrodes 2 are provided on the circuit board end surface 7 of the circuit board 1.	H	H01	H01H	1	14
11979433	US20080112020A1-20080515	Image scanner, image forming apparatus, and image scanning method	ACCEPTED	20080501	20080515		[]	H04N104	["H04N104"]	7817313	20071102	20101019	358	497000	94804.0	LEE	CHEUKFAN	[{"inventor_name_last": "Mikajiri", "inventor_name_first": "Susumu", "inventor_city": "Tokyo", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]	An image scanner includes first and second carriages, a body, a power source, a power supplier, and a tensioner. In the first carriage moving at a predetermined speed, a light source emits light onto an original. A first mirror deflects the light reflected by the original. In the second carriage moving at a half speed of the first carriage, second and third mirrors deflect the light deflected by the first and second mirrors, respectively. The body holds the first and second carriages. The power source drives the light source. The power supplier is connected to the power source and the light source to supply power from the power source to the light source. The tensioner provided on the second carriage contacts the power supplier at a position outside an optical light path and applies tension to the power supplier.	1. An image scanner, comprising: a first carriage to move at a predetermined speed, the first carriage comprising: a light source to emit light onto an original; and a first mirror to deflect the light reflected by the original; a second carriage to move at a half speed of the first carriage, the second carriage comprising: a second mirror to deflect the light deflected by the first mirror; and a third mirror to deflect the light deflected by the second mirror; a body to movably hold the first carriage and the second carriage; a power source attached to the body to drive the light source; a flexible power supplier connected to the power source and the light source to supply power from the power source to the light source; and a tensioner provided on the second carriage to contact the power supplier at a position outside an optical light path and apply tension to the power supplier. 2. The image scanner according to claim 1, wherein the second carriage further comprises a support member to curve and support the power supplier. 3. The image scanner according to claim 2, wherein the tensioner is disposed on the support member. 4. The image scanner according to claim 1, wherein the tensioner comprises a thin elastic plate that deforms to generate an elastic force for applying tension to the power supplier. 5. The image scanner according to claim 4, wherein the thin plate is formed of a synthetic resin including polyethylene terephthalate. 6. The image scanner according to claim 4, wherein the thin plate is formed of a metal including stainless steel and phosphor bronze. 7. The image scanner according to claim 4, wherein an edge portion of the thin plate does not contact the power supplier. 8. The image scanner according to claim 1, wherein the tensioner is formed of a resin and comprises an attaching portion to attach the tensioner to the second carriage and a planar elastic portion, and wherein the attaching portion is integrated with the elastic portion. 9. The image scanner according to claim 2, wherein the support member comprises a pulley disposed at a position at which the pulley does not contact any circuit pattern of the power supplier. 10. The image scanner according to claim 9, wherein the support member further comprises a slide member having a low friction coefficient disposed on an outer circumferential surface of the pulley. 11. The image scanner according to claim 10, wherein the slide member comprises an elastic body including sponge and felt. 12. The image scanner according to claim 10, wherein the slide member comprises a lubricated elastic body. 13. The image scanner according to claim 1, wherein the tensioner applies tension to the power supplier in an application direction on a coordinate system in which a moving direction of the second carriage and an upward, vertical direction are indicated as positive directions, the application direction being negative with respect to the moving direction of the second carriage and positive with respect to the vertical direction. 14. The image scanner according to claim 3, wherein the tensioner covers an edge of the support member guiding the curved power supplier and the power supplier constantly contacts the tensioner. 15. The image scanner according to claim 1, wherein the power supplier comprises a flexible circuit board. 16. The image scanner according to claim 3, wherein the support member forms a curve having a radius R and the tensioner has a thickness t, such that R/t≧150. 17. The image scanner according to claim 2, wherein the support member faces a back side of the second mirror and the third mirror on the second carriage. 18. The image scanner according to claim 1, further comprising: a carriage driving motor to drive the first carriage and the second carriage; and an original sensor to detect the original, wherein the carriage driving motor and the original sensor are provided in the body and the power supplier is provided at a position between the carriage driving motor and the original sensor. 19. An image forming apparatus, comprising; an image scanner to scan an image on an original, the image scanner comprising: a first carriage to move at a predetermined speed, the first carriage comprising: a light source to emit light onto an original; and a first mirror to deflect the light reflected by the original; a second carriage to move at a half speed of the first carriage, the second carriage comprising: a second mirror to deflect the light deflected by the first mirror; and a third mirror to deflect the light deflected by the second mirror; a body to movably hold the first carriage and the second carriage; a power source attached to the body to drive the light source; a flexible power supplier connected to the power source and the light source to supply power from the power source to the light source; and a tensioner provided on the second carriage to contact the power supplier at a position outside an optical light path and apply tension to the power supplier. 20. An image scanning method, comprising: moving a first carriage at a predetermined speed; emitting light from a light source provided on the first carriage onto an original; deflecting the light reflected by the original with a first mirror provided on the first carriage; moving a second carriage at a half speed of the first carriage; deflecting the light deflected by the first mirror with a second mirror provided on the second carriage; deflecting the light deflected by the second mirror with a third mirror provided on the second carriage; movably holding the first carriage and the second carriage with a body; driving the light source with a power source attached to the body; connecting the power source to the light source via a power supplier for supplying power from the power source to the light source; causing a tensioner provided on the second carriage to contact the power supplier at a position outside an optical light path; and applying tension to the power supplier with the tensioner.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention Example embodiments generally relate to an image scanner, an image forming apparatus, and/or an image scanning method, for example for scanning an image. 2. Description of the Related Art A related-art image forming apparatus, such as a copying machine, a facsimile machine, a printer, or a multifunction printer having two or more of copying, printing, scanning, and facsimile functions, forms an image on a recording medium (e.g., a sheet) according to image data. The image forming apparatus generally includes an image scanner for scanning an image on an original to create image data. For example, in the image scanner, a lamp emits light onto an original bearing an image. The light reflected by the original enters a light receiver including a photoelectric conversion device (e.g., a charge-coupled device). FIGS. 1 and 2 illustrate an example related-art image scanner 100 R. In the image scanner 100 R, lamps 11 R are mounted on a first carriage 10 R. The first carriage 10 R moves in a main scanning direction. While the lamps 11 R mounted on the first carriage 10 R move, the lamps 11 R emit light onto an original placed on an exposure glass. The lamps 11 R may emit light onto a large size original. Therefore, the first carriage 10 R moves from a position corresponding to an end of the exposure glass to a position corresponding to another end of the exposure glass in the main scanning direction. A first mirror 13 R, a second mirror 21 R, and a third mirror 22 R deflect light reflected by the original toward a light receiver (not shown). The first mirror 13 R is mounted on the first carriage 10 R. The second mirror 21 R and the third mirror 22 R are mounted on a second carriage 20 R. The second carriage 20 R moves with the first carriage 10 R at a half speed of the first carriage 10 R, so as to maintain a constant optical light path length originating from the original and terminating at the light receiver even when the lamps 11 R emit light onto the original from various positions. Thus, the first mirror 13 R deflects light reflected by the original toward the second mirror 21 R. The second mirror 21 R deflects the light toward the third mirror 22 R. The third mirror 22 R deflects the light toward the light receiver. A power source 120 R for driving the lamps 11 R is connected to the lamps 11 R via a flexible circuit board 110 R serving as a power supplier. The flexible circuit board 110 R has flexibility to cause the first carriage 10 R to move smoothly. The flexible circuit board 110 R extends from the power source 120 R to the lamps 11 . For example, the flexible circuit board 110 R runs on a bottom of a body 101 R, passes the second carriage 20 R, and reaches the lamps 11 R. The second carriage 20 R turns the flexible circuit board 110 R toward the first carriage 10 R. The flexible circuit board 110 R may sag due to its weight. When the first carriage 10 R is far removed from the second carriage 20 R, the flexible circuit board 110 R may sag substantially, and may block an optical light path P formed between the first mirror 13 R and the second mirror 21 R, resulting in formation of a faulty image. For example, when the first carriage 10 R is near the second carriage 20 R, the flexible circuit board 110 R may not sag substantially, as illustrated in FIG. 1 . However, when the first carriage 10 R is far removed from the second carriage 20 R in order to scan a large size original, the flexible circuit board 110 R may sag substantially and may block the optical light path P, as illustrated for example in FIG. 2 . To address this problem, another example of a related-art image scanner includes an elastic portion for applying tension to the flexible circuit board 10 R. The elastic portion increases tension on the flexible circuit board 110 R as a distance between the first carriage 10 R and the second carriage 20 R increases. Resistance is applied to an edge of the flexible circuit board 110 R in particular, and such locally applied resistance may degrade the durability of the flexible circuit board 110 R, resulting in broken circuits and sharply reducing reliability.	<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>At least one embodiment may provide an image scanner that includes a first carriage, a second carriage, a body, a power source, a power supplier, and a tensioner. The first carriage moves at a predetermined speed, and includes a light source and a first mirror. The light source emits light onto an original. The first mirror deflects the light reflected by the original. The second carriage moves at a half speed of the first carriage, and includes a second mirror and a third mirror. The second mirror deflects the light deflected by the first mirror. The third mirror deflects the light deflected by the second mirror. The body movably holds the first carriage and the second carriage. The power source is attached to the body and drives the light source. The power supplier has flexibility and is connected to the power source and the light source to supply power from the power source to the light source. The tensioner contacts the power supplier at a position outside an optical light path and applies tension to the power supplier. The tensioner is provided on the second carriage. At least one embodiment may provide an image forming apparatus that includes an image scanner for scanning an image on an original. The image scanner includes a first carriage, a second carriage, a body, a power source, a power supplier, and a tensioner. The first carriage moves at a predetermined speed, and includes a light source and a first mirror. The light source emits light onto an original. The first mirror deflects the light reflected by the original. The second carriage moves at a half speed of the first carriage, and includes a second mirror and a third mirror. The second mirror deflects the light deflected by the first mirror. The third mirror deflects the light deflected by the second mirror. The body movably holds the first carriage and the second carriage. The power source is attached to the body and drives the light source. The power supplier has flexibility and is connected to the power source and the light source to supply power from the power source to the light source. The tensioner contacts the power supplier at a position outside an optical light path and applies tension to the power supplier. The tensioner is provided on the second carriage. At least one embodiment may provide an image scanning method that includes moving a first carriage at a predetermined speed, emitting light from a light source provided on the first carriage onto an original, and deflecting the light reflected by the original with a first mirror provided on the first carriage. The method further includes moving a second carriage at a half speed of the first carriage, deflecting the light deflected by the first mirror with a second mirror provided on the second carriage, and deflecting the light deflected by the second mirror with a third mirror provided on the second carriage. The method further includes movably holding the first carriage and the second carriage with a body, driving the light source with a power source attached to the body, and connecting the power source to the light source via a power supplier for supplying power from the power source to the light source. The method further includes causing a tensioner provided on the second carriage to contact the power supplier at a position outside an optical light path, and applying tension to the power supplier with the tensioner. Additional features and advantages of example embodiments will be more fully apparent from the following detailed description, the accompanying drawings, and the associated claims.	PRIORITY STATEMENT The present patent application claims priority from Japanese Patent Application No. 2006-309701, filed on Nov. 15, 2006 in the Japan Patent Office, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention Example embodiments generally relate to an image scanner, an image forming apparatus, and/or an image scanning method, for example for scanning an image. 2. Description of the Related Art A related-art image forming apparatus, such as a copying machine, a facsimile machine, a printer, or a multifunction printer having two or more of copying, printing, scanning, and facsimile functions, forms an image on a recording medium (e.g., a sheet) according to image data. The image forming apparatus generally includes an image scanner for scanning an image on an original to create image data. For example, in the image scanner, a lamp emits light onto an original bearing an image. The light reflected by the original enters a light receiver including a photoelectric conversion device (e.g., a charge-coupled device). FIGS. 1 and 2 illustrate an example related-art image scanner 100R. In the image scanner 100R, lamps 11R are mounted on a first carriage 10R. The first carriage 10R moves in a main scanning direction. While the lamps 11R mounted on the first carriage 10R move, the lamps 11R emit light onto an original placed on an exposure glass. The lamps 11R may emit light onto a large size original. Therefore, the first carriage 10R moves from a position corresponding to an end of the exposure glass to a position corresponding to another end of the exposure glass in the main scanning direction. A first mirror 13R, a second mirror 21R, and a third mirror 22R deflect light reflected by the original toward a light receiver (not shown). The first mirror 13R is mounted on the first carriage 10R. The second mirror 21R and the third mirror 22R are mounted on a second carriage 20R. The second carriage 20R moves with the first carriage 10R at a half speed of the first carriage 10R, so as to maintain a constant optical light path length originating from the original and terminating at the light receiver even when the lamps 11R emit light onto the original from various positions. Thus, the first mirror 13R deflects light reflected by the original toward the second mirror 21R. The second mirror 21R deflects the light toward the third mirror 22R. The third mirror 22R deflects the light toward the light receiver. A power source 120R for driving the lamps 11R is connected to the lamps 11R via a flexible circuit board 110R serving as a power supplier. The flexible circuit board 110R has flexibility to cause the first carriage 10R to move smoothly. The flexible circuit board 110R extends from the power source 120R to the lamps 11. For example, the flexible circuit board 110R runs on a bottom of a body 101R, passes the second carriage 20R, and reaches the lamps 11R. The second carriage 20R turns the flexible circuit board 110R toward the first carriage 10R. The flexible circuit board 110R may sag due to its weight. When the first carriage 10R is far removed from the second carriage 20R, the flexible circuit board 110R may sag substantially, and may block an optical light path P formed between the first mirror 13R and the second mirror 21R, resulting in formation of a faulty image. For example, when the first carriage 10R is near the second carriage 20R, the flexible circuit board 110R may not sag substantially, as illustrated in FIG. 1. However, when the first carriage 10R is far removed from the second carriage 20R in order to scan a large size original, the flexible circuit board 110R may sag substantially and may block the optical light path P, as illustrated for example in FIG. 2. To address this problem, another example of a related-art image scanner includes an elastic portion for applying tension to the flexible circuit board 10R. The elastic portion increases tension on the flexible circuit board 110R as a distance between the first carriage 10R and the second carriage 20R increases. Resistance is applied to an edge of the flexible circuit board 110R in particular, and such locally applied resistance may degrade the durability of the flexible circuit board 110R, resulting in broken circuits and sharply reducing reliability. SUMMARY At least one embodiment may provide an image scanner that includes a first carriage, a second carriage, a body, a power source, a power supplier, and a tensioner. The first carriage moves at a predetermined speed, and includes a light source and a first mirror. The light source emits light onto an original. The first mirror deflects the light reflected by the original. The second carriage moves at a half speed of the first carriage, and includes a second mirror and a third mirror. The second mirror deflects the light deflected by the first mirror. The third mirror deflects the light deflected by the second mirror. The body movably holds the first carriage and the second carriage. The power source is attached to the body and drives the light source. The power supplier has flexibility and is connected to the power source and the light source to supply power from the power source to the light source. The tensioner contacts the power supplier at a position outside an optical light path and applies tension to the power supplier. The tensioner is provided on the second carriage. At least one embodiment may provide an image forming apparatus that includes an image scanner for scanning an image on an original. The image scanner includes a first carriage, a second carriage, a body, a power source, a power supplier, and a tensioner. The first carriage moves at a predetermined speed, and includes a light source and a first mirror. The light source emits light onto an original. The first mirror deflects the light reflected by the original. The second carriage moves at a half speed of the first carriage, and includes a second mirror and a third mirror. The second mirror deflects the light deflected by the first mirror. The third mirror deflects the light deflected by the second mirror. The body movably holds the first carriage and the second carriage. The power source is attached to the body and drives the light source. The power supplier has flexibility and is connected to the power source and the light source to supply power from the power source to the light source. The tensioner contacts the power supplier at a position outside an optical light path and applies tension to the power supplier. The tensioner is provided on the second carriage. At least one embodiment may provide an image scanning method that includes moving a first carriage at a predetermined speed, emitting light from a light source provided on the first carriage onto an original, and deflecting the light reflected by the original with a first mirror provided on the first carriage. The method further includes moving a second carriage at a half speed of the first carriage, deflecting the light deflected by the first mirror with a second mirror provided on the second carriage, and deflecting the light deflected by the second mirror with a third mirror provided on the second carriage. The method further includes movably holding the first carriage and the second carriage with a body, driving the light source with a power source attached to the body, and connecting the power source to the light source via a power supplier for supplying power from the power source to the light source. The method further includes causing a tensioner provided on the second carriage to contact the power supplier at a position outside an optical light path, and applying tension to the power supplier with the tensioner. Additional features and advantages of example embodiments will be more fully apparent from the following detailed description, the accompanying drawings, and the associated claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS A more complete appreciation of example embodiments and the many attendant advantages thereof will be readily obtained as the same becomes better understood by reference to the following detailed description when considered in connection with the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a sectional view of a related-art image scanner; FIG. 2 is another sectional view of the related-art image scanner shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a sectional view of an image forming apparatus according to an example embodiment; FIG. 4 is a plane view (according to an example embodiment) of an image scanner of the image forming apparatus shown in FIG. 3; FIG. 5 is a perspective view (according to an example embodiment) of the image scanner shown in FIG. 4; FIG. 6 is an enlarged front view (according to an example embodiment) of the image scanner shown in FIG. 5; FIG. 7 is a sectional view (according to an example embodiment) of a support member and a tensioner of the image scanner shown in FIG. 5; FIG. 8 is a perspective view (according to an example embodiment) of the support member and the tensioner shown in FIG. 7; FIG. 9 illustrates a coordination system for explaining a direction of a tension applied by the tensioner shown in FIG. 8; FIG. 10 is a look-up table illustrating a thickness of the tensioner shown in FIG. 8 and a tension applied by the tensioner; FIG. 11 is a graph illustrating a relationship between the thickness of the tensioner and the tension applied by the tensioner shown in FIG. 10; FIG. 12 is a look-up table illustrating results of a durability test of a power supplier of the image scanner shown in FIG. 5; FIG. 13 is a perspective view of an image scanner according to another example embodiment; FIG. 14 is a sectional view of an image scanner according to yet another example embodiment; FIG. 15 is a perspective view of an image scanner according to yet another example embodiment; FIG. 16 is a sectional view (according to an example embodiment) of the image scanner shown in FIG. 15; and FIG. 17 is a plane view (according to an example embodiment) of a power supplier of the image scanner shown in FIG. 15. The accompanying drawings are intended to depict example embodiments and should not be interpreted to limit the scope thereof. The accompanying drawings are not to be considered as drawn to scale unless explicitly noted. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS It will be understood that if an element or layer is referred to as being “on”, “against”, “connected to”, or “coupled to” another element or layer, then it can be directly on, against, connected or coupled to the other element or layer, or intervening elements or layers may be present. In contrast, if an element is referred to as being “directly on”, “directly connected to”, or “directly coupled to” another element or layer, then there are no intervening elements or layers present. Like numbers refer to like elements throughout. As used herein, the term “and/or” includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items. Spatially relative terms, such as “beneath”, “below”, “lower”, “above”, “upper”, and the like, may be used herein for ease of description to describe one element or feature's relationship to another element(s) or feature(s) as illustrated in the figures. It will be understood that the spatially relative terms are intended to encompass different orientations of the device in use or operation in addition to the orientation depicted in the figures. For example, if the device in the figures is turned over, elements described as “below” or “beneath” other elements or features would then be oriented “above” the other elements or features. Thus, term such as “below” can encompass both an orientation of above and below. The device may be otherwise oriented (rotated 90 degrees or at other orientations) and the spatially relative descriptors used herein are interpreted accordingly. Although the terms first, second, etc. may be used herein to describe various elements, components, regions, layers and/or sections, it should be understood that these elements, components, regions, layers and/or sections should not be limited by these terms. These terms are used only to distinguish one element, component, region, layer, or section from another region, layer, or section. Thus, a first element, component, region, layer, or section discussed below could be termed a second element, component, region, layer, or section without departing from the teachings of the present invention. The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the present invention. As used herein, the singular forms “a”, “an”, and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. It will be further understood that the terms “includes” and/or “including”, when used in this specification, specify the presence of stated features, integers, steps, operations, elements, and/or components, but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, integers, steps, operations, elements, components, and/or groups thereof. In describing example embodiments illustrated in the drawings, specific terminology is employed for the sake of clarity. However, the disclosure of this specification is not intended to be limited to the specific terminology so selected and it is to be understood that each specific element includes all technical equivalents that operate in a similar manner. Referring now to the drawings, wherein like reference numerals designate identical or corresponding parts throughout the several views, particularly to FIG. 3, an image forming apparatus 1 according to an example embodiment is explained. FIG. 3 is a sectional view of the image forming apparatus 1. As illustrated in FIG. 3, the image forming apparatus 1 includes an image scanner 100 and/or an image signal processor 2. The image scanner 100 includes a body 101 and/or an exposure glass 102. The body 101 includes a first carriage 10, a second carriage 20, a thermistor 103, an original scale 104, a white reference plate 105, an original sensor 106, a lens 107, and/or a CCD (charge-coupled device) line sensor 108. The first carriage 10 includes lamps 11, reflectors 12, and/or a first mirror 13. The second carriage 20 includes a second mirror 21 and/or a third mirror 22. The image forming apparatus 1 may be a copying machine, a facsimile machine, a printer, a multifunction printer having two or more of copying, printing, scanning, and facsimile functions, or the like. The image scanner 100 scans an image on an original to generate an image signal, and sends the image signal to the image signal processor 2. The image signal processor 2 processes the image signal. The exposure glass 102 is disposed on the body 101. An original bearing an image is placed on the exposure glass 102. The body 101 movably holds the first carriage 10 and the second carriage 20. The first carriage 10 moves in a scan area A. The second carriage 20 moves in a direction, in which the first carriage 10 moves, in synchronism with the first carriage 10 at about a half speed of the first carriage 10 to maintain a constant optical light path length. The lamps 11, the reflectors 12, and the first mirror 13 are mounted on the first carriage 10. The second mirror 21 and the third mirror 22 are mounted on the second carriage 20. The thermistor 103 is disposed adjacent to the exposure glass 102, and detects a temperature of the body 101. The original scale 104 aligns an original placed on the exposure glass 102. The white reference plate 105 is used for color configuration. The original sensor 106 detects whether or not an original is placed on the exposure glass 102 and the size of the original. The lens 107 forms an image in the CCD line sensor 108 based on an image on the original placed on the exposure glass 102. The CCD line sensor 108 includes a photoelectric conversion element. FIG. 4 is a plane view of the image scanner 100. FIG. 5 is a perspective view of the image scanner 100. As illustrated in FIG. 4, the image scanner 100 further includes a carriage driving motor 109, a flexible circuit board 110, and/or a guide 30. As illustrated in FIG. 5, the image scanner 100 further includes a power source 120. As illustrated in FIG. 5, the carriage driving motor 109 (depicted in FIG. 4) is provided in the body 101, and drives the first carriage 10 and the second carriage 20. The power source 120 (e.g., an output portion of a power source circuit) is attached to the body 101 and drives the lamps 11 serving as a light source. The flexible circuit board 110, serving as a power supplier, connects the lamps 11 to the power source 120, and supplies power from the power source 120 to the lamps 11. The flexible circuit board 110 has flexibility to cause the first carriage 10 to move smoothly. The flexible circuit board 110 extends from the power source 120 to the lamps 11. For example, the flexible circuit board 110 runs on a bottom of the body 101, passes the second carriage 20, and reaches the lamps 11 mounted on the first carriage 10 moving to scan an image on an original. The guide 30, serving as a support member for curving and supporting the flexible circuit board 110, is attached to the second carriage 20. The guide 30 has an arc-like shape for turning and curving the flexible circuit board 110. Thus, the guide 30 guides the flexible circuit board 110 toward the first carriage 10. As illustrated in FIG. 4, the guide 30 and the flexible circuit board 110 are disposed at a position between the carriage driving motor 109 and the original sensor 106. As illustrated in FIG. 3, in the above-described structure, the lamps 11 emit light onto an original placed on the exposure glass 102. The original reflects the light toward the first mirror 13. The first mirror 13 deflects the light toward the second mirror 21. The second mirror 21 further deflects the light toward the third mirror 22. The third mirror 22 further deflects the light toward the lens 107. The light passes the lens 107 and enters the CCD line sensor 108. The CCD line sensor 108 converts the light into an electric signal (e.g., an image signal). The image signal is sent to the image signal processor 2. The image forming apparatus 1 performs an image forming operation according to the image signal processed by the image signal processor 2. For example, the image forming apparatus 1 forms an image in a predetermined mode (e.g., a full color mode or a monochrome mode). As illustrated in FIG. 5, two lamps 11 and two reflectors 12 are mounted on the first carriage 10. One end of the flexible circuit board 110 is connected to the first carriage 10 via a connector. The flexible circuit board 110 connected to the first carriage 10 supplies power to the two lamps 11. The guide 30 is attached to the second carriage 20. The guide 30 has a curved shape having a predetermined radius to curve the flexible circuit board 110. Another end of the flexible circuit board 110 is fixed to the power source 120 attached to the body 101. FIG. 6 is an enlarged front view of the guide 30. As illustrated in FIG. 6, the guide 30 is attached to the second carriage 20. For example, the guide 30 faces a back side of the second mirror 21 and the third mirror 22 on the second carriage 20. As illustrated in FIG. 7, the image scanner 100 further includes a tensioner 40. The guide 30 includes a guide pair 31, a curve portion 32, and/or stages 33 and 34. The tensioner 40 includes a lower bend portion 43, an upper bend portion 44, an adhering portion 41, and/or an elastic portion 42. As illustrated in FIG. 8, the guide 30 further includes a space 35. The tensioner 40 further includes corners 47 and 48. As illustrated in FIG. 7, the tensioner 40 is attached to the guide 30 provided on the second carriage 20 (depicted in FIG. 6). For example, the tensioner 40 pushes or applies tension to the flexible circuit board 110 (depicted in FIG. 5) in a direction D illustrated in FIG. 6 in a second quadrant on a coordinate system in which a moving direction of the second carriage 20 and an upward, vertical direction are indicated as positive directions. As illustrated in FIG. 8, in the guide 30, the guide pair 31 has an arc-like shape. Two plates of the guide pair 31 sandwich the curve portion 32 having an arc-like shape. The stages 33 and 34 are provided in and above a middle portion of the guide 30 in a vertical direction to form the space 35. The tensioner 40 includes a PET (polyethylene terephthalate) thin plate. Both ends of the tensioner 40 are bent to form the lower bend portion 43 and the upper bend portion 44. The lower bend portion 43 and the upper bend portion 44 prevent edge portions (e.g., the both ends) of the tensioner 40 from damaging the flexible circuit board 110 (depicted in FIG. 5), and cause the tensioner 40 to guide the flexible circuit board 110 smoothly. The adhering portion 41 and the elastic portion 42 are provided between the lower bend portion 43 and the upper bend portion 44. The elastic portion 42 has elasticity and has a thin plate shape (e.g., a planar shape). The adhering portion 41, serving as an attaching portion, is integrated with the elastic portion 42. The tensioner 40 is adhered to the guide 30 with double-faced tape. For example, the adhering portion 41, serving as an attaching portion, of the tensioner 40 is adhered to the curve portion 32 of the guide 30. Since the tensioner 40 is attached (e.g., fixed) to the curve portion 32 at the adhering portion 41, an adhesion area, in which the adhering portion 41 is adhered to the curve portion 32 with double-faced tape, may be as large as possible. The tensioner 40 applies a force (e.g., a tension) in a direction in the second quadrant, which is negative with respect to the moving direction of the second carriage 20 (depicted in FIG. 6) and positive with respect to the vertical direction, as illustrated in FIG. 9. Therefore, the tensioner 40 may stably maintain a curved shape even when the second carriage 20 moves. The tensioner 40 is cut from a PET (polyethylene terephthalate) sheet roll in a manner that the tensioner 40 may easily curl in a direction opposite to the direction in which the flexible circuit board 110 is curved. Thus, the tensioner 40 may properly apply a force to the flexible circuit board 110. The corners 47 and 48 are provided on an outer circumferential surface of the tensioner 40, and contact the flexible circuit board 110. The corners 47 and 48 are rounded to have a smooth surface. If the tensioner 40 has sharp corners, for example, the sharp corners of the tensioner 40 may contact and rub the flexible circuit board 110 while the first carriage 10 and the second carriage 20 (depicted in FIG. 5) move. As a result, the flexible circuit board 110 may be damaged. When the tensioner 40 repeatedly rubs the flexible circuit board 110, the flexible circuit board 110 may be broken. A thickness of a PET sheet forming the tensioner 40 may affect elasticity of the tensioner 40. The radius of the curve of the guide 30, which curves the flexible circuit board 110, may affect durability of the tensioner 40 which is repeatedly curved. Generally, the tensioner 40 may preferably apply tension of about 20 g or smaller to the flexible circuit board 110. When the tensioner 40 applies tension greater than about 20 g, a surface of the flexible circuit board 110 may be rubbed with time. FIG. 10 is a look-up table illustrating the thickness of the tensioner 40 (depicted in FIG. 7) and the tension applied by the tensioner 40 to the flexible circuit board 110 (depicted in FIG. 5). FIG. 11 is a graph illustrating a relationship between the thickness of the tensioner 40 and the tension applied by the tensioner 40 to the flexible circuit board 110. As illustrated in FIGS. 10 and 11, when the PET sheet forming the tensioner 40 has a thickness t of about 0.2 mm or smaller, the tensioner 40 may apply tension of about 20 g or smaller to the flexible circuit board 110. According to this non-limiting example embodiment, the PET sheet forming the tensioner 40 has a thickness t of about 0.188 mm, so that the tensioner 40 applies tension of about 16 g to the flexible circuit board 110. When the guide 30 (depicted in FIG. 7) forms a curve having a radius R, a relationship R/t between the radius R of the guide 30 and the thickness t of the tensioner 40 is indicated as R/t≧150. According to this non-limiting example embodiment, the radius R of the guide 30 and the thickness t of the tensioner 40 have the relationship R/t indicated as R/t=151.6. Therefore, the guide 30 has a radius R of about 28.5 mm. FIG. 12 is a look-up table illustrating results of a durability test of the flexible circuit board 110 (depicted in FIG. 5). In the durability test, rubs of the surface of the flexible circuit board 110 at a position at which the flexible circuit board 110 slides on the guide 30 (depicted in FIG. 5), and durability of the flexible circuit board 110 were checked in an environment in which the image scanner 100 (depicted in FIG. 5) was used. In the durability test, the relationship R/t between the radius R of the guide 30 and the thickness t of the tensioner 40 (depicted in FIG. 7) varied from about 130 to about 160. As illustrated in FIG. 12, when the relationship R/t is not smaller than 150 (e.g., R/t≧150), the flexible circuit board 110 may provide a proper durability and a proper resistance against rubs by the tensioner 40. Referring to FIG. 13, the following describes an image scanner 200 according to another example embodiment. FIG. 13 is a perspective view of a support member and a tensioner included in the image scanner 200. As illustrated in FIG. 13, the image scanner 200 includes the guide 30 and/or a tensioner 50. The tensioner 50 includes a body 51, loops 52 and 53, and/or adhering portions 54 and 55. The other elements of the image scanner 200 are common to the image scanner 100 (depicted in FIG. 3). The guide 30 serves as a support member for curving and supporting the flexible circuit board 110 (depicted in FIG. 5). The tensioner 50, which is attached to the guide 30, has a shape different from the shape of the tensioner 40 (depicted in FIG. 8). For example, both ends of the tensioner 50 are folded back or rolled to form creaseless loops 52 and 53. The loops 52 and 53 are adhered to the body 51 at the adhering portions 54 and 55, respectively, with double-faced tape. The tensioner 50 is attached to the guide 30, like the tensioner 40. Thus, the both ends of the tensioner 50 may not damage the flexible circuit board 110. Referring to FIG. 14, the following describes an image scanner 300 according to yet another example embodiment. FIG. 14 is a sectional view of a support member and a tensioner included in the image scanner 300. As illustrated in FIG. 14, the image scanner 300 includes a guide 60. The guide 60 includes an attaching portion 61, a guide surface 62, an engaging portion 63, a tensioner 64, and/or a curve portion 65. The other elements of the image scanner 300 are common to the image scanner 100 (depicted in FIG. 3). The guide 60 serves as a support member for curving and supporting the flexible circuit board 110, and is attached to the second carriage 20. The guide 60 includes a tensioner. Namely, the tensioner is integrated with the guide 60. The attaching portion 61 of the guide 60 is attached to the second carriage 20. The guide surface 62 contacts and curves the flexible circuit board 110. The engaging portion 63 engages with the flexible circuit board 110 so that the flexible circuit board 110 does not separate from the guide surface 62. The tensioner 64 is provided adjacent to the guide surface 62. The tensioner 64, serving as an elastic portion having elasticity, applies tension to the flexible circuit board 110 in a direction E (e.g., the second quadrant depicted in FIG. 9). The tensioner 64 may have a thin plate shape (e.g., a planar shape) and may include a resin. The tensioner 64 has a thickness smaller than the thickness of the guide surface 62. The curve portion 65 is provided on a head of the tensioner 64 to prevent an edge portion of the tensioner 64 from contacting the flexible circuit board 110 and thereby damaging the flexible circuit board 110. Namely, the tensioner 64 covers an edge of the guide 60 guiding the curved flexible circuit board 110. The flexible circuit board 110 constantly contacts the tensioner 64. According to this non-limiting example embodiment, the tensioner 64 may apply constant tension to a flexible conductive member (e.g., the flexible circuit board 110) for driving a light source. A constant load may be applied to the flexible conductive member both when the image scanner 300 performs a scanning operation and when the image scanner 300 stops. A load is not locally applied to the flexible circuit board 110, resulting in an increased durability of the flexible circuit board 110. Referring to FIGS. 15 to 17, the following describes an image scanner 400 according to yet another example embodiment. FIG. 15 is a perspective view of a support member included in the image scanner 400. FIG. 16 is a sectional view of the support member included in the image scanner 400. As illustrated in FIG. 15, the image scanner 400 includes a guide 90. The guide 90 includes a shaft 91 and/or a pulley 92. As illustrated in FIG. 16, the guide 90 further includes an elastic portion 93. As illustrated in FIG. 17, the flexible circuit board 110 includes a circuit pattern 111. The other elements of the image scanner 400 are common to the image scanner 100 (depicted in FIG. 3). As illustrated in FIG. 15, the guide 90 serves as a support member for curving and supporting the flexible circuit board 110. The guide 90 has the shape common to the guide 30 included in the image scanner 100 (depicted in FIG. 8). The pulley 92 is attached to the shaft 91. The pulley 92 is disposed at a position at which the pulley 92 does not touch the circuit pattern 111 (depicted in FIG. 17) of the flexible circuit board 110. The pulley 92 may rotate about the shaft 91. As illustrated in FIG. 16, the elastic portion 93 is disposed on an outer circumferential surface of the pulley 92. The elastic portion 93 has a low friction coefficient and serves as a slide member. The elastic portion 93 may include an elastic body (e.g., sponge, felt, and/or the like) and/or sponge or felt to which a lubricant is adhered. The pulley 92 constantly contacts the flexible circuit board 110, and rotates in accordance with the movement of the flexible circuit board 110. According to this non-limiting example embodiment, when the flexible circuit board 110 moves, the pulley 92 of the guide 90 contacts the flexible circuit board 110 with a decreased friction coefficient. The pulley 92 rotates in accordance with the movement of the flexible circuit board 110. Thus, the pulley 92 may apply tension to the flexible circuit board 110 without rubbing and thereby damaging the flexible circuit board 110. According to this non-limiting example embodiment, the pulley 92 prevents the flexible circuit board 110 from rubbing the guide 90. The flexible circuit board 110 may contact the pulley 92 of the guide 90 at a decreased area, resulting in an improved durability of the flexible circuit board 110. The elastic portion 93 having a low friction coefficient may be attached to the pulley 92, further improving the durability of the flexible circuit board 110. For example, even when the flexible circuit board 110 includes a thin, soft material such as polyimide, the flexible circuit board 110 may maintain durability. The elastic portion 93 serving as a slide member includes an elastic body, such as sponge and felt, and/or an elastic body to which a lubricant is adhered. Thus, the flexible circuit board 110 may provide an improved durability against rubs of a surface of the flexible circuit board 110 by the elastic portion 93. According to this non-limiting example embodiment, the guide 90 includes a single pulley 92. However, the guide 90 may include a plurality of pulleys 92. FIG. 17 is a plane view of the flexible circuit board 110 to which a plurality of pulleys 92 contact. For example, two pulleys 92 are disposed at a position at which the pulleys 92 do not contact the circuit pattern 111 of the flexible circuit board 110. When the plurality of pulleys 92 are provided, the plurality of pulleys 92 contact the flexible circuit board 110 at an increased area, preventing repeated slides of the pulleys 92 from damaging the flexible circuit board 110. According to the above-described example embodiments, a tensioner (e.g., the tensioner 40, 50, or 64 depicted in FIG. 8, 13, or 14, respectively) includes a thin plate having elasticity and the thin plate deforms to generate an elastic force for applying tension to, a power supplier (e.g., the flexible circuit board 110 depicted in FIG. 5). The tensioner includes a synthetic resin (e.g., the PET sheet). However, the tensioner may include a spring (e.g., a thin, metal plate including stainless steel and/or phosphor bronze). According to the above-described example embodiments, in an image forming apparatus (e.g., the image forming apparatus 1 depicted in FIG. 3) or in an image scanner (e.g., the image scanner 100, 200, 300, or 400 depicted in FIG. 8, 13, 14, or 16, respectively), a power supplier (e.g., the flexible circuit board 110 depicted in FIG. 5) supplies power to a light source (e.g., the lamps 11 depicted in FIG. 5). Tension is applied to the power supplier without degrading durability of the power supplier in a manner that the power supplier does not block an optical light path in which light passes to scan an image on an original. The present invention has been described above with reference to specific example embodiments. Nonetheless, the present invention is not limited to the details of example embodiments described above, but various modifications and improvements are, possible without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. It is therefore to be understood that within the scope of the associated claims, the present invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described herein. For example, elements and/or features of different illustrative example embodiments may be combined with each other and/or substituted for each other within the scope of the present invention.	H	H04	H04N	1	04
11716653	US20070263725A1-20071115	Video signal coding system and method of coding video signal for network transmission, video output apparatus, and signal conversion apparatus	ACCEPTED	20071031	20071115		[]	H04N1102	["H04N1102"]	8416852	20070312	20130409	375	240160	67588.0	KING	JOHN	[{"inventor_name_last": "Matsubayashi", "inventor_name_first": "Kei", "inventor_city": "Kanagawa", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]	A video signal coding system for network transmission includes a video output apparatus and a signal conversion apparatus. The video output apparatus includes a decoding unit decoding an video signal encoded by a coding method using a motion vector and a superimposing unit superimposing reference control information containing at least a motion vector on a blanking period of the video signal, and outputs the video signal with the reference control information superimposed. The signal conversion apparatus includes a separating unit separating the reference control information from the blanking period, an encoding unit encoding the video signal by the coding method using the motion vector, and a motion vector converting unit converting the motion vector in the reference control information into a motion vector corresponding to the coding method in the encoding unit, and the encoding is performed using the converted motion vector.	1. A video signal coding system for network transmission comprising: a video output apparatus and a signal conversion apparatus, the video output apparatus including a decoding unit configured to decode a compressed video signal encoded by a coding method using a motion vector and a superimposing unit configured to superimpose reference control information being output from the decoding unit and containing at least a motion vector on a blanking period of the video signal decoded by the decoding unit, and the video output apparatus outputting the video signal with the reference control information superimposed by the superimposing unit; and the signal conversion apparatus including a separating unit configured to separate the reference control information from the blanking period of the video signal input from the video output apparatus, an encoding unit configured to encode the video signal separated from the reference control information by the separating unit, by the coding method using the motion vector, and a motion vector converting unit configured to convert the motion vector contained in the reference control information separated by the separating unit into a motion vector corresponding to the coding method implemented in the encoding unit, and the signal conversion apparatus performing encoding in the encoding unit using the motion vector converted by the motion vector converting unit. 2. A video signal coding system for network transmission according to claim 1, wherein the video output apparatus further includes: an encoding unit configured to encode a video signal supplied from an imaging device, by the coding method using a motion vector and a memory device configured to store a compressed video signal that is encoded by the encoding unit; and wherein the decoding unit decodes the compressed video signal that is reproduced from the memory device, and in the case where the video signal supplied from the imaging device is output from the video output apparatus, the superimposing unit superimposes reference control information being output from the encoding unit and containing at least a motion vector on a blanking period of the video signal supplied from the imaging device. 3. A video signal coding system for network transmission according to claim 1, wherein the signal conversion apparatus further includes: a size/number of frames converting unit configured to reduce a screen size and/or the number of frames of the video signal separated from the reference control information by the separating unit; and wherein the motion vector converting unit converts the motion vector contained in the reference control information separated by the separating unit into a motion vector corresponding to the coding method implemented by the encoding unit and to the converted screen size and/or the number of frames having been reduced by the size/number of frames converting unit. 4. A video signal coding system for network transmission according to claim 1, wherein the encoding unit in the signal conversion apparatus includes a motion vector detecting unit configured to omit detecting the motion vector overlapping with the motion vector converted by the motion vector converting unit; configured to detect a motion vector of a block having a different size from the motion vector using the motion vector converted by the motion vector converting unit; and/or configured to detect motion vectors surrounding the motion vector by referring to the motion vector converted by the motion vector converting unit. 5. A video signal coding system for network transmission according to claim 1, wherein: the video output apparatus outputs a digital video signal conforming to the HDMI (High Definition Multimedia Interface) standard, and the superimposing unit is provided in a transmitter that conforms to the HDMI standard, and superimposes the reference control information on a data island period contained in a video frame; and the signal conversion apparatus inputs the digital video signal conforming to the HDMI standard, and the separating unit is provided in a receiver that conforms to the HDMI standard and separates the reference control information from the data island period contained in the video frame. 6. A video signal coding system for network transmission according to claim 1, wherein the signal conversion apparatus further includes: a control unit configured to send a control signal to the video output apparatus, the control signal indicating whether to transmit the video signal with the reference control information superimposed and/or a transmission volume of the video signals. 7. A method of coding a video signal for network transmission, the video signal being output from a video output apparatus that includes a decoding unit configured to decode a compressed video signal encoded by a coding method using a motion vector, and being input into a signal conversion apparatus to be encoded, comprising the steps of: superimposing in the video output apparatus reference control information being output from the decoding unit and containing at least a motion vector on a blanking period of the video signal decoded by the decoding unit; separating in the signal conversion apparatus the reference control information from the blanking period of the video signal input from the video output apparatus; converting in the signal conversion apparatus the motion vector contained in the reference control information separated at the separating step into a motion vector corresponding to a specific coding method using a motion vector implemented in the signal conversion apparatus; and encoding in the signal conversion apparatus the video signal separated from the reference control information at the separating step by the specific coding method using the motion vector converted at the converting step. 8. A video output apparatus comprising: an encoding unit configured to encode a video signal supplied from an imaging device by a coding method using a motion vector and a superimposing unit configured to superimpose reference control information being output from the encoding unit and containing at least a motion vector on a blanking period of the video signal supplied from the imaging device, and outputting the video signal with the reference control information superimposed by the superimposing unit. 9. A video output apparatus according to claim 8, further comprising: a memory device configured to store a compressed video signal encoded by the encoding unit; and a decoding unit configured to decode the compressed video signal reproduced from the memory device, wherein in the case where the video signal decoded by the decoding unit is output to the outside, the superimposing unit superimposes the reference control information being output from the decoding unit and containing at least the motion vector on the blanking period of the decoded video signal. 10. A video output apparatus according to claim 8, wherein the video output apparatus outputs a digital video signal conforming to the HDMI (High Definition Multimedia Interface) standard, and the superimposing unit is provided in a transmitter that conforms to the HDMI standard and superimposes the reference control information on a data island period contained in a video frame. 11. A signal conversion apparatus comprising: a separating unit configured to separate reference control information containing at least a motion vector from a blanking period of an input video signal; an encoding unit configured to encode the video signal separated from the reference control information by the separating unit by a coding method using a motion vector; and a motion vector converting unit configured to convert the motion vector contained in the reference control information separated by the separating unit into a motion vector corresponding to the coding method implemented in the encoding unit, wherein the encoding is performed by the encoding unit using the motion vector converted by the motion vector converting unit. 12. A signal conversion apparatus according to claim 11, further comprising: a size/number of frames converting unit configured to reduce a screen size and/or the number of frames of the video signal separated from the reference control information by the separating unit, wherein the motion vector converting unit converts the motion vector contained in the reference control information separated by the separating unit into a motion vector corresponding to the coding method implemented by the encoding unit and to the converted screen size and/or the number of frames having been reduced by the size/number of frames converting unit. 13. A signal conversion apparatus according to claim 11, wherein the encoding unit includes a motion vector detecting unit configured to omit detecting the motion vector overlapping with the motion vector converted by the motion vector converting unit; configured to detect a motion vector of a block having a different size from the motion vector using the motion vector converted by the motion vector converting unit; and/or configured to detect motion vectors surrounding the motion vector by referring to the motion vector converted by the motion vector converting unit. 14. A signal conversion apparatus according to claim 11, wherein the signal conversion apparatus inputs a digital video signal conforming to the HDMI standard, and the separating unit is provided in a receiver that conforms to the HDMI standard, and separates the reference control information from the data island period contained in a video frame. 15. A signal conversion apparatus according to claim 11, further comprising: a control unit configured to output a control signal indicating whether to transmit the video signal with the reference control information superimposed and/or a transmission volume of the video signals.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a system, method and apparatus in which encoding using a motion vector can be performed efficiently in the case of using AV apparatuses in combination to encode a video signal for network transmission. 2. Description of the Related Art In general, using Internet and other networks, live video currently obtained from, for example, video phone, video conference and remote security monitoring is transmitted, and recorded video, for example, a video content is also transmitted to be distributed. Such transmission of video via networks has been performed using dedicated terminals, but lately AV apparatuses such as a video camera, VTR, PC (Personal Computer), network-supported television receiver, STB (Set-Top Box) and telephone unit have been combined to transmit such video. In order to transmit video signals via a network, the video signals are normally encoded and compressed before being transmitted to the network in relation to a bandwidth of the network. For example, when a system in which a video signal is encoded for video phone is obtained using one dedicated terminal incorporating an imaging unit such as CCD camera and an encoding circuit, the dedicated terminal can be designed to balance the volume of video signals with encoding processing in processing steps where the video signal supplied from the imaging unit is encoded using the encoding circuit to be transmitted. On the other hand, in the case where a video camera or the like is used as the imaging unit, and a PC and network-supported television receiver are used as the encoding circuit, the video signal coding system for video phone is obtained using these apparatuses. In such case, the volume of video signals and encoding processing are not necessarily optimized, since these apparatuses are originally made for different purposes. FIGS. 1 and 2 are block diagrams showing examples in related art in which such video signal coding systems for network transmission are configured using a combination of AV apparatuses, respectively. It should be noted that an apparatus on the side of encoding video signals, such as a PC, network-supported television receiver and STB is herein termed a “signal conversion apparatus” and an apparatus on the side of supplying the video signals to the “signal conversion apparatus”, such as a video camera and VTR is herein termed a “video output apparatus”. FIG. 1 shows an example in which a decoding unit 101 in a video output apparatus 100 decodes a video signal encoded using, for example, the MPEG-2 into a video signal such as an uncompressed composite signal. Subsequently, the uncompressed video signal is output from the video output apparatus 100 and input into a signal conversion apparatus 102 . The input video signal is first supplied to a size/number of frames converting unit 103 in the signal conversion apparatus 102 . The size/number of frames converting unit 103 reduces a screen size and the number of frames of the video signals based on size/frame information (information specifying the screen size and the number of frames corresponding to a display apparatus on the other end of video phone), thereby reducing the volume of video signals to be suitable for network transmission. The video signals the volume of which is thus reduced are encoded by an encoding unit 104 using a coding method for video phone (for example, H.261 and MPEG-4 Part 10 (AVC)), and transmitted to the network from a network interface (not illustrated). FIG. 2 shows an example in which a video signal encoded using the MPEG-2 or the like is output from a video output apparatus 200 and input into a signal conversion apparatus 201 . The encoded video signal is first decoded by a decoding unit 202 and afterward supplied to a size/number of frames converting unit 203 in the signal conversion apparatus 201 . The size/number of frames converting unit 203 reduces a screen size and the number of frames of the video signals based on size/frame information, thereby reducing the volume of video signals to be suitable for network transmission. The video signals the volume of which is thus reduced are encoded by an encoding unit 204 using a coding method for video phone, and transmitted to the network from a network interface (not illustrated). (A motion vector converting unit 205 is described later.) Among video transmissions through networks, in particular, video phone, video conference, and remote security monitoring may require highly efficient encoding for real-time video transmission. A method using a motion vector is generally used as a highly efficient coding method, however processing of detecting the motion vector at the time of encoding may require a huge amount of calculation that is more than half the whole encoding processing. Therefore, in the case where the uncompressed video signal is input into the signal conversion apparatus 102 as shown in the example of the configuration according to FIG. 1 , a large-scale circuit that performs a great amount of calculation for detecting the motion vector may need to be provided in the encoding unit 104 . As a result, not only the cost of such large-scale circuit raises a product price, but also a large amount of power consumption caused by this circuit may be inconvenient for a consumer. Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2001-238218 (paragraphs 0024 to 0026, and FIG. 1), on the other hand, discloses the following technology with respect to the case where the encoded video signal is input into the signal conversion apparatus as shown in the example of the configuration according to FIG. 2 . In this proposed technology, the motion vector converting unit 205 is provided to convert a motion vector output from the decoding unit 202 into a motion vector corresponding to the coding method implemented in the encoding unit 204 (and corresponding to the reduced screen size and number of frames specified by the size/frame information). Accordingly, the calculation cost necessary for the encoding is reduced in comparison to such a case that the motion vector is detected from scratch. However, in the configuration according to FIG. 2 , the signal conversion apparatus 201 may need to include the decoding unit 202 corresponding to the coding method of the video signal (for example, MPEG) implemented in the video output apparatus 200 . Therefore, AV apparatuses that can be used as the signal conversion apparatus 210 are limited to those corresponding to the coding method implemented in the AV apparatus used as the video output apparatus 200 . Accordingly, other AV apparatuses are prevented from representing the configuration shown in FIG. 2 . Further, in the case where the video output apparatus 200 is, for example, a camcorder including a high resolution CCD camera having a large number of pixels, and a video signal output from the CCD camera is encoded with a high compression ratio and output from the video output apparatus 200 , a large processing capacity may also be required for decoding the high-compression video signal in the decoding unit 202 included in the signal conversion apparatus 201 . Therefore, also in that case, a product price may be raised, and further a large amount of power consumption due to such processing may be inconvenient for a consumer.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>As described above, in the case where a video signal coding system for network transmission is obtained using AV apparatuses in combination and the system includes two apparatuses of a video output apparatus and signal conversion apparatus separately provided, a suitable method for the signal conversion apparatus to perform efficient encoding has not been provided. Therefore, configuration of apparatuses, product price, power consumption, communication quality, and the like have been not necessarily user-friendly. It is desirable to provide a video signal coding system for network transmission in which highly efficient encoding can be performed using a motion vector in a signal conversion apparatus, in the case where the video signal coding system is obtained using AV apparatuses in combination and the system includes two apparatuses of a video output apparatus and the signal conversion apparatus separately provided. In the video signal coding system, highly efficient encoding can be performed without providing a large-scale circuit consuming large power for detecting the motion vector in the signal conversion apparatus and without providing a decoding unit in the signal conversion apparatus as shown in the example according to FIG. 2 . According to an embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a video signal coding system for network transmission including: a video output apparatus and a signal conversion apparatus. The video output apparatus includes a decoding unit configured to decode a compressed video signal encoded by a coding method using a motion vector, and a superimposing unit configured to superimpose reference control information being output from the decoding unit and containing at least a motion vector on a blanking period of the video signal decoded by the decoding unit. The video output apparatus outputs the video signal with the reference control information superimposed by the superimposing unit. The signal conversion apparatus includes: a separating unit, an encoding unit, and a motion vector converting unit, and the encoding unit performs encoding using a motion vector converted by the motion vector converting unit. In the separating unit, the reference control information is separated from the blanking period of the video signal that is input from the video output apparatus. In the encoding unit, the video signal separated from the reference control information by the separating unit is encoded by the coding method using the motion vector. In the motion vector converting unit, the motion vector contained in the reference control information separated by the separating unit is converted into the motion vector corresponding to the coding method implemented in the encoding unit. In the above-described video signal coding system, the video output apparatus including the decoding unit performs processing of superimposing the reference control information being output from the decoding unit and containing at least the motion vector on the blanking period of the decoded video signal. Subsequently, the video signal with the reference control information superimposed is output from the video output apparatus. The signal conversion apparatus performs processing of separating the reference control information from the blanking period of the video signal input from the video output apparatus. Further, the signal conversion apparatus performs processing of converting the motion vector contained in the separated reference control information into the motion vector corresponding to the coding method implemented in the encoding unit. Subsequently, the video signal separated from the reference control information is encoded using the converted motion vector in the encoding unit included in the signal conversion apparatus. As described above, the motion vector is superimposed on the blanking period of the video signal in the video output apparatus to be output, and the motion vector separated from the video signal is converted according to the coding method implemented in the internal coding circuit and used in the signal conversion apparatus. Accordingly, highly efficient encoding can be performed using the motion vector in the signal conversion apparatus without providing a large-scale circuit consuming large power for detecting the motion vector in the signal conversion apparatus, although the two apparatuses of the video output apparatus and signal conversion apparatus are separately provided from each other. In addition, since the uncompressed video signal is output from the video output apparatus, there is no need for the signal conversion apparatus to be provided with the decoding unit corresponding to the method of coding the video signal implemented in the video output apparatus. Therefore, an AV apparatus not corresponding to the coding method implemented in the video output apparatus can be used as the signal conversion apparatus. Next, according to an embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a method of coding a video signal for network transmission. Using the method, the video signal for network transmission is output from a video output apparatus including a decoding unit configured to decode a compressed video signal encoded by a coding method using a motion vector, and the output video signal is input into a signal conversion apparatus that encodes the input video signal for network transmission. The method includes the steps of: superimposing in the video output apparatus reference control information being output from the decoding unit and containing at least a motion vector on a blanking period of the video signal decoded by the decoding unit; separating in the signal conversion apparatus the reference control information from the blanking period of the video signal input from the video output apparatus; converting in the signal conversion apparatus the motion vector contained in the reference control information separated at the separating step into a motion vector corresponding to a specific coding method using a motion vector implemented in the signal conversion apparatus; and encoding in the signal conversion apparatus the video signal separated from the reference control information at the separating step by the specific coding method using the motion vector converted at the converting step. The method of coding a video signal corresponds to a series of processing steps performed in the above-described video signal coding system according to an embodiment of the present invention, and highly efficient coding using the motion vector can be performed in the signal conversion apparatus without providing a large-scale circuit consuming high power for motion vector detection. In addition, an AV apparatus not supporting the coding method implemented in the video output apparatus can also be used as the signal conversion apparatus. Next, according to an embodiment of the present invention, there is provided an output apparatus including a encoding unit and a superimposing unit, and outputting the video signal with the reference control information superimposed by the superimposing unit. The encoding unit is configured to encode a video signal supplied from an imaging device by a coding method using a motion vector. The superimposing unit is configured to superimpose reference control information being output from the encoding unit and containing at least a motion vector on a blanking period of the video signal supplied from the imaging device. The video output apparatus performs processing of superimposing the reference control information being output from the encoding unit that encodes the video signal and containing at least the motion vector on the blanking period of the video signal supplied from the imaging device. Subsequently, the video signal with the reference control information superimposed is output from the video output apparatus. Therefore, in the case where the video output apparatus is set to collaborate with the signal conversion apparatus included in the above-described video signal coding system according to an embodiment of the present invention, highly efficient coding using the motion vector can be performed in the signal conversion apparatus on a video signal currently obtained by the imaging device. In this regard, there is no need to provide a large-scale circuit consuming large power for motion vector detection in the signal conversion apparatus. In addition, an AV apparatus not supporting the coding method implemented in the video output apparatus can also be used as the signal conversion apparatus. Next, according to an embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a signal conversion apparatus including: a separating unit, an encoding unit, and a motion vector converting unit, in which the encoding unit performs encoding using a motion vector converted by the motion vector converting unit. The separating unit separates reference control information containing at least a motion vector from a blanking period of an input video signal. The encoding unit encodes the video signal separated from the reference control information by the separating unit by the coding method using the motion vector. The motion vector converting unit converts the motion vector contained in the reference control information separated by the separating unit into the motion vector corresponding to the coding method implemented in the encoding unit. The signal conversion apparatus is included in the above-described video signal coding system according to an embodiment of the present invention, and highly efficient coding using the motion vector can be performed in the signal conversion apparatus when being set to collaborate with the above-described video output apparatus. In this regard, there is no need to provide a large-scale circuit consuming large power for motion vector detection in the signal conversion apparatus. In addition, an AV apparatus not supporting the coding method implemented in the video output apparatus can also be used as the signal conversion apparatus. According to embodiments of the present invention, in the case where a video signal coding system for network transmission is obtained using AV apparatuses in combination and the system includes two apparatuses of a video output apparatus and signal conversion apparatus separately provided, the following advantages are obtained. Specifically, highly efficient coding using the motion vector can be performed in the signal conversion apparatus without providing a large-scale circuit consuming large power for motion vector detection in the signal conversion apparatus. In addition, an AV apparatus not supporting the coding method implemented in the video output apparatus can also be used as the signal conversion apparatus since the uncompressed video signal is output from the video output apparatus. Further, using a video output apparatus according to an embodiment of the present invention, highly efficient encoding using the motion vector can be performed in the signal conversion apparatus on a video signal being currently obtained by the imaging device.	CROSS REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present invention contains subject matter related to Japanese Patent Application JP 2006-081618 filed in the Japanese Patent Office on Mar. 23, 2006, the entire contents of which being incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a system, method and apparatus in which encoding using a motion vector can be performed efficiently in the case of using AV apparatuses in combination to encode a video signal for network transmission. 2. Description of the Related Art In general, using Internet and other networks, live video currently obtained from, for example, video phone, video conference and remote security monitoring is transmitted, and recorded video, for example, a video content is also transmitted to be distributed. Such transmission of video via networks has been performed using dedicated terminals, but lately AV apparatuses such as a video camera, VTR, PC (Personal Computer), network-supported television receiver, STB (Set-Top Box) and telephone unit have been combined to transmit such video. In order to transmit video signals via a network, the video signals are normally encoded and compressed before being transmitted to the network in relation to a bandwidth of the network. For example, when a system in which a video signal is encoded for video phone is obtained using one dedicated terminal incorporating an imaging unit such as CCD camera and an encoding circuit, the dedicated terminal can be designed to balance the volume of video signals with encoding processing in processing steps where the video signal supplied from the imaging unit is encoded using the encoding circuit to be transmitted. On the other hand, in the case where a video camera or the like is used as the imaging unit, and a PC and network-supported television receiver are used as the encoding circuit, the video signal coding system for video phone is obtained using these apparatuses. In such case, the volume of video signals and encoding processing are not necessarily optimized, since these apparatuses are originally made for different purposes. FIGS. 1 and 2 are block diagrams showing examples in related art in which such video signal coding systems for network transmission are configured using a combination of AV apparatuses, respectively. It should be noted that an apparatus on the side of encoding video signals, such as a PC, network-supported television receiver and STB is herein termed a “signal conversion apparatus” and an apparatus on the side of supplying the video signals to the “signal conversion apparatus”, such as a video camera and VTR is herein termed a “video output apparatus”. FIG. 1 shows an example in which a decoding unit 101 in a video output apparatus 100 decodes a video signal encoded using, for example, the MPEG-2 into a video signal such as an uncompressed composite signal. Subsequently, the uncompressed video signal is output from the video output apparatus 100 and input into a signal conversion apparatus 102. The input video signal is first supplied to a size/number of frames converting unit 103 in the signal conversion apparatus 102. The size/number of frames converting unit 103 reduces a screen size and the number of frames of the video signals based on size/frame information (information specifying the screen size and the number of frames corresponding to a display apparatus on the other end of video phone), thereby reducing the volume of video signals to be suitable for network transmission. The video signals the volume of which is thus reduced are encoded by an encoding unit 104 using a coding method for video phone (for example, H.261 and MPEG-4 Part 10 (AVC)), and transmitted to the network from a network interface (not illustrated). FIG. 2 shows an example in which a video signal encoded using the MPEG-2 or the like is output from a video output apparatus 200 and input into a signal conversion apparatus 201. The encoded video signal is first decoded by a decoding unit 202 and afterward supplied to a size/number of frames converting unit 203 in the signal conversion apparatus 201. The size/number of frames converting unit 203 reduces a screen size and the number of frames of the video signals based on size/frame information, thereby reducing the volume of video signals to be suitable for network transmission. The video signals the volume of which is thus reduced are encoded by an encoding unit 204 using a coding method for video phone, and transmitted to the network from a network interface (not illustrated). (A motion vector converting unit 205 is described later.) Among video transmissions through networks, in particular, video phone, video conference, and remote security monitoring may require highly efficient encoding for real-time video transmission. A method using a motion vector is generally used as a highly efficient coding method, however processing of detecting the motion vector at the time of encoding may require a huge amount of calculation that is more than half the whole encoding processing. Therefore, in the case where the uncompressed video signal is input into the signal conversion apparatus 102 as shown in the example of the configuration according to FIG. 1, a large-scale circuit that performs a great amount of calculation for detecting the motion vector may need to be provided in the encoding unit 104. As a result, not only the cost of such large-scale circuit raises a product price, but also a large amount of power consumption caused by this circuit may be inconvenient for a consumer. Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2001-238218 (paragraphs 0024 to 0026, and FIG. 1), on the other hand, discloses the following technology with respect to the case where the encoded video signal is input into the signal conversion apparatus as shown in the example of the configuration according to FIG. 2. In this proposed technology, the motion vector converting unit 205 is provided to convert a motion vector output from the decoding unit 202 into a motion vector corresponding to the coding method implemented in the encoding unit 204 (and corresponding to the reduced screen size and number of frames specified by the size/frame information). Accordingly, the calculation cost necessary for the encoding is reduced in comparison to such a case that the motion vector is detected from scratch. However, in the configuration according to FIG. 2, the signal conversion apparatus 201 may need to include the decoding unit 202 corresponding to the coding method of the video signal (for example, MPEG) implemented in the video output apparatus 200. Therefore, AV apparatuses that can be used as the signal conversion apparatus 210 are limited to those corresponding to the coding method implemented in the AV apparatus used as the video output apparatus 200. Accordingly, other AV apparatuses are prevented from representing the configuration shown in FIG. 2. Further, in the case where the video output apparatus 200 is, for example, a camcorder including a high resolution CCD camera having a large number of pixels, and a video signal output from the CCD camera is encoded with a high compression ratio and output from the video output apparatus 200, a large processing capacity may also be required for decoding the high-compression video signal in the decoding unit 202 included in the signal conversion apparatus 201. Therefore, also in that case, a product price may be raised, and further a large amount of power consumption due to such processing may be inconvenient for a consumer. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION As described above, in the case where a video signal coding system for network transmission is obtained using AV apparatuses in combination and the system includes two apparatuses of a video output apparatus and signal conversion apparatus separately provided, a suitable method for the signal conversion apparatus to perform efficient encoding has not been provided. Therefore, configuration of apparatuses, product price, power consumption, communication quality, and the like have been not necessarily user-friendly. It is desirable to provide a video signal coding system for network transmission in which highly efficient encoding can be performed using a motion vector in a signal conversion apparatus, in the case where the video signal coding system is obtained using AV apparatuses in combination and the system includes two apparatuses of a video output apparatus and the signal conversion apparatus separately provided. In the video signal coding system, highly efficient encoding can be performed without providing a large-scale circuit consuming large power for detecting the motion vector in the signal conversion apparatus and without providing a decoding unit in the signal conversion apparatus as shown in the example according to FIG. 2. According to an embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a video signal coding system for network transmission including: a video output apparatus and a signal conversion apparatus. The video output apparatus includes a decoding unit configured to decode a compressed video signal encoded by a coding method using a motion vector, and a superimposing unit configured to superimpose reference control information being output from the decoding unit and containing at least a motion vector on a blanking period of the video signal decoded by the decoding unit. The video output apparatus outputs the video signal with the reference control information superimposed by the superimposing unit. The signal conversion apparatus includes: a separating unit, an encoding unit, and a motion vector converting unit, and the encoding unit performs encoding using a motion vector converted by the motion vector converting unit. In the separating unit, the reference control information is separated from the blanking period of the video signal that is input from the video output apparatus. In the encoding unit, the video signal separated from the reference control information by the separating unit is encoded by the coding method using the motion vector. In the motion vector converting unit, the motion vector contained in the reference control information separated by the separating unit is converted into the motion vector corresponding to the coding method implemented in the encoding unit. In the above-described video signal coding system, the video output apparatus including the decoding unit performs processing of superimposing the reference control information being output from the decoding unit and containing at least the motion vector on the blanking period of the decoded video signal. Subsequently, the video signal with the reference control information superimposed is output from the video output apparatus. The signal conversion apparatus performs processing of separating the reference control information from the blanking period of the video signal input from the video output apparatus. Further, the signal conversion apparatus performs processing of converting the motion vector contained in the separated reference control information into the motion vector corresponding to the coding method implemented in the encoding unit. Subsequently, the video signal separated from the reference control information is encoded using the converted motion vector in the encoding unit included in the signal conversion apparatus. As described above, the motion vector is superimposed on the blanking period of the video signal in the video output apparatus to be output, and the motion vector separated from the video signal is converted according to the coding method implemented in the internal coding circuit and used in the signal conversion apparatus. Accordingly, highly efficient encoding can be performed using the motion vector in the signal conversion apparatus without providing a large-scale circuit consuming large power for detecting the motion vector in the signal conversion apparatus, although the two apparatuses of the video output apparatus and signal conversion apparatus are separately provided from each other. In addition, since the uncompressed video signal is output from the video output apparatus, there is no need for the signal conversion apparatus to be provided with the decoding unit corresponding to the method of coding the video signal implemented in the video output apparatus. Therefore, an AV apparatus not corresponding to the coding method implemented in the video output apparatus can be used as the signal conversion apparatus. Next, according to an embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a method of coding a video signal for network transmission. Using the method, the video signal for network transmission is output from a video output apparatus including a decoding unit configured to decode a compressed video signal encoded by a coding method using a motion vector, and the output video signal is input into a signal conversion apparatus that encodes the input video signal for network transmission. The method includes the steps of: superimposing in the video output apparatus reference control information being output from the decoding unit and containing at least a motion vector on a blanking period of the video signal decoded by the decoding unit; separating in the signal conversion apparatus the reference control information from the blanking period of the video signal input from the video output apparatus; converting in the signal conversion apparatus the motion vector contained in the reference control information separated at the separating step into a motion vector corresponding to a specific coding method using a motion vector implemented in the signal conversion apparatus; and encoding in the signal conversion apparatus the video signal separated from the reference control information at the separating step by the specific coding method using the motion vector converted at the converting step. The method of coding a video signal corresponds to a series of processing steps performed in the above-described video signal coding system according to an embodiment of the present invention, and highly efficient coding using the motion vector can be performed in the signal conversion apparatus without providing a large-scale circuit consuming high power for motion vector detection. In addition, an AV apparatus not supporting the coding method implemented in the video output apparatus can also be used as the signal conversion apparatus. Next, according to an embodiment of the present invention, there is provided an output apparatus including a encoding unit and a superimposing unit, and outputting the video signal with the reference control information superimposed by the superimposing unit. The encoding unit is configured to encode a video signal supplied from an imaging device by a coding method using a motion vector. The superimposing unit is configured to superimpose reference control information being output from the encoding unit and containing at least a motion vector on a blanking period of the video signal supplied from the imaging device. The video output apparatus performs processing of superimposing the reference control information being output from the encoding unit that encodes the video signal and containing at least the motion vector on the blanking period of the video signal supplied from the imaging device. Subsequently, the video signal with the reference control information superimposed is output from the video output apparatus. Therefore, in the case where the video output apparatus is set to collaborate with the signal conversion apparatus included in the above-described video signal coding system according to an embodiment of the present invention, highly efficient coding using the motion vector can be performed in the signal conversion apparatus on a video signal currently obtained by the imaging device. In this regard, there is no need to provide a large-scale circuit consuming large power for motion vector detection in the signal conversion apparatus. In addition, an AV apparatus not supporting the coding method implemented in the video output apparatus can also be used as the signal conversion apparatus. Next, according to an embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a signal conversion apparatus including: a separating unit, an encoding unit, and a motion vector converting unit, in which the encoding unit performs encoding using a motion vector converted by the motion vector converting unit. The separating unit separates reference control information containing at least a motion vector from a blanking period of an input video signal. The encoding unit encodes the video signal separated from the reference control information by the separating unit by the coding method using the motion vector. The motion vector converting unit converts the motion vector contained in the reference control information separated by the separating unit into the motion vector corresponding to the coding method implemented in the encoding unit. The signal conversion apparatus is included in the above-described video signal coding system according to an embodiment of the present invention, and highly efficient coding using the motion vector can be performed in the signal conversion apparatus when being set to collaborate with the above-described video output apparatus. In this regard, there is no need to provide a large-scale circuit consuming large power for motion vector detection in the signal conversion apparatus. In addition, an AV apparatus not supporting the coding method implemented in the video output apparatus can also be used as the signal conversion apparatus. According to embodiments of the present invention, in the case where a video signal coding system for network transmission is obtained using AV apparatuses in combination and the system includes two apparatuses of a video output apparatus and signal conversion apparatus separately provided, the following advantages are obtained. Specifically, highly efficient coding using the motion vector can be performed in the signal conversion apparatus without providing a large-scale circuit consuming large power for motion vector detection in the signal conversion apparatus. In addition, an AV apparatus not supporting the coding method implemented in the video output apparatus can also be used as the signal conversion apparatus since the uncompressed video signal is output from the video output apparatus. Further, using a video output apparatus according to an embodiment of the present invention, highly efficient encoding using the motion vector can be performed in the signal conversion apparatus on a video signal being currently obtained by the imaging device. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing an example of a configuration of a video signal coding system for network transmission formed by a combination of AV apparatuses in related art; FIG. 2 is a block diagram showing an example of a configuration of a video signal coding system for network transmission formed by a combination of AV apparatuses in related art; FIG. 3 is a block diagram showing an example of a configuration of a video signal coding system for network transmission to which an embodiment of the present invention is applied; FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram showing a device that conforms to the HDMI standard; FIG. 5 is a diagram showing an example of a data island period contained in a video frame in the HDMI; FIG. 6 is a block diagram showing a configuration of an encoding unit included in a signal conversion apparatus; FIG. 7 is a flow chart showing processing in a video output apparatus; FIG. 8 is a flow chart showing processing in the signal conversion apparatus; and FIG. 9 is a flow chart showing processing in the encoding unit included in the signal converting unit. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Hereinafter, preferred embodiments of the present invention are described with reference to accompanied drawings. FIG. 3 is a block diagram showing an example of a configuration of a video signal coding system for network transmission, to which an embodiment of the present invention is applied. The system is provided to encode video signals transmitted through a network for video phone (or video conference or remote security monitoring), and the system is configured to have a video output apparatus 1 and a signal conversion apparatus 8. A camcorder is used as the video output apparatus 1, for example. A network-supported television receiver is used as the signal conversion apparatus 8, for example. The video output apparatus 1 includes: an imaging unit (for example, CCD camera) 2, encoding unit 3, superimposing unit 4, large capacity memory device (for example, hard disk drive) 5 and decoding unit 6 as circuits and devices related to an embodiment of the present invention. A video signal received from the imaging unit 2 is supplied to the encoding unit 3 and superimposing unit 4. The encoding unit 3 is, for example, an encoder of the MPEG-2 standard, configuration of which has been known, and therefore only the schematic configuration is illustrated in the figure. A coding method based on the MPEG-2 standard represents an example of a coding method using a motion vector, and a video signal conforming to the MPEG-2 standard is an example of a compressed video signal. A frame encoding unit 3-1 encodes a frame of the video signals supplied from the imaging unit 2. A frame decoding/memory unit 3-2 decodes the encoded video frame and temporarily stores the decoded frame. A motion vector detecting unit 3-3 detects video blocks of the same type between the frame of the video signal supplied from the imaging unit 2 and the frame previously stored in the frame decoding/memory unit 3-2, and a positional relationship between these video blocks is detected as a motion vector, which is supplied to a motion compensation unit 3-4. The motion compensation unit 3-4 performs motion prediction (compensation) on the frame previously stored in the frame decoding/memory unit 3-2 using the supplied motion vector, and the motion-predicted frame is supplied to the frame encoding unit 3-1. The frame encoding unit 3-1 uses the motion-predicted frame to encode a difference from the frame of the video signals supplied from the imaging unit 2. When a control panel (not illustrated) of the video output apparatus 1 is operated to output the video signal currently obtained with the imaging unit 2 from the video output apparatus 1, the video signal supplied from the imaging unit 2 is encoded by the encoding unit 3. Further, the motion vector detected by the motion vector detecting unit 3-3, and information on a macroblock type, picture type, picture size and frame rate and the like generated from the processing performed by the frame encoding unit 3-1 is supplied to the superimposing unit 4 from the encoding unit 3 as reference control information. In addition, when the control panel is operated to record the video signal currently obtained with the imaging unit 2, the video signal supplied from the imaging unit 2 is encoded in the encoding unit 3 and the encoded video signal is stored in the large capacity memory device 5 included in the video output apparatus 1. Also, when the control panel is operated to output the recorded video signal from the video output apparatus 1, the video signal is reproduced from the large capacity memory device 5 and the reproduced video signal is supplied to the decoding unit 6. The decoding unit 6 is a decoder of the same coding standard as the encoding unit 3, a configuration of which has been known, and therefore a detailed description thereof is omitted. The video signal decoded by the decoding unit 6 is supplied to the superimposing unit 4. In addition, the information on a motion vector, macroblock type, picture type, picture size, frame rate and the like obtained at decoding in the decoding unit 6, is supplied to the superimposing unit 4 as the reference control information from the decoding unit 6. The superimposing unit 4 is a circuit that performs processing of superimposing the reference control information on the blanking period of the video signal output from the video output apparatus 1. When the operation to output the video signal currently obtained with the imaging unit 2 from the video output apparatus 1 is performed, the reference control information is supplied from the encoding unit 3 to the superimposing unit 4 as described above, and the superimposing unit 4 superimposes the supplied reference control information on the video signal supplied from the imaging unit 2. In addition, when the operation to output the recorded video signal from the video output apparatus 1 is performed, the reference control information is supplied from the decoding unit 6 to the superimposing unit 4 as described above, and the superimposing unit 4 superimposes the supplied reference control information on the video signal decoded in the decoding unit 6. The video signal with the reference control information superimposed by the superimposing unit 4 is output from the video output apparatus 1, and transmitted to the signal conversion apparatus 8 through a video cable 7. The signal conversion apparatus 8 includes a separating unit 9, size/number of frames converting unit 10, motion vector converting unit 11, encoding unit 12 and network interface 13 as circuits related to an embodiment of the present invention. The encoding unit 12 is an encoder of a coding standard for video phone (for example, H.261 and MPEG-4 Part 10 (AVC)). The video signal input into the signal conversion apparatus 8 through the video cable 7 is supplied to the separating unit 9. The separating unit 9 is a circuit that performs processing of separating the above-described reference control information from the blanking period of the supplied video signal. It should be noted that a transmission mode of the video signal transmitted from the video output apparatus 1 to the signal conversion apparatus 8 may be an analogue signal such as a composite signal, or a digital signal. In the case of the analogue video signal, the imposing unit 4 may superimpose the reference control information on a line not used for text broadcasting in a vertical blanking interval; the video cable 7 may be a composite video cable or the like generally used; and the separating unit 9 separates the reference control information from the above-described line. HDMI (High Definition Multimedia Interface) that is a standard for high quality transmission of uncompressed digital video signals has started to be used as a transmission standard for digital video signals. In the case where the video output apparatus 1 and signal conversion apparatus 8 are devices that input and output a video signal conforming to the HDMI standard, the reference control information may be superimposed as described below. FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram showing devices conforming to the HDMI standard. An HDMI transmitter 22 transmitting a video signal is provided to an HDMI source 21. The HDMI transmitter 22 encodes respective supplied signals of video (video signal), audio/AUX (Auxiliary) and control/status into serial data on three TDMS (Transition Minimized Differential Signaling) channels 0 through 2 to be output, and also outputs a pixel clock of the video from a TMDS clock channel. The data on those channels, data on a DDC (Display Data Channel) for supplying specific information (resolution and the like) regarding a display, and a control signal for bidirectional control based on CEC (Consumer Electronics Control) protocol, which is option, are transmitted to an HDMI sink 23 receiving the video signal from the HDMI source 21 using one cable (HDMI cable). An HDMI receiver 24 is provided to the HDMI sink 23. The HDMI receiver 24 restores respective signals of the original video, audio/AUX and control/status from the serial data on the TMDS channels 0 through 2 by referring to the pixel clock transmitted on the TDMS clock channel. FIG. 5 is a diagram showing an example (in the case where an active video is composed of 720×480 pixels) of a data island period that is a period of transmitting the audio/AUX in a video frame in the HDMI. The data island periods are dispersedly located at specific pixel positions in a horizontal blanking period of 138 pixels of each active line and in vertical blanking period of 45 lines, respectively. In the case where the video output apparatus 1 and signal conversion apparatus 8 shown in FIG. 3 input and output video signals conforming to the HDMI standard (in other words, those apparatuses are the HDMI source and HDMI sink respectively), the imposing unit 4 and the separating unit 9 may be respectively configured as part of the HDMI transmitter 22 and HDMI receiver 24 shown in FIG. 4 conforming to the HDMI standard. The imposing unit 4 may superimpose the reference control information as a kind of AUX data on the data island period shown in FIG. 5, and the separating unit 9 may separate the reference control information from the data island period. Accordingly, an embodiment of the present invention can also be applied to the case where the video output apparatus 1 and signal conversion apparatus 8 are the devices that input and output the video signals conforming to the HDMI standard. Returning to the description referring to FIG. 3, the video signal separated from the reference control information by the separating unit 9 and the information on the picture size and frame rate contained in the reference control information are supplied to the size/number of frames converting unit 10 in the signal conversion apparatus 8. Further, the information on a motion vector, macroblock type and picture type that is contained in the reference control information separated by the separating unit 9 is supplied to the motion vector converting unit 11. The size/number of frames converting unit 10 reduces the screen size and the number of frames of video signals based on size/frame information (information specifying the screen size and the number of frames corresponding to a display apparatus on the other end of video phone), thereby reducing the volume of the video signals to be suitable for the network transmission. The video signals the volume of which is thus reduced are supplied to the encoding unit 12 from the size/number of frames converting unit 10. The motion vector converting unit 11 performs processing of converting the size of the motion vector and the like on the motion vector contained in the reference control information. The processing is performed corresponding to the coding method implemented in the encoding unit 12 and to the reduced screen size and number of frames reduced as specified by the size/frame information. The motion vector and the like thus converted are supplied to the encoding unit 12 from the motion vector converting unit 11. FIG. 6 is a block diagram showing a configuration of the encoding unit 12. The basic configuration of the encoding unit 12 is common to an encoder of a normal coding standard for video phone, and includes a frame encoding unit 12-1, frame decoding unit 12-2, frame memory unit 12-3, motion vector detecting unit 12-4 and motion compensation unit 12-5. The frame encoding unit 12-1 encodes the frame of the video signals supplied from the size/number of frames converting unit 10. The frame decoding unit 12-2 decodes the encoded video frame. The frame memory unit 12-3 temporarily stores the decoded frame. The motion vector detecting unit 12-4 supplies the motion compensation unit 12-5 with a motion vector indicating a positional relationship of video blocks of the same type between the frame of the video signal supplied from the size/number of frames converting unit 10 and a frame previously stored in the frame memory unit 12-3. However, instead of performing the processing of detecting the motion vector from scratch based on the video signal supplied from the size/number of frames converting unit 10, the motion vector detecting unit 12-4 omits the detection of the motion vector overlapping with the motion vector supplied to the encoding unit 12 from the motion vector converting unit 11. Further, the motion vector detecting unit 12-4 performs processing of detecting a motion vector of a block having a different size from the supplied motion vector using the motion vector supplied from the motion vector converting unit 11, and processing of detecting motion vectors surrounding the supplied motion vector by referring to the motion vector supplied from the motion vector converting unit 11. Accordingly, the motion vector detecting unit 12-4 only needs a small-scale circuit and less power consumption in comparison to the case where the motion vector is detected from scratch, and furthermore a detailed motion vector detection can be performed. The motion compensation unit 12-5 performs the motion prediction (compensation) for a frame previously stored in the frame memory unit 12-3 using the motion vector supplied from the motion vector detecting unit 12-4. The frame encoding unit 12-1 uses the motion-predicted frame for encoding a difference from the frame of the video signals output from the size/number of frames converting unit 10. The video signals encoded by the encoding unit 12 with the coding method for video phone are transmitted to a network 14 from the network interface 13 as shown in FIG. 3, thereby transmitting the encoded video signals to a device (not illustrated) on the other end of video phone via the network 14. FIGS. 7 and 8 are flow charts showing processing steps performed in the video output apparatus 1 and signal conversion apparatus 8 according to FIG. 3, respectively. Further, FIG. 9 is a flow chart showing processing steps performed in the encoding unit 12 included in the signal conversion apparatus 8. As shown in FIG. 7, in the case where the video signal supplied from the imaging unit 2 is immediately output (more specifically, live video is output) (“YES” at step S1), the encoding unit 3 encodes the video signal supplied from the imaging unit 2, and supplies the reference control information obtained through encoding to the superimposing unit 4 in the video output apparatus 1 (step S2). The superimposing unit 4 superimposes the reference control information supplied from the encoding unit 3 on the blanking period of the video signal supplied from the imaging unit 2, and outputs the video signal from the video output apparatus 1 (step S3). Then, the processing returns to step S1. On the other hand, in the case where the recorded video is output (“YES” at step S4), the decoding unit 6 decodes the encoded video signal reproduced from the large capacity memory device 5 and supplies the decoded signal to the superimposing unit 4, and also supplies the reference control information obtained through decoding to the superimposing unit 4 (step S5). The superimposing unit 4 superimposes the reference control information supplied from the decoding unit 6 on the blanking period of the decoded video signal, and outputs the video signal from the video output apparatus 1 (step S6). Then, the processing returns to step S1. As shown in FIG. 8, the separating unit 9 in the signal conversion apparatus 8 retrieves the reference control information superimposed on the blanking period of the input video signal, thereby separating the reference control information from the video signal (step S11). Subsequently, the size/number of frames converting unit 10 adjusts the screen size and the number of frames based on the size/frame information, thereby adjusting the video signals separated from the reference control information to a signal volume suitable for the transmission via the network (step S12). Further, the motion vector converting unit 11 converts the motion vector contained in the separated reference control information in accordance with the coding method implemented in the encoding unit 12 and reduced screen size and number of frames, which are specified by the size/frame information (step S13). Subsequently, using the converted motion vector, the encoding unit 12 encodes the video signal after the screen size and number of frames have been adjusted by the processing described in FIG. 9 (step S14). Then, the processing returns to step S11 and is repeated to subsequent input video signals. As shown in FIG. 9, the encoding unit 12 checks whether or not a picture type of the input video signal is intra-picture coding (I-picture) based on the picture type information contained in the reference control information (step S21). In the case of the intra-picture coding, the frame encoding unit 12-1 performs frame-encoding on the input video signals (step S22), reorders and outputs the video signals to be decoded in the same order in a decoding unit in a device on the other end of transmission (step S23). The frame decoding unit 12-2 decodes the video that is frame-encoded by the frame encoding unit 12-1 (step S24), and the frame memory unit 12-3 temporarily stores the decoded video as a reference picture (step S25). Then, the processing returns to step S21 and is repeated on subsequent input video signals. In the case where the picture type of the input video signal was not the intra-picture coding at step S21, the motion vector detecting unit 12-4 performs motion vector detection processing of detecting the same video blocks between the video that has been stored in the frame memory unit 12-3 and video that is newly input. Here, the motion vector supplied from the motion vector converting unit 11 is used so that the overlapped motion vector is prevented from being detected, and only a motion vector not contained in the reference control information is additionally detected by detecting a block having a different size and surrounding motion vectors (step S26). Subsequently, the motion compensation unit 12-5 performs the motion prediction (compensation) for the frame previously stored in the frame memory unit 12-3 using the motion vector supplied from the motion vector detecting unit 12-4, and the frame encoding unit 12-1 performs the frame-encoding on a difference between the motion-predicted frame and the frame of the video signal supplied from the size/number of frames converting unit 10 (step S27). Then, the frame encoding unit 12-1 reorders and outputs the frame-encoded video to be decoded in the same order in a decoding unit in a device on the other end of transmission (step S28). The frame decoding unit 12-2 decodes the video that is frame-encoded by the frame encoding unit 12-1 (step S29). The frame memory unit 12-3 temporarily stores the video obtained by adding the differential video obtained by the above decoding to the motion-compensated video previously obtained when taking the difference, more specifically, the same video as the video that can be obtained by decoding in the decoding unit included in the device on the other end of transmission (step S30). Then, the processing returns to step S21 and is repeated on subsequent input video signals. According to the above described video signal coding system, in the case where video signals (live video) being currently obtained with the imaging unit 2 are transmitted via the network, the video signals are output as follows. Specifically, reference control information such as a motion vector is obtained in the encoding unit 3 by encoding the video signal supplied from the imaging unit 2, and is superimposed on the blanking period of the video signal supplied from the imaging unit 2 in the video output apparatus 1, thereby outputting the video signal with the reference control information superimposed. On the other hand, in the case where the recorded video which was previously obtained with the imaging unit 2 is transmitted via the network, the video signal is output after the processing described below is performed. Specifically, reference control information such as the motion vector obtained by decoding the encoded video signal reproduced from the large capacity memory device 5 in the decoding unit 6 is superimposed on the blanking period of the decoded video signal in the video output apparatus 1, thereby outputting the video signal with the reference control information superimposed. Accordingly, the reference control information containing the motion vector is superimposed on the blanking period of the video signal that is output from the video output apparatus 1 in both the cases of transmitting the live video and recorded video. In the signal conversion apparatus 8, the motion vector contained in the reference control information separated from the input video signal is converted into the motion vector corresponding to the coding method for video phone, and the input video signal is encoded using the converted motion vector, thereby transmitting the encoded video signal to the network. Accordingly, although the two apparatuses of the video output apparatus 1 and signal conversion apparatus 8 are provided separately from each other, the highly efficient encoding can be performed in both the cases of transmitting the live video and recorded video via the network, using the motion vector in the signal conversion apparatus 8 without providing a large-scale circuit consuming large power for motion vector detection in the signal conversion apparatus 8. In addition, since the uncompressed video signals are output from the video output apparatus 1, there is no need for the signal conversion apparatus 8 to be provided with a decoding unit corresponding to the method of coding the video signal (for example, MPEG-2) implemented in the video output apparatus 1. Therefore, an AV apparatus not corresponding to the coding method implemented in the video output apparatus 1 can also be used as the signal conversion apparatus 8. Modified examples (1) through (5) regarding the above-described embodiments are described in the followings. (1) The superimposing unit 4 in the video output apparatus 1 may compress the reference control information and superimpose the compressed information on the blanking period of the video signal, and the separating unit 9 in the signal conversion apparatus 8 may decompress the reference control information separated from the blanking period of the video signal. Accordingly, a limited bandwidth for the blanking period of the transmitted signal can be used efficiently. (2) Only an efficient motion vector such as a motion vector of a small difference between macroblocks, for example, may be superimposed on the blanking period of the video signal instead of superimposing all the motion vectors on the blanking period of the video signal. Accordingly, the limited bandwidth for the blanking period of the transmitted signal can be used efficiently, in the case of performing highly efficient compression based on a standard such as MPEG-4 using motion vectors from a plurality of video pictures. (3) Not only the video signal or the like is transmitted from the video output apparatus 1 to the signal conversion apparatus 8, but also a control signal may be inversely transmitted to the video output apparatus 1 from a control unit (CPU or the like) included in the signal conversion apparatus 8, giving instructions to start reproduction, checking the transmission output of the reference control information, giving instructions to input after the transmission, and indicating a transmission volume thereof. For example, in the case of the apparatus conforming to the HDMI standard, the control signal for bidirectional control using the CEC protocol can be transmitted as described above (FIG. 4), and therefore the control signal may be sent to the video output apparatus 1 using the CEC protocol. Accordingly, the reference control information can be transmitted mutually only between AV apparatuses to which the embodiment of the present invention is applied, and the transmission volume can be controlled dynamically. (4) In the case where only the live video is transmitted via the network, the large capacity memory device 5 and decoding unit 6 need not be provided in the video output apparatus 1. On the other hand, in the case where only the recorded video is transmitted via the network and an AV apparatus not including a imaging unit such as VTR is used as video output apparatus 1, and therefore reproduced video is transmitted via the network, there is no need to supply the reference control information to the superimposing unit 4 from the encoding unit 3 and the reference control information may be supplied only from the decoding unit 6 to the superimposing unit 4. (5) In the case where video signals output from the video output apparatus 1 are suitable for network transmission without any processing due to a reason that the signal volume is small and the screen size and number of frames of the video signals correspond to the display apparatus on the other end of video phone, processing may be performed as described below. Specifically, in the signal conversion apparatus 8, the processing of reducing the screen size and number of frames is omitted in the size/number of frames converting unit 10, and the video signal separated in the separating unit 9 is directly encoded in the encoding unit 12. It should be understood by those skilled in the art that various modifications, combinations, sub-combinations and alterations may occur depending on design requirements and other factors insofar as they are within the scope of the appended claims or the equivalents thereof.	H	H04	H04N	11	02
11799929	US20080053706A1-20080306	Continuous monobore liquid lining system	ACCEPTED	20080220	20080306		[]	E21B720	["E21B720", "E21B4300"]	7475726	20070502	20090113	175	057000	67663.0	WRIGHT	GIOVANNA	[{"inventor_name_last": "Keller", "inventor_name_first": "Stuart", "inventor_city": "Houston", "inventor_state": "TX", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A process for drilling a well or a portion of a well capable of providing a generally constant interior wall diameter (monobore) and does not require installation of any liner or steel casing. The process comprises circulating settable material into the borehole wherein the settable material sets on at least a portion of the interior wall of the borehole to create a liner along the wall of the borehole and removing excess settable material out of the borehole.	1. A method of creating a liner in a borehole having an interior wall and located in a subterranean formation, comprising: circulating settable material into the borehole wherein the settable material sets on at least a portion of the interior wall of the borehole to create a liner along the wall of the borehole; agitating the settable material inside the borehole between the interior wall of the borehole and a drill string to prevent the settable material from setting in the center of the borehole; and removing excess settable material out of the borehole before the settable material has completely set. 2. The method of claim 1 wherein the settable material comprises high-strength cement containing steel or carbon fibers. 3. The method of claim 1 wherein the agitation preventing the settable material from setting is from the circulation of the settable material. 4. The method of claim 1 wherein the agitation preventing the settable material from setting is from the movement of the drillstring. 5. The method of claim 4 wherein the agitation preventing the settable material from setting further includes agitation from a shearing device located on the drillstring. 6. The method of claim 1 wherein the removing excess settable material includes circulating the settable material out of the borehole before the settable material has completely set. 7. The method of claim 1 wherein the removing of excess settable material includes drilling and circulating the excess settable material out of the borehole before the settable material has completely set. 8. The method of claim 1 further comprising drilling the borehole after the excess settable material has been removed. 9. The method of claim 8 further comprising reaming the borehole as the borehole is being drilled. 10. The method of claim 8 further comprising producing hydrocarbons from the borehole. 11. A method of creating a casing in a borehole with an interior wall located in a subterranean formation, comprising: (a) drilling a borehole with a drill bit on a drill string; (b) placing settable material into an annulus within the borehole to a desired fill height wherein the settable material sets on at least a portion of the interior wall of the borehole to create a liner along the at least the portion of the interior wall of the borehole; (c) agitating the drill string to prevent the settable material from completely plugging the borehole; and (d) circulating drilling mud containing a set retarder to remove the unset settable material near the drill string.	<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Conventionally, when a wellbore is created, a number of casings are installed in the borehole to prevent collapse of the borehole wall and to prevent undesired outflow of drilling fluid into the formation or inflow of fluid from the formation into the borehole. The borehole is typically drilled in intervals whereby a casing (such as, steel pipe), which is to be installed in a lower borehole interval, is lowered through a previously installed casing of an upper borehole interval. As a consequence of this procedure, the casing of the lower interval is of smaller diameter than the casing of the upper interval. Thus, the casings are in a nested arrangement with casing diameters decreasing in the downward direction. Cement annuli are provided between the outer surfaces of the casings and the borehole wall to seal the casings from the borehole wall. As a consequence of this nested arrangement, relatively large borehole diameters are required in the upper part of the wellbore. Such large borehole diameters involve increased costs due to the time to drill the holes, the time to install all of the casings, costs of casing, drilling fluid consumption. Moreover, increased drilling rig time and costs are involved due to required cement pumping, cement hardening, required equipment changes due to variations in hole diameters drilled in the course of the well, and the large volume of cuttings drilled and removed. In most wells, the most critical role of the casing/cementing system is to increase the minimum fracture gradient to enable continued drilling. Generally, when drilling a well, the pore pressure gradient (PPG) and the fracture pressure gradient (FG) increase with the true vertical depth (TVD) of the well. For each drilling interval, a mud density (mud weight or MW) is used that is greater than the pore pressure gradient, but less than the fracture pressure gradient. As the well is deepened, the mud weight is increased to maintain a safe margin above the pore pressure gradient. If the mud weight were to fall below the pore pressure gradient, the well may take a kick. A kick is an influx of formation fluid into the wellbore. Kicks can result in dangerous situations and extra well costs to regain control of the well. If the mud weight is increased too much, the mud weight will exceed the fracture pressure gradient at the top of the drilling interval (usually this is the location with the smallest fracture pressure gradient). This normally leads to lost returns. Typically, lost returns occurs when the drilling fluid flows into a fracture (or other opening) created in the formation. Lost returns results in the cuttings not being removed from the wellbore. The cuttings may then accumulate around the drill string causing the drill string to become stuck. Stuck drill pipe is a difficult and costly problem that often results in abandoning the interval or the entire well. To prevent the above situation from occurring, conventional practice typically involves running and cementing a steel casing string in the well. The casing and cement serve to block the pathway for the mud pressure to be applied to the earth above the depth of the casing shoe. This allows the mud weight to be increased so that the next drilling interval can be drilled. This process is generally repeated using decreasing bit and casing sizes until the well reaches the planned depth. The process of tripping, running casing, and cementing may account for as much as 25 to 65 percent of the time required for drilling a well. Tripping is the process of pulling the drill pipe or running the drill pipe into the well. This is important, because well costs are primarily driven by the rig time required to construct the well. Furthermore, with the conventional steel casing tapered-hole-drilling process, the final hole size that is achieved may not be useable or optimal and the casing and cement operations substantially increase well costs. For exploration wells, the reduction in hole size with increasing depth may result in not reaching the planned target depth or not reaching the planned target depth with enough hole size to run logging tools to fully evaluate the formation. Typically, at least a 0.1524 meter (6-inch) open hole is needed to fully evaluate the formation. For some wells, the need to set casing to accommodate pore pressure/fracture gradient concerns results in running out of hole size. For development wells, the telescopic nature of the well reduces the final hole size in the reservoir. This reduction in contact of the well with the reservoir may reduce the production rate of the well, thereby, reducing the well's performance. Generally, a larger hole size in the reservoir increases the well's production rate for a given drawdown. Drawdown is the difference between the fluid pressure in the reservoir and inside the well. Current technology to address the problems discussed above include the use of solid expandable liners (SELs). An example of a solid expandable liner is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,497,289. Solid expandable liners are special tubular systems that are run into a well and then expanded. The expansion allows the open hole to be lined using a string that has a larger interior diameter than would otherwise be available with a conventional liner. The solid expandable liner system allows a larger bit and/or additional casing strings to be run in the well. This facilitates penetrating the reservoir with a larger hole size in development wells. For exploration wells, having one or two additional liners may enable the well to reach a planned target or deeper with a useable hole size. While a solid expandable liner may be beneficial, it has several drawbacks. These include time and cost, connections, hole quality requirements, tapering, and cementing. Some of the drawbacks of solid expandable liners are summarized in the following paragraphs. The process of installing a solid expandable liner takes longer than a conventional liner. This is because solid expandable liners must be expanded. Also, installing a solid expandable liner may require considerable time because the string must be run into the well very slowly due to the surge pressure created by the small-clearance expansion cone assembly. The additional time, as well as the direct cost of the solid expandable liner, makes solid expandable liners much more costly than a conventional liner. A solid expandable liner uses special connections that are expanded along with the pipe body. The expansion may reduce the sealing and/or tensile capacity of the connections. At least one example of failure of a solid expandable liner connector has been documented in “Solid Expandable Tubular Technology—A Year of Case Histories in the Drilling Environment,” Dupal, et al., SPE/IADC Drilling Conference held in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 27 Feb.-1 Mar. 2001, Paper SPE/IADC 67770. If the hole is not straight, but contains doglegs (kinks) or other imperfections, or if the solid expandable liner is differentially stuck, the expansion cone may become stuck. An example of this type of problem has also been documented in “Solid Expandable Tubular Technology—A Year of Case Histories in the Drilling Environment,” Dupal, et al., SPE/IADC Drilling Conference held in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 27 Feb.-1 Mar. 2001, Paper SPE/IADC 67770. The currently available solid expandable liner system still results in a tapered wellbore. This is a fundamental problem because the expansion cone carrier assembly must pass through the previous liner. With currently available solid expandable liners, the cement is placed around the liner or casing prior to expansion. If there is a malfunction during expansion, it is unlikely that the liner could be removed from the well for repair or replacement. Another approach to mitigate the problem of having to periodically run casing, especially in deepwater wells, is to use a dual (or multiple) gradient drilling system. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,099,583 discloses a dual gradient drilling system. In this method, a lighter fluid is injected into the mud return annulus (typically in the riser) or other pathway to reduce the mud density from the injection point upwards. This helps tailor the mud pressure gradient profile to closer match the desired pressure gradient profile that is between the pore pressure gradient and fracture gradient profiles. Multiple gradient drilling systems may reduce the required number of casing strings by possibly one or two. However, these systems are mechanically complex, are very costly to implement, create operational concerns (for example, for well control), and still result in a tapered wellbore. A “method for centrifugally forming a subterranean soil-cement casing” is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,183,166. In this method, a soil-processing tool is advanced and rotated into the earth while high velocity cement slurry is introduced to mix with the soil. As the device is withdrawn, the tool is rotated at a speed to exert a centrifugal force on the soil-cement mixture, causing the mixture to form a soil-cement casing at the outer region of the hole. Unfortunately, drawbacks to this soil-cement casing technique include that the soil-cement casing is weak and this technique does not avoid tapering. Accordingly, there is a need for an improved system to install casings or linings inside wellbores that addresses the above-mentioned drawbacks of current casing techniques. This invention satisfies that need.	<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>One embodiment of the invention includes a method for creating a liner in a borehole located in a subterranean formation the borehole having an interior wall is disclosed. In this embodiment the method comprises two steps. The two steps are circulating settable material into the borehole wherein the settable material sets on at least a portion of the interior wall of the borehole to create a liner along the wall of the borehole and removing excess settable material out of the borehole before the settable material has completely set. A second embodiment for creating a liner in a borehole located in a subterranean formation the borehole having an interior wall is also disclosed. This embodiment may include four steps. The four steps are (a) drilling a borehole (with a drill bit on a drill string), (b) placing settable material into an annulus within the wellbore to a desired fill height wherein the settable material sets on at least a portion of the interior wall of the borehole to create a liner along the wall of the borehole, (c) moving the drill string to prevent the settable material from setting, and (d) circulating drilling mud that may contain a set retarder to remove the unset settable material near the drill string. A third embodiment for creating a liner in a borehole located in a subterranean formation the borehole having an interior wall is also disclosed. This embodiment may include three steps. The three steps are (a) providing a sacrificial liner inside the borehole to create an annular space between the sacrificial liner and the interior wall of the borehole, (b) circulating settable material into the borehole outside the sacrificial liner wherein the settable material will settle between the sacrificial liner and the interior wall of the borehole to create a liner between the sacrificial liner and interior wall of the borehole, and (c) drilling out the liner and sacrificial liner to create the borehole liner wherein the borehole liner has a hollow core inside the wellbore.	CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/560,003, filed Dec. 8, 2005, which is the National Stage of International Application No. PCT/US2004/16665, filed May 27, 2004, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/489,986, filed Jul. 25, 2003. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This patent generally relates to subterranean boreholes. More particularly, this patent relates to a method for lining the borehole. BACKGROUND Conventionally, when a wellbore is created, a number of casings are installed in the borehole to prevent collapse of the borehole wall and to prevent undesired outflow of drilling fluid into the formation or inflow of fluid from the formation into the borehole. The borehole is typically drilled in intervals whereby a casing (such as, steel pipe), which is to be installed in a lower borehole interval, is lowered through a previously installed casing of an upper borehole interval. As a consequence of this procedure, the casing of the lower interval is of smaller diameter than the casing of the upper interval. Thus, the casings are in a nested arrangement with casing diameters decreasing in the downward direction. Cement annuli are provided between the outer surfaces of the casings and the borehole wall to seal the casings from the borehole wall. As a consequence of this nested arrangement, relatively large borehole diameters are required in the upper part of the wellbore. Such large borehole diameters involve increased costs due to the time to drill the holes, the time to install all of the casings, costs of casing, drilling fluid consumption. Moreover, increased drilling rig time and costs are involved due to required cement pumping, cement hardening, required equipment changes due to variations in hole diameters drilled in the course of the well, and the large volume of cuttings drilled and removed. In most wells, the most critical role of the casing/cementing system is to increase the minimum fracture gradient to enable continued drilling. Generally, when drilling a well, the pore pressure gradient (PPG) and the fracture pressure gradient (FG) increase with the true vertical depth (TVD) of the well. For each drilling interval, a mud density (mud weight or MW) is used that is greater than the pore pressure gradient, but less than the fracture pressure gradient. As the well is deepened, the mud weight is increased to maintain a safe margin above the pore pressure gradient. If the mud weight were to fall below the pore pressure gradient, the well may take a kick. A kick is an influx of formation fluid into the wellbore. Kicks can result in dangerous situations and extra well costs to regain control of the well. If the mud weight is increased too much, the mud weight will exceed the fracture pressure gradient at the top of the drilling interval (usually this is the location with the smallest fracture pressure gradient). This normally leads to lost returns. Typically, lost returns occurs when the drilling fluid flows into a fracture (or other opening) created in the formation. Lost returns results in the cuttings not being removed from the wellbore. The cuttings may then accumulate around the drill string causing the drill string to become stuck. Stuck drill pipe is a difficult and costly problem that often results in abandoning the interval or the entire well. To prevent the above situation from occurring, conventional practice typically involves running and cementing a steel casing string in the well. The casing and cement serve to block the pathway for the mud pressure to be applied to the earth above the depth of the casing shoe. This allows the mud weight to be increased so that the next drilling interval can be drilled. This process is generally repeated using decreasing bit and casing sizes until the well reaches the planned depth. The process of tripping, running casing, and cementing may account for as much as 25 to 65 percent of the time required for drilling a well. Tripping is the process of pulling the drill pipe or running the drill pipe into the well. This is important, because well costs are primarily driven by the rig time required to construct the well. Furthermore, with the conventional steel casing tapered-hole-drilling process, the final hole size that is achieved may not be useable or optimal and the casing and cement operations substantially increase well costs. For exploration wells, the reduction in hole size with increasing depth may result in not reaching the planned target depth or not reaching the planned target depth with enough hole size to run logging tools to fully evaluate the formation. Typically, at least a 0.1524 meter (6-inch) open hole is needed to fully evaluate the formation. For some wells, the need to set casing to accommodate pore pressure/fracture gradient concerns results in running out of hole size. For development wells, the telescopic nature of the well reduces the final hole size in the reservoir. This reduction in contact of the well with the reservoir may reduce the production rate of the well, thereby, reducing the well's performance. Generally, a larger hole size in the reservoir increases the well's production rate for a given drawdown. Drawdown is the difference between the fluid pressure in the reservoir and inside the well. Current technology to address the problems discussed above include the use of solid expandable liners (SELs). An example of a solid expandable liner is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,497,289. Solid expandable liners are special tubular systems that are run into a well and then expanded. The expansion allows the open hole to be lined using a string that has a larger interior diameter than would otherwise be available with a conventional liner. The solid expandable liner system allows a larger bit and/or additional casing strings to be run in the well. This facilitates penetrating the reservoir with a larger hole size in development wells. For exploration wells, having one or two additional liners may enable the well to reach a planned target or deeper with a useable hole size. While a solid expandable liner may be beneficial, it has several drawbacks. These include time and cost, connections, hole quality requirements, tapering, and cementing. Some of the drawbacks of solid expandable liners are summarized in the following paragraphs. The process of installing a solid expandable liner takes longer than a conventional liner. This is because solid expandable liners must be expanded. Also, installing a solid expandable liner may require considerable time because the string must be run into the well very slowly due to the surge pressure created by the small-clearance expansion cone assembly. The additional time, as well as the direct cost of the solid expandable liner, makes solid expandable liners much more costly than a conventional liner. A solid expandable liner uses special connections that are expanded along with the pipe body. The expansion may reduce the sealing and/or tensile capacity of the connections. At least one example of failure of a solid expandable liner connector has been documented in “Solid Expandable Tubular Technology—A Year of Case Histories in the Drilling Environment,” Dupal, et al., SPE/IADC Drilling Conference held in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 27 Feb.-1 Mar. 2001, Paper SPE/IADC 67770. If the hole is not straight, but contains doglegs (kinks) or other imperfections, or if the solid expandable liner is differentially stuck, the expansion cone may become stuck. An example of this type of problem has also been documented in “Solid Expandable Tubular Technology—A Year of Case Histories in the Drilling Environment,” Dupal, et al., SPE/IADC Drilling Conference held in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 27 Feb.-1 Mar. 2001, Paper SPE/IADC 67770. The currently available solid expandable liner system still results in a tapered wellbore. This is a fundamental problem because the expansion cone carrier assembly must pass through the previous liner. With currently available solid expandable liners, the cement is placed around the liner or casing prior to expansion. If there is a malfunction during expansion, it is unlikely that the liner could be removed from the well for repair or replacement. Another approach to mitigate the problem of having to periodically run casing, especially in deepwater wells, is to use a dual (or multiple) gradient drilling system. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,099,583 discloses a dual gradient drilling system. In this method, a lighter fluid is injected into the mud return annulus (typically in the riser) or other pathway to reduce the mud density from the injection point upwards. This helps tailor the mud pressure gradient profile to closer match the desired pressure gradient profile that is between the pore pressure gradient and fracture gradient profiles. Multiple gradient drilling systems may reduce the required number of casing strings by possibly one or two. However, these systems are mechanically complex, are very costly to implement, create operational concerns (for example, for well control), and still result in a tapered wellbore. A “method for centrifugally forming a subterranean soil-cement casing” is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,183,166. In this method, a soil-processing tool is advanced and rotated into the earth while high velocity cement slurry is introduced to mix with the soil. As the device is withdrawn, the tool is rotated at a speed to exert a centrifugal force on the soil-cement mixture, causing the mixture to form a soil-cement casing at the outer region of the hole. Unfortunately, drawbacks to this soil-cement casing technique include that the soil-cement casing is weak and this technique does not avoid tapering. Accordingly, there is a need for an improved system to install casings or linings inside wellbores that addresses the above-mentioned drawbacks of current casing techniques. This invention satisfies that need. SUMMARY One embodiment of the invention includes a method for creating a liner in a borehole located in a subterranean formation the borehole having an interior wall is disclosed. In this embodiment the method comprises two steps. The two steps are circulating settable material into the borehole wherein the settable material sets on at least a portion of the interior wall of the borehole to create a liner along the wall of the borehole and removing excess settable material out of the borehole before the settable material has completely set. A second embodiment for creating a liner in a borehole located in a subterranean formation the borehole having an interior wall is also disclosed. This embodiment may include four steps. The four steps are (a) drilling a borehole (with a drill bit on a drill string), (b) placing settable material into an annulus within the wellbore to a desired fill height wherein the settable material sets on at least a portion of the interior wall of the borehole to create a liner along the wall of the borehole, (c) moving the drill string to prevent the settable material from setting, and (d) circulating drilling mud that may contain a set retarder to remove the unset settable material near the drill string. A third embodiment for creating a liner in a borehole located in a subterranean formation the borehole having an interior wall is also disclosed. This embodiment may include three steps. The three steps are (a) providing a sacrificial liner inside the borehole to create an annular space between the sacrificial liner and the interior wall of the borehole, (b) circulating settable material into the borehole outside the sacrificial liner wherein the settable material will settle between the sacrificial liner and the interior wall of the borehole to create a liner between the sacrificial liner and interior wall of the borehole, and (c) drilling out the liner and sacrificial liner to create the borehole liner wherein the borehole liner has a hollow core inside the wellbore. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a flow chart of an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a flow chart of an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a flow chart of an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4(a) is one exemplary illustration of a drilling and reaming operation in a wellbore; FIG. 4(b) is one exemplary illustration of placing settable material in a wellbore; FIG. 4(c) is one exemplary illustration of resuming drilling after the monobore cast-in-place liner is set; FIG. 5(a) is one exemplary illustration of a drilling and reaming operation in a wellbore; FIG. 5(b) is one exemplary illustration of installing a sacrificial liner in a wellbore; FIG. 5(c) is one illustration of placement of settable material around a sacrificial liner. FIG. 5(d) is one illustration of drilling out a monobore cast-in-place liner in a wellbore; FIG. 5(e) is one illustration of resuming drilling beneath an installed monobore cast-in-place liner. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following detailed description and example, the invention will be described in connection with its preferred embodiments. However, to the extent that the following description is specific to a particular embodiment or a particular use of the invention, this is intended to be illustrative only. Accordingly, the invention is not limited to the specific embodiments described below, but rather, the invention includes all alternatives, modifications, and equivalents falling within the true scope of the appended claims. The proposed invention includes a process for drilling a well or a portion of a well that may have a generally constant interior wall diameter (monobore) and does not require installation of any preformed liner or casing. An existing borehole may be provided or a new borehole may be drilled below an existing liner or casing string and then reamed to a larger hole size. This could be done using a standard bit and a remotely extendable/retractable reamer device located in the drill string bottomhole assembly. Reamers are devices than can enlarge a borehole to a diameter greater than the interior wall diameter of a previously set casing or liner and still be withdrawn from the well. Alternatively, a bicenter bit could be used to drill a hole size larger than the interior wall diameter of the previous casing. After the reamed hole is drilled, a special settable material (or liquid lining) is pumped into the borehole. Using a variety of techniques (which are discussed below), a hole is created or available in the center of the settable material such that the hole has preferably the same interior diameter as the existing casing string or liner. The hole creates a cast-in-place hollow cylindrical mono-inner-diameter lining for the borehole. The process is then repeated until the well reaches the desired total depth. The process may use a pumpable hardening material (settable material) that lines the borehole. This material may be high-strength cement containing steel and/or carbon fibers. The fibers are known by those skilled in the art to greatly increase the flexural/tensile (and thus burst) capacity of such a settable material. For example, it has been shown that a concrete formulation containing about 2 percent by volume high-strength steel micro-fibers 13 mm in length and 0.16 mm in diameter are capable of increasing the flexural toughness to greater than 250 times that of conventional, non-fiber-reinforced concrete. See “Tensile Properties of Very-High-Strength Concrete for Penetration-Resistant Structures,” O'Neil, et al., US Army Engineer Research and Development Center, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, Miss. 39180-6199, 13 Apr. 2001 or “High-Performance Powder,” Dallaire, et al., Energy Resources, January 1998, pp 49-51. The settable material might also be a resin-based material containing fibers. The back up (radial support) provided by the surrounding subterranean earth also increases the burst capacity of the settable liner. In addition, solids and other material that are present in drilling fluid will seal small cracks that might appear in the settable material. In one embodiment, as described in FIG. 1, the method includes two steps. First, a settable material is circulated in the borehole (step 101). Next, the excess settable material is removed out of the borehole before the wellbore is plugged with settable material that has set (step 102). The remaining settable material inside the borehole creates a cast-in-place liner along the wall of the borehole. This embodiment will be discussed in more detail below. A second embodiment for creating a liner in a borehole located in a subterranean formation the borehole having an interior wall may include four steps. As described in FIG. 2, the four steps are (a) drilling a borehole with a drill bit on a drill string (step 201), (b) placing settable material into an annulus of the wellbore to a desired fill height wherein the settable material sets on at least a portion of the interior wall of the borehole to create a liner along the wall of the borehole (step 202), (c) moving the drill string to prevent the settable material from completely plugging the borehole (step 203), and (d) circulating drilling mud that may contain a set retarder to remove the unset settable material near the drill string (step 204). FIGS. 4(a), 4(b) and 4(c) illustrate graphically the second embodiment of drilling and lining the wellbore 3 using the continuos monobore cast-in-place liner drilling system. As shown in FIG. 4(a), in one version of this embodiment, a borehole 3 is drilled with a drill bit 33 and reamer assembly 35 attached to a drillstring 1 until hole conditions dictate that it is necessary to line or case the hole. The reamer may be any reamer, for example, a retractable reamer or in the alternative a bicenter bit may be used. These devices are used to facilitate opening the hole so that a tight-fitting casing can successfully be run into the open hole. For example, a 0.3683 meter (14½ inch) borehole may be reamed out to 0.508 meter (20 inch) to facilitate running 0.4064 meter (16 inch) casing below a 0.4572 meter (18 inch) casing. The retractable reamer system may be used to enable removing the bit from beneath a cast-in-place liner. The drill string may also have shearing devices 37 or stabilizers to provide stability during rotation of drill string 1. The stabilizers may provide lateral support by contacting the liner 39 or internal diameter of the well in a previously drilled or lined section. The drill string may be equipped with a retractable reamer in the bottomhole assembly. This reamer may be used to ream a hole size that is larger than the inner diameter of the previous casing/liner. The reamer may also be used to provide centralization of the bottom of the drill string. A stabilizer 37 (or similar device) having an outer diameter slightly smaller approximately 6.35 millimeter (¼ inch smaller) than the inner diameter of the previous casing/liner may be installed on each 27.43 meter (90 foot) stand of drill pipe over a distance of several thousand meters. The stabilizer-equipped drill string 1 may extend to at least one stand inside the previous casing/liner. The stabilizers 37 may be used to shear the settable material and centralize the drill string inside the previous section of monobore liner. In addition, it may be desirable to coat the drill string with a material that prevents sticking of the settable material Once a depth is reached where it has been determined that it is necessary to increase the mud weight beyond the fracture gradient of the current open hole to continue drilling, the cast-in-place liner job may commence. The settable material 10 may be pumped down the drill string and into the annulus using a volume that would bring the top of the material inside the previous liner. A check valve, run in the drill string, may be used to prevent any U-tubing back up the drill string if there is a density imbalance. U-tubing is the flow of a heavier fluid down the annulus and up the pipe. Alternatively, the settable material might be circulated through a remotely controlled port in a circulation tool located near the end of the drill string. Another alternative would be for the settable material to be pumped down the annulus, taking returns up the drill string. For this option, the check valve would not be used. After the settable material 10 has been circulated into place and allowed to build some gel strength, drill string reciprocation and rotation may commence. The pipe reciprocation and rotation are indicated by the arrows (11 and 13 respectively) in FIG. 4(b). The amount of time to build gel strength will depend on the particular material and the conditions inside the wellbore. For example, 30 minutes would be a typical allotted time for some materials to gel or set in typical wellbores. In addition, or as an alternative to pipe reciprocation and rotation, circulation may commence down the drill string and up the core of the settable cylinder. The circulation is indicated by arrows 14 in FIG. 4(b). The reciprocation may preferably have a stroke of one stand of approximately 10 meters (or 90 feet). The circulating fluid may also contain a set retarder (for example, sugar water for a Portland cement based settable material). The pipe movement and/or circulation may be used to ensure that the core of the settable liner does not set, but the settable material outside the core will set because it is subjected to less mechanical shear stress, less flow stress, and less retarder. An example of a settable material or gel material formulation includes cement slurry consisting of 860 grams of Class H oil well cement, 327 grams of fresh tap water, and 34 grams (4% by weight of cement) calcium chloride, a cement accelerator. The cement slurry may be mixed in accordance with standard practice and pumped into the wellbore. Then the drill string will preferably be reciprocated at approximately a stroke rate of one stand of approximately 10 meters over a period of 2 to 5 minutes. Furthermore, a 5 percent solution of sugar water (a cement retarder) or other retarder if needed may be occasionally pumped into the wellbore. The example above is a laboratory formulation and is not meant to be limiting. Persons skilled in the art can modify the formulation based on field criteria. For example, a different formulation may or may not contain steel, carbon or other types of fibers, a retarder, a fluid-loss additive, and different amounts of calcium chloride. All suitable settable materials, including, for example, epoxy resins, are intended to be within the scope of the invention. Pipe movement and circulation may continue for a period of time until the settable material has gained sufficient strength that the mud weight can be increased and drilling resumed. Most likely, this period of time would take less than 48 hours, and may be significantly shorter, depending on the chemistry of the settable material and wellbore conditions. Persons skilled in the art will recognize the ability to determine the amount of time needed for particular materials to favorably set under certain conditions from laboratory testing and field work. The laboratory results can then be applied to a field wellbore. Once the settable material has hardened, the pilot bit and adjustable reamer could be used to dress the inner diameter of the settable-material liner, as needed. As illustrated in FIG. 4(c), after the monobore cast-in-place liner has been created over an interval, the drilling may continue and a new section of the wellbore may be drilled if necessary. The process of drilling/reaming and creating a monobore vast-in-place liner may be repeated until the well reaches the planned total depth. A third embodiment, as shown in FIG. 3 will now be discussed. In this embodiment, a sacrificial liner is provided inside the wellbore (step 301). An example of a sacrificial liner is disclosed in European Patent Application No. 1,300,545 A1. The problems with the prior art sacrificial liners includes the time and expense of running and removing the inner pipe inside the liner. This inner string also creates additional complexity and risk of trouble. We have discovered that cement can be pumped through a sacrificial liner without a pipe inside the liner. This eliminates the need for a pipe inside the liner increasing the efficiency of the process. In one embodiment, a settable material is placed outside of the liner to form a cast-in-place liner outside the sacrificial liner (step 302). The cement may be pumped through a previously cased section into the interior of a sacrificial liner without an interior pipe and at the end of the sacrificial liner the cement flows into the annulus between the sacrificial liner and interior wall of the wellbore. The cast-in-place liner and sacrificial liner are drilled out and, if necessary, reamed to create a monobore cast-in-place liner (step 303). The next interval may be drilled, if required. The embodiment will be discussed in more detail below. FIGS. 5(a), 5(b), 5(c), 5(d) and 5(e) are graphical illustrations of one version of this embodiment. As shown in FIG. 5(a), a section of wellbore 3 is drilled with a drill bit 33 and reamer assembly 35 attached to a drillstring 1 and, if necessary, reamed if a wellbore is not been previously drilled. After the section of the wellbore is drilled, a sacrificial liner 41 is run in the wellbore. As shown in FIG. 5(b), the sacrificial liner, without any pipes inside the liner is preferably placed in the center of the wellbore and drillable centralizers 43 may be used to center the liner by contacting the non-cased walls of the wellbore. The liner should be an easily drillable material with a tensile strength of less than 448 Mpa (65,000 psi), more preferably less than 172 Mpa (25,000 psi) and even more preferably less than 103 Mpa (15,000 psi). However, the liner needs enough tensile strength to withstand the installation loads. Next, settable materials 10 is pumped into the wellbore 3. As shown in FIG. 5(c), the settable materials 10 is pumped through the sacrificial liner and sets around the sacrificial liner 41 but preferably not inside the liner. After the settable material has set and is hardened, a core is drilled out of the cast-in-liner and the sacrificial liner leaving a monobore cast-in-place liner. FIG. 5(d) is an illustration of drilling out a core of the set settable material 11 and the sacrificial liner 41 from FIG. 5(c) creating a monobore cast-in-place liner 44. The next section may be drilled. FIG. 5(e) is an illustration of the drilling after a section of the monobore cast-in-liner 44 has been installed. If necessary, the drilling is continued through the next wellbore interval by continuing the drillstring 1 rotation to allow the drill bit 33 to cut and the reamer 35 to extend the wellbore 3. For deviated (or vertical) wells, to achieve a hole in the center of the settable material, the settable material would most preferably be placed around an easily drillable, centralized, sacrificial liner. This sacrificial liner might be made of a soft material, such as aluminum or plastic. The sacrificial liner might be provided on a drill pipe and released after the settable material has been placed via standard circulation techniques. The sacrificial liner may be equipped with bow-spring centralizers to ensure that the sacrificial liner is centralized in the open hole. The bow-spring centralizers would preferably be made of an easily drillable material such as plastic or aluminum. A set retarder may optionally be circulated around the liner to help soften the settable material within the core. One purpose for the centralized sacrificial liner is to help guide the bit when the core of the settable material is drilled out because drill bits usually drill in the direction of the softest material. This will help ensure a relatively uniform wall thickness of the settable-material liner (such as, the hole in the sacrificial liner). While the sacrificial liner method requires some additional tripping of the drill string, the method avoids tapering of the borehole inner diameter. As discussed above, this is desirable for both exploration and development wells. Furthermore, the cost of lining the borehole should still be less than the alternatives. This is because the material costs will be lower (no steel casing required) and drill pipe can be tripped much faster than a casing or liner. The resulting borehole liner from any of the above embodiments does not require running any additional steel liner or casing strings, including steel liners requiring expansion. As a result, this lining method can line the borehole much more rapidly and at much less cost than preexisting methods. Secondly, the borehole liner system disclosed herein may yield a true monobore (constant inner diameter) wellbore and does not rely on threaded connections that must be expanded and thus are subject to leakage and capacity reductions. Furthermore, the proposed solution can much more readily accommodate imperfections in borehole quality as compared to other alternatives such as the solid expandable liners. In addition, this liner does not require altering the pressure profile of the drilling fluid to meet the earth's pore and fracture gradients. Rather, by providing a solid borehole lining, the proposed method allows the fracture gradient to be increased based on the burst capacity of the settable material (backed up by the formation strength). Also, the proposed solution does not require high velocity injection of cement into the surrounding soil or rotation of a tool to create a centrifugal force on a soil-cement mixture. Wellbores that utilize this method may be used to produce naturally occurring hydrocarbons (such as, crude oil, natural gas, and associated fluids). Produced hydrocarbons may then be transported by, for example, pipeline, transport ship, or barge and then moved to a refinery. The oil and gas may then be refined into usable petroleum products such as, for example, natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, gasoline, jet fuel, diesel fuel, heating oil or other petroleum products. The method is also applicable to water, gas, or other types of injection wells.	E	E21	E21B	7	20
11596554	US20080033125A1-20080207	Transition Metal Compounds for Olefin Polymerization and Oligomerization	ACCEPTED	20080123	20080207		[]	B01J3100	["B01J3100", "C08F470"]	7741240	20070730	20100622	526	114000	78195.0	LU	C	[{"inventor_name_last": "Solan", "inventor_name_first": "Gregory", "inventor_city": "Leicestershire", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "GB"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Pelletier", "inventor_name_first": "Jeremie", "inventor_city": "St Andrews", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "GB"}]	This invention relates to new transition metal catalyst compounds represented by the formula (I): where: M and M′ are, independently, a group 8, 9, 10 or 11 transition metal, preferably Ni, Co, Pd, Cu or Fe; each R group is, independently, is, hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent R groups may join together to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; R′ is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent R groups may join together with R′ to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; each X group is, independently, is, hydrogen, a halogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent X groups may join together to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; m and m′ are, independently, 0, 1, 2, or 3; z and z′ are, independently, 0, 1, 2, or 3; N is nitrogen; Q is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents; Q′ is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl; substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents; and L is a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituent.	1-48. (canceled) 49. A transition metal catalyst compound represented by the formula: where: M and M′ are, independently, a group 8, 9, 10 or 11 transition metal; each R group is, independently, is, hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent R groups may join together to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; R′ is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent R groups may join together with R′ to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; each X group is, independently, is, hydrogen, a halogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent X groups may join together to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; m and m′ are, independently, 0, 1, 2, or 3; z and z′ are, independently, 0, 1, 2, or 3; N is nitrogen; Q is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents; Q′ is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents; and L is a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituent. 50. The compound of claim 49 wherein M and M′ are, independently Ni, Co, Fe, Pd or Cu. 51. The compound of claim 49 wherein each R group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of C1 to C20 hydrocarbyls and C1 to C20 substituted phenyls. 52. (canceled) 53. The compound of claim 49 wherein R′ is selected from the group consisting of C1 to C20 hydrocarbyls and C1 to C20 substituted phenyls. 54. (canceled) 55. The compound of claim 49 wherein each Q and Q′ is, independently, selected from the group consisting of C1 to C20 hydrocarbyls and C1 to C20 substituted phenyls. 56. (canceled) 57. The compound of claim 49 wherein each X is, independently, selected from the group consisting of chlorine, bromine, fluorine, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, t-butyl, pentyl, hexyl, phenyl, and methylphenyl. 58. (canceled) 59. The compound of claim 49 wherein L is an aryl group. 60.-72. (canceled) 73. The compound of claim 49 wherein each R, R′, Q and Q′ is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, and phenyl. 74. The compound of claim 49 wherein L is selected from the group consisting of: 1) a monoaryl unit unsubstituted, partially substituted or fully substituted with a number of R substituents on the ring, 2) a fused aryl unit selected from the group consisting of the C10 to C22 fused aromatic hydrocarbyl units, unsubstituted, partially substituted or fully substituted with a number of R substituents on the ring, 3) two aryl units bridged by a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group, where the aryl units may be unsubstituted, partially substituted or fully substituted with a number of R substituents on the ring, 4) two aryl units bridged by an unsaturated hydrocarbon group, where the aryl units may be unsubstituted, partially substituted or fully substituted with a number of R substituents on the ring, 5) two aryl rings bridged by a fused aryl unit selected from the fused aryl units having ten or more carbon atoms, unsubstituted, partially substituted or fully substituted with a number of R substituents on of the rings, 6) two aryl rings bridged by a polyaryl unit in which the polyaryl unit is selected from the group consisting of one or more aromatic rings, unsubstituted, partially substituted or fully substituted with a number of R substituents on the rings, 7) two aryl rings bridged by a methylene unit in which the methylene unit contains one or two R groups and where the aryl units may be unsubstituted, partially substituted or fully substituted with a number of R substituents on the ring, 8) two diaryl units bridged by a heteroatom X (X═O, NR, PR, S, BR, AlR, SiR2) in which a number of R substituents may be on the heteroatom and where the aryl units may be unsubstituted, partially substituted or fully substituted with a number of R substituents on the ring, 9) two aryl units bridged by a heteroatom or hetroatom-containing fragment X (X═O, NR, PR, S, BR, AlR, SiR2) and one or more hydrocarbon sections, selected from the group consisting of C1 to C30 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C30 substituted phenyls, and where the aryl units may be unsubstituted, partially substituted or fully substituted with a number of R substituents on the ring, 10) two aryl units bridged by one or more 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocyclic rings containing one or more heteroatoms X (X═O, NR, BR), where the internal rings can be unsubstituted, partially substituted or fully substituted and saturated, partially unsaturated or aromatic, 11) two aryl units bridged by a metallocene section in which the aromatic rings can be unsubstituted, partially substituted or fully substituted with a number of R substituents on the aryl or the cyclopentadienyl and the metal is selected from Group 4 to Group 9 of the Periodic Table, and 12) two aryl units bridged by an α-diimine, a iminopyridine, a bis(imino)pyridine or a polypyridine group coordinated to a metal dihalide where the metal is selected from Group 8 to Group 11 of the Periodic Table, where the imino carbons or the pyridine rings can be unsubstituted, partially substituted or fully substituted with a number of R substituents, and αwhere the aryl units may be unsubstituted, partially substituted or fully substituted with a number of R substituents on the ring on various positions of the aryl, where each R group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen, a halogen, C1 to C30 hydrocarbyls, and C1 to C30 substituted phenyls. 75. The compound of claim 74 where each R group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen, ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, and methylphenyl. 76. The compound of claim 49 wherein L is selected from the group consisting of aryl groups represented by the formulae: where the dashed lines indicate the bonds to the nitrogen atoms in the formula in claim 1, X is O, NR, PR, S, BR, AlR, SiR2; T=O, NR, BR each R group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, halogen, C1 to C30 hydrocarbyls, and C1 to C30 substituted phenyls; M1 is transition metal selected from Groups 4 to 9; M2 is transition metal selected from Groups 8 to 11; and M3 is transition metal selected from Groups 8 to 11. 77. (canceled) 78. A catalyst system comprising activator and a transition metal catalyst compound represented by the formula: where: M and M′ are, independently, a group 8, 9, 10 or 11 transition metal; each R group is, independently, is, hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent R groups may join together to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; R′ is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent R groups may join together with R′ to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; each X group is, independently, is, hydrogen, a halogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent X groups may join together to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; m and m′ are, independently, 0, 1, 2, or 3; z and z′ are, independently, 0, 1, 2, or 3; N is nitrogen; Q is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents; Q′ is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents; and L is a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituent. 79. The catalyst system of claim 78 wherein M and M′ are, independently Ni, Co, Pd, Cu or Fe. 80. The catalyst system of claim 78 wherein each R group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C1 to C20 hydrocarbyls, and C1 to C20 substituted phenyls. 81. (canceled) 82. The catalyst system of claim 78 wherein R′ is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C1 to C20 hydrocarbyls, and C1 to C20 substituted phenyls. 83. (canceled) 84. The catalyst system of claim 78 wherein each Q and Q′ is, independently, selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C1 to C20 hydrocarbyls, and C1 to C20 substituted phenyls. 85. (canceled) 86. The catalyst system of claim 78 wherein each X is, independently, selected from the group consisting of chlorine, bromine, fluorine, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, t-butyl, pentyl, hexyl, phenyl, and methylphenyl. 87. The catalyst system of claim 78 wherein L comprises an aryl group. 88.-101. (canceled) 102. The catalyst system of claim 78 wherein each R, R′, Q and Q′ is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, and phenyl. 103. The catalyst system of claim 78 wherein the activator is an alumoxane. 104. The catalyst system of claim 78 wherein the activator is a non-coordinating anion. 105. The catalyst system of claim 78 wherein the activator is selected from the group consisting of trimethylammonium tetraphenylborate, triethylammonium tetraphenylborate, tripropylammonium tetraphenylborate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetraphenylborate, tri(tert-butyl)ammonium tetraphenylborate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetraphenylborate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetraphenylborate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetraphenylborate, trimethylammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tri(sec-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, trimethylammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, dimethyl(tert-butyl)ammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, trimethylammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, tri(tert-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, trimethylammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, tri(tert-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, trimethylammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, tri(tert-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, di-(iso-propyl)ammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, and dicyclohexylammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate; tri(o-tolyl)phosphonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tri(2,6-dimethylphenyl)phosphonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tropillium tetraphenylborate, triphenylcarbenium tetraphenylborate, triphenylphosphonium tetraphenylborate, triethylsilylium tetraphenylborate, benzene(diazonium)tetraphenylborate, tropillium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, benzene(diazonium) tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tropillium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, benzene(diazonium) tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, tropillium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, benzene(diazonium) tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, tropillium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, benzene(diazonium) tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, tropillium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, and benzene(diazonium) tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate. 106. The catalyst system of claim 78 wherein the activator is selected from the group consisting of: N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, and triphenylcarbenium tetra(perfluorophenyl)borate. 107. The catalyst system of claim 78 wherein the activator is selected from the group consisting of: methyl alumoxane, modified methyl alumoxane, ethyl alumoxane, iso-butyl alumoxane, triphenyl boron, tris-perfluorophenyl boron, tris-perfluorophenyl aluminum, dimethylanilinium tetrakis perfluorophenyl borate, triphenyl carbonium tetrakis perfluorophenyl borate, dimethylanilinium tetrakis perfluorophenyl aluminate, and trisperfluoronaphthyl boron. 108. A method to polymerize unsaturated monomers comprising contacting one or more monomers with a catalyst system comprising an activator and a transition metal catalyst compound represented by the formula: where: M and M′ are, independently, a group 8, 9, 10 or 11 transition metal; each R group is, independently, is, hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent R groups may join together to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; R′ is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent R groups may join together with R′ to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; each X group is, independently, is, hydrogen, a halogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent X groups may join together to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; m and m′ are, independently, 0, 1, 2, or 3; z and z′ are, independently, 0, 1, 2, or 3; N is nitrogen; Q is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents; Q′ is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents; and L is a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituent. 109. The method of claim 108 wherein M and M′ are, independently Ni, Co or Fe. 110. The method of claim 108 wherein each R group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of C1 to C20 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C20 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof. 111. (canceled) 112. The method of claim 108 wherein R′ is selected from the group consisting of C1 to C20 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C20 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof. 113. (canceled) 114. The method of claim 108 wherein each Q and Q′ is, independently, selected from the group consisting of C1 to C20 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C20 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof. 115. (canceled) 116. The method of claim 108 wherein each X is, independently, selected from the group consisting of chlorine, bromine, fluorine, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, t-butyl, pentyl, hexyl, phenyl, and methylphenyl. 117. The method of claim 108 wherein L comprises an aryl group. 118.-131. (canceled) 132. The method of claim 108 wherein each R, R′, Q and Q′ is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, and phenyl. 133. The method of claim 108 wherein the activator is an alumoxane. 134. The method of claim 108 wherein the activator is a non-coordinating anion. 135. The method of claim 108 wherein the activator is selected from the group consisting of trimethylammonium tetraphenylborate, triethylammonium tetraphenylborate, tripropylammonium tetraphenylborate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetraphenylborate, tri(tert-butyl)ammonium tetraphenylborate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetraphenylborate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetraphenylborate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetraphenylborate, trimethylammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tri(sec-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, trimethylammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, dimethyl(tert-butyl)ammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, trimethylammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, tri(tert-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, trimethylammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, tri(tert-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, trimethylammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, tri(tert-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, di-(iso-propyl)ammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, and dicyclohexylammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate; tri(o-tolyl)phosphonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tri(2,6-dimethylphenyl)phosphonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tropillium tetraphenylborate, triphenylcarbenium tetraphenylborate, triphenylphosphonium tetraphenylborate, triethylsilylium tetraphenylborate, benzene(diazonium)tetraphenylborate, tropillium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, benzene(diazonium) tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tropillium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, benzene(diazonium) tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, tropillium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, benzene(diazonium) tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, tropillium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, benzene(diazonium) tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, tropillium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, and benzene(diazonium) tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate. 136. The method of claim 108 wherein the activator is selected from the group consisting of: N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, and triphenylcarbenium tetra(perfluorophenyl)borate. 137. The method of claim 108 wherein the activator is selected from the group consisting of: methyl alumoxane, modified methyl alumoxane, ethyl alumoxane, iso-butyl alumoxane, triphenyl boron, tris-perfluorophenyl boron, tris-perfluorophenyl aluminum, dimethylanilinium tetrakis perfluorophenyl borate, triphenyl carbonium tetrakis perfluorophenyl borate, dimethylanilinium tetrakis perfluorophenyl aluminate, and trisperfluoronaphthyl boron. 138. The method of claim 108 wherein the monomer comprises one or more olefins. 139. The method of claim 108 wherein the olefins comprise ethylene. 140. The method of claim 108 wherein the olefins comprises propylene. 141. The method of claim 108 wherein the polymerization occurs in the gas phase. 142. The method of claim 108 wherein the polymerization occurs in the solution phase. 143. The method of claim 108 wherein the polymerization occurs in the slurry phase. 144. The method of claim 108 wherein the polymerization occurs at a temperature above 70° C. and a pressure above 5 MPa. 145. The method of claim 108 wherein the polymerization occurs at a temperature above 70° C. and a pressure above 5 MPa and the monomer comprises propylene. 146. A method to oligomerize an unsaturated monomer comprising contacting one or more monomers with a catalyst system comprising an activator and a transition metal catalyst compound represented by the formula: where: M and M′ are, independently, a group 8, 9, 10 or 11 transition metal; each R group is, independently, is, hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent R groups may join together to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; R′ is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent R groups may join together with R′ to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; each X group is, independently, is, hydrogen, a halogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent X groups may join together to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; m and m′ are, independently, 0, 1, 2, or 3; z and z′ are, independently, 0, 1, 2, or 3; N is nitrogen; Q is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents; Q′ is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents; and L is a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituent. 147. The method of claim 146 wherein M and M′ are, independently Ni, Co or Fe. 148. The method of claim 146 wherein each R group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of C1 to C20 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C20 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof. 149. (canceled) 150. The method of claim 146 wherein R′ is selected from the group consisting of C1 to C20 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C20 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof. 151. (canceled) 152. The method of claim 146 wherein each Q and Q′ is, independently, selected from the group consisting of C1 to C20 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C20 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof. 153. (canceled) 154. The method of claim 146 wherein each X is, independently, selected from the group consisting of chlorine, bromine, fluorine, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, t-butyl, pentyl, hexyl, phenyl, and methylphenyl. 155. The method of claim 146 wherein L comprises an aryl group. 156.-169. (canceled) 170. The method of claim 146 wherein each R, R′, Q and Q′ is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, and phenyl. 171. The method of claim 146 wherein the activator is an alumoxane. 172. The method of claim 146 wherein the activator is a non-coordinating anion. 173. The method of claim 146 wherein the activator is selected from the group consisting of trimethylammonium tetraphenylborate, triethylammonium tetraphenylborate, tripropylammonium tetraphenylborate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetraphenylborate, tri(tert-butyl)ammonium tetraphenylborate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetraphenylborate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetraphenylborate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetraphenylborate, trimethylammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tri(sec-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, trimethylammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, dimethyl(tert-butyl)ammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, trimethylammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, tri(tert-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, trimethylammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, tri(tert-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, trimethylammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, tri(tert-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, di-(iso-propyl)ammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, and dicyclohexylammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate; tri(o-tolyl)phosphonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tri(2,6-dimethylphenyl)phosphonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tropillium tetraphenylborate, triphenylcarbenium tetraphenylborate, triphenylphosphonium tetraphenylborate, triethylsilylium tetraphenylborate, benzene(diazonium)tetraphenylborate, tropillium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, benzene(diazonium) tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tropillium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, benzene(diazonium) tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, tropillium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, benzene(diazonium) tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, tropillium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, benzene(diazonium) tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, tropillium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, and benzene(diazonium) tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate. 174.-175. (canceled) 176. The method of claim 146 wherein the monomer comprises one or more olefins. 177. The method of claim 146 wherein the olefins comprise ethylene. 178. The method of claim 146 wherein the olefins comprises propylene.	<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>As is well known, various processes and catalysts exist for the oligomerization, homopolymerization or copolymerization of olefins. New polymerization catalysts are of great interest in the industry because they offer many new opportunities for providing new processes and products to the markets in a cheaper and more efficient manner. The following invention relates to new polymerization technology based upon new transition metal catalyst compounds. Additional references of interest include: 1 H. Suzuki, K. Nakamura and M. Takeshima, Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 1971, 44, 2248. 2 J. H. Oskam, H. H. Fox, K. B. Yap, D. H. McConville, R. O'Dell, B. J. Lichtenstein and R. R. Schrock, J. Organomet. Chem., 1993, 459, 185. 3 P. Bamfield and P. M. Quan, Synthesis, 1978, 537. 4 C. A. Hunter, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1992, 114, 5303. 5 J. Uenishi, T. Tanaka, K. Nishiwaki, S. Wakabayashi, S. Oae and H. Tsukube, J. Org. Chem., 1993, 58, 4382. 6 J. Uenishi, T. Hiraoka, S. Hata, K. Nishiwaki and O. Yonemitsu, J. Org. Chem., 1998, 63, 2481.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention relates to new transition metal catalyst compounds represented by the formula (I): where: M and M′ are, independently, a group 8, 9, 10 or 11 transition metal, preferably Ni, Co or Fe; each R group is, independently, is, hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent R groups may join together to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; R′ is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent R groups may join together with R′ to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; each X group is, independently, is, hydrogen, a halogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent X groups may join together to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; m and m′ are, independently, 0, 1, 2, or 3; z and z′ are, independently, 0, 1, 2, or 3; N is nitrogen; Q is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents; Q′ is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents; and L is a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituent. This invention further relates to a catalyst system comprised of the above transition metal compounds combined with an activator and to a process to polymerize unsaturated monomers using such catalyst system.	FIELD This invention relates to new transition metal compounds useful as polymerization and or oligomerization catalysts. BACKGROUND As is well known, various processes and catalysts exist for the oligomerization, homopolymerization or copolymerization of olefins. New polymerization catalysts are of great interest in the industry because they offer many new opportunities for providing new processes and products to the markets in a cheaper and more efficient manner. The following invention relates to new polymerization technology based upon new transition metal catalyst compounds. Additional references of interest include: 1 H. Suzuki, K. Nakamura and M. Takeshima, Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 1971, 44, 2248. 2 J. H. Oskam, H. H. Fox, K. B. Yap, D. H. McConville, R. O'Dell, B. J. Lichtenstein and R. R. Schrock, J. Organomet. Chem., 1993, 459, 185. 3 P. Bamfield and P. M. Quan, Synthesis, 1978, 537. 4 C. A. Hunter, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1992, 114, 5303. 5 J. Uenishi, T. Tanaka, K. Nishiwaki, S. Wakabayashi, S. Oae and H. Tsukube, J. Org. Chem., 1993, 58, 4382. 6 J. Uenishi, T. Hiraoka, S. Hata, K. Nishiwaki and O. Yonemitsu, J. Org. Chem., 1998, 63, 2481. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to new transition metal catalyst compounds represented by the formula (I): where: M and M′ are, independently, a group 8, 9, 10 or 11 transition metal, preferably Ni, Co or Fe; each R group is, independently, is, hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent R groups may join together to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; R′ is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent R groups may join together with R′ to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; each X group is, independently, is, hydrogen, a halogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent X groups may join together to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; m and m′ are, independently, 0, 1, 2, or 3; z and z′ are, independently, 0, 1, 2, or 3; N is nitrogen; Q is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents; Q′ is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents; and L is a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituent. This invention further relates to a catalyst system comprised of the above transition metal compounds combined with an activator and to a process to polymerize unsaturated monomers using such catalyst system. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a representation of the molecular structure of 27a′ (example 38). FIG. 2 is a representation of the molecular structure of 27b′ (example 39). FIG. 3 is a representation of the molecular structure of 27c′ (example 40). FIG. 4 is a representation of the molecular structure of 28′ (example 41). FIG. 5 is a representation of the molecular structure of 35a′ (example 51). FIG. 6 is a representation of the molecular structure of 35b′ (example 52). DEFINITIONS As used herein, the numbering scheme for the Periodic Table Groups is the new notation as set out in CHEMICAL AND ENGINEERING NEWS, 63(5), 27 (1985). As used herein, Me is methyl, t-Bu and tBu are tertiary butyl, iPr and iPr are isopropyl, Cy is cyclohexyl, and Ph is phenyl. The terms “hydrocarbyl radical,” “hydrocarbyl” and hydrocarbyl group” are used interchangeably throughout this document. Likewise the terms “group” and “substituent” are also used interchangeably in this document. For purposes of this disclosure, “hydrocarbyl radical” is defined to be C1-C100 radicals, that may be linear, branched, or cyclic, and when cyclic, aromatic or non-aromatic, and include substituted hydrocarbyl radicals, halocarbyl radicals, and substituted halocarbyl radicals, silylcarbyl radicals, and germylcarbyl radicals as these terms are defined below. Substituted hydrocarbyl radicals are radicals in which at least one hydrogen atom has been substituted with at least one functional group such as NR2, OR, SeR, TeR, PR2, AsR2, SbR2, SR, BR2, SiR3, GeR3, SnR3, PbR3 and the like or where at least one non-hydrocarbon atom or group has been inserted within the hydrocarbyl radical, such as —O—, —S—, —Se—, —Te—, —N(R)—, ═N—, —P(R)—, ═P—, —As(R)—, ═As—, —Sb(R)—, ═Sb—, —B(R)—, ═B—, —Si(R)2—, —Ge(R)2—, —Sn(R)2—, —Pb(R)2— and the like, where R* is independently a hydrocarbyl or halocarbyl radical, and two or more R* may join together to form a substituted or unsubstituted saturated, partially unsaturated or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic ring structure. Halocarbyl radicals are radicals in which one or more hydrocarbyl hydrogen atoms have been substituted with at least one halogen (e.g. F, Cl, Br, I) or halogen-containing group (e.g. CF3). Substituted halocarbyl radicals are radicals in which at least one halocarbyl hydrogen or halogen atom has been substituted with at least one functional group such as NR2, OR, SeR, TeR, PR2, AsR2, SbR2, SR, BR2, SiR3, GeR3, SnR3, PbR3 and the like or where at least one non-carbon atom or group has been inserted within the halocarbyl radical such as —O—, —S—, —Se—, —Te—, —N(R)—, ═N—, —P(R)—, ═P—, —As(R)—, ═As—, —Sb(R)—, ═Sb—, —B(R)—, —B—, —Si(R)2—, —Ge(R)2—, —Sn(R)2—, —Pb(R)2— and the like, where R* is independently a hydrocarbyl or halocarbyl radical provided that at least one halogen atom remains on the original halocarbyl radical. Additionally, two or more R* may join together to form a substituted or unsubstituted saturated, partially unsaturated or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic ring structure. Silylcarbyl radicals (also called silylcarbyls) are groups in which the silyl functionality is bonded directly to the indicated atom or atoms. Examples include SiH3, SiH2R, SiHR2, SiR3, SiH2(OR), SiH(OR)2, Si(OR)3, SiH2(NR2), SiH(NR2)2, Si(NR2)3, and the like where R is independently a hydrocarbyl or halocarbyl radical and two or more R* may join together to form a substituted or unsubstituted saturated, partially unsaturated or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic ring structure. Germylcarbyl radicals (also called germylcarbyls) are groups in which the germyl functionality is bonded directly to the indicated atom or atoms. Examples include GeH3, GeH2R, GeHR2, GeR53, GeH2(OR), GeH(OR)2, Ge(OR)3, GeH2(NR2), GeH(NR2)2, Ge(NR2)3, and the like where R* is independently a hydrocarbyl or halocarbyl radical and two or more R* may join together to form a substituted or unsubstituted saturated, partially unsaturated or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic ring structure. Polar radicals or polar groups are groups in which the heteroatom functionality is bonded directly to the indicated atom or atoms. They include heteroatoms of groups 1-17 of the periodic table either alone or connected to other elements by covalent or other interactions such as ionic, van der Waals forces, or hydrogen bonding. Examples of functional groups include carboxylic acid, acid halide, carboxylic ester, carboxylic salt, carboxylic anhydride, aldehyde and their chalcogen (Group 14) analogues, alcohol and phenol, ether, peroxide and hydroperoxide, carboxylic amide, hydrazide and imide, amidine and other nitrogen analogues of amides, nitrile, amine and imine, azo, nitro, other nitrogen compounds, sulfur acids, selenium acids, thiols, sulfides, sulfoxides, sulfones, phosphines, phosphates, other phosphorus compounds, silanes, boranes, borates, alanes, aluminates. Functional groups may also be taken broadly to include organic polymer supports or inorganic support material such as alumina, and silica. Preferred examples of polar groups include NR2, OR, SeR, TeR, PR2, AsR2, SbR2, SR, BR2, SnR3, PbR3 and the like where R is independently a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl or substituted halocarbyl radical as defined above and two R* may join together to form a substituted or unsubstituted saturated, partially unsaturated or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic ring structure. In some embodiments, the hydrocarbyl radical is independently selected from methyl, ethyl, ethenyl and isomers of propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, heptyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, tridecyl, tetradecyl, pentadecyl, hexadecyl, heptadecyl, octadecyl, nonadecyl, eicosyl, heneicosyl, docosyl, tricosyl, tetracosyl, pentacosyl, hexacosyl, heptacosyl, octacosyl, nonacosyl, triacontyl, propenyl, butenyl, pentenyl, hexenyl, heptenyl, octenyl, nonenyl, decenyl, undecenyl, dodecenyl, tridecenyl, tetradecenyl, pentadecenyl, hexadecenyl, heptadecenyl, octadecenyl, nonadecenyl, eicosenyl, heneicosenyl, docosenyl, tricosenyl, tetracosenyl, pentacosenyl, hexacosenyl, heptacosenyl, octacosenyl, nonacosenyl, triacontenyl, propynyl, butynyl, pentynyl, hexynyl, heptynyl, octynyl, nonynyl, decynyl, undecynyl, dodecynyl, tridecynyl, tetradecynyl, pentadecynyl, hexadecynyl, heptadecynyl, octadecynyl, nonadecynyl, eicosynyl, heneicosynyl, docosynyl, tricosynyl, tetracosynyl, pentacosynyl, hexacosynyl, heptacosynyl, octacosynyl, nonacosynyl, triacontynyl, butadienyl, pentadienyl, hexadienyl, heptadienyl, octadienyl, nonadienyl, and decadienyl. Also included are isomers of saturated, partially unsaturated and aromatic cyclic and polycyclic structures wherein the radical may additionally be subjected to the types of substitutions described above. Examples include phenyl, methylphenyl, dimethylphenyl, ethylphenyl, diethylphenyl, propylphenyl, dipropylphenyl, benzyl, methylbenzyl, naphthyl, anthracenyl, cyclopentyl, cyclopentenyl, cyclohexyl, cyclohexenyl, methylcyclohexyl, cycloheptyl, cycloheptenyl, norbornyl, norbornenyl, adamantyl and the like. For this disclosure, when a radical is listed, it indicates that radical type and all other radicals formed when that radical type is subjected to the substitutions defined above. Alkyl, alkenyl and alkynyl radicals listed include all isomers including where appropriate cyclic isomers, for example, butyl includes n-butyl, 2-methylpropyl, 1-methylpropyl, tert-butyl, and cyclobutyl (and analogous substituted cyclopropyls); pentyl includes n-pentyl, cyclopentyl, 1-methylbutyl, 2-methylbutyl, 3-methylbutyl, 1-ethylpropyl, and neopentyl (and analogous substituted cyclobutyls and cyclopropyls); butenyl includes E and Z forms of 1-butenyl, 2-butenyl, 3-butenyl, 1-methyl-1-propenyl, 1-methyl-2-propenyl, 2-methyl-1-propenyl and 2-methyl-2-propenyl (and cyclobutenyls and cyclopropenyls). Cyclic compound having substitutions include all isomer forms, for example, methylphenyl would include ortho-methylphenyl, meta-methylphenyl and para-methylphenyl; dimethylphenyl would include 2,3-dimethylphenyl, 2,4-dimethylphenyl, 2,5-dimethylphenyl, 2,6-diphenylmethyl, 3,4-dimethylphenyl, and 3,5-dimethylphenyl. A “ring carbon atom” is a carbon atom that is part of a cyclic ring structure. By this definition, an indenyl ligand has nine ring carbon atoms. A “bondable ring position” is a ring position that is capable of bearing a substituent or bridging substituent. For example, cyclopenta[b]thienyl has five bondable ring positions (at the carbon atoms) and one non-bondable ring position (the sulfur atom); cyclopenta[b]pyrrolyl has six bondable ring positions (at the carbon atoms and at the nitrogen atom). In the context of this document, “homopolymerization” would produce a polymer made from one monomer. For example, homopolymerization of propylene would produce homopolypropylene. Homopolymerization of ethylene would produce homopolyethylene. It should be noted, however, that some of the catalysts of this invention homopolymerize ethylene or propylene to non-traditional “polyethylene” and “polypropylene” structures, respectively. Likewise, “copolymerization” would produce polymers with more than one monomer type. For example, ethylene copolymers include polymers of ethylene with α-olefins, cyclic olefins and diolefins, vinylaromatic olefins, α-olefinic diolefins, substituted α-olefins, and/or acetylenically unsaturated monomers. Non-limiting examples of α-olefins include propylene, 1-butene, 1-pentene, 1-hexene, 1-heptene, 1-octene, 1-nonene, 1-decene, 1-undecene 1-dodecene, 1-tridecene, 1-tetradecene, 1-pentadecene, 1-hexadecene, 1-heptadecene, 1-octadecene, 1-nonadecene, 1-eicosene, 1-heneicosene, 1-docosene, 1-tricosene, 1-tetracosene, 1-pentacosene, 1-hexacosene, 1-heptacosene, 1-octacosene, 1-nonacosene, 1-triacontene, 4-methyl-1-pentene, 3-methyl-1-pentene, 5-methyl-1-nonene, 3,5,5-trimethyl-1-hexene, vinylcyclohexane, and vinylnorbornane. Non-limiting examples of cyclic olefins and diolefins include cyclobutene, cyclopentene, cyclohexene, cycloheptene, cyclooctene, cyclononene, cyclodecene, norbornene, 4-methylnorbornene, 2-methylcyclopentene, 4-methylcyclopentene, vinylcyclohexane, norbornadiene, dicyclopentadiene, 5-ethylidene-2-norbornene, vinylcyclohexene, 5-vinyl-2-norbornene, 1,3-divinylcyclopentane, 1,2-divinylcyclohexane, 1,3-divinylcyclohexane, 1,4-divinylcyclohexane, 1,5-divinylcyclooctane, 1-allyl-4-vinylcyclohexane, 1,4-diallylcyclohexane, 1-allyl-5-vinylcyclooctane, and 1,5-diallylcyclooctane. Non-limiting examples of vinylaromatic olefins include styrene, para-methylstyrene, para-t-butylstyrene, vinylnaphthylene, vinyltoluene, and divinylbenzene. Non-limiting examples of α-olefinic dienes include 1,4-hexadiene, 1,5-hexadiene, 1,5-heptadiene, 1,6-heptadiene, 6-methyl-1,6-heptadiene, 1,7-octadiene, 7-methyl-1,7-octadiene, 1,9-decadiene, 1,11-dodecene, 1,13-tetradecene and 9-methyl-1,9-decadiene. Substituted α-olefins (also called functional group containing α-olefins) include those containing at least one non-carbon Group 13 to 17 atom bound to a carbon atom of the substituted α-olefin where such substitution if silicon may be adjacent to the double bond or terminal to the double bond, or anywhere in between, and where inclusion of non-carbon and non-silicon atoms such as for example B, O, S, Se, Te, N, P, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, F, Cl, Br, or I, are contemplated, where such non-carbon or non-silicon moieties are sufficiently far removed from the double bond so as not to interfere with the coordination polymerization reaction with the catalyst and so to retain the generally hydrocarbyl characteristic. By sufficiently far removed from the double bond we intend that the number of carbon atoms, or the number of carbon and silicon atoms, separating the double bond and the non-carbon or non-silicon moiety may be 6 or greater, e.g. 7, or 8, or 9, or 10, or 11, or 12, or 13, or 14 or more. The number of such carbon atoms, or carbon and silicon atoms, is counted from immediately adjacent to the double bond to immediately adjacent to the non-carbon or non-silicon moiety. Examples include allyltrimethylsilane, divinylsilane, 8,8,8-trifluoro-1-octene, 8-methoxyoct-1-ene, 8-methylsulfanyloct-1-ene, 8-dimethylaminooct-1-ene, or combinations thereof. The use of functional group-containing α-olefins where the functional group is closer to the double bond is also within the scope of embodiments of the invention when such olefins may be incorporated in the same manner as are their α-olefin analogs. See, “Metallocene Catalysts and Borane Reagents in The Block/Graft Reactions of Polyolefins”, T. C. Chung, et al, Polym. Mater. Sci. Eng., v. 73, p. 463 (1995), and the masked α-olefin monomers of U.S. Pat. No. 5,153,282. Such monomers permit the preparation of both functional-group containing copolymers capable of subsequent derivatization, and of functional macromers which may be used as graft and block type polymeric segments. Copolymerization can also incorporate α-olefinic macromonomers of up to 2000 mer units. For purposes of this disclosure, the term oligomer refers to compositions having 2-75 mer units and the term polymer refers to compositions having 76 or more mer units. A mer is defined as a unit of an oligomer or polymer that originally corresponded to the olefin(s) used in the oligomerization or polymerization reaction. For example, the mer of polyethylene would be ethylene. The term “catalyst system” is defined to mean a catalyst precursor/activator pair. When “catalyst system” is used to describe such a pair before activation, it means the unactivated catalyst (precatalyst) together with an activator and, optionally, a co-activator. When it is used to describe such a pair after activation, it means the activated catalyst and the activator or other charge-balancing moiety. The transition metal compound may be neutral as in a precatalyst, or a charged species with a counter ion as in an activated catalyst system. Catalyst precursor is also often referred to as precatalyst, catalyst, catalyst precursor and transition metal compound or complex. These words are used interchangeably. Activator and cocatalyst are also used interchangeably. A scavenger is a compound that is typically added to facilitate oligomerization or polymerization by scavenging impurities. Some scavengers may also act as activators and may be referred to as co-activators. A co-activator, that is not a scavenger, may also be used in conjunction with an activator in order to form an active catalyst. In some embodiments a co-activator can be pre-mixed with the transition metal compound to form an alkylated transition metal compound, also referred to as an alkylated invention compound. Noncoordinating anion (NCA) is defined to mean an anion either that does not coordinate to the catalyst metal cation or that does coordinate to the metal cation, but only weakly. An NCA coordinates weakly enough that a neutral Lewis base, such as an olefinically or acetylenically unsaturated monomer can displace it from the catalyst center. Any metal or metalloid that can form a compatible, weakly coordinating complex may be used or contained in the noncoordinating anion. Suitable metals include, but are not limited to, aluminum, gold, and platinum. Suitable metalloids include, but are not limited to, boron, aluminum, phosphorus, and silicon. A stoichiometric activator can be either neutral or ionic. The terms ionic activator, and stoichiometric ionic activator can be used interchangeably. Likewise, the terms neutral stoichiometric activator, and Lewis acid activator can be used interchangeably. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION In a preferred embodiment, this invention relates to transition metal compounds represented by formula I, where z=0 and z′=0 as represented by the formulae (I0): where M, M′, X, m, m′, R, R′, Q, Q′, N, and L are as defined above. In a preferred embodiment, this invention relates to transition metal compounds represented by formula I, where z=0 and z′=1 as represented by the formulae (I1): where M, M′, X, m, m′, R, R′, Q, Q′, N, and L are as defined above. In a preferred embodiment, this invention relates to transition metal compounds represented by formula I, where z=2 and z′=2 as represented by the formulae (I2): where M, M′, X, m, m′, R, R′Q, Q′, N, and L are as defined above. In a preferred embodiment, this invention relates to transition metal compounds represented by formula I, where z=3 and z′=3 as represented by the formulae (I3): where M, M′, X, m, m′, R, R′, Q, Q′, N, and L are as defined above. In another embodiment, z and z′ are different. For example, z may be zero and z′ may be one as represented by formulae II: where M, M′, X, m, m′, R, R′, Q, Q′, N, and L are as defined above. In a preferred embodiment, z=0 and z′=1, 2, or 3. In a preferred embodiment, z=1 and z′=1, 2, or 3. In a preferred embodiment, z=2 and z′=1, 2, or 3. In a preferred embodiment, z=3 and z′=1, 2, or 3. In a preferred embodiment, z′=0 and z=1, 2, or 3. In a preferred embodiment, z′=1 and z=1, 2, or 3. In a preferred embodiment, z′=2 and z=1, 2, or 3. In a preferred embodiment, z′=3 and z=1, 2, or 3. In a preferred embodiment this invention relates to transition metal compounds represented by formulae I, I0, I1, I2, I3, and II above where: 1) each R group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of C1 to C20 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C20 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof, preferably ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, methylphenyl; and/or 2) each R′ group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of C1 to C20 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C20 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof, preferably ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, methylphenyl; and/or 2) each Q and Q′ is, independently, selected from the group consisting of C1 to C20 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C20 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof, preferably ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, methylphenyl; and/or 3) each X is, independently, selected from the group consisting of chlorine, bromine, fluorine, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, t-butyl, pentyl, hexyl, phenyl, and methylphenyl; and/or 4) M is Fe, Co, Pd, Cu or Ni, preferably Fe, Co or Ni; and/or 5) M′ is Fe, Co, Pd, Cu or Ni, preferably Fe, Co or Ni; and/or 6) L is a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group. In one embodiment, the substituted or unsubstituted aryl group (L) is selected from the group consisting of: 1) a monoaryl unit unsubstituted, partially substituted or fully substituted with a number of R substituents on various positions on the ring, where each R group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen, a halogen, C1 to C30 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C30 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof, preferably ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, methylphenyl, a preferred example includes aryl groups represented by the formula (3): where the dashed lines indicate the bonds to the nitrogen atoms in formulae I, I0, I1, I2, I3, and II above; 2) a fused aryl unit selected from the group consisting of the C10 to C22 fused aromatic hydrocarbyl units, unsubstituted, partially substituted or fully substituted with a number of R substituents on various positions of the ring, where each R group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen, a halogen, C1 to C30 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C30 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof, preferably ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, methylphenyl, a preferred example includes aryl groups represented by the formula (4): where the dashed lines indicate the bonds to the nitrogen atoms in formulae I, I0, I1, I2, I3, and II above; 3) two aryl units bridged by a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group, selected from the group consisting of C1 to C30 hydrocarbyls, and all isomers thereof, preferably ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, and further where a number of R substituents are on various positions of the aryl rings or on the alkyl bridge, where each R group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, a halogen, C1 to C30 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C30 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof, preferably ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, methylphenyl, a preferred example includes aryl groups represented by the formula (5): where the dashed lines indicate the bonds to the nitrogen atoms in formulae I, I0, I1, I2, I3, and II above; 4) two aryl units bridged by an unsaturated hydrocarbon group (which may be substituted or unsubstituted), selected from the group consisting of C1 to C30 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C30 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof, preferably ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, methylphenyl, further where a number of R substituents are on various positions of the aryl rings or on the hydrocarbon bridge, where each R group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, a halogen, C1 to C30 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C30 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof, preferably ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, methylphenyl, a preferred example includes aryl groups represented by the formula (6): where the dashed lines indicate the bonds to the nitrogen atoms in formulae I, I0, I1, I2, I3, and II above; 5) two aryl rings bridged by a fused aryl unit selected from the fused aryl units having ten or more carbon atoms, unsubstituted, partially substituted or fully substituted with a number of R substituents on various positions of the rings, where each R group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen, a halogen, C1 to C30 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C30 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof, preferably ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, methylphenyl, a preferred example includes aryl groups represented by the formula (7): where the dashed lines indicate the bonds to the nitrogen atoms in formulae I, I0, I1, I2, I3, and II above; 6) two aryl rings bridged by a polyaryl unit in which the polyaryl unit is selected from the group consisting of one or more aromatic rings, unsubstituted, partially substituted or fully substituted with a number of R substituents on various positions of the rings, where each R group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen, a halogen, C1 to C30 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C30 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof, preferably ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, methylphenyl, a preferred example includes aryl groups represented by the formula (8): where the dashed lines indicate the bonds to the nitrogen atoms in formulae I, I0, I1, I2, I3, and II above; 7) two aryl rings bridged by a methylene unit in which the methylene unit contains one or two R groups selected from hydrogen, halogen, C1 to C30 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C30 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof, (preferably ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, methylphenyl), preferably substituted phenyl with one or more functionalized groups selected from the group consisting of halide, carbonyl, nitro, hydroxyl, amine, thiolate, carboxylic acid, ester, ether, where the R groups on the bridged aryl groups can be selected from a hydrogen, a halogen, C1 to C30 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C30 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof, preferably ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, methylphenyl, substituted phenyl, a preferred example includes aryl groups represented by the formula (9): where the dashed lines indicate the bonds to the nitrogen atoms in formulae I, I0, I1, I2, I3, and II above; 8) two diaryl units bridged by a heteroatom X (X═O, NR, PR, S, BR, AIR, SiR2) in which a number of R substituents may be on various positions on the heteroatom, where each R group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, a halogen, or C1 to C30 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C30 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof, preferably ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, methylphenyl, a preferred example includes aryl groups represented by the formula (10): where the dashed lines indicate the bonds to the nitrogen atoms in formulae I, I0, I1, I2, I3, and II above; 9) two aryl units bridged by a heteroatom or hetroatom-containing fragment X (X═O, NR, PR, S, BR, AIR, SiR2) and one or more hydrocarbon sections, selected from the group consisting of C1 to C30 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C30 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof, preferably ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, methylphenyl, where a number of R substituents are on various positions of the aryl rings, the hydrocarbon bridge or the hetereoatom, and where each R group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen, a halogen, C1 to C30 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C30 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof, preferably ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, methylphenyl, a preferred example includes aryl groups represented by the formula (II): where the dashed lines indicate the bonds to the nitrogen atoms in formulae I, I0, I1, I2, I3, and II above; 10) two aryl units bridged by one or more 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocyclic rings containing one or more heteroatoms X (X═O, NR, BR), where the internal rings can be unsubstituted, partially substituted or fully substituted and saturated, partially unsaturated or aromatic, and where a number of R substituents are on various position of the aryl rings, the hydrocarbon bridge or the hetereoatom, and where each R group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen, a halogen, C1 to C30 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C30 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof, preferably ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, methylphenyl, a preferred example includes aryl groups represented by the formula (12): where the dashed lines indicate the bonds to the nitrogen atoms in formulae I, I0, I1, I2, I3, and II above; 11) two aryl units bridged by a metallocene (comprising two cyclopentadienyl groups and a metal (M) from Group 4 to Group 9 of the Periodic Table, preferably Fe) section in which the aromatic rings can be unsubstituted, partially substituted or fully substituted with a number of R substituents on various position of the aryl or the cyclopentadienyl and where each R group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, a halogen, C1 to C30 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C30 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof, preferably ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, methylphenyl, a preferred example includes aryl groups represented by the formula (13): where the dashed lines indicate the bonds to the nitrogen atoms in formulae I, I0, I1, I2, I3, and II above; and 12) two aryl units bridged by an α-diimine, a iminopyridine, a bis(imino)pyridine or a polypyridine group coordinated to a metal dihalide where the metal (M) is selected from Group 8 to Group 11 of the Periodic Table, where the imino carbons or the pyridine rings can be unsubstituted, partially substituted or fully substituted with a number of R substituents on various positions of the aryl, where each R group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, a halogen, C1 to C30 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C30 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof, preferably ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, methylphenyl, a preferred example includes aryl groups represented by the formula (14): where the dashed lines indicate the bonds to the nitrogen atoms in formulae I, I0, I1, I2, I3, and II above. In another embodiment, z and z′ are the same. In another embodiment, m and m′ are the same. In another embodiment, M and M′ are the same. In another embodiment, Q and Q′ are the same. In another embodiment, z and z′ are the same; m and m′ are the same; M and M′ are the same; and Q and Q′ are the same. In another embodiment, z and z′ are the same; and/or m and m′ are the same; and/or M and M′ are the same; and/or Q and Q′ are the same. In another embodiment, z and z′ are different. In another embodiment, m and m′ are different. In another embodiment, M and M′ are different. In another embodiment, Q and Q′ are different. In another embodiment, z and z′ are different; m and n′ are different; M and M′ are different; and Q and Q′ are different. In another embodiment, z and z′ different; and/or m and m′ different; and/or M and M′ are different; and/or Q and Q′ different. In a preferred embodiment, each R is independently selected from the group consisting of methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, phenyl, and methylphenyl. In a preferred embodiment, R′ is selected from the group consisting of methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, phenyl, and methylphenyl. In a preferred embodiment, each Q and Q′ is independently selected from the group consisting of methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, phenyl, and methylphenyl. In a preferred embodiment, each X and X′ is independently selected from the group consisting of chlorine, bromine, sluorine, iodine, methyl, ethyl porpyl, isopropyl, butyl, t-butyl, pentyl, hexyl, and phenyl. In a preferred embodiment, M and M′ is independently is selected from the group consisting of iron, cobalt, nickel, palladium, and copper. In a preferred embodiment, R, R′, Q, Q′, X, X′, M, M′ and L are each independently selected from Table 1 below. TABLE 1 R, R′, Q and Q′ X M L ethyl chlorine Iron phenyl methyl bromine Cobalt 2,5-dimethylphenyl propyl fluorine Nickel 2,3,5,6-tetramethylphenyl isopropyl iodine Palladium naphtalenyl butyl methyl Copper anthracenyl pentyl ethyll phenantracenyl hexyl propyl chrysenelyl septyl isopropyl triphenylenyl octyl butyl diphenylmethylenyl nonyl t-butyl Di-(3-methylphenyl)-methan decyl pentyl Di-(3,5-dimethylphenyl)-methan undecyl hexyl Di-(3,5-diisopropylylphenyl)-methan phenyl phenyl (3-methylphenyl)(3,5- methylephenyl diisopropylylphenyl)-methan (3,5-dimethylphenyl)(3,5- diisopropylylphenyl)-methan 1,1′-(1,2-ethanediyl)bis-benzene 3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-1,1′-(1,2- ethanediyl)bis-benzene 3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-1,1′-(1,2- ethanediyl)bis-benzene 1,1′-(1,3-propanediyl)bis-benzene 3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-1,1′-(1,2- ethanediyl)bis-benzene 3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-1,1′-(1,3- propanediyl)bis-benzene 1,1′-(1,2-ethenediyl)bis-benzene 3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-(1,2-ethenediyl)bis-benzene 3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-(1,2-ethenediyl)bis-benzene 1,1′-(1,2-ethynediyl)bis-benzene 3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-1,1′-(1,2- ethynediyl)bis-benzene 3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-1,1′-(1,2- ethynediyl)bis-benzene 1,6-diphenyl-naphthalene 1,6-di-(3,5-dimethylphenyl)-naphthalene 1,6-di-(3,5-diisopropylphenyl)-naphthalene 3,6-diphenyl-phenanthrene 3,6-di-(3,5-dimethylphenyl)-phenanthrene 3,6-di-(3,5-diisopropyl)-phenanthrene 1,1′-biphenyl 3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-1,1′-biphenyl 3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-1,1′-biphenyl [1,1′;4′,1″]terphenyl 2,3,5″,6″-tetramethyl-[1,1′;4′,1″]terphenyl 2,3,5″,6″-tetraisopropyl- [1,1′;4′,1″]terphenyl 2,3,5,6,2′,3′,5′,6′,2″,3″,5″,6″-dodecamethyl- [1,1′;4′,1″]terphenyl [1,4′;1′,1″;4″,1′′′]quaterphenyl 2,3,5′′′,6′′′-tetradecamethyl- [1,4′;1′,1″;4″,1′′′]quaterphenyl 2,3,5′′′,6′′′-tetraisopropyl- [1,4′;1′,1″;4″,1′′′]quaterphenyl 2,3,5,6,2′,3′,5′,6′,2″,3″,5″,6″,2′′′,3′′′,5′′′,6′′′- hexadecamethyl- [1,4′;1′,1″;4″,1′′′]quaterphenyl 3,5,3′′′′,5′′′′-tetra-tert-butyl- [1,1′;4′,1″;4″,1′′′;4′′′,1′′′′]quinquephenyl (4-fluoro-phenyl)-diphenyl-methane (4-fluoro-phenyl)-di-(3,5-dimethylphenyl)- methane (4-fluoro-phenyl)-di-(3,5- diisopropylphenyl)-methane (4-chloro-phenyl)-diphenyl-methane (4-chloro-phenyl)-di-(3,5-dimethylphenyl)- methane (4-chloro-phenyl)-di-(3,5- diisopropylphenyl)-methane (4-bromo-phenyl)-diphenyl-methane (4-bromo-phenyl)-di-(3,5- dimethylphenyl)-methane (4-bromo-phenyl)-di-(3,5- diisopropylphenyl)-methane 4-[diphenyl-methyl]-benzaldehyde 4-[bis-(3,5-dimethyl-phenyl)-methyl]- benzaldehyde 4-[bis-(3,5-diisopropyl-phenyl)-methyl]- benzaldehyde 4-[diphenyl-methyl]-phenol 4-[bis-(3,5-dimethyl-phenyl)-methyl]- phenol 4-[bis-(3,5-diisopropyl-phenyl)-methyl]- phenol 4-[diphenyl-methyl]-thiophenol 4-[bis-(3,5-dimethyl-phenyl)-methyl]- thiophenol 4-[bis-(3,5-diisopropyl-phenyl)-methyl]- thiophenol 4-[diphenyl-methyl]-benzoic acid 4-[bis-(3,5-dimethyl-phenyl)-methyl]- benzoic acid 4-[bis-(3,5-diisopropyl-phenyl)-methyl]- benzoic acid 4-[diphenyl-methyl]-nitro-benzene 4-[bis-(3,5-dimethyl-phenyl)-methyl]- nitro-benzene 4-[bis-(3,5-diisopropyl-phenyl)-methyl]- nitro-benzene 4-[diphenyl-methyl]-benzenamine 4-[bis-(3,5-dimethyl-phenyl)-methyl]- benzenamine 4-[bis-(3,5-diisopropyl-phenyl)-methyl]- benzenamine diphenyl-ether bis-(3,5-dimethyl-phenyl)-ether bis-(3,5-diisopropyl-phenyl)-ether diphenyl-amine bis-(3,5-dimethyl-phenyl)-amine bis-(3,5-diisopropyl-phenyl)-amine diphenyl-phosphine bis-(3,5-dimethyl-phenyl)-phosphine bis-(3,5-diisopropyl-phenyl)-phosphine diphenyl sulfide bis-(3,5-dimethyl-phenyl)-sulfide bis-(3,5-diisopropyl-phenyl)-sulfide methyl-diphenyl-borane methyl-bis-(3,5-dimethyl-phenyl)-borane methyl-bis-(3,5-diisopropyl-phenyl)- borane methyl-diphenyl-aluminium methyl-bis-(3,5-dimethyl-phenyl)- aluminium methyl-bis-(3,5-diisopropyl-phenyl)- aluminium dimethyl-diphenyl-silane dimethyl-bis-(3,5-dimethyl-phenyl)-silane dimethyl-bis-(3,5-diisopropyl-phenyl)- silane 2,5-diphenyl-pyrrole 2,5-bis-(3,5-dimethyl-phenyl)-pyrrole 2,5-bis-(3,5-diisopropyl-phenyl)-pyrrole 2,5-diphenyl-furan 2,5-bis-(3,5-dimethyl-phenyl)-furan 2,5-bis-(3,5-diisopropyl-phenyl)-furan 2,6-diphenyl-pyridine 2,6-bis-(3,5-dimethyl-phenyl)-pyridine 2,6-bis-(3,5-diisopropyl-phenyl)-pyridine diphenylferrocene Bis-(imino)-pyridin-iron-dichloride Bis-(imino)-pyridin-iron-dibromide [2,2′;6′,2″]terpyridine-iron-dichloride [2,2′;6′,2″]terpyridine-iron-dibromide Bis-(imino)-pyridin-cobalt-dichloride Bis-(imino)-pyridin-cobalt-dibromide [2,2′;6′,2″]terpyridine-cobalt-dichloride [2,2′;6′,2″]terpyridine-cobalt-dibromide ethane-1,2-diylidenediamine-nickel- dichloride ethane-1,2-diylidenediamine-nickel- dibromide ethane-1,2-diylidenediamine-palladium- dichloride ethane-1,2-diylidenediamine-palladium- dibromide ethane-1,2-diylidenediamine-copper- dichloride ethane-1,2-diylidenediamine-copper- dibromide ethane-1,2-dimethyl-1,2-diylidenediamine- nickel-dichloride ethane-1,2-dimethyl-1,2-diylidenediamine- nickel-dibromide ethane-1,2-dimethyl-1,2-diylidenediamine- palladium-dichloride ethane-1,2-dimethyl-1,2-diylidenediamine- palladium-dibromide ethane-1,2-dimethyl-1,2-diylidenediamine- copper-dichloride ethane-1,2-dimethyl-1,2-diylidenediamine- copper-dibromide A set of exemplary transition metal catalyst compounds is set out below. These are by way of example only and are not intended to list every compound that is within the scope of the invention. Preferred transition metal catalyst compounds include: [N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetrabromide, [N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetrabromide, [N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetrabromide, [N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetrachloride, [N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetrachloride, [N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetrachloride, [N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetramethyl, [N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetramethyl, [N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetramethyl, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetrabromide, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetrabromide, [2,5-dimethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetrabromide, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetrachloride, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetrachloride, [215-dimethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetrachloride, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetramethyl, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetramethyl, [2,5-dimethyl-N-(pyridin-2-yethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetramethyl, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetrabromide, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetrabromide, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetrabromide, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetrachloride, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetrachloride, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetrachloride, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetramethyl, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetramethyl, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetramethyl, [N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetrabromide, [N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetrabromide, [N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetrabromide, [N,N-bis-pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetrachloride, [N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetrachloride, [N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetrachloride, [N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetramethyl [N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetramethyl [N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetramethyl [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetrabromide, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetrabromide, [2,5-dimethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetrabromide, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetrachloride, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetrachloride, [2,5-dimethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetrachloride, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetramethyl, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetramethyl, [2,5-dimethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetramethyl [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetrabromide, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetrabromide, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetrabromide, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetrachloride, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetrachloride, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetrachloride, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetramethyl, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetramethyl, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dipalladium tetramethyl, [N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetrabromide, [N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetrabromide, [N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetrabromide, [N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetrachloride, [N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetrachloride, [N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetrachloride, [N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetramethyl, [N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetramethyl, [N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetramethyl, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetrabromide, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetrabromide, [2,5-dimethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetrabromide, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetrachloride, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetrachloride, [2,5-dimethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetrachloride, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetramethyl, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetramethyl, [2,5-dimethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetramethyl, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetrabromide, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetrabromide, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetrabromide, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetrachloride, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetrachloride, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetrachloride, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetramethyl, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetramethyl, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicopper tetramethyl, [N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetrabromide, [N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetrabromide, [N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetrachloride, [N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetrachloride, [N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetramethyl [N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetramethyl, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetrabromide, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetrabromide, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetrachloride, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetrachloride, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetramethyl, [2,5-dimethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetramethyl, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetrabromide, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetrabromide, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetrachloride, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetrachloride, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetramethyl, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetramethyl, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicobalt tetrabromide, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicobalt tetrabromide, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicobalt tetrachloride, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicobalt-tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dinickel tetrabromide, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dinickel tetrabromide, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dinickel tetrabromide, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dinickel tetrabromide, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dinickel tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dinickel tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dinickel tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dinickel tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dinickel tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dinickel tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dinickel tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dinickel tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dipalladium tetrabromide, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dipalladium tetrabromide, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dipalladium tetrabromide, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dipalladium tetrabromide, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dipalladium tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dipalladium tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dipalladium tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dipalladium tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dipalladium tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dipalladium tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dipalladium tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dipalladium tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicopper tetrabromide, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicopper tetrabromide, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicopper tetrabromide, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicopper tetrabromide, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicopper tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicopper tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicopper tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicopper tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicopper tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicopper tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicopper tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicopper tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]diiron tetrabromide, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]diiron tetrabromide, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]diiron tetrabromide, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]diiron tetrabromide, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]diiron tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]diiron tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]diiron tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]diiron tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]diiron tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]diiron tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]diiron tetramethyl, [3,5,3,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]diiron tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicobalt tetrabromide, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicobalt tetrabromide, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicobalt tetrabromide, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicobalt tetrabromide, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicobalt tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicobalt tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicobalt tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicobalt tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicobalt tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicobalt tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicobalt tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicobalt tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dinickel tetrabromide, [{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis {4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dinickel tetramethyl [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis {4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dipalladium tetrabromide, [{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dipalladium tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl-4-hydroxytoluene]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dipalladium tetrachloride, [{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dipalladium tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dipalladium tetramethyl, [{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dipalladium tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dicopper tetrabromide, [{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dicopper tetrabromide, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dicopper tetrachloride [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dicopper tetrachloride, [{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dicopper tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dicopper tetramethyl, [{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dicopper tetramethyl, [bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]diiron tetrabromide, [bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]diiron tetrabromide, [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]diiron tetrabromide, [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]diiron tetrabromide, [bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]diiron tetrachloride, [bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]diiron tetrachloride, [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]diiron tetrachloride, [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]diiron tetrachloride, bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]diiron tetramethyl, [bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]diiron tetramethyl, [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]diiron tetramethyl, [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]diiron tetramethyl, [bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dicobalt tetrabromide, [bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dicobalt tetrabromide, [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dicobalt tetrabromide, [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dicobalt tetrabromide, [bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dicobalt tetrachloride, [bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dicobalt tetrachloride, [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dicobalt tetrachloride, [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dicobalt tetrachloride, [bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dicobalt tetramethyl, [bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dicobalt tetramethyl, [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dicobalt tetramethyl, and [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dicobalt tetramethyl. Particularly preferred transition metal complexes include: [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetrachloride, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetrachloride, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetrachloride, [N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetramethyl, [N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetramethyl, [N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]dinickel tetramethyl, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetrachloride, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetrachloride, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetramethyl, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]diiron tetramethyl, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicobalt tetrachloride, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicobalt tetrachloride, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicobalt tetramethyl, [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]dicobalt tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dinickel tetrabromide, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dinickel tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dinickel tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dinickel tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dinickel tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dinickel tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dinickel tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dinickel tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dinickel tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]diiron tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]diiron tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]diiron tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]diiron tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]diiron tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]diiron tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]diiron tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]diiron tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicobalt tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicobalt tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicobalt tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicobalt tetrachloride, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicobalt tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicobalt tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicobalt tetramethyl, [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]dicobalt tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dinickel tetrachloride, [{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetrachloride, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-toluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]dinickel tetramethyl [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dinickel tetramethyl [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]dinickel tetramethyl, [{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dinickel tetramethyl, [bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]diiron tetrachloride, [bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]diiron tetrachloride, [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]diiron tetrachloride, [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]diiron tetrachloride, bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]diiron tetramethyl, [bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]diiron tetramethyl, [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]diiron tetramethyl, [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]diiron tetramethyl, [bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dicobalt tetrachloride, [bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dicobalt tetrachloride, [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dicobalt tetrachloride, [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dicobalt tetrachloride, [bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dicobalt tetramethyl, [bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]dicobalt tetramethyl, [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dicobalt tetramethyl, and [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]dicobalt tetramethyl. Transition metal complexes of this invention are typically prepared by reaction of the tetradentate or hexdentate ligand with the desired metal halide, preferably a metal dihalide, in an appropriate solvent, preferably n-butanol, and heating the reaction mixture. Mixed Catalysts Mixed catalyst systems can also be used, for example, the invention catalyst can be used in conjunction with a “second catalyst” in the same reactor or in a series of reactors where the invention catalyst produces oligomers, macromers, or polymers with olefinic end-groups, and the “second catalyst” incorporates these oligomers, macromers, or polymers into a polymer backbone as a copolymer with other monomers, such as ethylene, propylene, butene, and other C2 to C20 olefins. Alternatively, the invention catalyst can be used in conjunction with a second catalyst in the same reactor or in a series of reactors where the second catalyst produces oligomers, macromers, or polymers with olefinic end-groups, and the invention catalyst incorporates these oligomers, macromers, or polymers into a polymer backbone as a copolymer with other monomers, such as ethylene, propylene, butene, and other C2 to C20 olefins. The “second catalyst” can be of the same family as the invention catalyst, or can be from a completely different catalyst family. Likewise, the invention catalyst can be used in conjunction with a “second catalyst” in the same reactor or in a series of reactors where the invention catalyst and the “second catalyst” produces mixtures or blends of polymers. Invention polymerization catalyst systems can comprise additional olefin polymerization catalysts, sometimes referred to as the “second catalyst”. These additional olefin polymerization catalysts are any of those well known in the art to catalyze the olefin to polyolefin reaction. Some invention catalysts systems include Group-4-6 metallocenes as additional olefin polymerization catalysts. Metallocenes include (un)bridged compounds containing one (mono(cyclopentadienyl) metallocenes) or two (bis(cyclopentadienyl) metallocenes) (un)substituted cyclopentadienyl ligand(s). In bridged metallocenes, a single, cyclopentadienyl ligand connects to a heteroatom ligand with both coordinating to the metal center, or two cyclopentadienyl ligands connect together with both cyclopentadienyl ligands coordinating to the metal center. Typical catalysts and their precursors are well known in the art. Suitable description appears in the patent literature, for example U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,871,705, 4,937,299, 5,324,800, EP-A-0418044, EP-A-0591756, WO-A-92/00333 and WO-A-94/01471. Some embodiments select the metallocene compounds from mono- or bis-cyclopentadienyl-substituted, Group-4, -5, and -6 metals in which cyclopentadienyls are (un)substituted with one or more groups or are bridged to each other or to a metal-coordinated heteroatom. Some embodiments select similar metallocene compounds except they are not necessarily bridged to each other or to a metal-coordinated heteroatom. See U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,278,264 and 5,304,614. Some invention catalysts systems include the following additional olefin polymerization catalysts. Metallocene compounds suitable for linear polyethylene or ethylene-containing copolymer production (where copolymer means comprising at least two different monomers) are essentially those disclosed in WO-A-92/00333, WO 97/44370 and U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,001,205, 5,057,475, 5,198,401, 5,304,614, 5,308,816 and 5,324,800. Selection of metallocene compounds for isotactic or syndiotactic polypropylene blend production, and their syntheses, are well-known in the patent and academic literature, e.g. Journal of Organometallic Chemistry 369, 359-370 (1989). Typically, those catalysts are stereorigid, asymmetric, chiral, or bridged-chiral metallocenes. Invention activators are suited for activating these types of catalyst precursors. Likewise, some invention catalysts systems include the following additional olefin polymerization catalysts: monocyclopentadienyl metallocenes with Group-15 or -16 heteroatoms connected, through a bridging group, to a cyclopentadienyl-ligand ring carbon. Both the cyclopentadienyl Cp-ligand and the heteroatom connect to a transition metal. Some embodiments select a Group-4 transition metal. Additionally, unbridged monocyclopentadienyl, heteroatom-containing Group-4 components of WO 97/22639 will function with this invention. Moreover, transition metal systems with high-oxidation-state, Group-5-10 transition-metal centers are known and can serve as the additional olefin polymerization catalysts with invention catalyst systems. Invention catalyst systems can use non-cyclopentadienyl, Group-4-5 precursor compounds as the additional olefin polymerization catalysts. Non-cyclopentadienyl, Group-4-5 precursor compounds are activable to stable, discrete cationic complexes include those containing bulky, chelating, diamide ligands, such as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,318,935 and “Conformationally Rigid Diamide Complexes: Synthesis and Structure of Tantalum (III) Alkyne Derivatives”, D. H. McConville, et al, Organometallics 1995, 14, 3154-3156. U.S. Pat. No. 5,318,935 describes bridged and unbridged, bis-amido catalyst compounds of Group-4 metals capable of alpha-olefins polymerization. Bridged bis(arylamido) Group-4 compounds for olefin polymerization are described by D. H. McConville, et al., in Organometallics 1995, 14, 5478-5480. Synthetic methods and compound characterization are presented. Further work appearing in D. H. McConville, et al, Macromolecules 1996, 29, 5241-5243, describes bridged bis(arylamido) Group-4 compounds that are polymerization catalysts for 1-hexene. Additional invention-suitable transition-metal compounds include those described in WO 96/40805. Cationic Group-3- or Lanthanide olefin polymerization complexes are disclosed in copending U.S. application Ser. No. 09/408,050, filed 29 Sep. 1999, and its equivalent PCT/US99/22690. A monoanionic bidentate ligand and two monoanionic ligands stabilize those catalyst precursors; they are activable with this invention” ionic cocatalysts. Other suitable Group-4-5 non-metallocene catalysts are bimetallocyclic catalyst compounds comprising two independently selected Group-4-5 metal atoms directly linked through two bridging groups to form cyclic compounds. Invention catalyst systems can use transition metal catalyst precursors that have a 2+ oxidation state as the additional olefin polymerization catalyst. Typical Ni2+ and Pd2+ complexes are diimines, see “New Pd(II)- and Ni(II)-Based Catalysts for Polymerization of Ethylene and α-Olefins”, M. Brookhart, et al, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1995, 117, 6414-6415, WO 96/23010 and WO 97/02298. See additionally the related bis(imino) Group-8 and -9 organometallic compounds described by V. C. Gibson and others in “Novel olefin polymerization catalysts based on iron and cobalt”, Chem. Commun., 849-850, 1998. For a review of other potential catalysts used in combination or series with the invention catalysts, see S. D. Ittel and L. K. Johnson, Chem. Rev. 2000, 1000, 1169 and V. C. Gibson and S. K. Spitzmesser, Chem. Rev. 2003, 103, 283. Activators and Catalyst Activation The transition metal compounds, when activated by a commonly known activator such as methyl alumoxane, form active catalysts for the polymerization or oligomerization of olefins. Activators that may be used include alumoxanes such as methyl alumoxane, modified methyl alumoxane, ethyl alumoxane, iso-butyl alumoxane and the like; Lewis acid activators include triphenyl boron, tris-perfluorophenyl boron, tris-perfluorophenyl aluminum and the like; Ionic activators include dimethylanilinium tetrakis perfluorophenyl borate, triphenyl carbonium tetrakis perfluorophenyl borate, dimethylanilinium tetrakis perfluorophenyl aluminate, and the like. A co-activator is a compound capable of alkylating the transition metal complex, such that when used in combination with an activator, an active catalyst is formed. Co-activators include alumoxanes such as methyl alumoxane, modified alumoxanes such as modified methyl alumoxane, and aluminum alkyls such trimethyl aluminum, tri-isobutyl aluminum, triethyl aluminum, and tri-isopropyl aluminum. Co-activators are typically used in combination with Lewis acid activators and ionic activators when the pre-catalyst is not a dihydrocarbyl or dihydride complex. The alumoxane component useful as an activator typically is an oligomeric aluminum compound represented by the general formula (Rx—Al—O)n, which is a cyclic compound, or Rx (Rx—Al—O)nAlRx2, which is a linear compound. In the general alumoxane formula, Rx is independently a C1-C20 alkyl radical, for example, methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, isomers thereof, and the like, and “n” is an integer from 1-50. Most preferably, Rx is methyl and “n” is at least 4. Methyl alumoxane and modified methyl alumoxanes are most preferred. For further descriptions see, EP 0 279 586, EP 0 594 218, EP 0 561 476, WO94/10180 and U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,665,208, 4,874,734, 4,908,463, 4,924,018, 4,952,540, 4,968,827, 5,041,584, 5,091,352, 5,103,031, 5,157,137, 5,204,419, 5,206,199, 5,235,081, 5,248,801, 5,329,032, 5,391,793, and 5,416,229. When an alumoxane or modified alumoxane is used, the catalyst-precursor-to-activator molar ratio is from about 1:3000 to 10:1; alternatively, 1:2000 to 10:1; alternatively 1:1000 to 10:1; alternatively, 1:500 to 1:1; alternatively 1:300 to 1:1; alternatively 1:200 to 1:1; alternatively 1:100 to 1:1; alternatively 1:50 to 1:1; alternatively 1:10 to 1:1. When the activator is an alumoxane (modified or unmodified), some embodiments select the maximum amount of activator at a 5000-fold molar excess over the catalyst precursor (per metal catalytic site). The preferred minimum activator-to-catalyst-precursor ratio is 1:1 molar ratio. Ionic activators (at times used in combination with a co-activator) may be used in the practice of this invention. Preferably, discrete ionic activators such as [Me2PhNH][B(C6F5)4], [Ph3C][B(C6F5)4], [Me2PhNH][B((C6H3-3,5-(CF3)2))4], [Ph3C][B((C6H3-3,5-(CF3)2))4], [NH4][B(C6H5)4] or Lewis acidic activators such as B(C6F5)3 or B(C6H5)3 can be used. Preferred co-activators, when used, are alumoxanes such as methyl alumoxane, modified alumoxanes such as modified methyl alumoxane, and aluminum alkyls such as tri-isobutyl aluminum, and trimethyl aluminum. It is within the scope of this invention to use an ionizing or stoichiometric activator, neutral or ionic, such as tri (n-butyl) ammonium tetrakis (pentafluorophenyl)borate, a trisperfluorophenyl boron metalloid precursor or a trisperfluoronaphthyl boron metalloid precursor, polyhalogenated heteroborane anions (WO 98/43983), boric acid (U.S. Pat. No. 5,942,459) or combination thereof. Examples of neutral stoichiometric activators include tri-substituted boron, tellurium, aluminum, gallium and indium or mixtures thereof. The three substituent groups are each independently selected from alkyls, alkenyls, halogen, substituted alkyls, aryls, arylhalides, alkoxy and halides. Preferably, the three groups are independently selected from halogen, mono or multicyclic (including halosubstituted) aryls, alkyls, and alkenyl compounds and mixtures thereof, preferred are alkenyl groups having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, alkyl groups having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, alkoxy groups having 1 to 20 carbon atoms and aryl groups having 3 to 20 carbon atoms (including substituted aryls). More preferably, the three groups are alkyls having 1 to 4 carbon groups, phenyl, naphthyl or mixtures thereof. Even more preferably, the three groups are halogenated, preferably fluorinated, aryl groups. Most preferably, the neutral stoichiometric activator is trisperfluorophenyl boron or trisperfluoronaphthyl boron. Ionic stoichiometric activator compounds may contain an active proton, or some other cation associated with, but not coordinated to, or only loosely coordinated to, the remaining ion of the ionizing compound. Such compounds and the like are described in European publications EP-A-0 570 982, EP-A-0 520 732, EP-A-0 495 375, EP-B1-0 500 944, EP-A-0 277 003 and EP-A-0 277 004, and U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,153,157, 5,198,401, 5,066,741, 5,206,197, 5,241,025, 5,384,299 and 5,502,124 and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/285,380, filed Aug. 3, 1994, all of which are herein fully incorporated by reference. Ionic catalysts can be prepared by reacting a transition metal compound with an activator, such as B(C6F6)3, which upon reaction with the hydrolyzable ligand (X′) of the transition metal compound forms an anion, such as ([B(C6F5)3(X′)]−), which stabilizes the cationic transition metal species generated by the reaction. The catalysts can be, and preferably are, prepared with activator components which are ionic compounds or compositions. However preparation of activators utilizing neutral compounds is also contemplated by this invention. Compounds useful as an activator component in the preparation of the ionic catalyst systems used in the process of this invention comprise a cation, which is preferably a Bronsted acid capable of donating a proton, and a compatible non-coordinating anion which anion is relatively large (bulky), capable of stabilizing the active catalyst species which is formed when the two compounds are combined and said anion will be sufficiently labile to be displaced by olefinic diolefinic and acetylenically unsaturated substrates or other neutral Lewis bases such as ethers, nitrites and the like. Two classes of compatible non-coordinating anions have been disclosed in EPA 277,003 and EPA 277,004 published 1988: 1) anionic coordination complexes comprising a plurality of lipophilic radicals covalently coordinated to and shielding a central charge-bearing metal or metalloid core, and 2) anions comprising a plurality of boron atoms such as carboranes, metallacarboranes and boranes. In a preferred embodiment, the stoichiometric activators include a cation and an anion component, and may be represented by the following formula: (L-H)d+(Ad−) wherein L is an neutral Lewis base; H is hydrogen; (L-H)+ is a Bronsted acid Ad− is a non-coordinating anion having the charge d− d is an integer from 1 to 3. The cation component, (L-H)d+ may include Bronsted acids such as protons or protonated Lewis bases or reducible Lewis acids capable of protonating or abstracting a moiety, such as an alkyl or aryl, from the precatalyst after alkylation. The activating cation (L-H)d+ may be a Bronsted acid, capable of donating a proton to the alkylated transition metal catalytic precursor resulting in a transition metal cation, including ammoniums, oxoniums, phosphoniums, silyliums, and mixtures thereof, preferably ammoniums of methylamine, aniline, dimethylamine, diethylamine, N-methylaniline, diphenylamine, trimethylamine, triethylamine, N,N-dimethylaniline, methyldiphenylamine, pyridine, p-bromo N,N-dimethylaniline, p-nitro-N,N-dimethylaniline, phosphoniums from triethylphosphine, triphenylphosphine, and diphenylphosphine, oxomiuns from ethers such as dimethyl ether, diethyl ether, tetrahydrofuran and dioxane, sulfoniums from thioethers, such as diethyl thioethers and tetrahydrothiophene, and mixtures thereof. The activating cation (L-H)d+ may also be a moiety such as silver, tropylium, carbeniums, ferroceniums and mixtures, preferably carboniums and ferroceniums; most preferably triphenyl carbonium. The anion component Ad− include those having the formula [Mk+Qn]d− wherein k is an integer from 1 to 3; n is an integer from 2-6; n−k=d; M is an element selected from Group 13 of the Periodic Table of the Elements, preferably boron or aluminum, and Q is independently a hydride, bridged or unbridged dialkylamido, halide, alkoxide, aryloxide, hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, and halosubstituted-hydrocarbyl radicals, said Q having up to 20 carbon atoms with the proviso that in not more than one occurrence is Q a halide. Preferably, each Q is a fluorinated hydrocarbyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, more preferably each Q is a fluorinated aryl group, and most preferably each Q is a pentafluoryl aryl group. Examples of suitable Ad− also include diboron compounds as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,447,895, which is fully incorporated herein by reference. Illustrative, but not limiting examples of boron compounds which may be used as an activating cocatalyst in combination with a co-activator in the preparation of the improved catalysts of this invention are tri-substituted ammonium salts such as: trimethylammonium tetraphenylborate, triethylammonium tetraphenylborate, tripropylammonium tetraphenylborate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetraphenylborate, tri(tert-butyl)ammonium tetraphenylborate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetraphenylborate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetraphenylborate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetraphenylborate, trimethylammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tri(sec-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, trimethylammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, dimethyl(tert-butyl)ammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium)tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, trimethylammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, tri(tert-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, trimethylammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, tri(tert-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, trimethylammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, tri(tert-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, and dialkyl ammonium salts such as: di-(iso-propyl)ammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, and dicyclohexylammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate; and other salts such as tri(o-tolyl)phosphonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tri(2,6-dimethylphenyl)phosphonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tropillium tetraphenylborate, triphenylcarbenium tetraphenylborate, triphenylphosphonium tetraphenylborate, triethylsilylium tetraphenylborate, benzene(diazonium)tetraphenylborate, tropillium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, benzene(diazonium)tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tropillium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, benzene(diazonium)tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, tropillium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, benzene(diazonium)tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, tropillium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, benzene(diazonium) tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, tropillium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, and benzene(diazonium) tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate. Most preferably, the ionic stoichiometric activator (L**-H)d+ (Ad−) is N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, or triphenylcarbenium tetra(perfluorophenyl)borate. Invention catalyst precursors can also be activated with cocatalysts or activators that comprise non-coordinating anions containing metalloid-free cyclopentadienide ions. These are described in U.S. Patent Publication 2002/0058765 A1, published on 16 May 2002, and for the instant invention, require the addition of a co-activator to the catalyst pre-cursor. The term “non-coordinating anion” (NCA) means an anion that does not coordinate to the catalyst metal cation or that does coordinate to the metal cation, but only weakly. An NCA coordinates weakly enough that a neutral Lewis base, such as an olefinically or acetylenically unsaturated monomer can displace it from the catalyst center. “Compatible” non-coordinating anions are those which are not degraded to neutrality when the initially formed complex decomposes. Further, the anion will not transfer an anionic substituent or fragment to the cation so as to cause it to form a neutral transition metal compound and a neutral by-product from the anion. Non-coordinating anions useful in accordance with this invention are those that are compatible, stabilize the transition metal complex cation in the sense of balancing its ionic charge at +1, yet retain sufficient lability to permit displacement by an ethylenically or acetylenically unsaturated monomer during polymerization. These types of cocatalysts sometimes use scavengers such as but not limited to tri-iso-butyl aluminum, tri-n-octyl aluminum, tri-n-hexyl aluminum, triethylaluminum or trimethylaluminum. Invention process also can employ cocatalyst compounds or activator compounds that are initially neutral Lewis acids but form a cationic metal complex and a noncoordinating anion, or a zwitterionic complex upon reaction with the alkylated transition metal compounds. The alkylated invention compound is formed from the reaction of the catalyst pre-cursor and the co-activator. For example, tris(pentafluorophenyl)boron or aluminum act to abstract a hydrocarbyl ligand to yield an invention cationic transition metal complex and stabilizing noncoordinating anion, see EP-A-0 427 697 and EP-A-0 520 732 for illustrations of analogous Group-4 metallocene compounds. Also, see the methods and compounds of EP-A-0 495 375. For formation of zwitterionic complexes using analogous Group 4 compounds, see U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,624,878; 5,486,632; and 5,527,929. Additional neutral Lewis-acids are known in the art and are suitable for abstracting formal anionic ligands. See in particular the review article by E. Y. -X. Chen and T. J. Marks, “Cocatalysts for Metal-Catalyzed Olefin Polymerization: Activators, Activation Processes, and Structure-Activity Relationships”, Chem. Rev., 100, 1391-1434 (2000). When the cations of noncoordinating anion precursors are Bronsted acids such as protons or protonated Lewis bases (excluding water), or reducible Lewis acids such as ferrocenium or silver cations, or alkali or alkaline earth metal cations such as those of sodium, magnesium or lithium, the catalyst-precursor-to-activator molar ratio may be any ratio. Combinations of the described activator compounds may also be used for activation. When an ionic or neutral stoichiometric activator is used, the catalyst-precursor-to-activator molar ratio is from 1:10 to 1:1; 1:10 to 10:1; 1:10 to 2:1; 1:10 to 3:1; 1:10 to 5:1; 1:2 to 1.2:1; 1:2 to 10:1; 1:2 to 2:1; 1:2 to 3:1; 1:2 to 5:1; 1:3 to 1.2:1; 1:3 to 10:1; 1:3 to 2:1; 1:3 to 3:1; 1:3 to 5:1; 1:5 to 1:1; 1:5 to 10:1; 1:5 to 2:1; 1:5 to 3:1; 1:5 to 5:1; 1:1 to 1:1.2. The catalyst-precursor-to-co-activator molar ratio is from 1:100 to 100:1; 1:75 to 75:1; 1:50 to 50:1; 1:25 to 25:1; 1:15 to 15:1; 1:10 to 10:1; 1:5 to 5:1, 1:2 to 2:1; 1:100 to 1:1; 1:75 to 1:1; 1:50 to 1:1; 1:25 to 1:1; 1:15 to 1:1; 1:10 to 1:1; 1:5 to 1:1; 1:2 to 1:1; 1:10 to 2:1. Preferred activators and activator/co-activator combinations include methylalumoxane, modified methylalumoxane, mixtures of methylalumoxane with dimethylanilinium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate or tris(pentafluorophenyl)boron, and mixtures of trimethyl aluminum with dimethylanilinium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate or tris(pentafluorophenyl)boron In some embodiments, scavenging compounds are used with stoichiometric activators. Typical aluminum or boron alkyl components useful as scavengers are represented by the general formula RxJZ2 where J is aluminum or boron, Rx is as previously defined above, and each Z is independently Rx or a different univalent anionic ligand such as halogen (Cl, Br, I), alkoxide (ORx) and the like. Most preferred aluminum alkyls include triethylaluminum, diethylaluminum chloride, tri-iso-butylaluminum, tri-n-octylaluminum. tri-n-hexylaluminum, trimethylaluminum and the like. Preferred boron alkyls include triethylboron. Scavenging compounds may also be alumoxanes and modified alumoxanes including methylalumoxane and modified methylalumoxane. Supported Catalysts The solubility of invention catalyst precursors allows for the ready preparation of supported catalysts. To prepare uniform supported catalysts, the catalyst precursor preferably dissolves in the chosen solvent. The term “uniform supported catalyst” means that the catalyst precursor, the activator and or the activated catalyst approach uniform distribution upon the support's accessible surface area, including the interior pore surfaces of porous supports. Some embodiments of supported catalysts prefer uniform supported catalysts; other embodiments show no such preference. Invention supported catalyst systems may be prepared by any method effective to support other coordination catalyst systems, effective meaning that the catalyst so prepared can be used for oligomerizing or polymerizing olefin in a heterogenous process. The catalyst precursor, activator, co-activator if needed, suitable solvent, and support may be added in any order or simultaneously. By one method, the activator, dissolved in an appropriate solvent such as toluene may be stirred with the support material for 1 minute to 10 hours. The total solution volume may be greater than the pore volume of the support, but some embodiments limit the total solution volume below that needed to form a gel or slurry (about 90% to 400%, preferably about 100-200% of the pore volume). The mixture is optionally heated from 30-200° C. during this time. The catalyst precursor may be added to this mixture as a solid, if a suitable solvent is employed in the previous step, or as a solution. Or alternatively, this mixture can be filtered, and the resulting solid mixed with a catalyst precursor solution. Similarly, the mixture may be vacuum dried and mixed with a catalyst precursor solution. The resulting catalyst mixture is then stirred for 1 minute to 10 hours, and the catalyst is either filtered from the solution and vacuum dried or evaporation alone removes the solvent. Alternatively, the catalyst precursor and activator may be combined in solvent to form a solution. Then the support is added, and the mixture is stirred for 1 minute to 10 hours. The total solution volume may be greater than the pore volume of the support, but some embodiments limit the total solution volume below that needed to form a gel or slurry (about 90% to 400%, preferably about 100-200% of the pore volume). After stirring, the residual solvent is removed under vacuum, typically at ambient temperature and over 10-16 hours. But greater or lesser times and temperatures are possible. The catalyst precursor may also be supported absent the activator; in that case, the activator (and co-activator if needed) is added to a slurry process's liquid phase. For example, a solution of catalyst precursor may be mixed with a support material for a period of about 1 minute to 10 hours. The resulting precatalyst mixture may be filtered from the solution and dried under vacuum, or evaporation alone removes the solvent. The total, catalyst-precursor-solution volume may be greater than the support's pore volume, but some embodiments limit the total solution volume below that needed to form a gel or slurry (about 90% to 400%, preferably about 100-200% of the pore volume). Additionally, two or more different catalyst precursors may be placed on the same support using any of the support methods disclosed above. Likewise, two or more activators or an activator and co-activator may be placed on the same support. Suitable solid particle supports are typically comprised of polymeric or refractory oxide materials, each being preferably porous. Any support material that has an average particle size greater than 10 μm is suitable for use in this invention. Various embodiments select a porous support material, such as for example, talc, inorganic oxides, inorganic chlorides, for example magnesium chloride and resinous support materials such as polystyrene polyolefin or polymeric compounds or any other organic support material and the like. Some embodiments select inorganic oxide materials as the support material including Group-2, -3, -4, -5, -13, or -14 metal or metalloid oxides. Some embodiments select the catalyst support materials to include silica, alumina, silica-alumina, and their mixtures. Other inorganic oxides may serve either alone or in combination with the silica, alumina, or silica-alumina. These are magnesia, titania, zirconia, and the like. Lewis acidic materials such as montmorillonite and similar clays may also serve as a support. In this case, the support can optionally double as the activator component. But additional activator may also be used. The support material may be pretreated by any number of methods. For example, inorganic oxides may be calcined, chemically treated with dehydroxylating agents such as aluminum alkyls and the like, or both. As stated above, polymeric carriers will also be suitable in accordance with the invention, see for example the descriptions in WO 95/15815 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,427,991. The methods disclosed may be used with the catalyst complexes, activators or catalyst systems of this invention to adsorb or absorb them on the polymeric supports, particularly if made up of porous particles, or may be chemically bound through functional groups bound to or in the polymer chains. Invention catalyst carriers may have a surface area of from 10-700 m2/g, a pore volume of 0.1-4.0 cc/g and an average particle size of 10-500 μm. Some embodiments select a surface area of 50-500 m2/g, a pore volume of 0.5-3.5 cc/g, or an average particle size of 20-200 μm. Other embodiments select a surface area of 100-400 m2/g, a pore volume of 0.8-3.0 cc/g, and an average particle size of 30-100 μm. Invention carriers typically have a pore size of 10-1000 Angstroms, alternatively 50-500 Angstroms, or 75-350 Angstroms. Invention catalysts are generally deposited on the support at a loading level of 10-100 micromoles of catalyst precursor per gram of solid support; alternately 20-80 micromoles of catalyst precursor per gram of solid support; or 40-60 micromoles of catalyst precursor per gram of support. But greater or lesser values may be used provided that the total amount of solid catalyst precursor does not exceed the support's pore volume. Invention catalysts can be supported for gas-phase, bulk, or slurry polymerization, or otherwise as needed. Numerous support methods are known for catalysts in the olefin polymerization art, particularly alumoxane-activated catalysts; all are suitable for this invention's broadest practice. See, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,057,475 and 5,227,440. An example of supported ionic catalysts appears in WO 94/03056. U.S. Pat. No. 5,643,847 and WO 96/04319A describe a particularly effective method. A bulk or slurry process using this invention's supported metal complexes activated with alumoxane can be used for ethylene-propylene rubber as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,001,205 and 5,229,478. Additionally, those processes suit this invention's catalyst systems. Both polymers and inorganic oxides may serve as supports, as is known in the art. See U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,422,325, 5,427,991, 5,498,582 and 5,466,649, and international publications WO 93/11172 and WO 94/07928. Monomers In a preferred embodiment the catalyst compounds of this invention are used to polymerize or oligomerize any unsaturated monomer or monomers. Preferred monomers include C2 to Cl100 olefins, preferably C2 to C60 olefins, preferably C2 to C40 olefins preferably C2 to C20 olefins, preferably C2 to C12 olefins. In some embodiments preferred monomers include linear, branched or cyclic alpha-olefins, preferably C2 to C100 alpha-olefins, preferably C2 to C60 alpha-olefins, preferably C2 to C40 alpha-olefins preferably C2 to C20 alpha-olefins, preferably C2 to C12 alpha-olefins. Preferred olefin monomers may be one or more of ethylene, propylene, butene, pentene, hexene, heptene, octene, nonene, decene, dodecene, 4-methylpentene-1,3-methylpentene-1,3,5,5-trimethylhexene-1, and 5-ethylnonene-1. In another embodiment the polymer produced herein is a copolymer of one or more linear or branched C3 to C30 prochiral alpha-olefins or C5 to C30 ring containing olefins or combinations thereof capable of being polymerized by either stereospecific and non-stereospecific catalysts. Prochiral, as used herein, refers to monomers that favor the formation of isotactic or syndiotactic polymer when polymerized using stereospecific catalyst(s). Preferred monomers may also include aromatic-group-containing monomers containing up to 30 carbon atoms. Suitable aromatic-group-containing monomers comprise at least one aromatic structure, preferably from one to three, more preferably a phenyl, indenyl, fluorenyl, or naphthyl moiety. The aromatic-group-containing monomer further comprises at least one polymerizable double bond such that after polymerization, the aromatic structure will be pendant from the polymer backbone. The aromatic-group containing monomer may further be substituted with one or more hydrocarbyl groups including but not limited to C1 to C10 alkyl groups. Additionally two adjacent substitutions may be joined to form a ring structure. Preferred aromatic-group-containing monomers contain at least one aromatic structure appended to a polymerizable olefinic moiety. Particularly preferred aromatic monomers include styrene, alpha-methylstyrene, para-alkylstyrenes, vinyltoluenes, vinylnaphthalene, allyl benzene, and indene, especially styrene, para-methylstyrene, 4-phenyl-1-butene and allyl benzene. Non aromatic cyclic group containing monomers are also preferred. These monomers can contain up to 30 carbon atoms. Suitable non-aromatic cyclic group containing monomers preferably have at least one polymerizable olefinic group that is either pendant on the cyclic structure or is part of the cyclic structure. The cyclic structure may also be further substituted by one or more hydrocarbyl groups such as, but not limited to, C1 to C10 alkyl groups. Preferred non-aromatic cyclic group containing monomers include vinylcyclohexane, vinylcyclohexene, cyclopentadiene, cyclopentene, 4-methylcyclopentene, cyclohexene, 4-methylcyclohexene, cyclobutene, vinyladamantane, norbornene, 5-methylnorbornene, 5-ethylnorbornene, 5-propylnorbornene, 5-butylylnorbornene, 5-pentylnorbornene, 5-hexylnorbornene, 5-heptylnorbornene, 5-octylnorbornene, 5-nonylnorbornene, 5-decylnorbornene, 5 phenylnorbornene, vinylnorbornene, ethylidene norbornene, 5,6-dimethylnorbornene, 5,6-dibutylnorbornene and the like. Preferred diolefin monomers useful in this invention include any hydrocarbon structure, preferably C4 to C30, having at least two unsaturated bonds, wherein at least one, typically two, of the unsaturated bonds are readily incorporated into a polymer by either a stereospecific or a non-stereospecific catalyst(s). It is further preferred that the diolefin monomers be selected from alpha-omega-diene monomers (i.e. di-vinyl monomers). More preferably, the diolefin monomers are linear di-vinyl monomers, most preferably those containing from 4 to 30 carbon atoms. Examples of preferred dienes include butadiene, pentadiene, hexadiene, heptadiene, octadiene, nonadiene, decadiene, undecadiene, dodecadiene, tridecadiene, tetradecadiene, pentadecadiene, hexadecadiene, heptadecadiene, octadecadiene, nonadecadiene, icosadiene, heneicosadiene, docosadiene, tricosadiene, tetracosadiene, pentacosadiene, hexacosadiene, heptacosadiene, octacosadiene, nonacosadiene, triacontadiene, particularly preferred dienes include 1,6-heptadiene, 1,7-octadiene, 1,8-nonadiene, 1,9-decadiene, 1,10-undecadiene, 1,11-dodecadiene, 1,12-tridecadiene, 1,13-tetradecadiene, and low molecular weight polybutadienes (Mw less than 1000 g/mol). Preferred cyclic dienes include cyclopentadiene, vinylnorbornene, norbornadiene, ethylidene norbornene, divinylbenzene, dicyclopentadiene or higher ring containing diolefins with or without substituents at various ring positions. Non-limiting examples of preferred polar unsaturated monomers useful in this invention include nitro substituted monomers including 6-nitro-1-hexene; amine substituted monomers including N-methylallylamine, N-allylcyclopentylamine, and N-allyl-hexylamine; ketone substituted monomers including methyl vinyl ketone, ethyl vinyl ketone, and 5-hexen-2-one; aldehyde substituted monomers including acrolein, 2,2-dimethyl-4-pentenal, undecylenic aldehyde, and 2,4-dimethyl-2,6-heptadienal; alcohol substituted monomers including allyl alcohol, 7-octen-1-ol, 7-octene-1,2-diol, 10-undecen-1-ol, 10-undecene-1,2-diol, 2-methyl-3-buten-1-ol; acetal, epoxide and or ether substituted monomers including 4-hex-5-enyl-2,2 dimethyl-[1,3]dioxolane, 2,2-dimethyl-4-non-8-enyl-[1,3]dioxolane, acrolein dimethyl acetal, butadiene monoxide, 1,2-epoxy-7-octene, 1,2-epoxy-9-decene, 1,2-epoxy-5-hexene, 2-methyl-2-vinyloxirane, allyl glycidyl ether, 2,5-dihydrofuran, 2-cyclopenten-1-one ethylene ketal, 11-methoxyundec-1-ene, and 8-methoxyoct-1-ene; sulfur containing monomers including allyl disulfide; acid and ester substituted monomers including acrylic acid, vinylacetic acid, 4-pentenoic acid, 2,2-dimethyl-4-pentenoic acid, 6-heptenoic acid, trans-2,4-pentadienoic acid, 2,6-heptadienoic acid, methyl acrylate, ethyl acrylate, tert-butyl acrylate, n-butyl acrylate, methacrylic acid, methyl methacrylate, ethyl methacrylate, tert-butyl methacrylate, n-butyl methacrylate, hydroxypropyl acrylate, acetic acid oct-7-enyl ester, non-8-enoic acid methyl ester, acetic acid undec-1,0-enyl ester, dodec-11-enoic acid methyl ester, propionic acid undec-10-enyl ester, dodec-11-enoic acid ethyl ester, and nonylphenoxypolyetheroxy acrylate; siloxy containing monomers including trimethyloct-7-enyloxy silane, and trimethylundec-10-enyloxy silane, polar functionalized norbornene monomers including 5-norbornene-2-carbonitrile, 5-norbornene-2-carboxaldehyde, 5-norbornene-2-carboxylic acid, cis-5-norbornene-endo-2,3-dicarboxylic acid, 5-norbornene-2,2,-dimethanol, cis-5-norbornene-endo-2,3-dicarboxylic anhydride, 5-norbornene-2-endo-3-endo-dimethanol, 5-norbornene-2-endo-3-exo-dimethanol, 5-norbornene-2-methanol, 5-norbornene-2-ol, 5-norbornene-2-yl acetate, 1-[2-(5-norbornene-2-yl)ethyl]-3,5,7,9,11,13,15-heptacyclopentylpentacyclo[9.5.1.13,9.15,15.17,13]octasiloxane, 2-benzoyl-5-norbornene, 2-acetyl-5-norbornene, 7-syn methoxymethyl-5-norbornen-2-one, 5-norbornen-2-ol, and 5-norbornen-2-yloxy-trimethylsilane, and partially fluorinated monomers including nonafluoro-1-hexene, allyl-1,1,2,2,-tetrafluoroethyl ether, 2,2,3,3-tetrafluoro-non-8-enoic acid ethyl ester, 1,1,2,2-tetrafluoro-2-(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoro-oct-7-enyloxy)-ethanesulfonyl fluoride, acrylic acid 2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5,6,6,7,7,8,8,8-pentadecafluoro-octyl ester, and 1,1,2,2-tetrafluoro-2-(1,1,2,2,3,3,4,4-octafluoro-dec-9-enyloxy)-ethanesulfonyl fluoride. In an embodiment herein, the process described herein is used to produce an oligomer of any of the monomers listed above. Preferred oligomers include oligomers of any C2 to C20 olefins, preferably C2 to C12 alpha-olefins, most preferably oligomers comprising ethylene, propylene and or butene are prepared. A preferred feedstock for the oligomerization process is the alpha-olefin, ethylene. But other alpha-olefins, including but not limited to propylene and 1-butene, may also be used alone or combined with ethylene. Preferred alpha-olefins include any C2 to C40 alpha-olefin, preferably and C2 to C20 alpha-olefin, preferably any C2 to C12 alpha-olefin, preferably ethylene, propylene, and butene, most preferably ethylene. Dienes may be used in the processes described herein, preferably alpha-omega-dienes are used alone or in combination with mono-alpha olefins. In a preferred embodiment the process described herein may be used to produce homopolymers or copolymers. (For the purposes of this invention and the claims thereto a copolymer may comprise two, three, four or more different monomer units.) Preferred polymers produced herein include homopolymers or copolymers of any of the above monomers. In a preferred embodiment the polymer is a homopolymer of any C2 to C12 alpha-olefin. Preferably the polymer is a homopolymer of ethylene or a homopolymer of propylene. In another embodiment the polymer is a copolymer comprising ethylene and one or more of any of the monomers listed above. In another embodiment the polymer is a copolymer comprising propylene and one or more of any of the monomers listed above. In another preferred embodiment the homopolymers or copolymers described, additionally comprise one or more diolefin comonomers, preferably one or more C4 to C40 diolefins. In another preferred embodiment the polymer produced herein is a copolymer of ethylene and one or more C3 to C20 linear, branched or cyclic monomers, preferably one or more C3 to C12 linear, branched or cyclic alpha-olefins. Preferably the polymer produced herein is a copolymer of ethylene and one or more of propylene, butene, pentene, hexene, heptene, octene, nonene, decene, dodecene, 4 methylpentene-1,3-methylpentene-1,3,5,5-trimethylhexene-1, cyclopentene, 4-methylcyclopentene, cyclohexene, and 4-methylcyclohexene. In another preferred embodiment the polymer produced herein is a copolymer of propylene and one or more C2 or C4 to C20 linear, branched or cyclic monomers, preferably one or more C2 or C4 to C12 linear, branched or cyclic alpha-olefins. Preferably the polymer produced herein is a copolymer of propylene and one or more of ethylene, butene, pentene, hexene, heptene, octene, nonene, decene, dodecene, 4-methylpentene-1,3-methylpentene-1, and 3,5,5-trimethylhexene-1. In a preferred embodiment, the polymer produced herein is a homopolymer of norbornene or a copolymer of norbornene and a substituted norbornene, including polar functionalized norbornenes. In a preferred embodiment the copolymers described herein comprise at least 50 mole % of a first monomer and up to 50 mole % of other monomers. In another embodiment, the polymer comprises: a first monomer present at from 40 to 95 mole %, preferably 50 to 90 mole %, preferably 60 to 80 mole %, and a comonomer present at from 5 to 60 mole %, preferably 10 to 40 mole %, more preferably 20 to 40 mole %, and a termonomer present at from 0 to 10 mole %, more preferably from 0.5 to 5 mole %, more preferably 1 to 3 mole %. In a preferred embodiment the first monomer comprises one or more of any C3 to C8 linear branched or cyclic alpha-olefins, including propylene, butene, (and all isomers thereof), pentene (and all isomers thereof), hexene (and all isomers thereof), heptene (and all isomers thereof), and octene (and all isomers thereof). Preferred monomers include propylene, 1-butene, 1-hexene, 1-octene, cyclopentene, cyclohexene, cyclooctene, hexadiene, cyclohexadiene and the like. In a preferred embodiment the comonomer comprises one or more of any C2 to C40 linear, branched or cyclic alpha-olefins (provided ethylene, if present, is present at 5 mole % or less), including ethylene, propylene, butene, pentene, hexene, heptene, and octene, nonene, decene, undecene, dodecene, hexadecene, butadiene, hexadiene, heptadiene, pentadiene, octadiene, nonadiene, decadiene, dodecadiene, styrene, 3,5,5-trimethylhexene-1,3-methylpentene-1,4-methylpentene-1, cyclopentadiene, and cyclohexene. In a preferred embodiment the termonomer comprises one or more of any C2 to C40 linear, branched or cyclic alpha-olefins, (provided ethylene, if present, is present at 5 mole % or less), including ethylene, propylene, butene, pentene, hexene, heptene, and octene, nonene, decene, undecene, dodecene, hexadecene, butadiene, hexadiene, heptadiene, pentadiene, octadiene, nonadiene, decadiene, dodecadiene, styrene, 3,5,5-trimethylhexene-1,3-methylpentene-1,4-methylpentene-1, cyclopentadiene, and cyclohexene. In a preferred embodiment the polymers described above further comprise one or more dienes at up to 10 weight %, preferably at 0.00001 to 1.0 weight %, preferably 0.002 to 0.5 weight %, even more preferably 0.003 to 0.2 weight %, based upon the total weight of the composition. In some embodiments 500 ppm or less of diene is added to the polymerization, preferably 400 ppm or less, preferably or 300 ppm or less. In other embodiments at least 50 ppm of diene is added to the polymerization, or 100 ppm or more, or 150 ppm or more. Polymerization Processes Invention catalyst complexes are useful in polymerizing unsaturated monomers conventionally known to undergo metallocene-catalyzed polymerization such as solution, slurry, gas-phase, and high-pressure polymerization. Typically one or more transition metal compounds, one or more activators, and one or more monomers are contacted to produce polymer. These catalysts may be supported and as such will be particularly useful in the known, fixed-bed, moving-bed, fluid-bed, slurry, solution, or bulk operating modes conducted in single, series, or parallel reactors. One or more reactors in series or in parallel may be used in the present invention. The transition metal compound, activator and when required, co-activator, may be delivered as a solution or slurry, either separately to the reactor, activated in-line just prior to the reactor, or preactivated and pumped as an activated solution or slurry to the reactor. Polymerizations are carried out in either single reactor operation, in which monomer, comonomers, catalyst/activator/co-activator, optional scavenger, and optional modifiers are added continuously to a single reactor or in series reactor operation, in which the above components are added to each of two or more reactors connected in series. The catalyst components can be added to the first reactor in the series. The catalyst component may also be added to both reactors, with one component being added to first reaction and another component to other reactors. In one preferred embodiment, the precatalyst is activated in the reactor in the presence of olefin. Ethylene-alpha-olefin (including ethylene-cyclic olefin and ethylene-alpha-olefin-diolefin) elastomers of high molecular weight and low crystallinity can be prepared utilizing the catalysts of the invention under traditional solution processes or by introducing ethylene gas into a slurry utilizing the alpha-olefin or cyclic olefin or mixture thereof with other monomers, polymerizable and not, as a polymerization diluent in which the catalyst suspension is suspended. Typical ethylene pressures will be between 10 and 1000 psig (69−6895 kPa) and the polymerization diluent temperature will typically be between −10 and 160° C. The process can be carried out in a stirred tank reactor or a tubular reactor, or more than one reactor operated in series or in parallel. See the general disclosure of U.S. Pat. No. 5,001,205 for general process conditions. All documents are incorporated by reference for description of polymerization processes, ionic activators and useful scavenging compounds. The invention catalyst compositions can be used individually or can be mixed with other known polymerization catalysts to prepare polymer blends. Monomer and catalyst selection allows polymer blend preparation under conditions analogous to those using individual catalysts. Polymers having increased MWD for improved processing and other traditional benefits available from polymers made with mixed catalyst systems can thus be achieved. Generally, when using invention catalysts, particularly when they are immobilized on a support, the complete catalyst system will additionally comprise one or more scavenging compounds. Here, the term scavenging compound means a compound that removes polar impurities from the reaction environment. These impurities adversely affect catalyst activity and stability. Typically, purifying steps are usually used before introducing reaction components to a reaction vessel. But such steps will rarely allow polymerization without using some scavenging compounds. Normally, the polymerization process will still use at least small amounts of scavenging compounds. Typically, the scavenging compound will be an organometallic compound such as the Group-13 organometallic compounds of U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,153,157, 5,241,025 and WO-A-91/09882, WO-A-94/03506, WO-A-93/14132, and that of WO 95/07941. Exemplary compounds include triethyl aluminum, triethyl borane, tri-iso-butyl aluminum, methyl alumoxane, iso-butyl alumoxane, and tri-n-octyl aluminum. Those scavenging compounds having bulky or C6-C20 linear hydrocarbyl substituents connected to the metal or metalloid center usually minimize adverse interaction with the active catalyst. Examples include triethylaluminum, but more preferably, bulky compounds such as tri-iso-butyl aluminum, tri-iso-prenyl aluminum, and long-chain linear alkyl-substituted aluminum compounds, such as tri-n-hexyl aluminum, tri-n-octyl aluminum, or tri-n-dodecyl aluminum. When alumoxane is used as the activator, any excess over that needed for activation will scavenge impurities and additional scavenging compounds may be unnecessary. Alumoxanes also may be added in scavenging quantities with other activators, e.g., methylalumoxane, [Me2HNPh]+[B(pfP)4]− or B(pfP)3 (perfluorophenyl=pfp=C6F5). In terms of polymer density, the polymers capable of production in accordance the invention, can range from about 0.85 to about 0.95, preferably from 0.87 to 0.93, more preferably 0.89 to 0.920. Polymer molecular weights can range from about 3000 Mn to about 2,000,000 Mn or greater. Molecular weight distributions can range from about 1.1 to about 50.0, with molecular weight distributions from 1.2 to about 5.0 being more typical. Pigments, antioxidants and other additives, as is known in the art, may be added to the polymer. Gas Phase Polymerization Generally, in a fluidized gas bed process used for producing polymers, a gaseous stream containing one or more monomers is continuously cycled through a fluidized bed in the presence of a catalyst under reactive conditions. The gaseous stream is withdrawn from the fluidized bed and recycled back into the reactor. Simultaneously, polymer product is withdrawn from the reactor and fresh monomer is added to replace the polymerized monomer. (See for example U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,543,399, 4,588,790, 5,028,670, 5,317,036, 5,352,749, 5,405,922, 5,436,304, 5,453,471, 5,462,999, 5,616,661 and 5,668,228 all of which are fully incorporated herein by reference.) The reactor pressure in a gas phase process may vary from about 10 psig (69 kPa) to about 500 psig (3448 kPa), preferably from about 100 psig (690 kPa) to about 500 psig (3448 kPa), preferably in the range of from about 200 psig (1379 kPa) to about 400 psig (2759 kPa), more preferably in the range of from about 250 psig (1724 kPa) to about 350 psig (2414 kPa). The reactor temperature in the gas phase process may vary from about 30° C. to about 120° C., preferably from about 60° C. to about 115° C., more preferably in the range of from about 70° C. to 110° C., and most preferably in the range of from about 70° C. to about 95° C. In another embodiment when high density polyethylene is desired then the reactor temperature is typically between 70 and 105° C. The productivity of the catalyst or catalyst system in a gas phase system is influenced by the partial pressure of the main monomer. The preferred mole percent of the main monomer, ethylene or propylene, preferably ethylene, is from about 25 to 90 mole percent and the comonomer partial pressure is in the range of from about 138 kPa to about 517 kPa, preferably about 517 kPa to about 2069 kPa, which are typical conditions in a gas phase polymerization process. Also in some systems the presence of comonomer can increase productivity. In a preferred embodiment, the reactor utilized in the present invention is capable of producing more than 500 lbs of polymer per hour (227 Kg/hr) to about 200,000 lbs/hr (90,900 Kg/hr) or higher, preferably greater than 1000 lbs/hr (455 Kg/hr), more preferably greater than 10,000 lbs/hr (4540 Kg/hr), even more preferably greater than 25,000 lbs/hr (11,300 Kg/hr), still more preferably greater than 35,000 lbs/hr (15,900 Kg/hr), still even more preferably greater than 50,000 lbs/hr (22,700 Kg/hr) and preferably greater than 65,000 lbs/hr (29,000 Kg/hr) to greater than 100,000 lbs/hr (45,500 Kg/hr), and most preferably over 100,000 lbs/hr (45,500 Kg/hr). Other gas phase processes contemplated by the process of the invention include those described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,627,242, 5,665,818 and 5,677,375, and European publications EP-A-0 794 200, EP-A-0 802 202 and EP-B-634 421 all of which are herein fully incorporated by reference. In another preferred embodiment the catalyst system in is liquid form and is introduced into the gas phase reactor into a resin particle lean zone. For information on how to introduce a liquid catalyst system into a fluidized bed polymerization into a particle lean zone, please see U.S. Pat. No. 5,693,727, which is incorporated by reference herein. Slurry Phase Polymerization A slurry polymerization process generally operates between 1 to about 50 atmosphere pressure range (15 psig to 735 psig, 103 kPa to 5068% kPa) or even greater and temperatures in the range of 0° C. to about 120° C. In a slurry polymerization, a suspension of solid, particulate polymer is formed in a liquid polymerization diluent medium to which monomer and comonomers along with catalyst are added. The suspension including diluent is intermittently or continuously removed from the reactor where the volatile components are separated from the polymer and recycled, optionally after a distillation, to the reactor. The liquid diluent employed in the polymerization medium is typically an alkane having from 3 to 7 carbon atoms, preferably a branched alkane. The medium employed should be liquid under the conditions of polymerization and relatively inert. When a propane medium is used the process should be operated above the reaction diluent critical temperature and pressure. Preferably, a hexane or an isobutane medium is employed. In one embodiment, a preferred polymerization technique of the invention is referred to as a particle form polymerization, or a slurry process where the temperature is kept below the temperature at which the polymer goes into solution. Such technique is well known in the art, and described in for instance U.S. Pat. No. 3,248,179 which is fully incorporated herein by reference. The preferred temperature in the particle form process is within the range of about 85° C. to about 110° C. Two preferred polymerization methods for the slurry process are those employing a loop reactor and those utilizing a plurality of stirred reactors in series, parallel, or combinations thereof. Non-limiting examples of slurry processes include continuous loop or stirred tank processes. Also, other examples of slurry processes are described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,613,484, which is herein fully incorporated by reference. In another embodiment, the slurry process is carried out continuously in a loop reactor. The catalyst, as a slurry in isobutane or as a dry free flowing powder, is injected regularly to the reactor loop, which is itself filled with circulating slurry of growing polymer particles in a diluent of isobutane containing monomer and comonomer. Hydrogen, optionally, may be added as a molecular weight control. The reactor is maintained at a pressure of 3620 kPa to 4309 kPa and at a temperature in the range of about 60° C. to about 104° C. depending on the desired polymer melting characteristics. Reaction heat is removed through the loop wall since much of the reactor is in the form of a double-jacketed pipe. The slurry is allowed to exit the reactor at regular intervals or continuously to a heated low pressure flash vessel, rotary dryer and a nitrogen purge column in sequence for removal of the isobutane diluent and all unreacted monomer and comonomers. The resulting hydrocarbon free powder is then compounded for use in various applications. In another embodiment, the reactor used in the slurry process of the invention is capable of and the process of the invention is producing greater than 2000 lbs of polymer per hour (907 Kg/hr), more preferably greater than 5000 lbs/hr (2268 Kg/hr), and most preferably greater than 10,000 lbs/hr (4540 Kg/hr). In another embodiment the slurry reactor used in the process of the invention is producing greater than 15,000 lbs of polymer per hour (6804 Kg/hr), preferably greater than 25,000 lbs/hr (11,340 Kg/hr) to about 100,000 lbs/hr (45,500 Kg/hr). In another embodiment in the slurry process of the invention the total reactor pressure is in the range of from 400 psig (2758 kPa) to 800 psig (5516 kPa), preferably 450 psig (3103 kPa) to about 700 psig (4827 kPa), more preferably 500 psig (3448 kPa) to about 650 psig (4482 kPa), most preferably from about 525 psig (3620 kPa) to 625 psig (4309 kPa). In yet another embodiment in the slurry process of the invention the concentration of predominant monomer in the reactor liquid medium is in the range of from about 1 to 10 weight percent, preferably from about 2 to about 7 weight percent, more preferably from about 2.5 to about 6 weight percent, most preferably from about 3 to about 6 weight percent. Another process of the invention is where the process, preferably a slurry or gas phase process is operated in the absence of or essentially free of any scavengers, such as triethylaluminum, trimethylaluminum, tri-iso-butylaluminum and tri-n-hexylaluminum and diethyl aluminum chloride, dibutyl zinc and the like. This process is described in PCT publication WO 96/08520 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,712,352, which are herein fully incorporated by reference. In another embodiment the process is run with scavengers. Typical scavengers include trimethyl aluminum, tri-iso-butyl aluminum and an excess of alumoxane or modified alumoxane. Homogeneous, Bulk or Solution Phase Polymerization The catalysts described herein can be used advantageously in homogeneous solution processes. Generally this involves polymerization in a continuous reactor in which the polymer formed and the starting monomer and catalyst materials supplied, are agitated to reduce or avoid concentration gradients. Suitable processes operate above the melting point of the polymers at high pressures, from 1 to 3000 bar (10-30,000 MPa), in which the monomer acts as diluent or in solution polymerization using a solvent. Temperature control in the reactor is obtained by balancing the heat of polymerization and with reactor cooling by reactor jackets or cooling coils to cool the contents of the reactor, auto refrigeration, pre-chilled feeds, vaporization of liquid medium (diluent, monomers or solvent) or combinations of all three. Adiabatic reactors with pre-chilled feeds may also be used. The reactor temperature depends on the catalyst used. In general, the reactor temperature preferably can vary between about 0° C. and about 160° C., more preferably from about 10° C. to about 140° C., and most preferably from about 40° C. to about 120° C. In series operation, the second reactor temperature is preferably higher than the first reactor temperature. In parallel reactor operation, the temperatures of the two reactors are independent. The pressure can vary from about 1 mm Hg to 2500 bar (25,000 MPa), preferably from 0.1 bar to 1600 bar (1-16,000 MPa), most preferably from 1.0 to 500 bar (10-5000 MPa). Each of these processes may also be employed in single reactor, parallel or series reactor configurations. The liquid processes comprise contacting olefin monomers with the above described catalyst system in a suitable diluent or solvent and allowing said monomers to react for a sufficient time to produce the desired polymers. Hydrocarbon solvents are suitable, both aliphatic and aromatic. Alkanes, such as hexane, pentane, isopentane, and octane, are preferred. The process can be carried out in a continuous stirred tank reactor, batch reactor, or plug flow reactor, or more than one reactor operated in series or parallel. These reactors may have or may not have internal cooling and the monomer feed may or may not be refrigerated. See the general disclosure of U.S. Pat. No. 5,001,205 for general process conditions. See also, international application WO 96/33227 and WO 97/22639. Medium and High Pressure Polymerizations In the high pressure process for the polymerization of ethylene alone or in combination with C3 to C10 alpha-olefins and optionally other copolymerizable olefins, the temperature of the medium within which the polymerization reaction occurs is at least 120° C. and preferably above 140° C. and may range to 350° C., but below the decomposition temperature of said polymer product, typically from 310° C. to 325° C. Preferably, the polymerization is completed at a temperature within the range of 130° C. to 230° C. The polymerization is completed at a pressure above 200 bar (20 MPa), and generally at a pressure within the range of 500 bar (50 MPa) to 3500 bar (350 MPa). Preferably, the polymerization is completed at a pressure within the range from 800 bar (80 MPa) to 2500 bar (250 MPa). For medium pressure process, the temperature within which the polymerization reaction occurs is at least 80° C. and ranges from 80° C. to 250° C., preferably from 100° C. to 220° C., and should for a given polymer in the reactor, be above the melting point of said polymer so as to maintain the fluidity of the polymer-rich phase. The pressure can be varied between 100 and 1000 bar for ethylene homopolymers and from 30 bar (3 MPa) to 1000 bar (100 MPa), especially 50 bar (5 MPa) to 500 bar (50 MPa) for processes producing ethylene copolymers containing C3 to C10 olefins and optionally other copolymerizable olefins. More recently, polymerization conditions for high pressure and or temperature polymerizations to prepare propylene homopolymers and copolymers of propylene with C3 to C10 olefins and optionally other copolymerizable olefins have been reported. See U.S. patent applications 60/431,185 filed Dec. 5, 2002; 60/431,077, filed Dec. 5, 2002; and 60/412,541, filed Sep. 20, 2002. After polymerization and deactivation of the catalyst, the polymer product can be recovered by processes well known in the art. Any excess reactants may be flashed off from the polymer and the polymer obtained extruded into water and cut into pellets or other suitable comminuted shapes. For general process conditions, see the general disclosure of U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,084,534, 5,408,017, 6,127,497, 6,255,410, which are incorporated herein by reference. 1. In another embodiment, this invention relates to a transition metal catalyst compound represented by the formula: where: M and M′ are, independently, a group 8, 9, 10 or 11 transition metal; each R group is, independently, is, hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent R groups may join together to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; R′ is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent R groups may join together with R′ to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; each X group is, independently, is, hydrogen, a halogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents, and optionally, adjacent X groups may join together to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic cyclic or polycyclic substituent; m and m′ are, independently, 0, 1, 2, or 3; z and z′ are, independently, 0, 1, 2, or 3; N is nitrogen; Q is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents; Q′ is hydrogen, or a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituents; and L is a hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, halocarbyl, substituted halocarbyl, silylcarbyl, substituted silylcarbyl, germylcarbyl, or substituted germylcarbyl substituent. 2. The compound of paragraph 1 wherein M and M′ are, independently Ni, Co, Pd, Cu, or Fe. 3. The compound of paragraph 1 or 2 wherein each R group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of C1 to C20 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C20 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof. 4. The compound of any of the above paragraphs wherein each R group is, independently, selected from the group consisting of ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, methylphenyl, and all isomers thereof. 5. The compound of any of the above paragraphs wherein R′ is selected from the group consisting of C1 to C20 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C20 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof. 6. The compound of any of the above paragraphs wherein R′ is selected from the group consisting of ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, methylphenyl, and all isomers thereof. 7. The compound of any of the above paragraphs wherein each Q and Q′ is, independently, selected from the group consisting of C1 to C20 hydrocarbyls, C1 to C20 substituted phenyls, and all isomers thereof. 8. The compound of any of the above paragraphs wherein each Q and Q′ is, independently, selected from the group consisting of ethyl, methyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, septyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, phenyl, methylphenyl, and all isomers thereof. 9. The compound of any of the above paragraphs wherein each X is, independently, selected from the group consisting of chlorine, bromine, fluorine, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, t-butyl, pentyl, hexyl, phenyl, and methylphenyl. 10. The compound of any of the above paragraphs wherein each X is, independently, selected from the group consisting of chlorine, bromine, fluorine, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, t-butyl and pentyl. 11. The compound of any of the above paragraphs wherein L is an aryl group. 12. The compound of any of the above paragraphs wherein z and z′ are the same. 13. The compound of any of the above paragraphs wherein z and z′ are zero. 14. The compound of any of paragraphs 1-12 wherein z and z′ are 1. 15. The compound of any of paragraphs 1-12 wherein z and z′ are 2. 16. The compound of any of paragraphs 1-12 wherein z and z′ are 3. 17. The compound of any of paragraphs 1-11 wherein z and z′ are different. 18. The compound of paragraphs 17 wherein z is zero and z′ is 1. 19. The compound of any of the above paragraphs wherein m and m′ are the same. 20. The compound of any of the above paragraphs wherein M and M′ are the same. 21. The compound of any of the above paragraphs wherein Q and Q′ are the same. 22. The compound of any of paragraphs 1-18, 20 or 21 wherein m and m′ are different. 23. The compound of any of paragraphs 1-19, 21 or 22 wherein M and M′ are different. 24. The compound of any of paragraphs 1-20, 22 or 23 wherein Q and Q′ are different. 25. The compound of any of the above paragraphs wherein each R, R′, Q and Q′ is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, and phenyl. 26. A catalyst system comprising activator and a transition metal catalyst compound of any of paragraphs 1-25. 27. The catalyst system of paragraph 26 wherein the activator is an alumoxane. 28. The catalyst system of paragraph 26 wherein the activator is a non-coordinating anion. 29. The catalyst system of paragraph 26 wherein the activator is selected from the group consisting of trimethylammonium tetraphenylborate, triethylammonium tetraphenylborate, tripropylammonium tetraphenylborate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetraphenylborate, tri(tert-butyl)ammonium tetraphenylborate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetraphenylborate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetraphenylborate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetraphenylborate, trimethylammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tri(sec-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, trimethylammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, dimethyl(tert-butyl)ammonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium)tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, trimethylammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, tri(tert-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, trimethylammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, tri(tert-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, trimethylammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triethylammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, tripropylammonium tetrakis(3,5 bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, tri(n-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, tri(tert-butyl)ammonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, N,N-diethylanilinium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, N,N-dimethyl-(2,4,6-trimethylanilinium) tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, di-(iso-propyl)ammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, and dicyclohexylammonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate; tri(o-tolyl)phosphonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tri(2,6-dimethylphenyl)phosphonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tropillium tetraphenylborate, triphenylcarbenium tetraphenylborate, triphenylphosphonium tetraphenylborate, triethylsilylium tetraphenylborate, benzene(diazonium)tetraphenylborate, tropillium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, benzene(diazonium)tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, tropillium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, benzene(diazonium)tetrakis-(2,3,4,6-tetrafluorophenyl)borate, tropillium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, benzene(diazonium)tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, tropillium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, benzene(diazonium)tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, tropillium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triphenylphosphonium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triethylsilylium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, and benzene(diazonium)tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate. 30. The catalyst system of paragraph 26 wherein the activator is selected from the group consisting of: N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluorophenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, N,N-dimethylanilinium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(perfluoronaphthyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(perfluorobiphenyl)borate, triphenylcarbenium tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate, and triphenylcarbenium tetra(perfluorophenyl)borate. 31. The catalyst system of paragraph 26 wherein the activator is selected from the group consisting of: methyl alumoxane, modified methyl alumoxane, ethyl alumoxane, iso-butyl alumoxane, triphenyl boron, tris-perfluorophenyl boron, tris-perfluorophenyl aluminum, dimethylanilinium tetrakis perfluorophenyl borate, triphenyl carbonium tetrakis perfluorophenyl borate, dimethylanilinium tetrakis perfluorophenyl aluminate, and trisperfluoronaphthyl boron. 32. A method to polymerize unsaturated monomers comprising contacting one or more monomers with the catalyst system of paragraphs 26-29. 33. The method of paragraph 32 wherein the monomer comprises one or more olefins. 34. The method of paragraph 33 wherein the olefins comprise ethylene. 35. The method of paragraph 33 or 34 wherein the olefins comprises propylene. 36. The method of paragraph 32, 33 or 34 wherein the polymerization occurs in the gas phase. 37. The method of paragraph 32, 33 or 34 wherein the polymerization occurs in the solution phase. 38. The method of paragraph 32, 33 or 34 wherein the polymerization occurs in the slurry phase. 39. The method of paragraphs 32 to 38 wherein the polymerization occurs at a temperature above 70° C. and a pressure above 5 MPa. 40. A polymer produce by the method of any of paragraphs 32-49. 41. An article of manufacture comprising the polymer of paragraph 40. 42. A method to oligomerize a monomer comprising contacting monomer with the catalyst system of any of paragraphs 26-31. 43. An oligomer produce by the method of paragraph 42. 44. An article of manufacture comprising the oligomer of paragraph 43. EXPERIMENTAL Synthesis of Pre-Catalysts In the following formulae Me is methyl, iPr is isopropyl, and Ph is phenyl. The present invention is illustrated in the following examples. Preparation of Linker (L) The electrospray (ES) mass spectra were recorded using a micromass Quattra LC mass spectrometer with dichloromethane or methanol as the matrix [Masslynx software. open-access autosampler injection]. The infrared spectra were recorded with Universal ATR sampling accessories on a Perkin Elmer Spectrum One FTIR instrument. 1H and 13C NMR spectra were recorded at ambient temperature on a Bruker ARX spectrometer 250/300 MHz; chemical shifts (ppm) are referred to the residual protic solvent peaks. The reagents 2,6-dimethylaniline, 2,6-diisopropylaniline, 2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-benzene-1,4-diamine, formaldehyde (37/40 wt. % solution in water), cetyltrimethylammoniumbromide (CTAB), benzaldehyde, palladium on carbon paste (5%), p-bromobenzaldehyde, p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, p-isopropylbenzaldehyde and p-nitrobenzaldehyde were purchased from Aldrich Chemical Co. and used without further purification. Formic acid (98%) was purchased from Fisons PLC and used without further purification. The compounds, 4-bromo-2,6-dimethylaniline [H. Suzuki, K. Nakamura and M. Takeshima, Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 1971, 44, 2248], 4-bromo-2,6 diisopropylaniline [J. H. Oskam, H. H. Fox, K. B. Yap, D. H. McConville, R. O'Dell, B. J. Lichtenstein and R. R. Schrock, J. Organomet. Chem., 1993, 459, 185] were prepared according to the indicated journal articles. Example 1 Preparation of 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbiphenyl-4,4′-diamine (1a) Compound 1a was prepared using the procedure described in P. Bamfield and P. M. Quan, Synthesis, 1978, 537 using 4-bromo-2,6-dimethylaniline (10.00 g, 50 mmol), CTAB (2.00 g, 5.5 mmol, 0.11 eq.), 5% palladium on charcoal (0.80 g, 50% paste), sodium hydroxide (21.1 ml, 8.0M, 0.169 mol) and sodium formate (2×3.40 g, 100 mmol, 2 eq.) in water (30 ml). Example 2 Preparation of 3,3′,5,5′-tetraisoproplbiphenyl-4,4′-diamine (1b) A mixture containing 4-bromo-2,6-diisopropylaniline (12.80 g, 50 mmol), CTAB (2.00 g, 5.5 mmol, 0.11 eq.), 5% palladium on charcoal (0.80 g, 50% paste), sodium hydroxide (21.1 ml, 8.0M, 0.169 mol) and sodium formate (3.40 g, 50 mmol, 1 eq.) was mixed in water (30 ml) and heated to reflux for 4 hours. A further quantity of sodium formate (3.40 g, 50 mmol, 1 eq.) was then added to the boiling solution and the reaction mixture stirred vigorously under reflux for a further 20 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature, the solid filtered off and the residue washed with copious amounts of chloroform. The organic phase was separated from the aqueous layer and dried over magnesium sulfate. The organic phase was rapidly filtered through silica and the silica washed several times with chloroform. The filtrate was concentrated, distilled under reduced pressure at 150° C. (0.1 mmHg) to remove the remaining 2,6-disopropylaniline to give 1b as a dark reddish solid (0.52 g, 5.2%). Recystallisation of 1b was achieved from hexane. Compound 1b: ES mass spectrum, m/z 353 [M+H]+; IR (cm−1), 3401, 3368 (N—H); 1H NMR (CDCl3), δ 1.25 (d, 24H, 3J(HH) 7.2, CH(CH3)2, 2.92 (sept, 4H, CH(CH3)2), 3.70 (br, 4H, NH2), 7.11 (s, 4H, Ar—H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), δ 21.5 (s, CH3), 27.1 (s, CH), 120.7 (s, Ar), 131.6 (s, Ar), 132.1 (s, Ar), 137.8 (s, Ar). Anal. (C25H38N2) calcd: C, 81.97; H, 10.38; N, 7.65. Found: C, 82.18; H, 10.09; N, 7.79%. In addition, a single crystal X-ray diffraction study of 1b has confirmed the structural type. Example 3 Preparation of 4,4′-methylenebis(2,6-dimethylaniline) (2a) A modification of the preparation described in C. A. Hunter, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1992, 114, 5303, was employed. To a solution of 2,6-dimethylaniline (10.00 g, 0.083 mol) and formaldehyde (4.03 g, 0.054 mol, 0.65 eq.) was added dilute hydrochloric acid (2.2 ml, 0.1 M). The biphasic solution was stirred at 70° C. overnight. The dark reddish solution was left to cool to ambient temperature and diluted with dichloromethane (15 ml). The minimum amount of concentrated hydrochloric acid (2 ml) was introduced and the solution stirred at room temperature for 2 hours before being filtered. The white salt collected was washed thoroughly with dichloromethane and air-dried. The salt was suspended in diethyl ether (70 ml) and stirred with an aqueous solution of saturated sodium hydroxide until the dissolution of the solid. The aqueous phase was extracted with diethyl ether (2×70 ml) and the combined organic phases dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure to give 2a as an orange solid (8.97 g, 86%). Example 4 Preparation of 4,4′-methylenebis(2,6-diisopropylaniline) (2b) To a solution of 2,6-diisopropylaniline (5.00 g, 0.028 mol) and formaldehyde (1.38 g, 0.018 mol, 0.65 eq.) was added dilute hydrochloric acid (2.2 ml, 0.1 M). The biphasic solution was stirred at 110° C. overnight. The dark reddish solution was allowed to cool to ambient temperature and diluted with dichloromethane (15 ml). The minimum amount of concentrated hydrochloric acid (2 ml) was added and the solution stirred at room temperature for 2 hours before being filtered. The white salt collected was washed thoroughly with dichloromethane and air-dried. The salt was suspended in diethyl ether (70 ml) and stirred with an aqueous solution of saturated sodium hydroxide until the complete dissolution of the solid. The aqueous phase was extracted with diethyl ether (2×70 ml), the combined organic phases dried over magnesium sulfate and concentrated under reduced pressure to give 2b as a purple oil (2.10 g, 40%). Compound 2b: ES mass spectrum, m/z 367 [M+H]+; IR (cm−1), 3475, 3384 (N—H); 1H NMR (CDCl3), δ 1.14 (d, 24H, 3J(HH) 6.7, CH(CH3)), 2.82 (sept, 4H, CH(CH3)), 3.46 (br, 4H, NH2), 3.76 (s, 2H, CH2), 6.77 (s, 4H, Ar—H). 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), δ 21.5 (s, CH3), 26.9 (s, CH), 40.2 (s, CH2), 122.2 (s, Ar), 130.5 (s, Ar), 131.5 (s, Ar), 136.9 (s, Ar). Example 5 Preparation of αα-bis(4-amino-3,5-dimethylphenyl)toluene (3a) A modification of the preparation described in C. A. Hunter, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1992, 114, 5303, was employed. To a solution of 2,6-dimethylaniline (5.00 g, 0.041 mol) and benzaldehyde (5.65 g, 0.053 mol, 1.3 eq.) was added concentrated hydrochloric acid (5 ml). After stirring for one night at 140° C., the dark green solution was allowed to cool to ambient temperature and diluted with dichloromethane (15 ml). The minimum amount of concentrated hydrochloric acid (2 ml) was introduced and the solution stirred at ambient temperature for 2 hours before being filtered. The yellow salt collected was washed thoroughly with dichloromethane and air dried. The salt was suspended in diethyl ether (70 ml) and stirred with an aqueous solution of saturated sodium hydroxide until the complete dissolution of the solid. The aqueous phase was extracted with diethyl ether (2×70 ml) and the combined organic phases were dried over magnesium sulfate and concentrated under reduced pressure to give 3a as a purple oil (4.11 g, 59%). Example 6 Preparation of αα-bis(4-amino-3,5-diisopropylphenyl)toluene (3b) To a solution of 2,6-diisopropylaniline (5.00 g, 0.028 mol) and benzaldehyde (3.82 g, 0.036 mol, 1.3 eq.) was added concentrated hydrochloric acid (5 ml). The biphasic solution was stirred at 140° C. overnight. The resulting dark green solution was allowed to cool to ambient temperature and diluted with dichloromethane (15 ml). The minimum amount of concentrated hydrochloric acid (2 ml) was added and the solution stirred at ambient temperature for 2 hours before being filtered. The yellow salt collected was washed thoroughly with dichloromethane and air dried. The salt was suspended in diethyl ether (70 ml) and stirred with an aqueous solution of saturated sodium hydroxide until the complete dissolution of the solid. The aqueous phase was extracted with diethyl ether (2×70 ml), the combined organic phases dried over magnesium sulfate and concentrated under reduced pressure to give 3b as a pale blue solid (1.52 g, 24%). Compound 3b: ES mass spectrum, m/z 443 [M+H]+; IR (cm−1) 3474, 3442, 3371 (N—H); 1H NMR (CDCl3): δ 1.10 (d, 24H, 3J(HH) 6.7, CH(CH3)), 2.81 (sept, 4H, CH(CH3)), 3.54 (br, 4H, NH2), 5.20 (s, 1H, CHPh), 6.76 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 7.0-7.2 (m, 5H, Ar—H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), δ 23.0 (s, CH3), 28.4 (s, CH), 57.0 (s, CH), 124.4 (s, Ar), 125.9 (s, Ar), 128.3 (s, Ar), 129.7 (s, Ar), 132.7 (s, Ar), 135.0 (s, Ar), 138.3 (s, Ar), 146.7 (s, Ar). Example 7 Preparation of αα-bis(4-amino-3,5-diisopropylphenyl)-4-bromotoluene (4) To a solution of 2,6-diisopropylaniline (5.00 g, 28.7 mmol) and p-bromobenzaldehyde (3.38 g, 18.3 mmol, 0.65 eq.) was added concentrated hydrochloric acid (1 ml). The biphasic solution was stirred at 120° C. overnight. The resulting dark blue solution was allowed to cool to ambient temperature and diluted with chloroform. The minimum amount of concentrated hydrochloric acid was added and the solution stirred at ambient temperature for 2 hours before being filtered. The yellow salt collected was washed thoroughly with chloroform and air dried. The salt was suspended in chloroform (25 ml) and stirred with an aqueous solution of saturated sodium hydroxide until the complete dissolution of the solid. The aqueous phase was extracted with chloroform (2×70 ml), the combined organic phases dried over magnesium sulfate and concentrated under reduced pressure to give 4 as a pale blue solid (1.32 g, 45%). Compound 4: ES mass spectrum, m/z 522 [M+H]+; IR (cm−1) 3392 (N—H); 1H NMR (CDCl3): 1.10 (d, 24H, 3J(HH) 6.7, CH(CH3)2), 2.82 (sept, 4H, CH(CH3)2), 3.56 (br, 4H, NH2), 5.20 (s, 1H, CHPh), 6.68 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 6.92 (d, 2H, 3J(HH) 8.3, Ar—H), 7.27 (d, 2H, Ar—H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), 22.5 (s, CH3), 22.5 (s, CH3), 28.0 (s, CH), 56.0 (s, CH3), 119.3 (s, Ar), 123.8 (s, Ar), 130.9 (s, Ar), 131.1 (s, Ar), 132.3 (s, Ar), 133.8 (s, Ar), 138.1 (s, Ar), 145.5 (s, Ar); Anal. (C31H41N2Br) calcd: C, 71.38; H, 7.94; N, 5.37. Found: C, 71.37; H, 8.04; N, 5.21%. In addition, a single crystal X-ray diffraction study of 4 has confirmed the structural type. Example 8 Preparation of αα-bis(4-amino-3,5-diisopropylphenyl)-4-hydroxytoluene (5) To a solution of 2,6-diisopropylaniline (5.00 g, 28.7 mmol) and p-hydroxybenzaldehyde (2.24 g, 18.3 mmol, 0.65 eq.) was added concentrated hydrochloric acid (1 ml). The biphasic solution was stirred at 120° C. overnight. The resulting dark blue solution was allowed to cool to ambient temperature and diluted with chloroform. The minimum amount of concentrated hydrochloric acid was added and the solution stirred at ambient temperature for 2 hours before being filtered. The whitish salt collected was washed thoroughly with chloroform and air dried. The salt was suspended in chloroform (25 ml) and stirred with an aqueous solution of saturated sodium hydroxide until the complete dissolution of the solid. The aqueous phase was extracted with chloroform (2×70 ml), the combined organic phases dried over magnesium sulfate and concentrated under reduced pressure to give 5 as a red solid (1.11 g, 17%). Compound 5: ES mass spectrum, m/z 459 [M+H]+; IR (cm−1) 3417, 3327 (N—H, O—H); 1H NMR (CDCl3): 1.10 (d, 24H, 3J(HH) 6.7, CH(CH3)2), 2.82 (sept, 4H, CH(CH3)), 3.56 (br, 4H, NH2), 5.19 (s, 1H, CHPh), 6.69 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 6.92 (d, 2H, 3J(HH) 8.2, Ar—H), 7.27 (d, 2H, 3J(HH) 8.2, Ar—H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled) 22.5 (s, CH3), 22.6 (s, CH3), 28.0 (s, CH), 55.6 (s, CH3), 114.4 (s, Ar), 124.0 (s, Ar), 130.2 (s, Ar), 132.7 (s, Ar), 135.4 (s, Ar), 137.3 (s, Ar), 138.1 (s, Ar), 153.6 (s, Ar). In addition, a single crystal X-ray diffraction study of 5 has confirmed the structural type. Example 9 Preparation of αα-bis(4-amino-3,5-diisopropylphenyl)-4-nitrotoluene (6) To a solution of 2,6-diisopropylaniline (5.00 g, 28.3 mmol) and p-nitrobenzaldehyde (2.77 g, 18.4 mmol, 0.65 eq.) was added concentrated hydrochloric acid (5 ml). The biphasic solution was stirred at 120° C. overnight. The resulting dark green solution was allowed to cool to ambient temperature and diluted with dichloromethane. The minimum amount of concentrated hydrochloric acid was added and the solution stirred at ambient temperature for 2 hours before being filtered. The yellow salt collected was washed thoroughly with dichloromethane and air dried. The salt was suspended in diethyl ether (70 ml) and stirred with an aqueous solution of saturated sodium hydroxide until the complete dissolution of the solid. The aqueous phase was extracted with diethyl ether (2×70 ml), the combined organic phases dried over magnesium sulfate and concentrated under reduced pressure to give 6 as a yellow solid (1.01 g, 10%). Compound 6: ES mass spectrum, m/z 488 [M+H]+; IR (cm−1) 3394, 3478 (N—H), 1515, 1345 (NO2); 1H NMR (CDCl3): 1.09 (d, 24H, 3J(HH) 6.7, CH(CH3)), 2.81 (sept, 4H, CH(CH3)), 3.56 (br, 4H, NH2), 5.32 (s, 1H, CHPh), 6.67 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 7.21 (dt, 2H, 3J(HH) 8.8, 1.9, Ar—H), 8.00 (dt, 2H, 3J(HH) 8.8, 1.9, Ar—H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled) 23.0 (s, CH3), 28.4 (s, CH), 57.0 (s, CH), 124.4 (s, Ar), 125.9 (s, Ar), 128.3 (s, Ar), 129.7 (s, Ar), 132.7 (s, Ar), 135.0 (s, Ar), 138.3 (s, Ar), 146.7 (s, Ar). Example 10 Preparation of αα-bis(4-amino-3,5-dimethylphenyl)-4-isopropyltoluene (7a) To a solution of 2,6-dimethylaniline (2.00 g, 16.5 mmol) and p-isopropylbenzaldehyde (1.59 g, 10.7 mmol, 0.65 eq.) was added concentrated hydrochloric acid (1 ml). The biphasic solution was stirred at 130° C. overnight. The resulting dark blue solution was allowed to cool to ambient temperature and diluted with dichloromethane (15 ml). The minimum amount of concentrated hydrochloric acid (2 ml) was added and the solution stirred at ambient temperature for 2 hours before being filtered. The yellow salt collected was washed thoroughly with dichloromethane and air dried. The salt was suspended in chloroform (25 ml) and stirred with an aqueous solution of saturated sodium hydroxide until the complete dissolution of the solid. The aqueous phase was extracted with chloroform (2×70 ml), the combined organic phases dried over magnesium sulfate and concentrated under reduced pressure to give 7a as a pale blue solid (1.25 g, 31%). Compound 7a: ES mass spectrum, m/z 373 [M+H]+; 1H NMR (CDCl3), δ 1.15 (d, 6H, 3J(HH) 6.7, CH(CH3)2), 2.03 (s, 12H, CH3), 2.79 (sept, 1H, CH(CH3)2), 3.45 (br, 2H, NH2) 5.14 (s, 1H, CHPh), 6.62 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 7.03-7.10 (m, 4H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), 17.8 (s, CH3), 24.0 (s, CH(CH3)2), 33.6 (s, CH(CH3)2), 55.2 (s, CH), 121.6 (s, Ar), 126.0 (s, Ar), 129.1 (s, Ar), 129.2 (s, Ar), 134.6 (s, Ar), 140.5 (s, Ar), 142.7 (s, Ar), 146.0 (s, Ar). Anal. (C26H32N2) calcd: C, 83.82; H, 8.66; N, 7.52. Found: C, 83.71; H, 8.75; N, 7.37%. Example 11 Preparation of αα-bis(4-amino-3,5-diisopropylphenyl)-4-isopropyltoluene (7b) To a solution of 2,6-diisopropylaniline (2.00 g, 11.3 mmol) and p-isopropylbenzaldehyde (1.10 g, 7.34 mmol, 0.65 eq.) was added concentrated hydrochloric acid (1 ml). The biphasic solution was stirred at 130° C. overnight. The resulting dark blue solution was allowed to cool to ambient temperature and diluted with dichloromethane (15 ml). The minimum amount of concentrated hydrochloric acid (2 ml) was added and the solution stirred at ambient temperature for 2 hours before being filtered. The yellow salt collected was washed thoroughly with dichloromethane and air dried. The salt was suspended in chloroform (25 ml) and stirred with an aqueous solution of saturated sodium hydroxide until the complete dissolution of the solid. The aqueous phase was extracted with chloroform (2×70 ml), the combined organic phases dried over magnesium sulfate and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a pale blue solid that afford 7b as a white solid after recrystallisation in hot hexane (1.64 g, 46%). Compound 7b: ES mass spectrum, m/z 485 [M+H]+; IR (cm−1) 3400 (N—H), 1620, 1597 (C═N); 1H NMR (CDCl3): 1.19 (d, 24H, 3J(HH) 6.9, CH(CH3)2), 1.23 (d, 6H, 3J(HH) 7.0, CH(CH3)2), 2.91 (sept, 5H, CH(CH3)2), 5.29 (s, 1H, CHPh), 6.82 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 7.03-7.10 (m, 4H, Ar—H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), 22.4 (s, CH3), 22.5 (s, CH3), 24.1 (s, CH3), 28.0 (s, CH(CH3)2), 33.6 (s, CH(CH3)2), 56.3 (s, CHPh), 124.0 (s, Ar), 126.0 (s, Ar), 129.1 (s, Ar), 132.2 (s, Ar), 134.8 (s, Ar), 137.9 (s, Ar), 143.6 (s, Ar), 145.9 (s, Ar); Anal. (C32H52N2) calcd: C, 84.24; H, 9.98; N, 5.78. Found C, 84.36, H, 10.12; N, 5.83%. In addition, a single crystal X-ray diffraction study of 7b has confirmed the structural type. Example 12 Preparation of 4,4′-methylene(2,6-diisopropylaniline)(2,6-dimethylaniline)methane (8) To a solution of 2,6-dimethylaniline (2.50 g, 0.021 mol), 2,6-diisopropylaniline (3.65 g, 0.021 mol, 1 eq.) and formaldehyde (1.00 g, 0.014 mol, 0.65 eq.) was added concentrated hydrochloric acid (5 ml). The biphasic solution was stirred at 110° C. overnight. The resulting dark blue solution was allowed to cool to ambient temperature and diluted with dichloromethane (15 ml). The minimum amount of concentrated hydrochloric acid (2 ml) was added and the solution stirred at ambient temperature for 2 hours before being filtered. The white salt collected was washed thoroughly with dichloromethane and air dried (nb. this step removes the salt of 2a). The remaining salt was suspended in diethyl ether (70 ml) and stirred with an aqueous solution of saturated sodium hydroxide until the complete dissolution of the solid. The aqueous phase was extracted with diethyl ether (2×70 ml), the combined organic phases dried over magnesium sulfate and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a clear oil. Recrytallisation of the residue from the minimum amount of hot hexane afforded 8 as a white crystalline solid (0.34 g, 5%). Compound 8: ES mass spectrum, m/z 311 [M+H]+; IR (cm−1), 3410 (N—H); 1H NMR (CDCl3), δ 1.17 (d, 12H, 3J(HH) 7.8, CH(CH)2), 2.07 (s, 6H, CH3), 2.84 (sept, 2H, CH(CH3)2), 3.47 (br, 4H, NH2), 3.69 (s, 2H, CH2), 6.70 (s, 2H, Ar—H), 6.79 (s, 2H, Ar—H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), 18.1 (s, CH3), 22.9 (s, CH3), 28.4 (s, CH), 41.3 (s, CH2), 122.3 (s, Ar), 123.8 (s, Ar), 129.0 (s, Ar), 132.1 (s, Ar), 133.0 (s, Ar), 138.4 (s, Ar), 140.7 (s, Ar). In addition, a single crystal X-ray diffraction study of 8 has confirmed the structural type. Example 13 Preparation of αα-(4-amino-3,5-dimethylphenyl)(4-amino-3,5-diisopropylphenyl)toluene (9) To a solution of 2,6-diisopropylaniline (2.50 g, 0.014 mol), 2,6-dimethylaniline (1.70 g, 0.014 mol, 1 eq.) and benzaldehyde (1.93 g, 0.018 mol, 1.3 eq.) was added concentrated hydrochloric acid (5 ml). The biphasic solution was stirred at 140° C. overnight. The resulting dark green solution was allowed to cool to ambient temperature and diluted with dichloromethane (15 ml). The minimum amount of concentrated hydrochloric acid (2 ml) of concentrated hydrochloric acid was added and the solution stirred at ambient temperature for 2 hours before being filtered. The yellow salt collected was washed thoroughly with dichloromethane and air dried. The salt was suspended in diethyl ether (70 ml) and stirred with an aqueous solution of saturated sodium hydroxide until the complete dissolution of the solid. The aqueous phase was extracted with diethyl ether (2×70 ml), the combined organic phases dried over magnesium sulfate and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a pale blue solid. Recrystallisation of the solid from hexane gave 9 in low yield as a white solid (0.22 g, 4%). Compound 9: ES mass spectrum, m/z 387 [M+H]+. 1H NMR (CDCl3): 1.19 (d, 12H, 3J(HH) 6.9, CH(CH3)2), 2.05 (2, 6H, Ar-Me), 2.91 (sept, 2H, CH(CH3)2), 5.29 (s, 1H, CHPh), 6.71 (s, 2H, Ar—H), 6.82 (s, 2H, Ar—H), 7.0-7.3 (m, 4H, Ar—H). Example 14 Preparation of 4,4′-methylene(2,6-diisopropylaniline)(2-methylaniline)methane (10) To a solution of 2-methylaniline (2.78 g, 0.023 mol), 2,6-diisopropylaniline (4.14 g, 0.023 mol, 1 eq.) and formaldehyde (2.24 g, 0.030 mol, 1.3 eq.) was added concentrated hydrochloric acid (5 ml). The biphasic solution was stirred at 130° C. for 8 hours. The resulting orange solution was allowed to cool to ambient temperature and diluted with dichloromethane (15 ml). The minimum amount of concentrated hydrochloric acid (2 ml) was added and the solution stirred at ambient temperature overnight before being filtered. The pale yellow white salt collected was washed thoroughly with dichloromethane and air dried. The salt was suspended in diethyl ether (70 ml) and stirred with an aqueous solution of saturated sodium hydroxide until the complete dissolution of the solid. The aqueous phase was extracted with diethyl ether (2×70 ml) to give a brown residue. Recrystallisation of the residue from hot hexane gave 10 as a pale brown solid (0.48 g, 7%). Compound 10: ES mass spectrum, m/z 297 [M+H]+; 1H NMR (CDCl3): δ 1.19 (d, 12H, 3J(HH) 7.8, CH(CH3)2), 2.05 (s, 3H, CH3), 2.84 (sept, 2H, CH(CH3)2), 3.54 (br, 4H, NH2), 3.71 (s, 2H, CH2), 6.5-6.6 (d, 1H, Ar—H), 6.7-6.8 (m, 4H, Ar—H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), 18.1 (s, CH3), 23.0 (s, CH3), 28.4 (s, CH), 41.3 (s, CH2), 115.5 (s, Ar), 122.8 (s, Ar), 127.6 (s, Ar), 129.4 (s, Ar), 131.2 (s, Ar), 138.5 (s, Ar), 142.8 (s, Ar). Formulae for Examples 1-14 Where Ph-4-Br=4-bromotoluene, Ph-4-OH=4-hydroxytoluene, Ph-4-NO2=4-nitrotoluene, and Ph-4-i-Pr=4-isopropyltoluene. Preparation of Ligands The electrospray (ES) mass spectra were recorded using a micromass Quattra LC mass spectrometer with dichloromethane or methanol as the matrix [Masslynx software. open-access autosampler injection]. The infrared spectra were recorded with Universal ATR sampling accessories on a Perkin Elmer Spectrum One FTIR instrument. 1H and 13C NMR spectra were recorded on a Bruker ARX spectrometer 250/300 MHz at ambient temperature; chemical shifts (ppm) are referred to the residual protic solvent peaks. The reagents 2-pyridinecarboxaldehyde, the 2-acetylpyridine, 2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-benzene-1,4-diamine were purchased from Aldrich Chemical Co. and used without further purification. Formic acid (98%) was purchased from Fisons PLC and used without further purification. The compounds 2,2′-bipyridinyl-6-carbaldehyde [J. Uenishi, T. Tanaka, K. Nishiwaki, S. Wakabayashi, S. Oae and H. Tsukube, J. Org. Chem., 1993, 58, 4382], 6-acetyl-2,2′-bipyridine [J. Uenishi, T. Hiraoka, S. Hata, K. Nishiwaki and O. Yonemitsu, J. Org. Chem., 1998, 63, 2481] were prepared according to the indicated journal articles. All other chemicals were obtained commercially and used without further purification. Example 15 Preparation of 2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine (11a) To a solution of 2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-benzene-1,4-diamine (1.50 g, 9.15 mmol) in absolute ethanol (100 ml) was added 2-pyridinecarboxaldehyde (1.90 ml, 0.02 mmol, 2.2 eq.) dropwise. After stirring overnight at 70° C., the suspension was filtered, washed with cold ethanol and dried under reduced pressure to give 11a in good yield as a pale yellow solid (1.82 g, 90%). Compound 11a: ES mass spectrum, m/z 343 [M+H]+; IR (cm−1) 1641, 1585, 1562 (C═N); 1H NMR (CDCl3), δ 2.11 (s, 12H, Ar—CH3), 7.2-7.3 (m, 2H, Py-H), 7.8-7.9 (m, 2H, Py-H), 7.72 (m, 2H, Py-H), 8.3-8.4 (m, 4H, Py-H, HC═N); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), 15.0 (s, CH3), 121.2 (s, Ar), 123.5 (s, Ar), 125.2 (s, Ar), 136.7 (s, Ar), 147.2 (s, Ar), 149.6 (s, Ar), 154.6 (s, Ar), 163.8 (s, C═N). Example 16 Preparation of 2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine (11b) To a mixture of 2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-benzene-1,4-diamine (0.50 g, 3.05 mmol) and 2-acetylpyridine (0.75 ml, 6.71 mmol, 2.2 eq.) in absolute ethanol (50 ml) was added three drops of formic acid. The solution was heated to 90° C. and stirred overnight. The suspension was filtered, the residue washed with cold ethanol and dried under reduced pressure to give 11b in low yield as a yellow solid (0.11 g, 10%). Compound 11b: ES mass spectrum, m/z 371 [M+H]+; IR (cm−1) 1631, 1595, 1567 (C═N); 1H NMR (CDCl3), δ 1.99 (s, 12H, Ar—CH3), 2.19 (s, 6H, (CH3)C═N), 7.2-7.3 (m, 2H, Py-H), 7.8-7.9 (m, 2H, Py-H), 8.3-8.4 (m, 2H, Py-H), 8.6-8.7 (m, 2H, Py-H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), 14.8 (s, Ar—CH3), 17.0 (s, CH3), 121.6 (s, Ar), 125.1 (s, Ar), 136.8 (s, Ar), 144.8 (s, Ar), 149.0 (s, Ar), 157.2 (s, Ar), 168.3 (s, C═N). In addition, a single crystal X-ray diffraction study of 11b has confirmed the structural type. Example 17 Preparation of 2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine (11c) Compound 6c was made in two steps (1 and 2) as outlined below: Step 1: To a mixture of 2-acetylpyridine (0.30 ml, 0.26 mmol) and 2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-benzene-1,4-diamine (0.60 g, 0.37 mmol, 1.4 eq.) in toluene (2 ml) was added 2 drops of formic acid. The suspension was heated for three days at 50° C. The dark reddish suspension was cooled, filtered and the residue washed with cold toluene. The filtrate was evaporated, dissolved in chloroform (2 ml) and cooled to −78° C. for 0.5 hours before being filtered. Hexane was added to the filtrate and all volatiles were removed under reduced pressure to give 2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N-(1-pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine as a brown solid (0.31 g, 45%). Compound 2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine: ES mass spectrum, m/z 268 [M+H]+; IR (cm−1) 3378 (N—H), 1632 (C═N); 1H NMR (CDCl3), 1.99 (s, 6H, Ar—CH3), 2.11 (s, 3H, (CH3)C═N), 2.13 (s, 6H, Ar—CH3), 3.40 (s, br, 2H, NH2), 7.40 (m, 1H, Py-H), 7.80 (m, 1H, Py-H), 8.41 (m, 1H, Py-H), 8.71 (m, 1H, Py-H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), 14.0 (s, Ar—CH3), 15.0 (s, Ar—CH3), 17.0 (s, (CH3)C═N), 119.2 (s, Ar), 121.6 (s, Ar), 122.0 (s, Ar), 125.0 (s, Ar), 136.8 (s, Ar), 138.7 (s, Ar), 141.4 (s, Ar), 148.9 (s, Ar), 157.3 (s, Ar), 168.1 (s, C═N). Step 2: To a solution of 2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine (0.25 g, 0.94 mmol) in absolute ethanol (6 ml) was added 2-pyridinecarboxaldehyde (0.10 ml, 1.00 mmol, 1.1 eq) in ethanol (4 ml). One drop of formic acid was added after thirty minutes of stirring at room temperature. The solution was allowed to stir at room temperature overnight. On cooling to −78° C., the suspension was filtered, washed with cold ethanol and dried under reduced pressure to give 11c as a pale yellow powder (0.17 g, 51%). Compound 11c: ES mass spectrum, m/z 357 [M+H]+; IR (cm−1) 1636, 1585, 1565 (C═N); 1H NMR (CDCl3), 1.90 (s, 6H, Ar—CH3), 2.03 (s, 6H, Ar—CH3), 2.11 (s, 3H, (CH3)C═N), 7.2-7.4 (m, 2H, Py-H), 7.7-7.8 (m, 2H, Py-H), 8.2-8.4 (m, 2H, CH═N, Py-H), 8.30 (m, 1H, Py-H), 8.6-8.7 (m, 2H, Py-H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), 13.4 (s, Ar—CH3), 14.0 (s, Ar—CH3), 15.7 (s, (CH3)C═N), 120.1 (s, Ar), 120.2 (s, Ar), 120.8 (s, Ar), 122.3 (s, Ar), 123.7 (s, Ar), 124.1 (s, Ar), 135.4 (s, Ar), 135.7 (s, Ar), 144.1 (s, Ar), 145.3 (s, Ar), 147.5 (s, Ar), 148.6 (s, Ar), 153.7 (s, Ar), 155.5 (s, Ar), 162.7 (s, (CH3)C═N), 166.6 (s, C═N). Example 18 Preparation of 2,3,56-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-benzene-1,4-diamine (12a) To a suspension of 2,2′-bipyridinyl-6-carbaldehyde (0.39 g, 2.10 mmol) in diethyl ether (5 ml) was added 2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-benzene-1,4-diamine (0.086 g, 0.52 mmol, 0.25 eq.) and one drop of formic acid. The orange solution was heated to reflux for 48 hours. On cooling to 0° C., the suspension was filtered, washed with cold ethanol and dried under reduced pressure to give 12a as a yellow solid (0.08 g, 31%). Compound 12a: ES mass spectrum, m/z 497 [M+H]+; 1H NMR (CDCl3), δ 2.08 (s, 12H, Ar—CH3), 7.26 (qd, 2H, 3J(HH) 6.1, 4J(HH) 1.1, Py-H), 7.76 (td, 2H, 3J(H—H) 7.8, 4J(HH) 1.6, Py-H), 7.90 (t, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.9, Py-H), 8.29 (dd, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, 4J(HH) 0.9, Py-H), 8.34 (s, 2H, HC═N), 8.43 (d, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, Py-H), 8.45 (dd, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, 4J(HH) 0.9, Py-H), 8.64 (d, 2H, 3J(HH) 3.9, Py-H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), δ 14.1 (s, Ar—CH3), 119.9 (s, Ar), 120.2 (s, Ar), 121.5 (s, Ar), 122.4 (s, Ar), 122.9 (s, Ar), 136.0 (s, Ar), 136.6 (s, Ar), 146.4 (s, Ar), 148.3 (s, Ar), 153.2 (s, Ar), 154.7 (s, Ar), 155.0 (s, Ar), 163.3 (s, C═N). Example 19 Preparation of 2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-benzene-1,4-diamine (12b) To a suspension of 6-acetyl-2,2′-bipyridine (0.39 g, 1.95 mmol) in absolute ethanol (5 ml) was added 2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-benzene-1,4-diamine (0.16 g, 0.97 mmol, 0.5 eq.) and one drop of formic acid. The brown solution was refluxed for 24 hours. On cooling to 0° C. the suspension was filtered, washed with cold ethanol and dried under reduced pressure to afford 12b as a pale yellow solid (0.098 g, 10%). Compound 12b: ES mass spectrum, m/z 525 [M+H]+; IR (cm−1) 1645, 1578, 1561 (C═N); 1H NMR (CDCl3), δ 1.96 (s, 12H, Ar—CH3), 2.26 (s, 6H, (CH3)C═N), 7.29 (qd, 2H, 3J(HH) 5.6, 4J(HH) 1.2, Py-1H), 7.81 (td, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, 4J(HH) 1.6, Py-H), 7.90 (t, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, Py-H), 8.43 (d, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.4, Py-H), 8.50 (d, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, Py-H), 8.53 (d, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, Py-H), 8.65 (d, 2H, 3J(HH) 4.8, Py-H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), δ 14.8 (s, CH3), 16.9 (s, CH3), 121.4 (s, Ar), 121.5 (s, Ar), 122.3 (s, Ar), 124.2 (s, Ar), 137.3 (s, Ar), 137.8 (s, Ar), 145.0 (s, Ar), 149.6 (s, Ar), 155.3 (s, Ar), 156.3 (s, Ar), 156.5 (s, Ar), 167.8 (s, Ar), 168.6 (s, C═N). Example 20 Preparation of 3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine (13a) To a suspension of 1a (0.48 g, 2.00 mmol) in absolute ethanol (10 ml) was added 2-pyridinecarboxaldehyde (0.67 ml, 7.00 mmol, 3.5 eq.). The mixture was stirred and heated to reflux overnight. On cooling to room temperature, the suspension was filtered, washed with cold ethanol and dried under reduced pressure to give 13a in good yield as a yellow solid (0.51 g, 62%). Compound 13a: ES mass spectrum, m/z 419 [M+H]+; IR (cm−1) 1648, 1584, 1566 (C═N); 1H NMR (CDCl3), δ 2.20 (s, 12H, (Ar—CH3)), 7.25 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 7.3-7.4 (m, 2H, Py-H), 7.7-7.9 (m, 2H, Py-H), 8.2-8.4 (m, 2H, Py-H), 8.35 (s, 2H, CH═N), 8.7-8.8 (m, 2H, Py-H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), 18.9 (s, Me), 121.7 (s, Ar), 125.8 (s, Ar), 127.1 (s, Ar), 127.8 (s, Ar), 137.2 (s, Ar), 137.3 (s, Ar), 149.7 (s, Ar), 150.1 (s, Ar), 157.3 (s, Ar), 164.0 (s, C═N). Anal. (C28H26N4) calcd: C, 80.34; H, 6.27; N, 13.38. Found: C, 80.15; H, 6.35; N, 13.32%. In addition, a single crystal X-ray diffraction study of 13a has confirmed the structural type. Example 21 Preparation 3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine (13b) To a suspension of 1a (0.50 g, 2.10 mmol) in absolute ethanol (10 ml) was added 2-acetylpyridine (0.80 ml, 7.10 mmol, 3.4 eq.) and two drops of formic acid. The suspension was heated to reflux overnight. On cooling to room temperature the suspension was filtered, washed with cold ethanol and dried under reduced pressure to give 13b as a yellow solid (0.51 g, 41%). Compound 13b: ES mass spectrum, nm/z 447 [M+H]+; 1H NMR (CDCl3), □ 2.04 (s, 12H, Ar—CH3), 2.19 (s, 6H, (CH3)C═N), 7.26 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 7.3-7.4 (m, 2H, Py-H), 7.7-7.8 (m, 2H, Py-H), 8.3-8.4 (m, 2H, Py-H), 8.6-8.7 (m, 2H, Py-H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), 17.2 (s, Ar—CH3), 18.5 (s, (CH3)C═N), 121.8 (s, Ar), 125.3 (s, Ar), 126.2 (s, Ar), 126.8 (s, Ar), 136.4 (s, Ar), 136.9 (s, Ar), 148.0 (s, Ar), 149.0 (s, Ar), 156.9 (s, Ar), 167.9 (s, C═N). Example 22 Preparation of 3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine (14a) To a suspension of 1b (0.15 g, 0.43 mmol) in absolute ethanol (10 ml) was added 2-pyridinecarboxaldehyde (0.14 ml, 1.40 mmol, 3.3 eq.). The mixture was stirred and heated to 50° C. overnight. On cooling to room temperature the suspension was filtered, washed with cold ethanol and dried under reduced pressure to give 14a as a yellow solid (0.10 g, 43%). Compound 14a: ES mass spectrum, m/z 531 [M+H]+; 1H NMR (CDCl3), 1.1-1.2 (d, 12H, 3J(HH) 6.8, CH(CH3)2), 2.9-3.0 (sept, 4H, CH(CH3)2), 7.24 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 7.2-7.3 (m, 2H, Py-H), 7.6-7.9 (m, 2H, Py-H), 8.1-8.3 (m, 2H, Py-H), 8.37 (s, 2H, HC═N), 8.6-8.8 (m, 2H, Py-H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), δ 23.9 (s, CH3), 28.6 (s, CH), 121.9 (s, Ar), 122.5 (s, Ar), 137.4 (s, Ar), 138.0 (s, Ar), 138.6 (s, Ar), 147.9 (s, Ar), 149.9 (s, Ar), 154.7 (s, Ar), 163.2 (s, C═N). Example 23 Preparation of 3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine (14b) A mixture of 1b (0.21 g, 0.60 mmol), 2-acetylpyridine (3.0 ml, 26.85 mmol, 45 eq.) and one drop of formic acid was heated to 150° C. for 3 hours. The 2-acetylpyridine was distilled off and absolute ethanol introduced to precipitate the product. Following filtration, washing with cold ethanol and drying under reduced pressure, 14b was isolated as a yellow solid (0.28 g, 85%). Compound 14b: ES mass spectrum, m/z 559 [M+H]+; 1H NMR (CDCl3), 1.19 (d, 12H, 3J(HH) 6.9, CH(CH3)2), 2.18 (s, 6H, MeC═N), 2.72 (sept, 4H, CH(CH3)2), 7.25 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 7.2-7.3 (m, 2H, Py-H), 7.7-7.8 (m, 2H, Py-H), 8.2-8.4 (m, 2H, Py-H), 8.37 8.4-8.6 (m, 2H, Py-H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), δ 16.4 (s, CH3), 21.9 (s, CH3), 22.3 (s, CH3), 27.4 (s, CH), 120.3 (s, Ar), 120.7 (s, Ar), 123.8 (s, Ar), 135.0 (s, Ar), 135.5 (s, Ar), 136.3 (s, Ar), 144.4 (s, Ar), 147.6 (s, Ar), 155.5 (s, Ar), 166.1 (s, C═N). Example 24 Preparation of 3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine (15) To a suspension of 2,2′-bipyridinyl-6-carbaldehyde (0.39 g, 2.10 mmol) in diethyl ether (5 ml) was added 1a (0.13 g, 0.53 mmol, 0.25 eq.) and one drop of formic acid. The yellow reaction mixture was heated to reflux for 48 hours. On cooling to room temperature the suspension was filtered, washed with cold diethyl ether and dried under reduced pressure to give 15 as a yellow solid (0.10 g, 34%). Compound 15: ES mass spectrum, m/z 573 [M+H]+. 1H NMR (CDCl3), δ 2.18 (s, 12H, (Ar—CH3)), 7.29 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 7.41 (dd, 2H, 3J(HH) 6.7, 4J(HH), Py-H), 7.75 (td, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, 4J(HH) 1.8, Py-H), 7.90 (t, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, Py-H), 8.27 (dd, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, 4J(HH) 1.6, Py-H), 8.40 (s, 2H, HC═N), 8.44 (dd, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.5, 4J(HH) 1.2, Py-H), 8.46 (dd, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.4, 4J(HH) 0.9, Py-H), 8.62 (dd, 2H, 3J(HH) 4.3, 4J(HH) 0.7, Py-H). Example 25 Preparation of 3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine (16) To a mixture of 2,2′-bipyridinyl-6-carbaldehyde (0.39 g, 2.10 mmol) in diethyl ether (5 ml) was added 1b (0.18 g, 0.53 mmol, 0.25 eq.) and one drop of formic acid. The orange solution was heated to reflux for 24 hours. On cooling to 0° C. the suspension was filtered, washed with cold diethyl ether and dried under reduced pressure to give 16 as yellow solid (0.20 g, 51%). Compound 16: ES mass spectrum, m/z 685 [M+H]+; 1H NMR (CDCl3), δ 1.20 (d, 24H, 3J(HH) 6.9, CH(CH3)), 2.81 (sept, 4H, CH(CH3)2), 7.17 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 7.41 (dd, 2H, 3J(HH) 6.7, 4J(HH) 1.6, Py-H), 7.75 (td, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, 4J(HH) 1.8, Py-H), 7.90 (t, 2H, 3J(1HH) 7.8, Py-H), 8.27 (dd, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, 4J(HH) 1.6, CH), 8.40 (s, 2H, HC═N), 8.44 (dd, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.5, 4J(HH) 1.2, Py-H), 8.46 (dd, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.4, 4J(HH) 0.9, Py-H), 8.62 (dd, 2H, 3J(HH) 4.3, 4J(HH) 0.7, Py-H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), δ 22.5 (s, CH3), 27.2 (s, CH), 120.1 (s, Ar), 120.3 (s, Ar), 121.0 (s, Ar), 121.6 (s, Ar), 122.9 (s, Ar), 129.2 (s, Ar), 136.0 (s, Ar), 136.6 (s, Ar), 137.1 (s, Ar), 146.6 (s, Ar), 148.0 (s, Ar), 153.0 (s, Ar), 154.7 (s, Ar), 155.1 (s, Ar), 162.5 (s, C═N). Example 26 Preparation of bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane (17) To a suspension of 2a (0.50 g, 1.97 mmol) in absolute ethanol (2 ml) was added 2-pyridinecarboxaldehyde (0.56 ml, 5.91 mmol, 3 eq.) and one drop of formic acid. The mixture was stirred at 45° C. overnight. On cooling to room temperature the suspension was filtered, washed with cold ethanol and dried under reduced pressure to afford 17 as a yellow solid (0.28 g, 18%). Compound 17: ES mass spectrum, m/z 433 [M+H]+; 1H NMR (CDCl3), δ 2.12 (s, 12H, CH3), 3.77 (s, 2H, CH2), 6.88 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 7.2-7.4 (m, 2H, Py-H), 7.7-7.8 (m, 2H, Py-H), 8.1-8.3 (m, 4H, Py-H, HC═N), 8.6-8.7 (m, 2H, Py-H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), δ 18.4 (s, CH3), 40.9 (s, CH2), 121.2 (s, Ar), 125.2 (s, Ar), 127.0 (s, Ar), 128.7 (s, Ar), 136.7 (s, Ar), 137.1 (s, Ar), 148.3 (s, Ar), 149.6 (s, Ar), 154.6 (s, Ar), 163.4 (s, C═N). In addition, a single crystal X-ray diffraction study of 17 has confirmed the structural type. Example 27 Preparation of bis-{-4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane (18a) To a suspension of 2b (1.60 g, 4.37 mmol) in absolute ethanol (10 ml) was added 2-pyridinecarboxaldehyde (1.24 ml, 13.11 mmol, 3 eq.) and two drops of formic acid. The mixture was stirred at 45° C. overnight. On cooling to room temperature the suspension was filtered, washed with cold ethanol and dried under reduced pressure to afford 18a as a yellow solid (1.68 g, 49%). Compound 18a: ES mass spectrum, m/z 545 [M+H]+; 1H NMR (CDCl3), δ 1.10 (d, 24H, 3J(HH) 6.9, CH(CH3)2), 2.91 (sept, 4H, CH(CH3)2), 3.95 (s, 2H, CH2), 6.93 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 7.2-7.4 (m, 2H, Py-H), 7.7-7.9 (m, 2H, Py-H), 8.1-8.3 (m, 4H, Py-H, HC═N), 8.6-8.7 (m, 2H, Py-H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), 18.1 (s, CH3), 22.4 (s, CH), 39.4 (s, CH2), 122.8 (s, Ar), 125.3 (s, Ar), 126.1 (s, Ar), 135.6 (s, Ar), 136.4 (s, Ar), 142.6 (s, Ar), 147.9 (s, Ar), 157.4 (s, Ar), 167.1 (s, C═N). Example 28 Preparation of bis-{4-din-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane (18b) To a suspension of 2b (0.50 g, 1.37 mmol) in absolute ethanol (3 ml) was added 2-acetylpyridine (0.44 ml, 4.70 mmol, 3.4 eq.) and one drop of formic acid. After stirring for one night at 90° C. the solution was concentrated to half volume and left to stand at −20° C. for 3 days. The yellow solid was filtered, washed with cold ethanol and dried under reduced pressure to give 18b as a yellow powder (0.23 g, 29%). Compound 18b: ES mass spectrum, m/z 573 [M+H]+; IR (cm−1), 1642, 1584, 1565 (C═N); 1H NMR (CDCl3), 1.08 (d, 24H, 3J(HH) 6.9, CH(CH3)2), 2.17 (s, 6H, (CH3)C═N), 2.67 (sept, 4H, CH(CH3)2), 3.94 (s, 2H, CH2), 6.91 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 7.2-7.3 (m, 2H, Py-H), 7.7-7.8 (m, 2H, Py-H), 8.1-8.3 (m, 4H, Py-H), 8.6-8.7 (m, 2H, ArH); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), δ 17.7 (s, CH3), 23.4 (s, CH), 23.7 (s, CH), 28.6 (s, CH3), 41.8 (s, CH2), 121.7 (s, Ar), 124.1 (s, Ar), 125.1 (s, Ar), 136.1 (s, Ar), 136.7 (s, Ar), 144.6 (s, Ar), 148.9 (s, Ar), 157.0 (s, Ar), 167.6 (s, C═N). Example 29 Preparation of bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene (19) To a suspension of 3b (0.40 g, 0.91 mmol) in absolute ethanol (3 ml) was added 2-pyridinecarboxaldehyde (0.34 ml, 3.61 mmol, 4 eq.) and two drops of formic acid. The mixture was stirred at 45° C. overnight. On cooling to room temperature the suspension was filtered, washed with cold ethanol and dried under reduced pressure to afford 19 as a yellow solid (0.46 g, 82%). Compound 19: ES mass spectrum, m/z 621 [M+H]+; 1H NMR (CDCl3), δ 1.03 (d, 24H, 3J(HH) 7.5, CH(CH3)), 2.82 (sept, 4H, CH(CH3)2), 5.23 (s, 1H, CH), 6.86 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 7.1-7.2 (m, 5H, Ar—H), 7.33 (t, 2H, 3J(HH) 6.8, Py-H), 7.77 (t, 2H, 3J(HH) 8.6, Py-H), 8.19 (d, 2H, 3J(HH) 8.7, Py-H), 8.26 (s, 2H, HC═N), 8.65 (d, 2H, 3J(HH) 5.2, Py-H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), δ 23.9 (s, CH3), 28.4 (s, CH), 57.6 (s, CH), 121.7 (s, Ar), 124.8 (s, Ar), 125.7 (s, Ar), 126.3 (s, Ar), 128.5 (s, Ar), 129.9 (s, Ar), 137.2 (s, Ar), 137.4 (s, Ar), 140.1 (s, Ar), 147.0 (s, Ar), 148.2 (s, CH), 150.0 (s, Ar), 156.7 (s, Ar), 162.5 (s, C═N); Anal. (C43H48N4) calcd: C, 83.17; H, 7.80; N, 9.02. Found: C, 83.29; H, 7.96; N, 9.03%. In addition, a single crystal X-ray diffraction study of 19 has confirmed the structural type. Example 30 Preparation of α,α′-bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromo-toluene (20) To a suspension of 4 (0.33 g, 0.71 mmol) in absolute ethanol (2 ml) was added 2-pyridinecarboxaldehyde (0.20 ml, 0.21 mmol, 3 eq.). The mixture was stirred at 40° C. overnight. On cooling to room temperature the suspension was filtered, washed with cold ethanol and dried under reduced pressure to afford 20 as a yellow solid (0.26 g, 63%). Compound 20: ES mass spectrum, m/z 729 [M+H]+; IR (cm−1) 1640, 1585, 1567 (C═N); 1H NMR (CDCl3), 1.01 (d, 12H, 3J(HH) 6.7, CH(CH3)2), 2.88 (sept, 4H, CH(CH3)2), 5.36 (s, 1H, CH), 6.83 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 6.92 (d, 2H, 3J(HH) 8.2, Ar—H), 7.3-7.4(m, 4H, Ar—H, Py-H), 7.77(td, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, 0.6, Py-H), 8.20(d, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.9, Py-H), 8.25(s, 2H, HC═N), 8.65(dt, 2H, 3J(HH) 4.7, 0.6, Py-H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), δ 23.5 (s, CH(CH3)2), 23.6 (s, CH(CH3)2), 28.0 (s, CH(CH3)2), 56.2 (s, CH), 119.8 (s, Ar), 121.3 (s, Ar), 124.2 (s, Ar), 125.3 (s, Ar), 131.1 (s, Ar), 131.2 (s, Ar), 136.8 (s, Ar), 137.2 (s, Ar), 139.5 (s, Ar), 144.4 (s, Ar), 146.5 (s, Ar), 149.7.3 (s, Ar), 154.4 (s, Ar), 163.1 (s, C═N). Example 31 Preparation of α,α′-bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5 diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxy-toluene (21) To a suspension of 5 (0.30 g, 0.66 mmol) in absolute ethanol (2 ml) was added 2-pyridinecarboxaldehyde (0.19 ml, 0.20 mmol, 3 eq.). The mixture was stirred at 50° C. overnight. On cooling to room temperature the suspension was filtered, washed with cold ethanol and dried under reduced pressure to afford 21 as a yellow solid (0.27 g, 66%). Compound 21: ES mass spectrum, m/z 637 [M+H]+; IR (cm−1) 1640, 1585, 1567 (C═N); 1H NMR (CDCl3), 1.00 (d, 12H, 3J(HH) 6.7, CH(CH3)2), 2.88(sept, 4H, CH(CH3)2), 5.34 (s, 1H, CH), 6.65 (d, 2H, 3J(HH) 8.8, Ar—H), 6.84 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 6.94 (d, 2H, 3J(HH) 8.8, Ar—H), 7.3-7.4 (m, 2H, Py-H), 7.78 (t, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, 0.6, Py-H), 8.22(d 2H, 3J(HH) 7.9, Py-H), 8.26 (s, 2H, HC═N), 8.66 (dt, 2H, 3J(HH) 4.7, 0.6, Py-H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), δ 23.8 (s, CH(CH3)2), 24.0 (s, CH(CH3)2), 28.4 (s, CH(CH3)2), 56.0 (s, CH), 115.0 (s, Ar), 121.5 (s, Ar), 124.0 (s, Ar), 124.3 (s, Ar), 125.4 (s, Ar), 127.9 (s, Ar), 130.4 (s, Ar), 132.6 (s, Ar), 136.8 (s, Ar), 137.1 (s, Ar), 140.7 (s, Ar), 146.0 (s, Ar), 149.5 (s, Ar), 154.5 (s, Ar), 163.2 (s, C═N). Example 32 Preparation of α,α′-bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitro-toluene (22) To a suspension of 6 (0.30 g, 0.62 mmol) in absolute ethanol (2 ml) was added 2-pyridinecarboxaldehyde (0.18 ml, 0.19 mmol, 3 eq.) and one drop of formic acid. The mixture was stirred at 50° C. overnight. On cooling to room temperature the suspension was filtered, washed with cold ethanol and dried under reduced pressure to afford 22 as a yellow solid (0.25 g, 62%). Compound 22: ES mass spectrum, m/z 666 [M+H]+; IR (cm−1), 1643 1586, 1567 (C═N); 1H NMR (CDCl3), 1.01(d, 12H, 3J(HH) 6.7, CH(CH3)2) 2.88(sept, 4H, CH(CH3)2), 5.51(s, 1H, CH), 6.81 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 7.2-7.3(m, 4H, Py-H, Ar—H), 7.77(m, 2H, Py-H), 8.10(d, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.9, Ar—H), 8.18(d, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.9, Py-H), 8.26 (s, 2H, HC═N), 8.65(d, 2H, 3J(HH) 3.5, Py-H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), δ 23.5 (s, CH(CH3)2), 23.6 (s, CH(CH3)2), 28.0 (s, CH(CH3)2), 56.7 (s, CH), 121.4 (s, Ar), 123.4 (s, Ar), 124.2 (s, Ar), 125.4 (s, Ar), 130.2 (s, Ar), 136.8 (s, Ar), 137.5 (s, Ar), 138.4 (s, Ar), 146.4 (s, Ar), 146.9 (s, Ar), 149.7 (s, Ar), 153.2 (s, Ar), 154.3 (s, Ar), 163.2 (s, C═N). Example 33 Preparation of α,α′-bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyl-toluene (23) To a suspension of 10 (0.30 g, 0.63 mmol) in absolute ethanol (2 ml) was added 2-pyridinecarboxaldehyde (0.18 ml, 0.19 mmol, 3 eq.). The mixture was stirred at 50° C. overnight. On cooling to room temperature the suspension was filtered, washed with cold ethanol and dried under reduced pressure to afford 23 as a yellow solid (0.32 g, 77%). Compound 23: ES mass spectrum, m/z 663 [M+H]+; 1H NMR (CDCl3), 1.01(d, 24H, 3J(HH) 6.7, CH(CH3)2), 1.17(d, 6H, 3J(HH) 6.7, CH(CH3)22.86 (sept, 5H, CH(CH3)2), 5.38 (s, 1H, CH), 6.86 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 7.07(m, 4H, Ar—H), 7.3-7.4(m, 2H, Py-H), 7.77(td, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, 0.6, Py-H), 8.19 (d, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.9, Py-H), 8.26 (s, 2H, HC═N), 8.65 (dt, 2H, 3J(HH) 4.7, 0.6, Py-H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), δ 23.9 (s, CH(CH3)2), 24.0 (s, CH(CH3)2), 24.4 (s, CH(CH3)2), 28.4 (s, CH(CH3)2), 34.1 (s, CH(CH3)2), 56.9 (s, CH), 121.7 (s, Ar), 124.7 (s, Ar), 125.6 (s, Ar), 126.4 (s, Ar), 129.7 (s, Ar), 137.1 (s, Ar), 137.3 (s, Ar), 140.8 (s, Ar), 142.9 (s, Ar), 146.7 (s, Ar), 146.8 (s, Ar), 150.1 (s, Ar), 154.9 (s, Ar), 163.4 (s, C═N). Example 34 Preparation of {4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane (24) To a suspension of 10 (0.34 g, 1.97 mmol) in absolute ethanol (2 ml) was added 2-pyridinecarboxaldehyde (0.56 ml, 5.91 mmol, 3 eq.) and one drop of formic acid. The mixture was stirred at 45° C. overnight. On cooling to room temperature the suspension was filtered, washed with cold ethanol and dried under reduced pressure to afford 24 as a yellow solid (0.20 g, 37%). Compound 24: ES mass spectrum, m/z 487 [M+H]+; 1H NMR (CDCl3), 1.08 (d, 12H, 3J(HH) 6.7, CH(CH3)2), 2.08 (s, 6H, CH3), 2.88 (sept, 4H, CH(CH3)2), 3.84 (s, 2H, CH2), 6.81 (s, 2H, Ar—H), 6.91 (s, 2H, Ar—H), 7.2-7.3 (m, 2H, Py-H), 7.7-7.8 (m, 2H, Py-H), 8.1-8.3 (m, 4H, Py-H/HC═N), 8.6-8.7 (m, 2H, Py-H); 13c NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), δ 18.8 (s, CH3), 23.9 (s, CH3), 28.4 (s, CH), 43.4 (s, CH2), 121.7 (s, Ar), 124.2 (s, Ar), 125.7 (s, Ar), 128.2 (s, Ar), 129.0 (s, Ar), 137.2 (s, Ar), 137.7 (s, Ar), 150.0 (s, Ar), 156.2 (s, Ar), 163.4 (s, C═N), 163.9 (s, C═N). Example 35 Preparation of bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane (25) To a suspension of 2,2′-bipyridinyl-6-carbaldehyde (0.38 g, 2.07 mmol) in absolute ethanol (5 ml) was added 2a (0.13 g, 0.52 mmol, 0.25 eq.) and one drop of formic acid. The orange solution was heated to reflux for 24 hours. On cooling to 0° C. the suspension was filtered, washed with cold diethyl ether (100 ml) and dried under reduced pressure to give 25 as yellow solid (0.22 g, 71%). Compound 25: ES mass spectrum, m/z 587 [M+H]+. 1H NMR (CDCl3), 2.14 (s, 12H, Ar—CH3), 3.53 (s, 2H, CH2), 6.89 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 7.21 (dd, 2H, 3J(HH) 6.1, 4J(HH) 1.2, Py-H), 7.72 (td, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, 4J(HH) 1.6, Py-H), 7.86 (t, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, Py-H), 8.21 (dd, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8 Hz, 4J(HH) 0.9, Py-H), 8.34 (s, 2H, HC═N), 8.41 (d, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, Py-H), 8.44 (dd, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.4, 4J(HH) 0.9, Py-H), 8.60 (dd, 2H, 3J(HH) 4.5, 4J(HH) 0.7, Py-H). Example 36 Preparation of bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane (26a) To a suspension of 2,2′-bipyridinyl-6-carbaldehyde (0.39 g, 2.09 mmol) in absolute ethanol (5 ml) was added 2b (0.19 g, 0.53 mmol, 0.25 eq.) and one drop of formic acid. The brown solution was heated to reflux for 24 hours. On cooling to 0° C., the suspension was filtered, washed with cold ethanol and dried under reduced pressure to give 26a as a brown solid (0.19 g, 52%). Compound 26a: ES mass spectrum, m/z 699 [M+H]+; IR (cm−1), 1640 1580, 1547 (C═N); 1H NMR (CDCl3), δ 1.07 (d, 12H, 3J(HH) 6.7, CH(CH3)2), 1.10 (d, 12H, 3J(HH) 6.8, CH(CH3)2), 2.91 (sept, 4H, CH(CH3)2), 3.28 (s, 2H, CH2), 6.95 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 7.21 (qd, 2H, 3J(HH) 6.1, 4J(HH) 1.2 Hz, Py-H), 7.72 (td, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, 4J(HH) 1.8, Py-H), 7.86 (t, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, Py-H), 8.21 (dd, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, 4J(HH) 0.9, Py-H), 8.34 (s, 2H, HC═N), 8.41 (d, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.8, Py-H), 8.44 (dd, 2H, 3J(HH) 7.4, 4J(HH) 0.9, Py-H), 8.60 (dd, 2H, 3J(HH) 4.5, 4J(HH) 0.7, Py-H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), δ 22.5 (s, CH3), 27.0 (s, CH3), 29.3 (s, CH), 40.6 (s, CH2), 120.0 (s, Ar), 120.2 (s, Ar), 121.6 (s, Ar), 122.7 (s, Ar), 122.9 (s, Ar), 135.9 (s, Ar), 136.3 (s, Ar), 136.5 (s, Ar), 145.5 (s, Ar), 148.2 (s, Ar), 153.0 (s, Ar), 154.6 (s, Ar), 155.0 (s, Ar), 162.1 (s, Ar), 162.5 (s, C═N). Example 37 Preparation of bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane (26b) To a suspension of 2,2′-bipyridinyl-6-acetyl-2,2′-bipyridine (0.067 g, 0.34 mmol) in n-butanol (5 ml) was added 2b (0.05 g, 0.14 mmol, 0.4 eq.) and one drop of glacial acetic acid. The brown solution was heated to reflux for 48 hours. On cooling to room temperature, the suspension was filtered, washed with cold ethanol and dried under reduced pressure to give 26b as a brown solid (0.051 g, 52%). Compound 26b: ES mass spectrum, m/z 727 [M+H]+; 1H NMR (CDCl3): 1.07 (d, 12H, 3J(HH) 6.7, CH(CH3)2), 1.09 (d, 12H, 3J(HH) 6.8, CH(CH3)2), 2.17 (s, 6H, MeC═N), 2.78 (sept, 4H, CH(CH3)2), 3.98 (s, 2H, CH2), 6.95 (s, 4H, Ar—H), 7.21 (m, 2H, Py-H), 7.71 (m, 2H, Py-H), 7.85 (m, 2H, Py-H), 8.25 (m, 2H, Py-H), 8.41 (m, 4H, Py-H), 8.71 (m, 2H, Py-H); 13C NMR (CDCl3, 1H gated decoupled), δ 167.3 (s, C═N). Formulae for Examples 15-37 Where Ph-4-Br=4-bromotoluene, Ph-4-OH=4-hydroxytoluene, Ph-4-NO2=4-nitrotoluene, and Ph-4-i-Pr=4-isopropyltoluene. Preparation of Complexes All complexation reactions were carried out under an atmosphere of dry, oxygen-free nitrogen, using standard Schlenk techniques or in a nitrogen purged glove box. n-Butanol was dried and deoxygenated by distillation over sodium metal under nitrogen. The anhydrous metal dichlorides and NiBr2.DME (Nickel bromide ethylene glycol dimethyl ether) were purchased from Aldrich Chemical Co. and used without any further purification. All other chemicals were obtained commercially and used without further purification. The infrared spectra were recorded with Universal ATR sampling accessories on a Perkin Elmer Spectrum One FTIR instrument. FAB mass spectra were recorded using a Kratos Concept spectrometer with NBA (nitrobenzyl alcohol) as the matrix [samples placed on the end of probe within matrix and bombarded with xenon atoms at about 7 kV, Mach3 software, and probe temperature 50° C. Data for the crystal structure determinations were collected on a Bruker APEX 2000 CCD diffractometer and solved using SHELXTL version 6.10 [Bruker (2000). SHELXTL. Version 6.10 for PC. Bruker AXS Inc., Madison, Wis., USA; G. M. Sheldrick (1997). SHELXS97 and SHELXL97. University of Göttingen, Germany]. Magnetic susceptibility studies were performed using an Evans Balance at ambient temperature. Example 38 Preparation of [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]Ni2Br4 (27a) A suspension of NiBr2.DME (0.18 g, 0.58 mmol) in n-butanol (5 ml) was stirred at 90° C. for 30 minutes. 11a was added (0.10 g, 0.29 mmol, 0.5 eq.) and the mixture was heated to 90° C. overnight. On cooling to ambient temperature, hexane was added to induce precipitation of the product. Following filtration, washing with hexane and drying under reduced pressure, 27a was isolated as an orange solid (0.14 g, 63%). Compound 27a: IR (cm−1) 1594, 1567 (C═N); μeff 4.19 BM. Layering of a N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) solution of 27a with diethyl ether gave red crystals of the DMF adduct of 27a, [{(C5H4N)CHN(2,3,5,6-Me4C6)NHC(C5H4N)}(DMF)6Ni2Br2]Br2 (27a′), suitable for a single crystal X-ray diffraction study (FIG. 1). Example 39 Preparation of [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]Ni2Br4 (27b) A suspension of NiBr2.DME (0.17 g, 0.54 mmol) in n-butanol (5 ml) was stirred at 90° C. for 30 minutes. 11b (0.10 g, 0.27 mmol, 0.5 eq.) was added and the mixture heated to 90° C. for a further one hour. On cooling to ambient temperature, hexane was added to induce precipitation of the product. Following filtration, washing with hexane and drying under reduced pressure, 27b was isolated as a green solid (0.15 g, 70%). Compound 27b: IR (cm−1) 1596, 1571 (C═N); μeff 4.16 BM. Layering of a N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) solution of 27b with diethyl ether gave red crystals of the DMF adduct of 27b, [{(C5H4N)CMeN(2,3,5,6-Me4C6)NMeC(C5H4N)}(DMF)6Ni2Br2]Br2 (27b′), suitable for a single crystal X-ray diffraction study (FIG. 2). Anal. (C24H26N4Ni2Br40.4DMF.8H2O) calcd: C, 34.75; H, 5.68; N, 8.81. Found: C, 34.92; H, 5.92; N, 8.81%. Example 40 Preparation of [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylethylidene-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]Ni2Br4 (27c) A suspension of NiBr2.DME (0.17 g, 0.56 mmol) in n-butanol (5 ml) was stirred at 90° C. for 30 minutes. 11c (0.10 g, 0.28 mmol, 0.5 eq.) was added and the mixture stirred at 90° C. for one hour. On cooling to ambient temperature, hexane was added to induce precipitation of the product. Following filtration, washing with hexane and drying under reduced pressure, 27c was isolated as a red solid (0.12 g, 56%). Compound 27c: μeff 3.89 BM. Layering of a N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) solution of 27c with diethyl ether gave red crystals of the DMF adduct of 27c, [{(C5H4N)CMeN(2,3,5,6-Me4C6)NHC(C5H4N)}(DMF)6Ni2Br2]Br2 (27c′), suitable for a single crystal X-ray diffraction study (FIG. 3). Example 41 Preparation of [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-benzene-1,4-diamine]Ni2Cl4 (28) A suspension of NiCl2 (0.08 g, 0.58 mmol) in n-butanol (5 ml) was stirred at 90° C. for 30 minutes. 11a was added (0.10 g, 0.29 mmol, 0.5 eq.) and the mixture was heated to 90° C. overnight. On cooling to ambient temperature, hexane was added to induce precipitation of the product. Following filtration, washing with hexane and drying under reduced pressure, 28 was isolated as an orange solid (0.14 g, 63%). Compound 28: FAB mass spectrum, m/z 566 [M-Cl]+, 530 [M-2Cl]+, 495 [M-3Cl]+; IR (cm−1) 1595 (C═N); μeff 4.20 BM. Layering of a N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) solution of 28 with diethyl ether gave red crystals of the DMF adduct of 28, [{(C5H4N)CHN(2,3,5,6-Me4C6)NHC(C5H4N)}(DMF)4Ni2Cl4] (28′), suitable for a single crystal X-ray diffraction study (FIG. 4). IR (cm−1) 1645 (C═O), 1595 (C═N). Example 42 Preparation of [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]Fe2Cl4 (29a) Under an atmosphere of nitrogen, anhydrous FeCl2 (0.052 g, 0.41 mmol) was dissolved in n-butanol (4 ml) by stirring at 90° C. for 30 minutes. To this yellow-green solution, 12a (0.10 g, 2.0 mmol, 0.5 eq.) was added and the mixture stirred at 100° C. for 30 minutes forming a green precipitate. On cooling to ambient temperature, hexane was added to complete the precipitation. Following filtration, washing with further hexane and drying under reduced pressure, complex 29a was isolated as an olive green powder (0.09 g, 55%). Complex 29a: FAB mass spectrum, m/z 716 [M-Cl]+, 680 [M-2Cl]+; IR (cm−1) 1591 (C═N). Example 43 Preparation of [2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylethylidene}-benzene-1,4-diamine]Fe2Cl4 (29b) Under an atmosphere of nitrogen, anhydrous FeCl2 (0.034 g, 0.27 mmol) was dissolved in n-butanol (5 ml) by stirring at 90° C. for 30 minutes. To this yellow-green solution, 12b (0.07 g, 0.13 mmol, 0.5 eq.) was added and the mixture stirred at 110° C. for 30 minutes. On cooling to ambient temperature, hexane was added to induce precipitation of the product. Following filtration and washing with more hexane, complex 28b was isolated as a grey/black powder (0.06 g, 57%). Compound 29b: FAB mass spectrum, m/z 743 [M-Cl]+, 707 [M-2Cl]+; IR (cm−1) 1593, 1576 (C═N); □eff 6.48 BM. Example 44 Preparation of [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]Ni2Cl4 (30a) To a stirred suspension of anhydrous NiCl2 (0.038 g, 0.29 mmol) in n-butanol (10 ml) at 120° C. was added 13a (0.06 g, 0.15 mmol, 0.5 eq.) and the mixture heated to 120° C. overnight. After cooling to ambient temperature, the suspension was concentrated and washed several times with hexane. Following filtration and drying under reduced pressure, complex 30a was afforded as an orange solid (0.023 g, 24%). Compound 30a: FAB mass spectrum, m/z 641 [M-Cl]+, 569 [M-3Cl]+, 510 [M-3Cl—Ni]+; IR (cm−1) 1591, 1573 (C═N). Layering of a N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) solution of 30a with diethyl ether gave red crystals of the DMF adduct of 30a, [{(C5H4N)CHN(2,2′6,6′-Me4Cl2H4)NHC(C5H4N)}(DMF)4Ni2Cl4] (30a′). Anal. (C28H26N4Ni2Cl4.4DMF.0.5H2O) calcd: C, 48.18; H, 5.77; N, 11.23. Found: C, 48.30; H, 5.61; N, 10.92%. Example 45 Preparation [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]Ni2Cl4 (30b) To a stirred suspension of anhydrous NiCl2 (0.04 g, 0.29 mmol) in n-butanol (12 ml) at 120° C. was added 13b (0.06 g, 0.14 mmol) and the mixture heated to 120° C. overnight. After cooling to ambient temperature, the suspension was concentrated and washed several times with hexane. Following filtration and drying under reduced pressure, complex 30b was afforded as an orange solid (0.023 g, 23%). Compound 30b: IR (cm−1) 1595, 1578 (C═N). Example 46 Preparation of [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]Ni2Cl4 (31a) To a stirred suspension of anhydrous NiCl2 (0.06 g, 0.46 mmol) in n-butanol (15 ml) at 120° C. was added 14a (0.12 g, 0.23 mmol, 0.5 eq.) and the mixture heated to 120° C. overnight. After cooling to ambient temperature, the suspension was concentrated and washed several times with hexane. Following filtration and drying under reduced pressure, complex 31a was afforded as an orange solid (0.10 g, 57%). Compound 31a: FAB mass spectrum, m/z 754 [M-Cl]+. Example 47 Preparation of [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N,-bis-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylidene)-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]Ni2Cl4 (31b) To a stirred suspension of anhydrous NiCl2 (0.08 g, 0.59 mmol) in n-butanol (5 ml) at 120° C. was added 14b (0.17 g, 0.30 mmol, 0.5 eq.) and the mixture heated to 120° C. overnight. After cooling to ambient temperature, the suspension was concentrated and washed several times with hexane. Following filtration and drying under reduced pressure, complex 31b was afforded as an orange solid (0.10 g, 41%). Compound 31b: FAB mass spectrum, m/z 783 [M-Cl]+, 746 [M-2Cl]+. Example 48 Preparation of [3,5,3′,5′-tetramethyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]Fe2Cl4 (32) Under an atmosphere of nitrogen, anhydrous FeCl2 (0.05 g, 0.42 mmol) was dissolved in n-butanol (4 ml) by stirring at 90° C. for 30 minutes. To this yellow-green solution, 15 (0.12 g, 0.21 mmol, 0.5 eq.) was added and the mixture stirred at 100° C. for 30 minutes forming a brown/grey suspension. On cooling to ambient temperature, hexane was added to complete the precipitation. Following filtration and washing with more hexane, complex 32 was isolated as a brown powder (0.022 g, 13%). Complex 32: FAB mass spectrum, m/z 790 [M-Cl]+; [eff 5.34 BM. Example 49 Preparation of [3,5,3′,5′-tetraisopropyl-N,N-bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-ylmethylene}-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine]Fe2Cl4 (33) Under an atmosphere of nitrogen, anhydrous FeCl2 (0.052 g, 0.42 mmol) was dissolved in n-butanol (4 ml) by stirring at 90° C. for 30 minutes. To this yellow-green solution, 16 (0.14 g, 0.21 mmol) was added and the mixture stirred at 100° C. for a further 30 minutes forming a grey/black precipitate. On cooling to ambient temperature, hexane was added to complete the precipitation. Following filtration, washing with more hexane and drying under reduced pressure, complex 33 was isolated as a black powder (0.026 g, 13%). Complex 33: FAB mass spectrum, m/z 903 [M-Cl]+, 867 [M-2Cl]+; □eff 6.66 BM. Example 50 Preparation of [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]Ni2C4 (34) To a stirred suspension of anhydrous NiCl2 (0.42 g, 3.24 mmol) in n-butanol (30 ml) at 120° C. was added 17 (0.70 g, 1.62 mmol, 0.5 eq.) and the mixture heated to 120° C. overnight. After cooling to ambient temperature, the suspension was concentrated and washed several times with hexane. Following filtration and drying under reduced pressure, complex 34 was afforded as an orange powder (0.39 g, 35%). Complex 34: IR (cm−1) 1594, 1571 (C═N). Example 51 Preparation of [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]Ni2C4 (35a) To a stirred suspension of anhydrous NiCl2 (0.24 g, 1.83 mmol) in n-butanol (15 ml) at 120° C. was added 18a (0.50 g, 0.92 mmol, 0.5 eq.) and the mixture heated to 120° C. overnight. After cooling to ambient temperature, the suspension was concentrated and washed several times with hexane. Following filtration and drying under reduced pressure, complex 35a was isolated as a green powder (0.42 g, 56%). Complex 35a: FAB mass spectrum, m/z 767 [M-Cl]+, 732 [M-2Cl]+, 695 [M-3Cl]+; IR (cm−1) 1591, 1573 (C═N). Prolonged standing of an acetonitrile solution of 35a gave crystals of the acetonitrile adduct of 35a, [{2-(2′-(CH═N)C5H4N)}2{1,1′-(CH2)-3,5,3′,5′-i-Pr4Cl2H4}]2Ni4Cl8(NCMe)4 (35a′), suitable for a single crystal X-ray diffraction study (FIG. 5). Example 52 Preparation of [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-ethylideneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]Ni2Cl4 (35b) To a stirred suspension of anhydrous NiCl2 (0.11 g, 0.86 mmol) in n-butanol (10 ml) at 120° C. was added 18b (0.25 g, 0.43 mmol, 0.5 eq.) and the mixture heated to 120° C. overnight. After cooling to ambient temperature, the suspension was concentrated and washed several times with hexane. Following filtration and drying under reduced pressure, complex 35b was afforded as a green powder (0.18 g, 51%). Complex 35b: FAB mass spectrum, m/z 797 [M-Cl]+, 760 [M-2Cl]+, 723 [M-3Cl]+; IR (cm−1) 1596, 1573 (C═N). Prolonged standing of an acetonitrile solution of 35b gave green crystals of the acetonitrile adduct of 35b, [{2-(2′-(CMe=N)C5H4N)}2{1,1′,-(CH2)-3,5,3′,5′-i-Pr4Cl2H4}]2Ni4Cl8(NCMe)2 (35b′), suitable for a single crystal X-ray diffraction study (FIG. 6). Example 53 Preparation of [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-toluene]Ni2Cl4 (36) To a stirred suspension of anhydrous NiCl2 (0.030 g, 0.23 mmol) in n-butanol (10 ml) at 120° C. was added 19 (0.07 g, 0.12 mmol, 0.5 eq.) and the mixture heated to 120° C. overnight. After cooling to ambient temperature, the suspension was concentrated and washed several times with hexane. Following filtration and drying under reduced pressure, complex 36 was afforded as a pale brown powder (0.05 g, 51%). Complex 36: FAB mass spectrum, m/z 844 [M-Cl]+. Example 54 Preparation of [bis-{-4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-bromotoluene]Ni2Cl4 (37) To a stirred suspension of anhydrous NiCl2 (0.107 g, 0.83 mmol) in n-butanol (10 ml) at 120° C. was added 20 (0.24 g, 0.44 mmol, 0.52 eq.) and the mixture heated to 120° C. overnight. After cooling to ambient temperature, the suspension was concentrated and washed several times with hexane. Following filtration and drying under reduced pressure, complex 37 was afforded as a dark green powder (0.19 g, 55%). Compound 37: FAB mass spectrum, m/z 925 [M-Cl]+, 888 [M-2Cl]+; 851 [M-3Cl]+; 751 [M-Ni-4Cl]+; IR (cm−1) 1597, 1571 (C═N). Example 55 Preparation of [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-hydroxytoluene]Ni2C4 (38) To a stirred suspension of anhydrous NiCl2 (0.078 g, 0.60 mmol) in n-butanol (10 ml) at 120° C. was added 21 (0.20 g, 0.31 mmol, 0.52 eq.) and the mixture heated to 120° C. overnight. After cooling to ambient temperature, the suspension was concentrated and washed several times with hexane. Following filtration and drying under reduced pressure, complex 38 was afforded as a dark red powder (0.20 g, 71%). Complex 38: FAB mass spectrum, m/z 859 [M-Cl]+, 824 [M-2Cl]+, 787 [M-3Cl]+, 692 [M-Ni-4Cl]+; IR (cm−1) 1595, 1571 (C═N). Example 56 Preparation of [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-nitrotoluene]Ni2Cl4 (39) To a stirred suspension of anhydrous NiCl2 (0.10 g, 0.60 mmol) in n-butanol (10 ml) at 120° C. was added 22 (0.25 g, 0.73 mmol, 0.52 eq.).) and the mixture heated to 120° C. overnight. After cooling to ambient temperature, the suspension was concentrated and washed several times with hexane. Following filtration and drying under reduced pressure, complex 39 was afforded as a yellow powder (0.16 g, 46%). Complex 39: FAB mass spectrum, m/z 889 [M-Cl]+, 853 [M-2Cl]+, 818 [M-3Cl]+, 631 [M-Ni-4Cl]+; IR (cm−1) 1595, 1571 (C═N). Example 57 Preparation of [bis-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-4-isopropyltoluene]Ni2Cl4 (40) To a stirred suspension of anhydrous NiCl2 (0.03 g, 0.55 mmol) in n-butanol (5 ml) at 120° C. was added 23 (0.07 g, 0.21 mmol, 0.5 eq.) and the mixture heated to 120° C. overnight. After cooling to ambient temperature, the suspension was concentrated and washed several times with hexane. Following filtration and drying under reduced pressure, complex 40 was afforded as a dark green powder (0.14 g, 52%). Compound 40: FAB mass spectrum, m/z 887 [M-Cl]+, 850 [M-2Cl]+, 813 [M-3Cl]+. Example 58 Preparation of [{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-{4-(pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]Ni2Cl4 (41) To a stirred suspension of anhydrous NiCl2 (0.05 g, 0.41 mmol) in n-butanol (10 ml) at 120° C. was added 24 (0.100 g, 0.21 mmol, 0.5 eq and the mixture heated to 120° C. overnight. After cooling to ambient temperature, the suspension was concentrated and washed several times with hexane. Following filtration and drying under reduced pressure, complex e 41 was afforded as a dark green powder (0.12 g, 78%). Complex 41: FAB mass spectrum, m/z 712 [M-Cl]+, 678 [M-2Cl]+, 640 [M-3C]+; IR (cm−1) 1597, 1571 (C═N). Example 59 Preparation of [bis-{((6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-dimethylphenyl}-methane]Fe2Cl4 (42) Under an atmosphere of nitrogen, anhydrous FeCl2 (0.05 g, 0.40 mmol) was dissolved in n-butanol (4 ml) by stirring at 90° C. for 30 minutes. To this yellow-green solution was added 25 (0.12 g, 0.20 mmol, 0.5 eq.) and the mixture stirred at 100° C. for 30 minutes. On cooling to ambient temperature, hexane was added to complete the precipitation. Following filtration, washing with more hexane and drying under reduced pressure, complex 42 was isolated as a dark green powder (0.04 g, 22%). Complex 42: FAB mass spectrum, m/z 769 [M-2Cl]+; □eff 5.46 BM. Example 60 Preparation of [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]Fe2Cl4 (43a) Under an atmosphere of nitrogen, anhydrous FeCl2 (0.05 g, 0.41 mmol) was dissolved in n-butanol (4 ml) by stirring at 90° C. for 30 minutes. To this green-yellow solution, 26a (0.14 g, 0.20 mmol) was added and the mixture stirred at 100° C. for 30 minutes forming a green precipitate. On cooling to ambient temperature, hexane was added to complete the precipitation. Following filtration and washing with more hexane, complex 43a was isolated as a dark blue powder (0.020 g, 10%). Complex 43a: FAB mass spectrum, m/z 917 [M-Cl]+; □eff 5.69 BM. Example 61 Preparation of [bis-{(6-pyridin-2-yl)pyridin-2-yl-ethyleneamino)-3,5-diisopropylphenyl}-methane]Fe2Cl4 (43b) Under an atmosphere of nitrogen, anhydrous FeCl2 (0.01 g, 0.08 mmol) was dissolved in n-butanol (2 ml) by stirring at 90° C. for 30 minutes. To this green-yellow solution, 26b (0.03 g, 0.08 mmol) was added and the mixture stirred at 100° C. for 30 minutes forming a green precipitate. On cooling to ambient temperature, hexane was added to complete the precipitation. Following filtration and washing with more hexane, complex 43b was isolated as a dark blue powder (0.01 g, 25%). Complex 43b: FAB mass spectrum, m/z 980 [M]+, 944 [M-Cl]+, 909 [M-2Cl]+, 853 [M-2Cl—Fe]+, 817 [M-3Cl—Fe]+, IR (cm−1) 1591 (C═N). Formulae for examples 38-61 Where Ph-4-Br=4-hydroxytoluene, Ph-4-N2=4-nitrotoluene, and Ph-4-i-Pr=4-isopropyltoluene. Polymerization The reagents used in the polymerization tests were Ethylene Grade 3.5 (supplied from BOC) and methylaluminoxane (MAO, 10% wt solution in toluene, supplied by Aldrich). GC measurements were obtained using either a Perkin Elmer Autosystem XL chromatogram (University of Leicester) [Column type ZB-5; Column length 30 m; Column diameter 0.25 mm; Initial column temperature 50-100° C.] or with a Mass Spectrometer detector [Perkin Elmer Turbo; Ionisation mode, electron impact; Mass range 50-500 amu; Solvent CH2Cl2]. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) was performed using a TA Instruments—DSC 2920 model using samples of polyethylene weighing 6±1 mg. The device was calibrated using Indium as a reference standard. Typical scanning conditions are described below: Heat to 190° C. at 10° C./min Hold for 1 min at 190° C. Cool from 190° C. to 20° C. at 10° C./min Hold for 1 min at 0° C. Reheat from 0° C. to 190° C. at 10° C./min. For all the materials one or several peaks are recorded during the heating-cooling-reheating steps. Some GPC analyses were performed on polyethylene sample using a four Polymer Laboratory mixed B columns installed in the Waters 150 C GPC instrument running at a temperature of 135° C., using 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene (TCB) as a mobile phase and monitoring continuously monitor the effluent with a differential refractometer (DRI) and multi angle laser light scattering (MALLS). In other cases, samples were analysed employing a two column mixed B columns installed in the Polymer Laboratory 220 GPC instrument running at a temperature of 160° C., using TCB as a mobile phase and monitoring continuously monitor the effluent with a differential refractometer (DRI). The results provided by high temperature GPC using the DRI are polystyrene (PS) equivalent molecular weight averages given as Mn, Mw, and Mz. The samples were prepared by dissolving the solid polymers in TCB at 135° C. and removed unsoluble material by filtration. 13C NMR spectroscopy were performed using the following procedure. Samples of the polyethylene were dissolved in deuterated TCB (2.5 ml) by heating overnight at 130° C. Deuterated benzene (0.5 ml) was added and the solution was homogenized and reheated to 130° C. prior to the analyses. The instrument used is a Varian Unity Plus 300 using a 10 mm broadband probe at 125° C., with the following acquisition parameters: Spectral window: 20000 Hz Acquisition time: 2.0 sec. Number of points: 80000 Filter band width: not used (oversampling) Pulse width: 90° pulse Delay D1: 38 seconds Number of transients: 1024 Decoupler mode: YYY Decoupler modulation mode: Waltz Line broadening: 1 Example 62 Schlenk Tube Polymerization The complexes (27a, 27b, 27c, 29a, 29b, 31a, 32, 33, 35a, 35b, 36, 37, 38, 39, 42, 43a, 43b) made in the examples above were dissolved or suspended in toluene (40 ml) and MAO introduced. The tube was purged with ethylene and the contents stirred under one bar (100 kPa) of ethylene pressure at 25° C. for the duration of the polymerization. After a pre-determined time (see tables), the run was terminated by the addition of aqueous hydrochloric acid. The polymers were filtered and washed with methyl alcohol and dried under reduced pressure at 40° C. overnight. The filtrate was collected and the organic layer separated and dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate. The resulting organic phase, containing any oligomeric portion, was prepared for quantitative GC analysis by diluting the solution to 50 ml with toluene in a volumetric flask and adding 1-heptadecene as an internal standard. The runs are summarised in Table 1 showing the distribution of the oligomeric and polymeric portions. Details of oligomer and polymer characterisation are shown in Tables 2-8. TABLE 1 Ethylene polymerization results from runs 1-17a Compd Activator Activity (0.010 methylalumoxane Oligomers Polymers (g/mmol/ Run mmol) (mmol/eq.) (g)b (g) h/bar) 1 27a 0.01/1000 0.77 0.32 218 2 27b 0.01/1000 1.10 0.06 231 3 27c 0.01/1000 0.69 0.44 225 4 29a 0.0037/368 3.435 0.562 799 5 29b 0.0037/368 0.358 0.210 114 6 31a 0.01/1000 — 1.23 246 7 32 0.0037/368 2.111 0.210 464 8 33 0.0037/368 0.205 0.086 58 9 34 0.004/400 1.000 0.070 214 10c 35a 0.003/300 1.408 0.620 220 11c 35b 0.003/300 1.111 0.420 153 12 37 0.0019/185 1.406 0.183 318 13 38 0.0019/185 0.211 0.425 127 14 39 0.0019/185 0.459 0.0630 229 15 42 0.0019/185 1.243 0.431 335 16 43a 0.0019/185 0.401 0.476 88 17c 43b 0.003/300 0.112 0.27 38 aGeneral Conditions: Toluene solvent (40 ml), 25° C., reaction time 30 min, ethylene pressure 1 bar (100 kPa), reaction quenched with dilute HCl; boligomers isolated from polymer filtrate as described above; creaction time 60 min., other conditions as in footnote a TABLE 2 Differential scanning calorimetric (DSC) studies for the polymeric portion obtained from runs 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9 and 13a Run Precatalyst Tc (° C.) Tm(° C.) 1 27a 81.8 87.7 114.0 118.8 126.4 3 27c 77.0 83.0 108.6 121.0 4 29a 122.0 107.7 84.4 76.3 5 29b 112.1 127.2 7 32 122.8 108.7 86.2 77.3 9 35a 68.47 74.21 104.80 116.60 13 38 82.4 89.3 112.68 123.43 aThe results displayed above have been obtained following the protocol described in the general polymerisation experimental section and correspond to the crystallization peak Tc and melting peak Tm observed during the reheating of the sample. Selected polymeric and oligmeric portions of the polyethylene produced by runs 1, 3, 4, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16 and 17 have been analysed using 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy. The results are displayed in Tables 3, 4 and 5. TABLE 3 1H NMR spectroscopic data for the oligomeric portion obtained in runs 4, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17a,b Run Precat. —CH═CH2 —CH═CH— —CH═C< >C═CH2 Additional Me 4 29a 52.53 2.96 0.38 0.48 12 10 35a 4.14 20.4 1.71 0.06 61.02 11 35b 2.78 17.64 1.35 0.07 89.09 12 37 6.02 20.59 1.48 0.07 52.96 13 38 7.65 17.25 1 0.01 52.78 14 39 6.7 19.51 1.19 0.09 61.25 16 43a 59.89 1.61 0 0.04 7.84 17 43b 57.16 2.8 0.016 0.16 10.26 aper 1000 carbon atoms; bdetails of the 1H NMR spectroscopic procedure are outlined in the general experimental section for the polymerization section. TABLE 4 1H NMR spectroscopic data for the polymeric portions obtained in runs 1, 3, 10, 11, 13 and 17a,b Run Precat. —CH═CH2 —CH═CH— —CH═C< >C═CH2 Additional Me 1 27a 1.93 5.41 0.31 0 c 3 27c 2.22 4.96 0.26 0 c 10 35a 1.8 7.94 0.48 0.01 36.55 11 35b 0.94 7.68 0.47 0.03 83.4 13 38 1.31 2.86 0.12 0.01 27.53 17 43b 7.38 0.56 0.22 0.01 1.96 aper 1000 carbon atoms; bdetails of the 1H NMR spectroscopic procedure are outlined in the general experimental section for the polymerization section; c Not been determined. TABLE 5 13C NMR spectroscopic data for the oligomeric portions obtained in runs 1, 3, 4 and 7a,b 1,3- Run Precatalyst Methyl diethyl Hexyl+ Total 1 27a 15.03 2.73 11.64 29.41 3 27c 22.42 2.12 5.59 30.14 4 29a 1.80 1.80 7 32 9.0 9.0 aper 1000 carbon atoms; bdetails of the 13C NMR spectroscopic procedure are outlined in the general experimental section for the polymerization section. TABLE 6 GC results for the oligomeric portion obtained in runs 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 15, 16 and 17a Run Precatalyst α (Alpha value) β (Beta value) 1 27a 0.91 0.09 2 27b 0.98 0.02 3 27c 0.94 0.06 4 29a 0.96 0.04 5 29b 0.96 0.04 7 32 0.79 0.27 8 33 0.90 0.11 15 42 0.88 0.14 16 43a 0.75 0.33 17 43b 0.56 0.79 aAlpha (α) and Beta (β) values were then determined from GC using extrapolated values based on a Schulz-Flory distribution for C4-C8 and C22-C26 for the oligomers gathered in runs 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 15, 16 and 17 employing 1-heptadecene as an internal standard. Alpha (α) = n(Cn+2 olefin)/n(Cn olefin), where n(Cn olefin) is the # number of moles of olefin containing n carbon atoms, and n(Cn+2 olefin) is the number of moles of olefin containing n + 2 carbon atoms, and is the rate of propagation over the sum of the rate of propagation and the rate of chain transfer. Beta (β = (1 − α)/α and is the rate of chain transfer over the rate of propagation. TABLE 7 GPC data for the oligomeric portions obtained in runs 4, 5, 7, 10, 13, 14, 16 and 17a Run Precatalyst Mn Mw Mz Mw/Mn 4 29a 140 330 — 2.35 5 29b 120 250 — 2.08 7 32 120 200 — 1.67 10 35a 260 670 1310 2.58 13 38 230 660 1640 2.87 14 39 210 610 1650 2.87 16 43a 100 170 260 1.7 17 43b 100 160 240 1.6 aMw and Mn were then determined by performing GPC analyses using the Waters GPC instrument on both oligomeric and polymeric portions of the polymers produced in run 4, 5, 7, 10, 13, 14, 16 and 17. TABLE 8 GPC data for polymeric portion obtained in runs 5, 7, 10, 11, 16 and 17a Run Precatalyst Mn Mw Mz Mw/Mn 5 29b 8225 16897 39919 2.35 7 32 6286 15786 60384 2.51 10 35a 1097 5571 39926 5.07 11 35b 1551 2787 7505 1.79 16 43a 3348 15406 85640 3.74 17 43b 1834 300801 666060 16.40 aAnalysed using the Polymer Laboratories GPC instrument using the procedure outlined in the general experimental for the polymerisation section. While certain representative embodiments and details have been shown to illustrate the invention, it will be apparent to skilled artisans that various process and product changes from those disclosed in this application may be made without departing from this invention's scope, which the appended claims define. All cited patents, test procedures, priority documents, and other cited documents are fully incorporated by reference to the extent that this material is consistent with this specification and for all jurisdictions in which such incorporation is permitted. Certain features of the present invention are described in terms of a set of numerical upper limits and a set of numerical lower limits. This specification discloses all ranges formed by any combination of these limits. All combinations of these limits are within the scope of the invention unless otherwise indicated.	B	B01	B01J	31	00
11755654	US20070223856A1-20070927	OPTICAL SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE AND OPTICAL SEMICONDUCTOR INTEGRATED CIRCUIT	ACCEPTED	20070912	20070927		[]	G02B612	["G02B612"]	7474817	20070530	20090106	385	014000	63751.0	SMITH	CHAD	[{"inventor_name_last": "Nunoya", "inventor_name_first": "Nobuhiro", "inventor_city": "Kawasaki-shi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Shibata", "inventor_name_first": "Yasuo", "inventor_city": "Tokyo", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Fujiwara", "inventor_name_first": "Naoki", "inventor_city": "Tokyo", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Kikuchi", "inventor_name_first": "Nobuhiro", "inventor_city": "Tokyo", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Tomori", "inventor_name_first": "Yuichi", "inventor_city": "Tokyo", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]	An integrated optical waveguide has a first optical waveguide, a second optical waveguide, and a groove. The second optical waveguide is coupled to the first optical waveguide and has a refractive index that is different from the first optical waveguide. The groove is disposed so as to traverse an optical path of the first optical waveguide and is separated from an interface between the first optical waveguide and the second optical waveguide by a predetermined spacing. The spacing from the interface and the width of the groove are determined such that reflection at a boundary between the first optical waveguide and the second optical waveguide is weakened. A semiconductor board may be disposed at a boundary between the first optical waveguide and the second optical waveguide. In this case, the width of the groove and the thickness of the semiconductor board are determined such that light reflected off an interface between the first optical waveguide and the groove is weakened by light reflected from an interface between the groove and the semiconductor board, and by light reflected from an interface between the semiconductor board and the second optical waveguide.	1. An integrated optical waveguide comprising: a first optical waveguide; a second optical waveguide optically coupled to said first optical waveguide, and having a refractive index different from that of said first optical waveguide; and a groove disposed so as to traverse an optical path of said first optical waveguide, and separated from an interface between said first optical waveguide and said second optical waveguide by a predetermined spacing, wherein the spacing from said interface and the width of said groove are determined such that reflection at a boundary between said first optical waveguide and said second optical waveguide is weakened. 2. An integrated optical waveguide comprising: a first optical waveguide formed on a semiconductor substrate; a second optical waveguide formed on said semiconductor substrate, and having a refractive index different from that of said first optical waveguide; and a semiconductor board disposed at a boundary between said first optical waveguide and said second optical waveguide, and formed on said semiconductor substrate perpendicularly to the waveguide direction and separately from said first optical waveguide via a groove, wherein a width of said groove and a thickness of said semiconductor board are determined such that light reflected off an interface between said first optical waveguide and said groove is weakened by light reflected from an interface between said groove and said semiconductor board, and by light reflected from an interface between said semiconductor board and said second optical waveguide. 3. The integrated optical waveguide as claimed in claim 2, wherein said groove is filled with a material whose refractive index differs from the refractive index of said first optical waveguide, said first optical waveguide and said semiconductor board have a same refractive index, and said second optical waveguide and said material filling said groove have a same refractive index, and wherein either of the following expressions holds, N1d1>λ/2n, N2d2>λ/2m, N1d1+N2d2<λ/4(2l+1) (l, m and n are integers satisfying a relation of n+m=l) or N1d1<λ/2n, N2d2<λ/2m, N1d1+N2d2>λ/4(2l+1) (l, m and n are integers satisfying a relation of n+m=l−1) where N1 and d1 are a refractive index and width of said groove respectively, N2 and d2 are a refractive index and thickness of said semiconductor board respectively, and λ is a wavelength of the waveguide light. 4. The integrated optical waveguide as claimed in claim 2, wherein said groove is filled with a material whose refractive index differs from the refractive index of said first optical waveguide, and wherein the following expressions hold, N1d1+N2d2=±λ/(2π)[ cos−1 {±(N12+N22)/(N1+N2)2}+2mπ] N1d1−N2d2=λ/2n (m and n are integers) where N1 and d1 are a refractive index and width of said groove respectively, N2 and d2 are a refractive index and thickness of said semiconductor board respectively, and λ is a wavelength of the waveguide light. 5. The integrated optical waveguide as claimed in claim 2, wherein said second optical waveguide is composed of a material having a negative refractive index temperature differential coefficient. 6. An integrated optical waveguide comprising two integrated optical waveguides as defined in claim 2, which are disposed face to face with each other, wherein said second optical waveguides have their end faces connected to each other. 7. An integrated optical waveguide comprising a plurality of integrated optical waveguides as defined in claim 6, which are connected in cascade repeatedly. 8. The optical device as claimed in claim 2, wherein said first optical waveguide comprises: a core layer formed on said semiconductor substrate; an upper cladding layer stacked on said core layer, and having a conductivity type different from that of said semiconductor substrate; a first electrode formed on said upper cladding layer; and a second electrode formed on a back surface of said semiconductor substrate. 9. The optical device as claimed in claim 2, wherein at least one of said first optical waveguide and said second optical waveguide has wavelength selectivity. 10. An optical device comprising an integrated optical waveguide as defined in claim 2. 11. An integrated optical waveguide comprising: a first optical waveguide formed on a semiconductor substrate; a second optical waveguide formed on said semiconductor substrate, and having a refractive index different from that of said first optical waveguide; a first semiconductor board disposed at a boundary between said first optical waveguide and said second optical waveguide, and formed on said semiconductor substrate perpendicularly to the waveguide direction and separately from said first optical waveguide via a first groove; and a second semiconductor board formed on said semiconductor substrate perpendicularly to the waveguide direction and separately from said first semiconductor board via a second groove, wherein widths of said first groove and said second groove and thicknesses of said first semiconductor board and said second semiconductor board are determined such that light reflected off an interface between said first optical waveguide and said first groove is weakened by light reflected from an interface between said first groove and said first semiconductor board, by light reflected from an interface between said first semiconductor board and said second groove, by light reflected from an interface between said second groove and said second semiconductor board and by light reflected from an interface between said second semiconductor board and said second optical waveguide. 12. The integrated optical waveguide as claimed in claim 11, where said first semiconductor board and said second semiconductor board have thicknesses different from each other, or said first groove and said second groove have widths different from each other. 13. The integrated optical waveguide as claimed in claim 11, wherein said first groove and said second groove are filled with a material whose refractive index differs from the refractive index of said first optical waveguide; said first optical waveguide, said first semiconductor board and said second semiconductor board have a same refractive index; and said second optical waveguide, said first groove and said second groove have a same refractive index, and wherein either of the following expressions holds, N1d1>λ/2n, N2d2>λ/2m, N1d1+N2d2<λ/4(2l+1) (l, m and n are integers satisfying a relation of n+m=l) or N1d1<λ/2n, N2d2<λ/2m, N2d2>λ/4(2l+1) (l, m and n are integers satisfying a relation of n+m=l−1) wherein N1 and d1 are a refractive index and width of said first groove respectively, N2 and d2 are a refractive index and thickness of said first semiconductor board respectively, and λ is a wavelength of the waveguide light. 14. The integrated optical waveguide as claimed in claim 11, wherein said first groove and said second groove are filled with a material whose refractive index differs from the refractive index of said first optical waveguide; said first optical waveguide, said first semiconductor board and said second semiconductor board have a same refractive index; and said second optical waveguide, said first groove and said second groove have a same refractive index, and wherein the following expression holds, λ/2n−λ/16<N2d4<λ/2n+λ/16 (n is an integer) where N2 and d4 are a refractive index and thickness of said second semiconductor board respectively, and λ is a wavelength of the waveguide light. 15. The integrated optical waveguide as claimed in claim 11, wherein said first groove and said second groove are filled with a material whose refractive index differs from the refractive index of said first optical waveguide; said first optical waveguide, said first semiconductor board and said second semiconductor board have a same refractive index; and said second optical waveguide, said first groove and said second groove have a same refractive index, and wherein the following expression holds, λ/2(n+¼)<N1D3<λ/2(n+1) (n is an integer) where N1 and d3 are a refractive index and width of said second groove respectively, and λ is the wavelength of the waveguide light. 16. The integrated optical waveguide as claimed in claim 11, wherein said first groove and said second groove are filled with a material whose refractive index differs from the refractive index of the first optical waveguide, and wherein one or more semiconductor boards are alternatively disposed via one or more grooves in the waveguide direction, each semiconductor board having a same thickness as said second semiconductor board and each groove having a same width as said second groove. 17. The integrated optical waveguide as claimed in claim 11, wherein said second optical waveguide is composed of a material having a negative refractive index temperature differential coefficient. 18. An integrated optical waveguide comprising two integrated optical waveguides as defined in claim 11, which are disposed face to face with each other, wherein said second optical waveguides have their end faces connected to each other. 19. An integrated optical waveguide comprising a plurality of integrated optical waveguides as defined in claim 18, which are connected in cascade repeatedly. 20. The optical device as claimed in claim 11, wherein said first optical waveguide comprises: a core layer formed on said semiconductor substrate; an upper cladding layer stacked on said core layer, and having a conductivity type different from that of said semiconductor substrate; a first electrode formed on said upper cladding layer; and a second electrode formed on a back surface of said semiconductor substrate. 21. The optical device as claimed in claim 11, wherein at least one of said first optical waveguide and said second optical waveguide has wavelength selectivity. 22. An optical device comprising an integrated optical waveguide as defined in claim 11.	<SOH> BACKGROUND ART <EOH>The oscillation wavelength of a semiconductor laser varies depending on the ambient temperature and device temperature. For example, as described in K. Sakai, “1.5 μm range InGaAsP/InP distributed feedback lasers”, IEEE J. Quantum Electron, vol. QW-18, pp. 1272-1278, August 1982, the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of a distributed feedback (DFB) laser is about 0.1 nm/K. This is because the refractive index (n) of a semiconductor has temperature dependence, and hence the Bragg wavelength (λ B ) of a diffraction grating varies according to the following expression. in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? mλ B =2nΛ (1) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? where m is the order of diffraction and Λ is the period of the diffraction grating. For example, when using a semiconductor laser as a light source for optical fiber communication, particularly wavelength division multiplexing communication (WDM) that transmits optical signals with different wavelengths by multiplexing them into a single fiber, the accuracy of the wavelengths of the signal light is important. Accordingly, it is essential to stabilize the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser constituting the light-emitting source. To achieve this, the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser is stabilized by the temperature control of the semiconductor laser using a Peltier device, for example. Methods of stabilizing the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength without using the temperature control by the Peltier device or the like are broadly divided into two methods. An example of the first method is disclosed in H. Asahi et al., Jpn. J. Appl. phys., vol. 35, pp. L875-, 1996. It employs a semiconductor material having a refractive index with smaller temperature dependence than a conventional counterpart, thereby reducing the temperature dependence with a semiconductor-only configuration. A second method is one that uses a composite configuration of semiconductor and materials other than the semiconductor in order to reduce the temperature dependence. For example, the following configurations are known. One that has a semiconductor laser combined with an external waveguide composed of materials other than the semiconductor is disclosed in “Hybrid integrated extennal Cavity laser without temperature dependent mode hopping”, by T. Tanaka et al., Electron. Lett., vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 149-150, 1999. Another configuration that has semiconductor and non-semiconductor materials with the refractive index temperature dependence opposite to that of the semiconductor, connected alternately in cascade, is disclosed in Japanese patent application laid-open No. 2002-14247. However, as for the method of carrying out the temperature control of the semiconductor laser with the Peltier device, it has a problem of complicating the device structure and control, and increasing the power consumption. As for the method of reducing the temperature dependence by the semiconductor-only configuration using the semiconductor material with the refractive index of smaller temperature dependence, no reports have been made about a new material that is put to practical use, and because of the crystal growth and device formation, it is very difficult to develop such a new semiconductor. Furthermore, as for the method of combining the semiconductors with the non-semiconductor materials, it is preferable to be able to combine them as simple as possible such as eliminating the need for optical axis adjustment. However, even if a simple fabrication method exists such as spin coating an organic material on the semiconductor substrate, in case for example of constructing distributed reflectors by alternately cascading the semiconductor and the organic materials to fabricate a first-order diffraction grating with good characteristics, it requires to place the semiconductor and organic materials alternately at about ¼ wavelength intervals, which presents a great degree of problem in the difficulty and reliability of the process. On the other hand, by connecting a semiconductor optical waveguide with an optical waveguide composed of materials having different characteristics from the semiconductor, an optical waveguide with new characteristics is obtained which cannot be achieved by semiconductor-only. For example, while the refractive index of a semiconductor has a positive temperature dependence that increases with the temperature, a method is known which connects a semiconductor optical waveguide in cascade with an optical waveguide composed of materials whose refractive indices are negative in temperature dependence that decreases with the temperature. As such, it is possible to implement an optical waveguide whose optical length, which is given by the product of the refractive index and the waveguide length, is independent of the temperature as a whole. For example, as disclosed in K. Tada et al., “Temperature compensated coupled cavity diode lasers”, Optical and Quantum Electronics, vol. 16, pp. 463-469, 1984, a temperature-independent laser whose oscillation wavelength is independent of the temperature can be realized by constructing its cavity from materials with the negative refractive index temperature dependence external to the semiconductor laser. More specifically, the optical length n D L D of the laser cavity increases with the temperature because of an increase in the effective refractive index n D of the semiconductor medium. Assume that a laser diode is coupled with the external cavity whose optical length n R L R decreases with an increase in the temperature, the condition that makes the total optical length (n D L D +n R L R ) of the cavity constant regardless of the temperature is given by the following expression (2). in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? ∂/∂ T ( n D L D +n R L R )= L D ∂n D /∂T+n D ∂L D /∂T+L R ∂n R /∂T+n R ∂L R /∂T= 0 (2) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? Note ∂n R /∂T and ∂L R /∂T become negative because ∂n D /∂T and ∂L D /∂T are usually positive. Here, to splice the waveguides with different refractive indices, such as splicing the semiconductor optical waveguide with the waveguide composed of non-semiconductor materials, reflection occurs at the interface because of the difference between the refractive indices of the two waveguides. Assume that the refractive index of a first optical waveguide is N 1 , and the refractive index of a second optical waveguide is N 2 , and consider the plane wave for simplicity, then the reflectance R is given by the following expression (3). in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? R =(( N 1 −N 2 )/(N 1 +N 2 )) 2 (3) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? When light propagated through the semiconductor or silica waveguide is radiated to the outside, the reflection occurs because of the difference between the refractive index of the waveguide and that of the outside. Accordingly, when the light propagated through the semiconductor optical waveguide is radiated to the air from an end face of the semiconductor laser, for example, the reflection can be prevented by forming an evaporated film with a certain thickness on the semiconductor end face as disclosed in Toru Kusakawa, “Lens optics”, pp. 273-288, the Tokai University Press. However, it is difficult to form such an antireflection film at high accuracy when integrating the waveguide composed of different materials on a semiconductor substrate. On the other hand, when incident light is entered at an angle into the interface surface between materials with different refractive indices, refraction occurs at the interface surface as represented by the following expression (4) according to Snell's law, in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? sin θ 1 /sin θ 2 =N 2 /N 1 (4) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? where θ 1 is an incident angle and θ 2 is a refraction angle. When the incident angle θ 1 equals the Brewster angle θ B , the reflection of the components parallel to the incidence plane can be eliminated, in which case, the Brewster angle θ B is represented by the following expression (5). in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? θ B =tan −1 ( N 2 /N 1 ) (5) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? Now, the semiconductor waveguide usually employ a buried heterostructure or ridge structure. As for the etching and buried growth of the semiconductor, there is a crystal orientation suitable for the etching and buried growth. When splicing the semiconductor optical waveguide with the optical waveguide composed of the materials whose refractive index differs from the materials of the semiconductor optical waveguide, the reflection occurs at the splice interface in accordance with the difference between the refractive indices, thereby limiting the flexibility of the waveguide design. Although the reflection can be reduced at the interface between the waveguides having different refractive indices by utilizing the Brewster angle θ B , the use of the Brewster angle θ B causes the light to refract through the interface surface between the waveguides, which presents a problem in that the waveguides are no longer aligned. Also, when utilizing the Brewster angle θ B to reduce the reflection between the waveguides with different refractive indices, it becomes difficult to configure the buried semiconductor waveguide along with a certain crystal orientation, which makes it difficult to fabricate the buried semiconductor waveguide at a high reliability. Furthermore, when utilizing the Brewster angle θ B to reduce the reflection between the waveguides with different refractive indices, it becomes difficult to place the semiconductor waveguides perpendicularly to a cleaved surface, which precludes the cleaved surface to be used as the reflection plane of the semiconductor laser. As described above, combining the materials that differ in the refractive indices and their temperature dependence poses a variety of problems and is desired to be improved further.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>To solve the foregoing problems, according to an aspect of the present invention, there is provided a semiconductor laser comprising: a gain region having wavelength selectivity; a propagating region optically coupled to the gain region, having an effective refractive index whose temperature dependence differs from that of the gain region, and having no wavelength selectivity; and a reflection region for reflecting light propagated through the propagating region. Thus, coupling the propagating region having no wavelength selectivity to the gain region having wavelength selectivity enables the control of the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength. More specifically, as the gain region has the wavelength selectivity, it can selectively excite light of a particular wavelength. As for the propagating region that does not have the wavelength selectivity and is optically coupled with the gain region, the light excited by the gain region travels through the propagating region with the phase of the propagating light being varied. The light passing through the propagating region is reflected by the reflection region to return to the gain region again. Thus, the wavelength variations of the light due to the temperature changes in the gain region can be compensated for by the phase variations due to the temperature changes in the propagating region. Consequently, it becomes possible to control the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser at a desired value without combining the semiconductors and non-semiconductor materials intricately even when the materials having the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength are used as the gain medium, thereby making it possible to stabilize the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser using a simple configuration and easy process. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a semiconductor laser comprising: a gain region having wavelength selectivity; a propagating region optically coupled to the gain region, having a material with an effective refractive index whose temperature dependence differs from that of the gain region, and having no gain nor wavelength selectivity; and a reflection region that reflects light propagated through the propagating region, and has no gain. Thus, the propagating region can be configured using a currently available material such as an organic material, thereby enabling the control of the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength with the simple configuration and easy process without using a new material. According to still another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a semiconductor laser comprising: a gain region having wavelength selectivity; a propagating region optically coupled to the gain region, having a structure with an effective refractive index whose temperature dependence differs from that of the gain region, and having no gain nor wavelength selectivity; and a reflection region that reflects light propagated through the propagating region, and has no gain. Thus, the propagating region can be confitured without using a material with an effective refractive index whose temperature dependence is different, thereby enabling the control of the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength with the simple configuration and easy process. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a semiconductor laser comprising: a first gain region having wavelength selectivity; a propagating region optically coupled to the first gain region, having at least one of a material and structure with an effective refractive index whose temperature dependence differs from that of the gain region, and having no gain nor wavelength selectivity; and a second gain region optically coupled to the propagating region, and having wavelength selectivity. Thus, the propagating region can be configured using a currently available material such as an organic material, and eliminate the need for the use of a mirror as the reflection region. Accordingly, not only the monolithic integration of a semiconductor laser can be facilitated, but also the control of the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength can be realized with a simple configuration and easy process without using a new material. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a semiconductor laser comprising: a semiconductor substrate; an active layer formed on the semiconductor substrate, and having a distributed reflection structure; a cladding layer formed on the active layer; a removed region from which part of the active layer and the cladding layer is removed; and a temperature compensation layer buried in the removed region, and having an effective refractive index whose temperature dependence differs from that of the active layer. Thus, by removing part of the active layer and cladding layer, and then filling the temperature compensation layer, it becomes possible to easily couple the propagating region having no wavelength selectivity to the gain region having wavelength selectivity, thereby enabling the control of the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength with the simple configuration and easy process. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a semiconductor laser comprising: a semiconductor substrate; a distributed Bragg reflection layer stacked on the semiconductor substrate; an active layer stacked on the distributed Bragg reflection layer, and having a distributed reflection structure; a temperature compensation layer stacked on the active layer, and having an effective refractive index whose temperature dependence differs from that of the active layer; and a reflection layer stacked on the temperature compensation layer. Thus, by successively stacking the distributed Bragg reflection layer, active layer, temperature compensation layer and reflection layer on the semiconductor substrate, it becomes possible to easily couple the propagating region having no wavelength selectivity to the gain region having wavelength selectivity, thereby enabling the control of the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength with the simple configuration and easy process. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a semiconductor laser comprising: a semiconductor substrate; an active layer formed on the semiconductor substrate, and having a distributed reflection structure; a cladding layer formed on the active layer, and having an inclined surface at an end of the active layer; and a temperature compensation layer formed on the cladding layer, and having an effective refractive index whose temperature dependence differs from that of the active layer. Thus, by providing the temperature compensation layer on the cladding layer on which the inclined surface is formed, it becomes possible to couple the propagating region having no wavelength selectivity to the gain region having wavelength selectivity, thereby enabling the control of the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength with the simple configuration and easy process. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a integrated optical waveguide comprising: a first optical waveguide; a second optical waveguide optically coupled to the first optical waveguide, and having a refractive index different from that of the first optical waveguide; and a groove disposed so as to traverse an optical path of the first optical waveguide, and separated from an interface between the first optical waveguide and the second optical waveguide by a predetermined spacing, wherein the spacing from the interface and the width of the groove are determined such that reflection at the boundary between the first optical waveguide and the second optical waveguide is weakened. Thus, by forming the groove in such a manner that it traverses the optical path of the first optical waveguide, it becomes possible to adjust the phase of the reflected waves from the boundary between the first optical waveguide and second optical waveguide, and to cancel the reflected waves from the boundary between the first optical waveguide and second optical waveguide. Accordingly, the reflection at the boundary between the first optical waveguide and second optical waveguide can be weakened even when the first optical waveguide and second optical waveguide have refractive indices different from each other. As a result, the loss at the boundary between the first optical waveguide and second optical waveguide can be reduced without forming an antireflection film on the interface between the first optical waveguide and second optical waveguide, thereby allowing the implementation of the optical waveguide having new characteristics that cannot be achieved by semiconductor-only configuration while enabling the integration of the optical waveguide. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided an integrated optical waveguide comprising: a first optical waveguide formed on a semiconductor substrate; a second optical waveguide formed on the semiconductor substrate, and having a refractive index different from that of the first optical waveguide; and a semiconductor board disposed at the boundary between the first optical waveguide and the second optical waveguide, formed on the semiconductor substrate perpendicularly to the waveguide direction, and separated from the first optical waveguide via a groove, wherein a width of the groove and a thickness of the semiconductor board are determined such that light reflected off the interface between the first optical waveguide and the groove is weakened by light reflected from the interface between the groove and the semiconductor board, and by light reflected from the interface between the semiconductor board and the second optical waveguide. Thus, the light reflected off the interface between the first optical waveguide and the groove can be weakened by the light reflected from the interface between the groove and semiconductor board and by the light reflected from the interface between the semiconductor board and the second optical waveguide. Accordingly, the reflection between the optical waveguides can be reduced even when the semiconductor optical waveguide and the non-semiconductor optical waveguide are integrated on the same semiconductor substrate, thereby allowing the implementation of the optical waveguide having new characteristics that cannot be achieved by semiconductor-only configuration while maintaining the flexibility of the waveguide design. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided an integrated optical waveguide comprising: a first optical waveguide formed on a semiconductor substrate; a second optical waveguide formed on the semiconductor substrate, and having a refractive index different from that of the first optical waveguide; a first semiconductor board disposed at the boundary between the first optical waveguide and the second optical waveguide, formed on the semiconductor substrate perpendicularly to the waveguide direction, and separated from the first optical waveguide via a first groove; and a second semiconductor board formed on the semiconductor substrate perpendicularly to the waveguide direction and separated from the first semiconductor board via a second groove, wherein widths of the first groove and the second groove and thicknesses of the first semiconductor board and the second semiconductor board are determined such that light reflected off the interface between the first optical waveguide and the first groove is weakened by light reflected from the interface between the first groove and the first semiconductor board, by light reflected from the interface between the first semiconductor board and the second groove, by light reflected from the interface between the second groove and the second semiconductor board and by light reflected from the interface between the second semiconductor board and the second optical waveguide. Thus, the light reflected off the interface between the first optical waveguide and the first groove can be weakened by the light reflected from the interface between the first groove and the first semiconductor board, by the light reflected from the interface between the first semiconductor board and the second groove, by the light reflected from the interface between the second groove and the second semiconductor board, and by the light reflected from the interface between the second semiconductor board and the second optical waveguide. As a result, the reflection between the optical waveguides can be reduced even when the semiconductor optical waveguide and the non-semiconductor optical waveguide are integrated on the same semiconductor substrate, thereby allowing the implementation of the optical waveguide having new characteristics that cannot be achieved by semiconductor-only configuration while maintaining the flexibility of the waveguide design. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided an integrated optical waveguide comprising: a first optical waveguiding region; a second optical waveguiding region whose interface surface with the first optical waveguiding region is inclined with respect to the waveguide direction of the first waveguiding region, and having a refractive index different from that of the first optical waveguiding region; and a third optical waveguiding region whose interface surface with the second optical waveguiding region is disposed such that the refraction direction through the interface surface with the second optical waveguiding region is in line with the waveguide direction. Thus, the interface surface between the first optical waveguiding region and the second optical waveguiding region can be inclined with respect to the waveguide direction. This makes it possible, even when refractive indices of the first optical waveguiding region and second optical waveguiding region are different from each other, to reduce the reflection on the interface surface between the first optical waveguiding region and the second optical waveguiding region. In addition, the third optical waveguiding region is provided with its interface surface being disposed in such a manner that its refraction direction is in line with the waveguide direction, thereby enabling the adjustment of the waveguide direction with reducing the waveguide loss due to the reflection and refraction between the waveguides having different refractive indices. As a result, it can make effective use of the crystal orientation suitable for such as the cleavage, etching or burying while suppressing the waveguide loss even in the case where materials having different refractive indices are inserted between the optical waveguiding regions. Thus, it allows the implementation of the optical waveguide having new characteristics that cannot be achieved by semiconductor-only configuration while suppressing the deterioration of the reliability during fabrication of the waveguide, and improve the flexibility of the waveguide design. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided an integrated optical waveguide comprising: a first optical waveguide having a first refractive index; a third optical waveguide having the first refractive index; and a second optical waveguiding region disposed between the first optical waveguide and the third optical waveguide, and having a second refractive index, wherein the first optical waveguide is connected with the second optical waveguiding region such that the interface surface between the first optical waveguide and the second optical waveguiding region is unperpendicular to the direction of the first optical waveguide; the second optical waveguiding region is connected with the third optical waveguide such that the interface surface between the second optical waveguiding region and the third optical waveguide is unperpendicular to the extension line of the refraction direction through the interface surface between the first optical waveguide and the second optical waveguiding region; and the refraction direction through the interface surface between the second optical waveguiding region and the third optical waveguide is in line with the direction of the third optical waveguide. Thus, the reflections on the interface surface between the first optical waveguide and the second optical waveguiding region and on the interface surface between the second optical waveguiding region and the third optical waveguide can be reduced, and the loss due to the refractions can be suppressed, even when the material with the different refractive index is inserted between the optical waveguides,.	CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/527,355, filed Mar. 7, 2005, which is a nationalization of PCT Application No. PCT/JP2004/004517, filed Mar. 30, 2004, which claims priority to Japanese Patent Application Nos. 2003-412062 filed Dec. 10, 2003, 2003-400156 filed Nov. 28, 2003, and 2003-094696 filed Mar. 31, 2003, which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention generally relates to an optical semiconductor device and optical semiconductor integrated circuit such as a semiconductor laser, optical waveguide, and other optical devices. The present invention particularly relates to an optical semiconductor device and optical semiconductor integrated circuit that are combined, on a semiconductor substrate, with materials which differ in the refractive indices and their temperature dependence. BACKGROUND ART The oscillation wavelength of a semiconductor laser varies depending on the ambient temperature and device temperature. For example, as described in K. Sakai, “1.5 μm range InGaAsP/InP distributed feedback lasers”, IEEE J. Quantum Electron, vol. QW-18, pp. 1272-1278, August 1982, the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of a distributed feedback (DFB) laser is about 0.1 nm/K. This is because the refractive index (n) of a semiconductor has temperature dependence, and hence the Bragg wavelength (λB) of a diffraction grating varies according to the following expression. mλB=2nΛ (1) where m is the order of diffraction and Λ is the period of the diffraction grating. For example, when using a semiconductor laser as a light source for optical fiber communication, particularly wavelength division multiplexing communication (WDM) that transmits optical signals with different wavelengths by multiplexing them into a single fiber, the accuracy of the wavelengths of the signal light is important. Accordingly, it is essential to stabilize the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser constituting the light-emitting source. To achieve this, the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser is stabilized by the temperature control of the semiconductor laser using a Peltier device, for example. Methods of stabilizing the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength without using the temperature control by the Peltier device or the like are broadly divided into two methods. An example of the first method is disclosed in H. Asahi et al., Jpn. J. Appl. phys., vol. 35, pp. L875-, 1996. It employs a semiconductor material having a refractive index with smaller temperature dependence than a conventional counterpart, thereby reducing the temperature dependence with a semiconductor-only configuration. A second method is one that uses a composite configuration of semiconductor and materials other than the semiconductor in order to reduce the temperature dependence. For example, the following configurations are known. One that has a semiconductor laser combined with an external waveguide composed of materials other than the semiconductor is disclosed in “Hybrid integrated extennal Cavity laser without temperature dependent mode hopping”, by T. Tanaka et al., Electron. Lett., vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 149-150, 1999. Another configuration that has semiconductor and non-semiconductor materials with the refractive index temperature dependence opposite to that of the semiconductor, connected alternately in cascade, is disclosed in Japanese patent application laid-open No. 2002-14247. However, as for the method of carrying out the temperature control of the semiconductor laser with the Peltier device, it has a problem of complicating the device structure and control, and increasing the power consumption. As for the method of reducing the temperature dependence by the semiconductor-only configuration using the semiconductor material with the refractive index of smaller temperature dependence, no reports have been made about a new material that is put to practical use, and because of the crystal growth and device formation, it is very difficult to develop such a new semiconductor. Furthermore, as for the method of combining the semiconductors with the non-semiconductor materials, it is preferable to be able to combine them as simple as possible such as eliminating the need for optical axis adjustment. However, even if a simple fabrication method exists such as spin coating an organic material on the semiconductor substrate, in case for example of constructing distributed reflectors by alternately cascading the semiconductor and the organic materials to fabricate a first-order diffraction grating with good characteristics, it requires to place the semiconductor and organic materials alternately at about ¼ wavelength intervals, which presents a great degree of problem in the difficulty and reliability of the process. On the other hand, by connecting a semiconductor optical waveguide with an optical waveguide composed of materials having different characteristics from the semiconductor, an optical waveguide with new characteristics is obtained which cannot be achieved by semiconductor-only. For example, while the refractive index of a semiconductor has a positive temperature dependence that increases with the temperature, a method is known which connects a semiconductor optical waveguide in cascade with an optical waveguide composed of materials whose refractive indices are negative in temperature dependence that decreases with the temperature. As such, it is possible to implement an optical waveguide whose optical length, which is given by the product of the refractive index and the waveguide length, is independent of the temperature as a whole. For example, as disclosed in K. Tada et al., “Temperature compensated coupled cavity diode lasers”, Optical and Quantum Electronics, vol. 16, pp. 463-469, 1984, a temperature-independent laser whose oscillation wavelength is independent of the temperature can be realized by constructing its cavity from materials with the negative refractive index temperature dependence external to the semiconductor laser. More specifically, the optical length nDLD of the laser cavity increases with the temperature because of an increase in the effective refractive index nD of the semiconductor medium. Assume that a laser diode is coupled with the external cavity whose optical length nRLR decreases with an increase in the temperature, the condition that makes the total optical length (nDLD+nRLR) of the cavity constant regardless of the temperature is given by the following expression (2). ∂/∂T(nDLD+nRLR)=LD∂nD/∂T+nD∂LD/∂T+LR∂nR/∂T+nR∂LR/∂T=0 (2) Note ∂nR/∂T and ∂LR/∂T become negative because ∂nD/∂T and ∂LD/∂T are usually positive. Here, to splice the waveguides with different refractive indices, such as splicing the semiconductor optical waveguide with the waveguide composed of non-semiconductor materials, reflection occurs at the interface because of the difference between the refractive indices of the two waveguides. Assume that the refractive index of a first optical waveguide is N1, and the refractive index of a second optical waveguide is N2, and consider the plane wave for simplicity, then the reflectance R is given by the following expression (3). R=((N1−N2)/(N1+N2))2 (3) When light propagated through the semiconductor or silica waveguide is radiated to the outside, the reflection occurs because of the difference between the refractive index of the waveguide and that of the outside. Accordingly, when the light propagated through the semiconductor optical waveguide is radiated to the air from an end face of the semiconductor laser, for example, the reflection can be prevented by forming an evaporated film with a certain thickness on the semiconductor end face as disclosed in Toru Kusakawa, “Lens optics”, pp. 273-288, the Tokai University Press. However, it is difficult to form such an antireflection film at high accuracy when integrating the waveguide composed of different materials on a semiconductor substrate. On the other hand, when incident light is entered at an angle into the interface surface between materials with different refractive indices, refraction occurs at the interface surface as represented by the following expression (4) according to Snell's law, sin θ1/sin θ2=N2/N1 (4) where θ1 is an incident angle and θ2 is a refraction angle. When the incident angle θ1 equals the Brewster angle θB, the reflection of the components parallel to the incidence plane can be eliminated, in which case, the Brewster angle θB is represented by the following expression (5). θB=tan−1(N2/N1) (5) Now, the semiconductor waveguide usually employ a buried heterostructure or ridge structure. As for the etching and buried growth of the semiconductor, there is a crystal orientation suitable for the etching and buried growth. When splicing the semiconductor optical waveguide with the optical waveguide composed of the materials whose refractive index differs from the materials of the semiconductor optical waveguide, the reflection occurs at the splice interface in accordance with the difference between the refractive indices, thereby limiting the flexibility of the waveguide design. Although the reflection can be reduced at the interface between the waveguides having different refractive indices by utilizing the Brewster angle θB, the use of the Brewster angle θB causes the light to refract through the interface surface between the waveguides, which presents a problem in that the waveguides are no longer aligned. Also, when utilizing the Brewster angle θB to reduce the reflection between the waveguides with different refractive indices, it becomes difficult to configure the buried semiconductor waveguide along with a certain crystal orientation, which makes it difficult to fabricate the buried semiconductor waveguide at a high reliability. Furthermore, when utilizing the Brewster angle θB to reduce the reflection between the waveguides with different refractive indices, it becomes difficult to place the semiconductor waveguides perpendicularly to a cleaved surface, which precludes the cleaved surface to be used as the reflection plane of the semiconductor laser. As described above, combining the materials that differ in the refractive indices and their temperature dependence poses a variety of problems and is desired to be improved further. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION To solve the foregoing problems, according to an aspect of the present invention, there is provided a semiconductor laser comprising: a gain region having wavelength selectivity; a propagating region optically coupled to the gain region, having an effective refractive index whose temperature dependence differs from that of the gain region, and having no wavelength selectivity; and a reflection region for reflecting light propagated through the propagating region. Thus, coupling the propagating region having no wavelength selectivity to the gain region having wavelength selectivity enables the control of the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength. More specifically, as the gain region has the wavelength selectivity, it can selectively excite light of a particular wavelength. As for the propagating region that does not have the wavelength selectivity and is optically coupled with the gain region, the light excited by the gain region travels through the propagating region with the phase of the propagating light being varied. The light passing through the propagating region is reflected by the reflection region to return to the gain region again. Thus, the wavelength variations of the light due to the temperature changes in the gain region can be compensated for by the phase variations due to the temperature changes in the propagating region. Consequently, it becomes possible to control the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser at a desired value without combining the semiconductors and non-semiconductor materials intricately even when the materials having the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength are used as the gain medium, thereby making it possible to stabilize the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser using a simple configuration and easy process. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a semiconductor laser comprising: a gain region having wavelength selectivity; a propagating region optically coupled to the gain region, having a material with an effective refractive index whose temperature dependence differs from that of the gain region, and having no gain nor wavelength selectivity; and a reflection region that reflects light propagated through the propagating region, and has no gain. Thus, the propagating region can be configured using a currently available material such as an organic material, thereby enabling the control of the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength with the simple configuration and easy process without using a new material. According to still another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a semiconductor laser comprising: a gain region having wavelength selectivity; a propagating region optically coupled to the gain region, having a structure with an effective refractive index whose temperature dependence differs from that of the gain region, and having no gain nor wavelength selectivity; and a reflection region that reflects light propagated through the propagating region, and has no gain. Thus, the propagating region can be confitured without using a material with an effective refractive index whose temperature dependence is different, thereby enabling the control of the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength with the simple configuration and easy process. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a semiconductor laser comprising: a first gain region having wavelength selectivity; a propagating region optically coupled to the first gain region, having at least one of a material and structure with an effective refractive index whose temperature dependence differs from that of the gain region, and having no gain nor wavelength selectivity; and a second gain region optically coupled to the propagating region, and having wavelength selectivity. Thus, the propagating region can be configured using a currently available material such as an organic material, and eliminate the need for the use of a mirror as the reflection region. Accordingly, not only the monolithic integration of a semiconductor laser can be facilitated, but also the control of the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength can be realized with a simple configuration and easy process without using a new material. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a semiconductor laser comprising: a semiconductor substrate; an active layer formed on the semiconductor substrate, and having a distributed reflection structure; a cladding layer formed on the active layer; a removed region from which part of the active layer and the cladding layer is removed; and a temperature compensation layer buried in the removed region, and having an effective refractive index whose temperature dependence differs from that of the active layer. Thus, by removing part of the active layer and cladding layer, and then filling the temperature compensation layer, it becomes possible to easily couple the propagating region having no wavelength selectivity to the gain region having wavelength selectivity, thereby enabling the control of the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength with the simple configuration and easy process. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a semiconductor laser comprising: a semiconductor substrate; a distributed Bragg reflection layer stacked on the semiconductor substrate; an active layer stacked on the distributed Bragg reflection layer, and having a distributed reflection structure; a temperature compensation layer stacked on the active layer, and having an effective refractive index whose temperature dependence differs from that of the active layer; and a reflection layer stacked on the temperature compensation layer. Thus, by successively stacking the distributed Bragg reflection layer, active layer, temperature compensation layer and reflection layer on the semiconductor substrate, it becomes possible to easily couple the propagating region having no wavelength selectivity to the gain region having wavelength selectivity, thereby enabling the control of the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength with the simple configuration and easy process. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a semiconductor laser comprising: a semiconductor substrate; an active layer formed on the semiconductor substrate, and having a distributed reflection structure; a cladding layer formed on the active layer, and having an inclined surface at an end of the active layer; and a temperature compensation layer formed on the cladding layer, and having an effective refractive index whose temperature dependence differs from that of the active layer. Thus, by providing the temperature compensation layer on the cladding layer on which the inclined surface is formed, it becomes possible to couple the propagating region having no wavelength selectivity to the gain region having wavelength selectivity, thereby enabling the control of the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength with the simple configuration and easy process. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a integrated optical waveguide comprising: a first optical waveguide; a second optical waveguide optically coupled to the first optical waveguide, and having a refractive index different from that of the first optical waveguide; and a groove disposed so as to traverse an optical path of the first optical waveguide, and separated from an interface between the first optical waveguide and the second optical waveguide by a predetermined spacing, wherein the spacing from the interface and the width of the groove are determined such that reflection at the boundary between the first optical waveguide and the second optical waveguide is weakened. Thus, by forming the groove in such a manner that it traverses the optical path of the first optical waveguide, it becomes possible to adjust the phase of the reflected waves from the boundary between the first optical waveguide and second optical waveguide, and to cancel the reflected waves from the boundary between the first optical waveguide and second optical waveguide. Accordingly, the reflection at the boundary between the first optical waveguide and second optical waveguide can be weakened even when the first optical waveguide and second optical waveguide have refractive indices different from each other. As a result, the loss at the boundary between the first optical waveguide and second optical waveguide can be reduced without forming an antireflection film on the interface between the first optical waveguide and second optical waveguide, thereby allowing the implementation of the optical waveguide having new characteristics that cannot be achieved by semiconductor-only configuration while enabling the integration of the optical waveguide. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided an integrated optical waveguide comprising: a first optical waveguide formed on a semiconductor substrate; a second optical waveguide formed on the semiconductor substrate, and having a refractive index different from that of the first optical waveguide; and a semiconductor board disposed at the boundary between the first optical waveguide and the second optical waveguide, formed on the semiconductor substrate perpendicularly to the waveguide direction, and separated from the first optical waveguide via a groove, wherein a width of the groove and a thickness of the semiconductor board are determined such that light reflected off the interface between the first optical waveguide and the groove is weakened by light reflected from the interface between the groove and the semiconductor board, and by light reflected from the interface between the semiconductor board and the second optical waveguide. Thus, the light reflected off the interface between the first optical waveguide and the groove can be weakened by the light reflected from the interface between the groove and semiconductor board and by the light reflected from the interface between the semiconductor board and the second optical waveguide. Accordingly, the reflection between the optical waveguides can be reduced even when the semiconductor optical waveguide and the non-semiconductor optical waveguide are integrated on the same semiconductor substrate, thereby allowing the implementation of the optical waveguide having new characteristics that cannot be achieved by semiconductor-only configuration while maintaining the flexibility of the waveguide design. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided an integrated optical waveguide comprising: a first optical waveguide formed on a semiconductor substrate; a second optical waveguide formed on the semiconductor substrate, and having a refractive index different from that of the first optical waveguide; a first semiconductor board disposed at the boundary between the first optical waveguide and the second optical waveguide, formed on the semiconductor substrate perpendicularly to the waveguide direction, and separated from the first optical waveguide via a first groove; and a second semiconductor board formed on the semiconductor substrate perpendicularly to the waveguide direction and separated from the first semiconductor board via a second groove, wherein widths of the first groove and the second groove and thicknesses of the first semiconductor board and the second semiconductor board are determined such that light reflected off the interface between the first optical waveguide and the first groove is weakened by light reflected from the interface between the first groove and the first semiconductor board, by light reflected from the interface between the first semiconductor board and the second groove, by light reflected from the interface between the second groove and the second semiconductor board and by light reflected from the interface between the second semiconductor board and the second optical waveguide. Thus, the light reflected off the interface between the first optical waveguide and the first groove can be weakened by the light reflected from the interface between the first groove and the first semiconductor board, by the light reflected from the interface between the first semiconductor board and the second groove, by the light reflected from the interface between the second groove and the second semiconductor board, and by the light reflected from the interface between the second semiconductor board and the second optical waveguide. As a result, the reflection between the optical waveguides can be reduced even when the semiconductor optical waveguide and the non-semiconductor optical waveguide are integrated on the same semiconductor substrate, thereby allowing the implementation of the optical waveguide having new characteristics that cannot be achieved by semiconductor-only configuration while maintaining the flexibility of the waveguide design. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided an integrated optical waveguide comprising: a first optical waveguiding region; a second optical waveguiding region whose interface surface with the first optical waveguiding region is inclined with respect to the waveguide direction of the first waveguiding region, and having a refractive index different from that of the first optical waveguiding region; and a third optical waveguiding region whose interface surface with the second optical waveguiding region is disposed such that the refraction direction through the interface surface with the second optical waveguiding region is in line with the waveguide direction. Thus, the interface surface between the first optical waveguiding region and the second optical waveguiding region can be inclined with respect to the waveguide direction. This makes it possible, even when refractive indices of the first optical waveguiding region and second optical waveguiding region are different from each other, to reduce the reflection on the interface surface between the first optical waveguiding region and the second optical waveguiding region. In addition, the third optical waveguiding region is provided with its interface surface being disposed in such a manner that its refraction direction is in line with the waveguide direction, thereby enabling the adjustment of the waveguide direction with reducing the waveguide loss due to the reflection and refraction between the waveguides having different refractive indices. As a result, it can make effective use of the crystal orientation suitable for such as the cleavage, etching or burying while suppressing the waveguide loss even in the case where materials having different refractive indices are inserted between the optical waveguiding regions. Thus, it allows the implementation of the optical waveguide having new characteristics that cannot be achieved by semiconductor-only configuration while suppressing the deterioration of the reliability during fabrication of the waveguide, and improve the flexibility of the waveguide design. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided an integrated optical waveguide comprising: a first optical waveguide having a first refractive index; a third optical waveguide having the first refractive index; and a second optical waveguiding region disposed between the first optical waveguide and the third optical waveguide, and having a second refractive index, wherein the first optical waveguide is connected with the second optical waveguiding region such that the interface surface between the first optical waveguide and the second optical waveguiding region is unperpendicular to the direction of the first optical waveguide; the second optical waveguiding region is connected with the third optical waveguide such that the interface surface between the second optical waveguiding region and the third optical waveguide is unperpendicular to the extension line of the refraction direction through the interface surface between the first optical waveguide and the second optical waveguiding region; and the refraction direction through the interface surface between the second optical waveguiding region and the third optical waveguide is in line with the direction of the third optical waveguide. Thus, the reflections on the interface surface between the first optical waveguide and the second optical waveguiding region and on the interface surface between the second optical waveguiding region and the third optical waveguide can be reduced, and the loss due to the refractions can be suppressed, even when the material with the different refractive index is inserted between the optical waveguides,. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional view showing, along the waveguide direction, a configuration of a semiconductor laser of a first example in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating a reflection spectrum and phase characteristics of a reflected wave of a semiconductor laser of an embodiment in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating a compensation principle on the temperature dependence of oscillation wavelength for a semiconductor laser of an embodiment in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 4 is a graph illustrating the temperature coefficient difference of the refractive index and the temperature dependence of oscillation wavelength for a semiconductor laser of an embodiment in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional view showing, along the waveguide direction, a configuration of a semiconductor laser of a second example in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view showing, along the waveguide direction, a configuration of a semiconductor laser of a third example in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 7 is a cross-sectional view showing, along the waveguide direction, a configuration of a semiconductor laser of a fourth example in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 8 is a cross-sectional view showing, along the waveguide direction, a configuration of a semiconductor laser of a fifth example in accordance with the present invention; FIGS. 9A-9E are cross-sectional views cut perpendicular to the waveguide direction, showing configuration variations of a semiconductor laser of a sixth example in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 10 is a perspective view showing a schematic configuration of a coupling section of an integrated optical waveguide of a seventh example in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 11 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line XI, XII-XI, XII in the waveguide direction of FIG. 10; FIG. 12 is a cross-sectional view showing, along the waveguide direction, a schematic configuration of a coupling section of an integrated optical waveguide of an eighth example in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 13 is a cross-sectional view showing, along the direction orthogonal to the waveguide direction, a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of a ninth example in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 14 is a cross-sectional view showing, along the direction orthogonal to the waveguide direction, a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of a 10th example in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 15 is a chart illustrating the reflectance at the coupling section of the integrated optical waveguide of FIG. 11 in terms of the relationships between the width d1 of the groove A61 and the thickness d2 of the semiconductor board B61; FIG. 16 is a cross-sectional view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of the 10th example in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 17 is a cross-sectional view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of an 11th example in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 18 is a perspective view showing a schematic configuration of a coupling section of an integrated optical waveguide of a 12th example in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 19 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line XIX, XX-XIX, XX in the waveguide direction of FIG. 18; FIG. 20 is a cross-sectional view showing, along the waveguide direction, a schematic configuration of the coupling section of an integrated optical waveguide of a 13th example in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 21 is a diagram illustrating relationships between the reflectance of the optical waveguide composed of regions A132, B132 and R132 of FIG. 18 and the thickness d4 of the semiconductor board B132; FIG. 22 is a chart illustrating relationships between the width d3 of the groove A132 of FIG. 18 and the reflectance for the incident wavelength; FIG. 23 is a cross-sectional view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of a 14th example in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 24 is a cross-sectional view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of a 15th example in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 25 is a cross-sectional view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of a 16th example in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 26 is a plan view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of a 17th example in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 27 is a cross-sectional view showing a schematic configuration of the first waveguide region 1201 of FIG. 26; FIG. 28 is a plan view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of an 18th example in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 29 is a cross-sectional view showing a schematic configuration of the second waveguide 1402 of FIG. 28; FIG. 30 is a diagram illustrating a relationship between an incident angle and a refraction angle when the light incidents to a splice plane of materials with different refractive indices; FIG. 31 is a diagram illustrating relationships between the angle of the waveguide directions and the refractive index ratio when the light propagates through materials with different refractive indices; FIG. 32 is a diagram illustrating relationships between the incident angle and the reflectance of components parallel to the incidence plane when the light incidents to a splice plane of materials with different refractive indices; FIG. 33 is a plan view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of a 19th example in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 34 is a plan view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of a 20th example in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 35 is a plan view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of a 21st example in accordance with the present invention; and FIG. 36 is a perspective view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of a 22nd example in accordance with the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Several embodiments in accordance with the present invention will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. First, applications in a semiconductor laser will be described as a first embodiment with reference to several examples. This embodiment makes it possible to control the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of a semiconductor laser by combining the semiconductor laser with materials having different temperature dependence of the refractive indices. Second, applications in an integrated optical waveguide will be described as a second embodiment referring to several examples. This embodiment makes it possible, when integrating a semiconductor optical waveguide and an optical waveguide having refractive index and temperature dependence different from those of the semiconductor optical waveguide, to reduce the reflection on the interface surface between these optical waveguides. In addition, by integrating the semiconductor optical waveguide and the optical waveguide having the refractive index different from that of the semiconductor optical waveguide, the embodiment allows an implemention of an optical waveguide having new characteristics that cannot be achieved by semiconductor-only configurations. Furthermore, as a third embodiment, by inclining the interface surface between a semiconductor optical waveguide and an optical waveguide having a different refractive index, with respect to the waveguide direction, the waveguide loss due to the reflection and refraction between these optical waveguides can be reduced. Also, by integrating the semiconductor optical waveguide and the optical waveguide having refractive index different from that of the semiconductor optical waveguide, the embodiment allows an implemention of an optical waveguide having new characteristics that cannot be achieved by semiconductor-only configurations. (Applications in Semiconductor Laser) Semiconductor lasers of the first embodiment in accordance with the present invention will now be described with reference to the drawings. The first embodiment can provide semiconductor lasers capable of controlling the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength by combining materials different in temperature characteristics of refractive indices. Some specific examples of the present embodiment will now be described. FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional view showing, along the waveguide direction, a configuration of the semiconductor laser of the first example in accordance with the present invention. The first example can control the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength by providing, between a first gain region R1 having wavelength selectivity and a second gain region R2 having wavelength selectivity, with a propagating region R3 having a different refractive index and no gain. In FIG. 1, on a semiconductor substrate 101 are provided the first gain region R1 with wavelength selectivity, the propagating region R3 having a different refractive index and no gain, and the second gain region R2 with wavelength selectivity. Here, the gain region R1 has an active layer 102 formed on the semiconductor substrate 101. On the active layer 102, a first gain region electrode 105 is formed via a cladding layer 110. Likewise, the gain region R2 has an active layer 104 formed on the semiconductor substrate 101. On the active layer 104, a second gain region electrode 106 is formed via a cladding layer 110. As the semiconductor substrate 101 and cladding layer 110, such as InP can be used, and as the active layers 102 and 104, such as GaInAsP with the light-emitting wavelength of 1.55 μm can be used. The active layers 102 and 104 formed on the semiconductor substrate 101 have a first gain and second gain having the wavelength selectivity, respectively. In addition, the active layers 102 and 104 have a periodic perturbation with a complex refractive index, that is, a diffraction grating, which provides the active layers 102 and 104 with distributed reflection structure. The propagating region R3 includes a removed region 111 formed by removing part of the active layers 102 and 104 and cladding layer 110 on the semiconductor substrate 101. The removed region 111 is filled with a temperature compensation material 103 having the refractive index whose temperature dependence differs from that of the gain regions R1 and/or R2. As the temperature compensation material 103, it is possible to use an organic material with the refractive index whose temperature dependence is opposite to that of the semiconductors such as BCB (Benzocyclobutene), for example. Also, using a multilayer of organic materials as the temperature compensation material 103 can reduce the waveguide loss. Incidentally, the propagating region R3 having no gain can be formed on the semiconductor substrate 101 by forming a groove with a desired width between the gain regions R1 and R2 using anisotropic etching such as reactive ion etching, followed by filling the groove with the organic material by spin coating or the like. The cavity has an antireflection film 108 on the first gain region side and an antireflection film 109 on the second gain region side, formed on its end faces. The semiconductor substrate 101 has a backside electrode 107 formed on its back surface. Here, the length of the first gain region R1, that of the second waveguide region R2 and that of the propagating region R3 can be determined in such a manner that oscillation does not occur only in the first gain region R1 or only in the second waveguide region R2. Then, the light emitted or reflected by the first gain region R1 having wavelength selectivity passes through the propagating region R3 having no gain, and is reflected by the second gain region R2 having wavelength selectivity. The reflected light passes through the propagating region R3 having no gain again, and returns to the first gain region R1 having wavelength selectivity, thereby bringing about laser oscillation. Thus, the laser oscillation is carried out in the first gain region R1, second waveguide region R2 and propagating region R3, and the variations in the oscillation wavelength due to the temperature changes in the first gain region R1 and second waveguide region R2 can be compensated for by the variations in the phase due to the temperature changes in the propagating region R3. Using the organic material such as BCB makes it possible to control the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser. Accordingly, the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser can be stabilized by a simple configuration and easy process without using a new material. The length of the propagating region R3 having gain can be set such that the longitudinal mode spacing, which is determined by the sum of the effective lengths of the diffraction gratings formed on the active layers 102 and 104 and the length of the propagating region R3 having no gain, becomes broader than the stop bandwidth of the diffraction gratings. This allows only one longitudinal mode to exist within the stop bandwidth of the diffraction gratings with the gain of the remaining longitudinal modes being suppressed, thereby increasing the stability of the single mode operation. Next, with reference to the present example, the oscillation principle and oscillation wavelength will be described in detail. The first gain region R1 having wavelength selectivity and the second gain region R2 having wavelength selectivity have the optical gains along with the wavelength selectivities. Accordingly, they can reflect the light with the wavelength determined by the diffraction grating, and amplify it. The wavelength band that maximizes the reflection can be determined by the stop bandwidth whose center is set at the Bragg wavelength of the diffraction grating. For example, the stop bandwidth of about 10 nm can be obtained by setting the coupling coefficient K of the diffraction grating at 300 cm−1 and the length thereof at 50 μm. Also, the length of the propagating region 103 having no gain can be set at about 10 μm, for example. FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating a reflection spectrum and phase characteristics of a reflected wave of the semiconductor laser of the embodiment in accordance with the present invention, which shows the reflection spectrum and phase delay of the reflected wave of the diffraction gratings of the first gain region R1 and second gain region R2. In FIG. 2, consider the case where the propagating region R3 having no gain is not present, or the light passing through the propagating region R3 has no phase delay. In this case, when the sum of the phase delays in the diffraction gratings of the first gain region R1 and second gain region R2 is zero or integer multiple of 2π, or when the phase delay is 0 or π if only one of the first gain region R1 and second gain region R2 is considered, the wavelength becomes a resonance mode. Then, when the propagating region R3 having no gain is present, the phase of the light varies during the propagation from the first gain region R1 to the second gain region R2. Accordingly, in response to the phase variations in the propagating region R3, the resonance mode varies in the stop band such that the phase delay becomes 0 or 2π throughout the cavity consisting of the first gain region R1, second gain region R2 and propagating region R3. As for the semiconductor materials such as InP and GaAs which are currently used for ordinary semiconductor lasers, the refractive index increases with the ambient temperature. Accordingly, the Bragg wavelength of the diffraction grating shifts towards the longer wavelength according to the expression (1). As a result, the reflection spectrum of FIG. 2 also shifts towards the longer wavelength as a whole. On the other hand, when the temperature compensation material 103 has the refractive index whose temperature dependence is opposite to that of the semiconductors, for example, the refractive index of the temperature compensation material 103 decreases with an increase of the temperature, thereby reducing the optical length of the propagating region R3 having no gain. Consequently, the phase of the light passing through the propagating region R3 having no gain varies so that the oscillation wavelength shifts from the longer wavelength side to the center within the stop band, and then towards the shorter wavelength side as the temperature increases. Thus, the variations in the Bragg wavelength due to the temperature changes in the first gain region R1 and second waveguide region R2 can be compensated for by the variations in the phase due to the temperature changes in the propagating region R3. This enables the control of the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser. FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating a compensation principle of the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of a semiconductor laser of an embodiment in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 3 shows that although the Bragg wavelength λB of the diffraction grating shifts toward the longer wavelength side as the temperature increases, the oscillation wavelength does not vary in spite of the temperature changes. As the stop bandwidth SB increases, the compensation can be made in a wider temperature range. For example, as for the example of FIG. 1, although the coupling coefficient of the diffraction grating is set at 300 cm−1, an increasing coupling coefficient can broaden the stop bandwidth, thereby extending the temperature range for the compensation. Although the foregoing description is made by way of example employing the temperature compensation material 103, which has the refractive index whose temperature dependence is opposite to that of the semiconductor, by replacing the material of the propagating region R3, a semiconductor laser with desired temperature dependence can be fabricated. In addition, since the propagating region R3 having no gain need not emit light, it need not have good crystallinity. Accordingly, organic materials or non-semiconductor materials can be employed, thereby allowing a wide selection of the material. Also, the propagating region having no gain can be configured using a material with the refractive index whose temperature dependence is greater than that of the semiconductor in the diffraction grating sections. This makes it possible to form a semiconductor laser with a larger temperature dependence, which may be utilized as a temperature sensor. Furthermore, even if using a material whose refractive index increases with the temperature like the semiconductor, it is possible to configure the propagating region having no gain using a material with the refractive index whose temperature dependence is smaller than that of the semiconductor in the diffraction grating sections, thereby reducing the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength. FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating the temperature coefficient difference of the refractive index and the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of a semiconductor laser of an embodiment in accordance with the present invention. In FIG. 4, the horizontal axis represents the product of the length of the propagating region having no wavelength selectivity nor gain and the difference between the refractive index temperature coefficients of the gain region having wavelength selectivity and of the propagating region having no wavelength selectivity nor gain; and the vertical axis represents the variations in the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength. In here, it is assumed that the device is configured with semiconductors-only, and that its regions have the same length and coupling coefficient of the diffraction gratings as in FIG. 1. In FIG. 4, the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength is about 1 □/K in the case of a DFB laser. Accordingly, to vary the oscillation wavelength about 10% thereof, it can be seen that the product of the length of the propagating region R3 and the difference between the temperature differential coefficient of the effective refractive index of the gain regions R1 and R2 and the temperature differential coefficient of the effective refractive index of the propagating region R3 is to be set at A point (decrease) and A′ point (increase), whose values are ±7.5×10−4 [μm/K]. To vary the oscillation wavelength about 20%, it can be seen that the product of the length of the propagating region R3 and the difference between the temperature differential coefficient of the effective refractive index of the gain regions R1 and R2 and the temperature differential coefficient of the effective refractive index of the propagating region R3 is to be set at about ±14.5×10−4 [μm/K]. For example, when the length of the propagating region R3 is 10 μm, they become ±7.5×10−4 [1/K], and ±1.45×10−4 [1/K], respectively. As for the structures of the active layers 102 and 104 of FIG. 1, it is not intended to limit, and the present invention is applicable to all the active layers with any commonly used structures to enable the control of the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser. More specifically, as for the active layers 102 and 104, any desired materials such as InGaAsP, GaAs, AlGaAs, InGaAs and GaInNAs are applicable. As for the structures of the active layers 102 and 104, any of the bulk, MQW (multiple quantum well), quantum wire and quantum dot structures can be employed. Also, as for the waveguide structure of the active layer regions, any of the pn buried, ridge structure, semi-insulating buried structure and high-mesa structure can be used. As for the semiconductor substrate 101, it is not limited to an n-type substrate, but a p-type substrate or semi-insulating substrate can also be used. Furthermore, the periodic perturbations need not be formed on the active layers 102 and 104. The same effects can be expected as long as they are formed on the regions in which the electric field of the light guided through the active layers has a finite value other than zero. For example, the periodic perturbations can be formed on an SCH layer with a separate confinement heterostructure (SCH structure) used by ordinary semiconductor lasers. Alternatively, it is possible to form the periodic perturbations on a layer having a refractive index higher than that of the cladding layer stacked on a region not contacting the active layers. Furthermore, a waveguide structure having an optical confinement structure on one of the top and bottom or the right and left planes of the propagating region having no gain can reduce the propagating loss, thereby improving the characteristics of the semiconductor laser. Moreover, the structure in accordance with the present invention can be formed in the thickness direction of the substrate to have the structure as a surface emitting laser, with which it is expected to achieve the same effect. In addition, as long as the first gain region R1, propagating region R3 and second gain region R2 are placed in this order along the optical axis, through reflecting mirrors formed by etching or the like, the first gain region R1, propagating region R3 and second gain region R2 can be disposed, and the optical axis may be bent in the layer direction or in the lateral direction along the way of the waveguide. FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional view showing, along the waveguide direction, a configuration of a semiconductor laser of a second example in accordance with the present invention. The second example is to control the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength by providing, across the gain region R11 having wavelength selectivity and the reflection region R12 having no gain, the propagating region R13 that has the refractive index with different temperature dependence, and has no gain. In FIG. 5, on a semiconductor substrate 201 are provided the first gain region R11 having wavelength selectivity, the propagating region R3 having the refractive index with different temperature dependence and no gain, and the second gain region R12 having the wavelength selectivity but no gain. Here, the gain region R11 has an active layer 202 that is formed on the semiconductor substrate 201, and has the wavelength selectivity and gain. The active layer 202 has a periodic perturbation with a complex refractive index, that is, a diffraction grating, which provides the active layer 202 with a distributed reflection structure. On the active layer 202, an electrode 205 is formed via a cladding layer 210. Likewise, the reflection region R12 has a semiconductor layer 204 that is formed on the semiconductor substrate 201, and has the wavelength selectivity but no gain. Here, the semiconductor layer 204 has a periodic perturbation with a complex refractive index, that is, a diffraction grating, thereby providing the semiconductor layer 204 with a distributed reflection structure. The semiconductor layer 204 has a cladding layer 210 formed thereon. As the semiconductor substrate 201 and cladding layer 210, InP can be used for example, and as the active layer 202, GaInAsP with the light-emitting wavelength of 1.55 μm can be used, and as the semiconductor layer 204, GaInAsP with the light-emitting wavelength of 1.2 μm can be used for example. The semiconductor layer 204 can be formed by growing a material whose composition is different from that of the active layer 202 by selective growth or the like, followed by forming the diffraction grating with the periodic structure. In addition, the propagating region R13 includes a removed region 211 formed by removing part of the active layer 202, semiconductor layer 204 and cladding layer 210 on the semiconductor substrate 201. The removed region 211 is filled with a temperature compensation material 203 having the refractive index whose temperature dependence differs from that of the gain region R11 and reflection region R12. Here, as the temperature compensation material 203, it is possible to use an organic material with the refractive index whose temperature dependence is opposite to that of the semiconductors such as BCB. Also, using a multilayer of organic materials as the temperature compensation material 203, the waveguide loss can be reduced. The propagating region R3 having no gain can be formed on the semiconductor substrate 201 by forming a groove with a desired width between the gain regions R11 and R12 using anisotropic etching such as reactive ion etching, followed by filling the groove with the organic material by spin coating or the like. The cavity has an antireflection film 208 on the gain region side and antireflection film 209 on the reflection region side, formed on its end faces. The semiconductor substrate 201 has a backside electrode 207 formed on its back surface. The length of the first gain region R11 can be determined in such a manner that the gain region R11 does not oscillate by itself with its large reflection loss. Then, the light emitted or reflected by the gain region R11 having wavelength selectivity passes through the propagating region R13 having no gain, and is reflected by the reflection region R12 having the wavelength selectivity but no gain. The reflected light passes through the propagating region R13 having no gain again, and returns to the gain region R11 having wavelength selectivity, thereby bringing about laser oscillation while providing feedback. Thus, the gain region R11, reflection region R12 and propagating region R13 can participate in the laser oscillation, and the variations in the oscillation wavelength due to the temperature changes in the gain region R11 and reflection region R12 can be compensated for by the variations in the phase due to the temperature changes in the propagating region R3. Using the organic material such as BCB, it makes possible to control the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser. Accordingly, the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser can be stabilized by a simple configuration and easy process without using a new material. The length of the propagating region R13 having no gain can be set such that the longitudinal mode spacing, which is determined by the sum of the effective lengths of the diffraction gratings formed on the active layer 202 and semiconductor layer 204 and the length of the propagating region R13 having no gain, becomes broader than the stop bandwidth of the diffraction gratings. This allows only one longitudinal mode to exist within the stop bandwidth of the diffraction gratings with the gain of the remaining longitudinal modes being suppressed, thereby increasing the stability of the single mode operation. Although the foregoing description is made by way of example employing the temperature compensation material 203 with the refractive index whose temperature dependence is opposite to that of the semiconductor as the propagating region R13 having no wavelength selectivity nor gain, by replacing the material of the propagating region R13, a semiconductor laser with desired temperature dependence can be fabricated. Also, since the propagating region R13 having no gain need not emit light, it need not have good crystallinity. Accordingly, organic materials or non-semiconductor materials can be employed, thereby allowing a wide selection of the material. Besides, the propagating region having no gain can be configured using a material with the refractive index whose temperature dependence is greater than that of the semiconductor in the diffraction grating section. This makes it possible to form a semiconductor laser with a larger temperature dependence, which can be utilized as a temperature sensor. Also, even if using a material whose refractive index increases with the temperature as the semiconductor, it is possible to configure the propagating region having no gain using a material with the refractive index whose temperature dependence is smaller than that of the semiconductor in the diffraction grating section, thereby reducing the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength. As for the structure of the active layer 202 of FIG. 5, it is not intended to limit, and the present invention is applicable to all the active layers with any commonly used structures to enable the control of the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser. More specifically, as for the active layer 202, any desired materials such as InGaAsP, GaAs, AlGaAs, InGaAs and GaInNAs are applicable. As for the structure of the active layer 202, any of the bulk, MQW (multiple quantum well), quantum wire and quantum dot structures can be employed. As for the waveguide structure of the active layer region, any of the pn buried, ridge structure, semi-insulating buried structure and high-mesa structure can be used. As for the semiconductor substrate 201, it is not limited to an n-type substrate, but a p-type substrate or semi-insulating substrate can also be used. Furthermore, the periodic perturbations need not be formed on the active layer 202. The same effects can be expected as long as they are formed on the regions in which the electric field of the light guided through the active layer has a finite value other than zero. For example, the periodic perturbations can be formed on an SCH layer with a separate confinement heterostructure (SCH structure) used by ordinary semiconductor lasers. Alternatively, it is also possible to form the periodic perturbations on a layer having a refractive index higher than that of the cladding layer stacked on a region not contacting the active layer. In addition, a waveguide structure having an optical confinement structure on one of the top and bottom or the right and left planes of the propagating region having no gain can reduce the propagating loss, thereby improving the characteristics of the semiconductor laser. Moreover, the structure in accordance with the present invention can be formed in the thickness direction of the substrate to have the structure as a surface emitting laser, with which it is expected to achieve the same effect. When the gain region R11, propagating region R13 and reflection region R12 are placed in this order along the optical axis, through reflecting mirrors formed by etching or the like, the gain region R11, propagating region R13 and reflection region R12 can be disposed, and the optical axis may be bent in the layer direction or in the lateral direction along the way of the waveguide. FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view showing, along the waveguide direction, a configuration of a semiconductor laser of a third example in accordance with the present invention. The third example is to control the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength by coupling a gain region R21 having wavelength selectivity to a propagating region R22 that has the refractive index with different temperature dependence and has no gain. In FIG. 6, on a semiconductor substrate 301 are formed the gain region R21 having wavelength selectivity, and the propagating region R22 that has the refractive index with the different temperature dependence and has no gain. Here, the gain region R21 includes an active layer 302 that is formed on the semiconductor substrate 301 and has the wavelength selectivity and gain. The active layer 302 has a periodic perturbation with a complex refractive index, that is, a diffraction grating, which provides the active layer 302 with a distributed reflection structure. On the active layer 302, an electrode 305 is formed via a cladding layer 310. As the semiconductor substrate 301 and cladding layer 310, InP can be used, and as the active layer 302, GaInAsP with the light-emitting wavelength of 1.55 μm can be used for example. The propagating region R22 includes a removed region 312 formed by removing part of the active layer 302 and cladding layer 310 on the semiconductor substrate 301. The removed region 312 is filled with a temperature compensation material 303 having the refractive index whose temperature dependence differs from that of the gain region R21. As the temperature compensation material 303, it is possible to use an organic material with the refractive index whose temperature dependence is opposite to that of the semiconductors such as BCB. Also, using a multilayer of organic materials as the temperature compensation material 303, the waveguide loss can be reduced. The propagating region R22 having no gain can be formed on the semiconductor substrate 301 by forming a groove with a desired width at an end of the gain region R21 using anisotropic etching such as reactive ion etching, followed by filling the groove with the organic material by spin coating or the like. The cavity has, on its end face on the gain region R21 side, an antireflection film 308 formed against the cleaved surface of the semiconductor substrate 301 on which the active layer 302 is formed. Also, the cavity has a high reflection film 311 formed on its end face on the propagating region R22 side. A backside electrode 307 is formed on the back surface of the semiconductor substrate 301. The length of the gain region R21 can be determined in such a manner that the gain region R21 does not oscillate by itself with its large reflection loss. Then, the light emitted or reflected by the gain region R21 having wavelength selectivity passes through the propagating region R22 having no gain, and is reflected by the high reflection film 311. The reflected light passes through the propagating region R22 having no gain again, and returns to the gain region R21 having wavelength selectivity, thereby bringing about laser oscillation while providing feedback. Thus, the gain region R21 and propagating region R22 can participate in the laser oscillation, and the variations in the oscillation wavelength due to the temperature changes in the gain region R21 can be compensated for by the variations in the phase due to the temperature changes in the propagating region R22. Using the organic material such as BCB, it makes possible to control the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser. Accordingly, the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser can be stabilized by a simple configuration and easy process without using a new material. The length of the propagating region R22 having no gain can be set such that the longitudinal mode spacing, which is determined by the sum of the effective length of the diffraction grating formed on the active layer 202 and the length of the propagating region R22 having no gain, becomes broader than the stop bandwidth of the diffraction grating. This allows only one longitudinal mode to exist within the stop bandwidth of the diffraction grating while suppressing the gain of the remaining longitudinal modes, thereby increasing the stability of the single mode operation. Although the foregoing description is made by way of example that employs the temperature compensation material 303 with the refractive index whose temperature dependence is opposite to that of the semiconductor as the propagating region R22 having no wavelength selectivity nor gain, by replacing the material of the propagating region R22, a semiconductor laser with desired temperature dependence can be fabricated. Also, since the propagating region R22 having no gain need not emit light, it need not have good crystallinity. Accordingly, organic materials or non-semiconductor materials can be employed, thereby allowing a wide selection of the material. Besides, the propagating region having no gain can be configured using a material with the refractive index whose temperature dependence is greater than that of the semiconductor in the diffraction grating section. This makes it possible to form a semiconductor laser with a larger temperature dependence, which can be utilized as a temperature sensor. Even if using a material whose refractive index increases with the temperature as the semiconductor, it is possible to configure the propagating region having no gain using a material with the refractive index whose temperature dependence is smaller than that of the semiconductor in the diffraction grating section, thereby reducing the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength. As for the structure of the active layer 302 of FIG. 6, it is not intended to limit, and the present invention is applicable to all the active layers with any commonly used structures to enable the control of the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser. More specifically, as for the active layer 302, any desired materials such as InGaAsP, GaAs, AlGaAs, InGaAs and GaInNAs are applicable. In addition, as for the structure of the active layer 302, any of the bulk, MQW (multiple quantum well), quantum wire and quantum dot structures can be employed. As for the waveguide structure of the active layer region, any of the pn buried, ridge structure, semi-insulating buried structure and high-mesa structure can be used. As for the semiconductor substrate 301, it is not limited to an n-type substrate, but a p-type substrate or semi-insulating substrate can also be used. Furthermore, the periodic perturbations need not be formed on the active layer 302. The same effects can be expected as long as they are formed on the regions in which the electric field of the light guided through the active layer has a finite value other than zero. For example, the periodic perturbations can be formed on an SCH layer with a separate confinement heterostructure (SCH structure) used by ordinary semiconductor lasers. Alternatively, it is also possible to form the periodic perturbations on a layer with a refractive index higher than that of the cladding layer stacked on a region not contacting the active layer. Also, with a waveguide structure having an optical confinement structure on one of the top and bottom or the right and left planes of the propagating region having no gain, the propagating loss can be reduced, thereby improving the characteristics of the semiconductor laser. Moreover, the structure in accordance with the present invention can be formed in the thickness direction of the substrate to have the structure as a surface emitting laser, with which it is expected to achieve the same effect. When the gain region R21 and propagating region R22 are placed along the optical axis, through a reflecting mirror formed by etching or the like, the gain region R21 and propagating region R22 can be disposed, and the optical axis may be bent in the layer direction or in the lateral direction along the way of the waveguide. FIG. 7 is a cross-sectional view showing, along the waveguide direction, a configuration of a semiconductor laser of a fourth example in accordance with the present invention. The fourth example is to control the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength by stacking a propagating region R32 having no gain on a surface emitting laser. In FIG. 7, on a semiconductor substrate 401, a gain region R31 having wavelength selectivity is stacked. On the gain region R31, a propagating region R32 is stacked which has the refractive index with different temperature dependence and has no gain. The propagating region R32 includes a temperature compensation material 404 with the refractive index whose temperature dependence differs from that of the gain region R31. Here, the gain region R31 has a distributed Bragg reflection layer 402 stacked on the semiconductor substrate 401 and an active region 403 that is stacked on the distributed Bragg reflection layer 402 and has wavelength selectivity. The distributed Bragg reflection layer 402 can have a structure comprising semiconductor layers 409a and 409b having different compositions stacked alternately, and the active region 403 can have a structure comprising active layers 408a and cladding layers 408b stacked alternately. Then, on the active region 403, an electrode 405 is formed with an opening 406 for emitting light. Every layers of the gain region R31 need not have gain, if the region as a whole has gain. As the semiconductor substrate 401, InP can be used, as the active layer 408a and cladding layer 408b, GaInAs/InAlAs can be used and as the semiconductor layers 409a and 409b, InAlGaAs/InAlAs can be used for example. As the temperature compensation material 404, it is possible to use an organic material with the refractive index whose temperature dependence is opposite to that of the semiconductors such as BCB, for example. Also, using a multilayer of organic materials as the temperature compensation material 404, the waveguide loss can be reduced. As for the propagating region R32 having no gain, it can be formed by applying or depositing an organic material on the gain region R31. Furthermore, a high reflection film 411 is formed on the temperature compensation material 404, and a backside electrode 407 is formed on the back surface of the semiconductor substrate 401. Here, the number of the active layers 408a and cladding layers 408b in the active region 403 can be determined in such a manner that the active region 403 does not oscillate by itself with its large reflection loss. Then, the light emitted or reflected by the gain region R31 having wavelength selectivity passes through the propagating region R32 having no gain, and is reflected by the high reflection film 411. The reflected light passes through the propagating region R32 having no gain again, and returns to the gain region R31 having wavelength selectivity, thereby bringing about laser oscillation while providing feedback. Thus, the gain region R31 and propagating region R32 can participate in the laser oscillation, and the variations in the oscillation wavelength due to the temperature changes in the gain region R31 can be compensated for by the variations in the phase due to the temperature changes in the propagating region R32. Using the organic material such as BCB, it makes possible to control the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser. Accordingly, the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser can be stabilized by a simple configuration and easy process without using a new material. The thickness of the propagating region R32 having no gain can be set such that the longitudinal mode spacing, which is determined by the sum of the effective length of the diffraction grating of the gain region R31 and the length of the propagating region R32 having no gain, becomes broader than the stop bandwidth of the diffraction grating. This allows only one longitudinal mode to exist within the stop bandwidth of the diffraction grating while suppressing the gain of the remaining longitudinal modes, thereby increasing the stability of the single mode operation. Although the foregoing description is made by way of example that employs the temperature compensation material 404 with the refractive index whose temperature dependence is opposite to that of the semiconductor as the propagating region R32 having no wavelength selectivity nor gain, by replacing the material of the propagating region R32, a semiconductor laser with desired temperature dependence can be fabricated. Also, since the propagating region R32 having no gain need not emit light, it need not have good crystallinity. Accordingly, organic materials or non-semiconductor materials can be employed, thereby allowing a wide selection of the material. Besides, the propagating region having no gain can be configured using a material with the refractive index whose temperature dependence is greater than that of the semiconductor in the diffraction grating section. This makes it possible to form a semiconductor laser with a larger temperature dependence, which may be utilized as a temperature sensor. In addition, even if using a material whose refractive index increases with the temperature as the semiconductor, it is possible to configure the propagating region having no gain using a material with the refractive index whose temperature dependence is smaller than that of the semiconductor in the diffraction grating section, thereby reducing the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength. As for the structure of the active region 403 of FIG. 7, it is not intended to limit, and the present invention is applicable to any active region 403 with any commonly used structures to enable the control of the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser. More specifically, as for the active region 403, any desired materials such as InGaAsP, GaAs, AlGaAs, InGaAs and GaInNAs are applicable. As for the structure of the active region 403, any of the bulk, MQW (multiple quantum well), quantum wire and quantum dot structures can be employed as long as the diffraction grating can be formed by periodical stacking. As for the waveguide structure in the active region, any of the pn buried, semi-insulating buried structure and oxidation stricture structure can be used. As for the semiconductor substrate 401, it is not limited to an n-type substrate, but a p-type substrate or semi-insulating substrate can also be used. Furthermore, by forming the propagating region having no gain with a waveguide structure having the optical confinement structure, the propagating loss can be reduced, thereby improving the characteristics of the semiconductor laser. FIG. 8 is a cross-sectional view showing, along the waveguide direction, a configuration of a semiconductor laser of a fifth example in accordance with the present invention. The fifth example is to control the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength by coupling a gain region R41 having wavelength selectivity, via an optical path changing structure, to a propagating region R42 that has the refractive index with different temperature dependence and has no gain. In FIG. 8, on a semiconductor substrate 501 are formed the gain region R41 having wavelength selectivity, and the propagating region R42 having no gain. The gain region R41 and the propagating region R42 are optically coupled via a reflecting mirror 512. Here, the gain region R41 comprises an active layer 502 that is formed on the semiconductor substrate 501, and has wavelength selectivity and gain. The active layer 502 has a periodic perturbation with a complex refractive index, that is, a diffraction grating, which provides the active layer 502 with a distributed reflection structure. On the active layer 502, an electrode 505 is formed via a cladding layer 510. As the semiconductor substrate 501 and cladding layer 510, InP can be used and as the active layer 502, GaInAsP with the light-emitting wavelength of 1.55 μm can be used for example. In addition, on the semiconductor substrate 501, the reflecting mirror 512 is formed at an end of the gain region R41. Here, the reflecting mirror 512 can be formed by etching the cladding layer 510 at the end of the gain region R41 in such a manner that an inclined surface making an angle of 90 degrees with the vertical direction is formed in the cladding layer 510. The propagating region R42 includes a temperature compensation material 503 with the refractive index whose temperature dependence differs from that of the gain region R41. The temperature compensation material 503 is disposed on the cladding layer 510 in such a manner that it faces the reflecting mirror 512. The propagating region R42 having no gain is configured with the temperature compensation material 503 and an optical path, through which the light emitted from the gain region R41 travels and is reflected by the reflecting mirror 512 towards the temperature compensation material 503. As the temperature compensation material 503, it is possible to use an organic material with the refractive index whose temperature dependence is opposite to that of the semiconductors such as BCB. Also, using a multilayer of organic materials as the temperature compensation material 503, the waveguide loss can be reduced. The propagating region R42 having no gain can be formed on the cladding layer 510 by applying or stacking the organic material by spin coating or the like. Furthermore, a high reflection film 511 is formed on the temperature compensation material 503, and the cavity has, on its end face on the gain region R41 side, an antireflection film 508 formed against the cleaved surface of the semiconductor substrate 501 on which the active layer 502 is formed. Also, a backside electrode 507 is formed on the back surface of the semiconductor substrate 501. The length of the gain region R41 can be determined in such a manner that the gain region R41 does not oscillate by itself with its large reflection loss. Then, the light emitted or reflected by the gain region R41 having wavelength selectivity has its optical axis bent upward by the reflecting mirror 512, passes through the propagating region R42 having no gain, and is reflected by the high reflection film 511. The light reflected by the high reflection film 511 passes through the propagating region R42 having no gain again, has its optical axis bent to the horizontal direction by the reflecting mirror 512, and returns to the gain region R41 having wavelength selectivity, thereby bringing about laser oscillation while providing feedback. Thus, the gain region R41 and propagating region R42 can participate in the laser oscillation, and the variations in the oscillation wavelength due to the temperature changes in the gain region R41 can be compensated for by the variations in the phase due to the temperature changes in the propagating region R42. Using the organic material such as BCB, it makes possible to control the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser. Accordingly, the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser can be stabilized by a simple configuration and easy process without using a new material. The length of the propagating region R42 having no gain can be set such that the longitudinal mode spacing, which is determined by the sum of the effective length of the diffraction grating formed on the active layer 502 and the length of the propagating region R42 having no gain, becomes broader than the stop bandwidth of the diffraction grating. This allows only one longitudinal mode to exist within the stop bandwidth of the diffraction grating while suppressing the gain of the remaining longitudinal modes, thereby increasing the stability of the single mode operation. Although the foregoing example uses the reflecting mirror as the optical path changing structure, the same effect can be expected by causing the optical path to change by a diffraction grating, for example. In addition, although the foregoing example forms the reflecting mirror in such a manner that it changes the optical axis from the horizontal to vertical direction or vice versa, the optical axis can be bent by reflection on the same horizontal plane, and the number of the reflection positions is not necessarily limited to one. Furthermore, although the foregoing description is made by way of example that employs the temperature compensation material 503 with the refractive index whose temperature dependence is opposite to that of the semiconductor as the propagating region R42 having no wavelength selectivity nor gain, by replacing the material of the propagating region R42, a semiconductor laser with desired temperature dependence can be fabricated. Also, since the propagating region R42 having no gain need not emit light, it need not have good crystallinity. Accordingly, organic materials or non-semiconductor materials can be employed, thereby allowing a wide selection of the material. Besides, the propagating region having no gain can be configured using a material with the refractive index whose temperature dependence is greater than that of the semiconductor in the diffraction grating section. This makes it possible to form a semiconductor laser with a larger temperature dependence, which may be utilized as a temperature sensor. Also, even if using a material whose refractive index increases with the temperature as the semiconductor, it is possible to configure the propagating region having no gain using a material with the refractive index whose temperature dependence is smaller than that of the semiconductor in the diffraction grating section, thereby reducing the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength. As for the structure of the active layer 502 of FIG. 8, it is not intended to limit, and the present invention is applicable to all the active layers with any commonly used structures to enable the control of the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser. More specifically, as for the active layer 502, any desired materials such as InGaAsP, GaAs, AlGaAs, InGaAs and GaInNAs are applicable. As for the structure of the active layer 502, any of the bulk, MQW (multiple quantum well), quantum wire and quantum dot structures can be employed. As for the waveguide structure of the active layer region, any of the pn buried, ridge structure, semi-insulating buried structure and high-mesa structure can be used. As for the semiconductor substrate 501, it is not limited to an n-type substrate, but a p-type substrate or semi-insulating substrate can also be used. Also, the periodic perturbation need not be formed on the active layer 502. The same effects can be expected as long as the periodic perturbation is formed in the region in which the electric field of the light guided through the active layer has a finite value other than zero. For example, the periodic perturbation can be formed on an SCH layer with a separate confinement heterostructure (SCH structure) used by ordinary semiconductor lasers. Alternatively, it is also possible to form the periodic perturbation on a layer with a refractive index higher than that of the cladding layer stacked on a region not contacting the active layer. Furthermore, by forming the propagating region having no gain with a waveguide structure having the optical confinement structure, the propagating loss can be reduced, thereby improving the characteristics of the semiconductor laser. FIGS. 9A-9E are cross-sectional views cut perpendicular to the waveguide direction, and each showing a configuration of a semiconductor laser of a sixth example in accordance with the present invention. The sixth example is to control the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength by providing a gain region with a structure different from that of an optical propagation region. In FIG. 9A, on a semiconductor substrate 601, a buffer layer 602, an optical confinement layer 603, a core layer 604, an optical confinement layer 605 and a cap layer 606 are stacked successively, and these layers are buried in a burying layer 607. In FIG. 9B, on a semiconductor substrate 611, a buffer layer 612, an optical confinement layer 613, a core layer 614, an optical confinement layer 615 and a cap layer 616 are stacked successively, and these layers are buried in a burying layer 617. In FIG. 9C, on a semiconductor substrate 621, a buffer layer 622, an optical confinement layer 623, a core layer 624, an optical confinement layer 625 and a cap layer 626 are stacked successively, and these layers are buried in a burying layer 627. In FIG. 9D, on a semiconductor substrate 631, a buffer layer 632, an optical confinement layer 633, a core layer 634 and a cap layer 636 are stacked successively, and these layers are buried in a burying layer 637. In FIG. 9E, on a semiconductor substrate 641, a buffer layer 642, an optical confinement layer 643, a core layer 644, an optical confinement layer 645 and a cap layer 646 are stacked successively, and these layers are buried in an organic material 647 composed of BCB or the like. Here, the core layer 614 of FIG. 9B is thinner than the core layer 604 of FIG. 9A. This makes it possible to vary optical field distributions F2 and F12 in the vertical direction without changing the optical field distributions F1 and F11 in the horizontal direction, and hence to make a difference in the contribution of the individual layers to the effective refractive index and its temperature dependence. As a result, as for the configuration of FIG. 9A and the configuration of FIG. 9B, their effective refractive indices and temperature dependence can be made different. Accordingly, by combining the configuration of FIG. 9A with that of FIG. 9B, it makes possible to control the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser. The core layer 624 and optical confinement layers 623 and 625 of FIG. 9C are narrower in their width than the core layer 614 and optical confinement layers 613 and 615 of FIG. 9B. This makes it possible to vary optical field distributions F11 and F21 in the horizontal direction without changing the optical field distributions F12 and F22 in the vertical direction, and hence to make a difference in the contribution of the individual layers to the effective refractive indices and their temperature dependence. As a result, as for the configuration of FIG. 9B and the configuration of FIG. 9C, their effective refractive indices and temperature dependence can be made different. Accordingly, by combining the configuration of FIG. 9B with that of FIG. 9C, it makes possible to control the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser. In the configuration FIG. 9D, an upper layer of the core layer 633, an optical confinement layer 635, is omitted as compared in the configuration of FIG. 9B. This makes it possible to vary optical field distributions F12 and F32 in the vertical direction without changing the optical field distributions F11 and F31 in the horizontal direction, and hence to make a difference in the contribution of the individual layers to the effective refractive indices and their temperature dependence. As a result, as for the configuration of FIG. 9B and the configuration of FIG. 9D, their effective refractive indices and temperature dependence can be made different. Accordingly, by combining the configuration of FIG. 9B with that of FIG. 9D, it makes possible to control the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser. The configuration of FIG. 9E employs the organic material 647 instead of using the burying layer 627 of FIG. 9C. This makes it possible to vary optical field distributions F21 and F41 in the horizontal direction without changing the optical field distributions F22 and F42 in the vertical direction, and hence to make a difference in the contribution of the individual layers to the effective refractive indices and their temperature dependence. As a result, as for the configuration of FIG. 9C and the configuration of FIG. 9E, their effective refractive indices and temperature dependence can be made different. Accordingly, by combining the configuration of FIG. 9C with that of FIG. 9E, it makes possible to control the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser. Thus, combining the configurations of FIGS. 9A-9E enables the optical field distribution to be varied along the optical waveguide direction, which makes it possible to control the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser even if the semiconductor lasers are configured using the same materials. As the semiconductor substrates 601, 611, 621, 631 and 641, the buffer layers 602, 612, 622, 632 and 642, the cap layers 606, 616, 626, 636 and 646 and the burying layers 607, 617, 627 and 637, InP can be used for example. As the core layers 604, 614, 624, 634 and 644, GaInAsP with the light-emitting wavelength of 1.3 μm can be used and as the optical confinement layers 603, 613, 623, 633, 643, 605, 615, 625 and 645, GaInAsP with the light-emitting wavelength of 1.1 μm can be used for example. As described above, the first embodiment in accordance with the present invention can control the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser at a desired value by using a material with the refractive index whose temperature dependence differs from that of the gain region, and by using a rather simple configuration and easy process. In particular, it can eliminate the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength by employing the materials having the refractive index whose temperature dependence is opposite to that of the semiconductors as the materials of the propagating region having no gain, thereby allowing an implementation of the oscillation wavelength temperature independent semiconductor laser. (Applications in Integrated Optical Waveguides) Next, integrated optical waveguides of the second embodiment in accordance with the present invention will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. The second embodiment can provide an integrated structure comprised of the semiconductor optical waveguide and the optical waveguide having a material whose refractive index differs from that of the semiconductor optical waveguide, and provide an optical semiconductor device and optical semiconductor integrated circuit using the integrated structure. In particular, the present embodiment can reduce the reflection from the interface at which the materials with different refractive indices are spliced. Several specific examples of the present embodiment will be described below. FIG. 10 is a perspective view showing a schematic configuration of a coupling section of an integrated optical waveguide of a seventh example in accordance with the present invention. The seventh example reduces the reflection on the boundary between an optical waveguide region R61 and an optical waveguide region R62 by providing a pair of a groove A61 and a semiconductor board B61. In FIG. 10, on a semiconductor substrate 701, the optical waveguide region R61, the groove A61, the semiconductor board B61 and the optical waveguide region R62 are successively formed along the waveguide direction. Here, the refractive indices of the optical waveguide regions R61 and R62 can be set differently from each other. For example, the optical waveguide region R61 can be composed of semiconductor materials, and the optical waveguide region R62 can be composed of materials other than the semiconductors. The groove A61 can be filled with a material other than the semiconductors such as the same material as that of the optical waveguide region R62. Also, the semiconductor board B61 can be configured to have the same structure as the optical waveguide region R61. The groove A61 and semiconductor board B61 are placed in such a manner that they traverse the waveguide direction. Preferably, the groove A61 and semiconductor board B61 may be placed perpendicularly to the waveguide direction. The width of the groove A61 and the thickness of the semiconductor board B61 may be set in such a fashion that the light reflected off the interface between the optical waveguide region R61 and groove A61 is weakened by the light reflected off the interface between the groove A61 and the semiconductor board B61, and by the light reflected off the interface between the semiconductor board B61 and the optical waveguide region R62. This makes it possible to reduce the reflection between the optical waveguides even in the case where the semiconductor optical waveguide and the non-semiconductor optical waveguide are integrated on the same semiconductor substrate 701, thereby allowing an implemention of an optical waveguide with new characteristics that cannot be achieved by only the semiconductors while maintaining the flexibility of the waveguide design. The groove A61 and semiconductor board B61 may be formed on the semiconductor substrate 701 by etching the semiconductor substrate 701 on which the optical waveguide region R61 has been formed. Thus, the reflection from the boundary between the optical waveguide region R61 and the optical waveguide region R62 can be reduced without forming the antireflection film at the interface between the optical waveguide region R61 and the optical waveguide region R62, thereby facilitating the integration of the optical waveguides. In addition, providing the semiconductor substrate 701 with the single semiconductor board B61 can reduce the reflection from the boundary between the optical waveguide region R61 and the optical waveguide region R62, which eliminates the need for disposing numbers of semiconductor boards as in a distributed reflector, thereby facilitating the fabrication of the integrated optical waveguide. FIG. 11 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line XI-XI in the waveguide direction of FIG. 10. In FIG. 11, core layers 702a and 702b are stacked on the semiconductor substrate 701, and upper cladding layers 703a and 703b are stacked on the core layers 702a and 702b. As the semiconductor substrate 701 and upper cladding layers 703a and 703b, InP can be used and as the core layers 702a and 702b, GaInAsP with the light-emitting wavelength of 1.3 μm can be used for example. To stack the core layers 702a and 702b and the upper cladding layers 703a and 703b successively on the semiconductor substrate 701, epitaxial growth can be used such as MBE (molecular beam epitaxy), MOCVD (metal organic chemical vapor deposition), or ALCVD (atomic layer chemical vapor deposition). By etching the semiconductor substrate 701, on which the core layers 702a and 702b and upper cladding layers 703a and 703b have been stacked successively, the groove 704a with the width d1 which is disposed perpendicularly to the waveguide direction, as well as a notch 704b disposed apart from the groove 704a by a predetermined spacing d2 on the semiconductor substrate 701 are formed. Then by filling the groove 704a with a filler material 705a and the notch 704b with an optical waveguide material 705b, it makes possible to form the groove A61 at the interface with the optical waveguide region R61, as well as the optical waveguide region R62 separated from the groove A61 by the semiconductor board B61 with the thickness d2. This enables the adjustment of the phase of the reflected waves from the boundary between the optical waveguide region R61 and the optical waveguide region R62. Thus the reflected waves from the boundary between the optical waveguide region R61 and the optical waveguide region R62 can be canceled out each other. Therefore the present example can integrate the optical waveguide region R61 and optical waveguide region R62 whose refractive indices differ from each other on the same semiconductor substrate 701 while enabling reduction of the reflection from the boundary between the optical waveguide region R61 and optical waveguide region R62, thereby allowing an implementation of the optical waveguide with new characteristics which cannot be achieved by a semiconductor-only configuration. Here, as for the filler material 705a and optical waveguide material 705b, a material such as BCB (Benzocyclobutene) can be used which has the refractive index different from that of the semiconductors. In this case, the optical waveguide region R61 and semiconductor board B61 can each have an equivalent refractive index of 3.12, and the optical waveguide region R62 and groove A61 can each have an equivalent refractive index of 1.54. Incidentally, the equivalent refractive index is a refractive index defined with respect to the light propagating through optical waveguide. Accordingly, to treat the light propagating through optical waveguide, the previous refractive index can be replaced with the equivalent refractive index. In general, the waveguide loss in the groove A61 and optical waveguide region R62 is negligibly small when their propagation distances in them are short. However, as the propagation distances in the groove A61 and optical waveguide region R62 increase, the waveguide loss becomes nonnegligible. For this reason, the sectional structure of FIG. 11 taken along the line XII-XII of FIG. 10 can be replaced by the sectional structure of FIG. 12. FIG. 12 is a cross-sectional view showing, along the waveguide direction, a schematic configuration of a coupling section of the integrated optical waveguide of an eighth example in accordance with the present invention. The eighth example is configured to have core layers in the groove A61 and optical waveguide region R62 of FIG. 11. In FIG. 12, on the semiconductor substrate 801, an optical waveguide region R71, a groove A71, a semiconductor board B71 and an optical waveguide region R72 are formed successively along the waveguide direction. More specifically, core layers 802a and 802b are stacked on the semiconductor substrate 801, and upper cladding layers 803a and 803b are stacked on the core layers 802a and 802b, respectively. As the semiconductor substrate 801 and upper cladding layers 803a and 803b, InP can be used and as the core layers 802a and 802b, GaInAsP with the light-emitting wavelength of 1.3 μm can be used for example. Then, the groove 804a is formed perpendicularly to the waveguide direction by etching the semiconductor substrate 801 on which the core layers 802a and 802b and the upper cladding layers 803a and 803b have been stacked successively. Also, the notch 804b separated from the groove 804a by a predetermined spacing is formed on the semiconductor substrate 801. Then, the groove 804a is filled with a core layer 806a sandwiched by cladding layers 805a and 807a, and the notch 804b is filled with a core layer 806b sandwiched by cladding layers 805b and 807b. Thus, the groove A71 disposed at the interface with the optical waveguide region R71 can be formed, and the optical waveguide region R72 separated from the groove A71 by the semiconductor board B71 can be formed. As the material of the core layers 806a and 806b, BCB can be used and as the material of the cladding layers 805a, 807a, 805b and 807b, polyimide whose refractive index is lower than that of the core layers 806a and 806b can be used for example. This makes it possible to reduce the waveguide loss in the groove A71 and optical waveguide region R72, while enabling reduction of the reflection from the boundary between the optical waveguide region R71 and the optical waveguide region R72. To suppress the waveguide loss in the lateral direction of the optical waveguide region R61 of FIG. 10, the sectional structure taken along the line XIII-XIII of FIG. 10 can be replaced by the sectional structure of FIG. 13. FIG. 13 is a cross-sectional view showing, along the direction orthogonal to the waveguide direction, a schematic configuration of the integrated optical waveguide of a ninth example in accordance with the present invention. In FIG. 13, on a semiconductor substrate 901, a core layer 902 and an upper cladding layer 903 are stacked successively. Then the upper cladding layer 903, the core layer 902 and the top portion of the semiconductor substrate 901 are etched in stripes along the waveguide direction so that burying layers 904a and 904b are formed on both sides of the upper cladding layer 903, the core layer 902 and the top portion of the semiconductor substrate 901. As the semiconductor substrate 901, upper cladding layer 903 and burying layers 904a and 904b, InP can be used and as the core layer 902, GaInAsP with the light-emitting wavelength of 1.3 μm can be used for example. This makes it possible to reduce the waveguide loss in the optical waveguide region R61, while enabling reduction of the reflection from the boundary between the optical waveguide region R61 and the optical waveguide region R62. To suppress the waveguide loss in the lateral direction of the optical waveguide region R61 of FIG. 10, the sectional structure taken along the line XIV-XIV of FIG. 10 can be replaced by the sectional structure of FIG. 14. FIG. 14 is a cross-sectional view showing, along the direction orthogonal to the waveguide direction, a schematic configuration of the integrated optical waveguide of a 10th example in accordance with the present invention. In FIG. 14, on a semiconductor substrate 1001, a core layer 1002 surrounded by a cladding layer 1003 is formed. As the semiconductor substrate 1001, InP can be used, as the material of the core layer 1002, BCB can be used and as the material of the cladding layer 1003, polyimide whose refractive index is lower than that of the core layer 1002 can be used for example. This makes it possible to reduce the waveguide loss in the optical waveguide region R62, while enabling reduction of the reflection from the boundary between the optical waveguide region R61 and the optical waveguide region R62. As for the shape of the core layers 702a and 702b of FIG. 11, it is not intended to limit. For example, it is possible to employ a separate confinement heterostructure (SCH) in which the core layers are sandwiched with materials having a refractive index between the refractive index at the center of the core layer and the refractive index of the cladding layer, or a graded index (GI-) SCH that has its refractive index varyed stepwise. To apply the present structure to a semiconductor laser, an active region can be used as the core, and its structure can be any of the bulk, MQW (multiple quantum well), quantum wire and quantum dot structures. As for the waveguide structure of the active region, any of the pn buried, ridge structure, semi-insulating buried structure and high-mesa structure can be used. As for the materials, they are not limited to the combination of the InP and GaInAsP, but any suitable materials such as GaAs, AlGaAs, InGaAs and GaInNAs are applicable. In addition, as for the lateral confinement of FIG. 13, it is not intended to limit. For example, it is possible to employ a commonly used ridge waveguide or high-mesa waveguide as the semiconductor waveguide structure. Furthermore, as for the optical waveguide region R62 of FIG. 14, it is not intended to limit. For example, it is possible to employ a ridge waveguide or high-mesa waveguide as the optical waveguide region R62. The operation principle of the example of FIG. 11 will be described below. In FIG. 11, assume that the equivalent refractive index of the optical waveguide region R61 and semiconductor board B61 is 3.12, and the equivalent refractive index of the optical waveguide region R62 and groove A61 is 1.54. According to the expression (3), reflection of about 12% occurs at each interface between the individual regions. The overall reflectance on the interfaces between the individual regions is not a simple summation, but is required to take the phases of the reflected waves into consideration. With equal intensities, if the phases are opposite, the light waves cancel each other out. Accordingly, the overall reflectance on the interfaces can be reduced by optimizing the phases of the reflected waves on the interfaces between the individual regions by adjusting the width of the groove A61 and the thickness of the semiconductor board B61. FIG. 15 is a chart illustrating the reflectance at the coupling section of the integrated optical waveguide of FIG. 11 in terms of the relationships between the width d1 of the groove A61 and the thickness d2 of the semiconductor board B61. In FIG. 15, with the equivalent refractive index N1 of the optical waveguide region R61 and semiconductor board B61 being 3.12, and the equivalent refractive index N2 of the optical waveguide region R62 and groove A61 being 1.54, the reflectance is represented in contour with respect to the width d1 of the groove A61 and the thickness d2 of the semiconductor board B61. To make more general description, optical lengths are shown on the axes opposite to the respective axes. In FIG. 15, bold solid lines represent the reflectance (about 12%) in the case where the optical waveguide region R61 is directly spliced to the optical waveguide region R62 without forming the groove A61 and semiconductor board B61. More specifically, the bold solid lines consist of lines when the optical length of the groove A61 or that of the semiconductor board B6 is λ/2, where λ is the incident wavelength, and curves close to lines N1d1+N2d2=λ/4×(2l+1) represented by the dotted lines, where l is an integer. In near-triangular regions encompassed by the bold solid lines, the reflectance becomes smaller than in the case where the two waveguides are simply spliced. The triangular regions can be represented by ranges approximated by the following expressions. N1d1>λ/2n, N2d2>λ/2m, N1d1+N2d2<λ/4(2l+1) (6) where l, m and n are integers satisfying the relation n+m=l, or N1d1<λ/2n, N2d2<λ/2m, N1d1+N2d2>λ/4(2l+1) (7) where l, m and n are integers satisfying the relation n+m=l−1. Here, as indicated by the triangle closest to the origin, in the region c obtained by shifting the sides of the triangle toward the center of the triangle by λ/64, the reflectance can be made equal to or less than 10% (about 80% with respect to the simple splice of the two waveguides). Likewise, in the region b shifted by λ/32, the reflectance can be made equal to or less than 5% (about 40% with respect to the simple splice of the two waveguides), and in the region a shifted by λ/16, the reflectance can be made equal to or less than 1% (about 8% with respect to the simple splice of the two waveguides). The region d is an area in which the reflectance becomes lower than the reflectance of the simple splice of the two waveguides. More specifically, assume that the sides of the triangle are reduced by an amount δ×, then its sides are represented by the following expressions. N1d1>nλ/2±δx, N2d2>mλ/2±δx, N1d1+N2d2=λ/4×(2l+1)±δx, The expressions are applicable for other triangular regions. To achieve nonreflection, it is necessary to satisfy the following expressions. N1d1+N2d2=±λ/(2π)[ cos−1 {±(N12+N22)/(N1+N2)2}+2mπ] (8) N1d1−N2d2=λ/2n (9) where m and n are integers. This corresponds to nearly the center of each triangular region. Although the foregoing description is made by way of example in which the material filling the groove A61 is the same as the material of the optical waveguide region R62, the materials can differ from each other. In addition, it is not necessary for the optical waveguide region R61 and semiconductor board B61 to have the same layer structure. FIG. 16 is a cross-sectional view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of a 10th example in accordance with the present invention. The 10th example has the structures of FIG. 12 disposed opposingly each other. In FIG. 16, on a semiconductor substrate 1101, an optical waveguide region R111, a groove A111, a semiconductor board B111, an optical waveguide region R112, a semiconductor board B112, a groove A112 and an optical waveguide region R113 are successively formed in the waveguide direction. The refractive index of the optical waveguide regions R111 and R113 may differ from the refractive index of the optical waveguide region R112. For example, the optical waveguide regions R111 and R113 may be built from semiconductor materials and the optical waveguide region R112 may be built from materials other than the semiconductors. In addition, the grooves A111 and A112 can be filled with a material other than the semiconductors such as the material identical to that of the optical waveguide region R112, for example. Semiconductor boards B111 and B112 may have the same structure as the optical waveguide regions R111 and R113. The grooves A111 and A112 and semiconductor boards B111 and B112 are placed in such a manner that they traverse the waveguide direction, and are preferably disposed perpendicularly to the waveguide direction. As for the width of the groove A111 and the thickness of the semiconductor board B111, they can be set such that the light reflected off the interface between the optical waveguide region R111 and the groove A111 is weakened by the light reflected from the interface between the groove A111 and the semiconductor board B111 and the light reflected from the interface between the semiconductor board B111 and the optical waveguide region R112. As for the width of the groove A112 and the thickness of the semiconductor board B112, they can be set such that the light reflected off the interface between the optical waveguide region R112 and the semiconductor board B112 is weakened by the light reflected from the interface between the semiconductor board B112 and the groove A112 and the light reflected from the interface between the groove A112 and the optical waveguide region R113. More specifically, on the semiconductor substrate 1101, core layers 1101a-1101d are stacked, and on the core layers 1101a-1101d, upper cladding layers 1103a-1103d are stacked, respectively. As the semiconductor substrate 1101 and upper cladding layers 1103a-1103d, InP can be used and as the core layers 1101a-1101d, GaInAsP with the light-emitting wavelength of 1.3 μm can be used for example. Then, by etching the semiconductor substrate 1101 on which the core layers 1101a-1101d and upper cladding layers 1103a-1103d have been stacked successively, grooves 1104a and 1104c disposed perpendicularly to the waveguide direction are formed, and a concave section 1104b separated from the grooves 1104a and 1104c by a predetermined spacing, is formed on the semiconductor substrate 1101. Grooves A111 and A112 disposed at the interfaces with the optical waveguide regions R111 and R113 can be formed by burying a core layer 1106a sandwiched by cladding layers 1105a and 1107a in the groove 1104a, and by burying a core layer 1106c sandwiched by cladding layers 1105c and 1107c in the groove 1104c. The optical waveguide region R112 disposed across the grooves A111 and A112 via the semiconductor boards B111 and B112 can be formed by burying a core layer 1106b sandwiched by cladding layers 1105b and 1107b in the concave section 1104b. As the material of the core layers 1106a-1106c, BCB can be used and as the material of the cladding layers 1105a-1105c and 1107a-1107c, polyimide whose refractive index is lower than that of the core layers 1106a-1106c can be used for example. This makes it possible to integrate the optical waveguide composed of the material whose refractive index differs from the semiconductor into an intermediate location of the semiconductor optical waveguide, while enabling reduction of the reflection between the optical waveguides in the case where the semiconductor optical waveguide and the non-semiconductor optical waveguide are integrated on the same semiconductor substrate 1101. This enables the implementation of an optical waveguide with new characteristics that cannot be achieved by semiconductor-only configuration while maintaining the flexibility of the waveguide design. The example of FIG. 16 has the structures of FIG. 12 disposed opposingly. Accordingly, as for the materials and structure of the waveguides, core layers and cladding layers of the example of FIG. 16, it is not intended to limit, and materials and structures other than those described herein can also be used. In addition, although only a pair of structures of FIG. 12 is disposed face to face in the example of FIG. 16, three or more structures of FIG. 12 can be connected in cascade. Using the structures of FIG. 12 enables the suppression of the reflectance between the individual optical waveguides, thereby suppressing the reflectance throughout the integrated optical waveguide. Considering the optical length of the foregoing integrated optical waveguide, the optical length of the optical waveguide increases with an increase of the ambient temperature because the refractive index of the semiconductors increases with the temperature, that is, the refractive index has a positive temperature differential coefficient. Thus, the optical waveguide region R62 of FIG. 11 and the optical waveguide region R112 of FIG. 16 can be configured by using a material having a negative refractive index temperature differential coefficient, for example. This makes it possible to suppress the temperature changes of the overall optical length of the optical waveguides, even if the optical lengths of the individual optical waveguides vary because of the temperature changes. As a material with the negative refractive index temperature differential coefficient, PMMA can be used, for example. FIG. 17 is a cross-sectional view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of an 11th example in accordance with the present invention. The 11th example has semiconductor lasers integrated into the structure of FIG. 16. In FIG. 17, on a semiconductor substrate 1201, an optical waveguide region R121, a groove A121, a semiconductor board B121, an optical waveguide region R122, a semiconductor board B122, a groove A122 and an optical waveguide region R123 are formed successively in the waveguide direction. In addition, a laser diode is formed on the optical waveguide region R121 and on the optical waveguide region R123. The refractive index of the optical waveguide regions R121 and R123 may differ from the refractive index of the optical waveguide region R122. For example, the optical waveguide regions R121 and R123 may be built from semiconductor materials and the optical waveguide region R122 may be built from materials other than the semiconductors. In addition, the grooves A121 and A122 can be filled with a material other than the semiconductors such as the material identical to that of the optical waveguide region R122, for example. The semiconductor boards B121 and B122 may have the same structure as the optical waveguide regions R121 and R123. In addition, the grooves A121 and A122 and semiconductor boards B121 and B122 are placed in such a manner that they traverse the waveguide direction, and are preferably disposed perpendicularly to the waveguide direction. As for the width of the groove A121 and the thickness of the semiconductor board B121, they can be set such that the light reflected off the interface between the optical waveguide region R121 and the groove A121 is weakened by the light reflected from the interface between the groove A121 and the semiconductor board B121 and the light reflected from the interface between the semiconductor board B121 and the optical waveguide region R122. As for the width of the groove A122 and the thickness of the semiconductor board B122, they can be set such that the light reflected off the interface between the optical waveguide region R122 and the semiconductor board B122 is weakened by the light reflected from the interface between the semiconductor board B122 and the groove A122 and the light reflected from the interface between the groove A122 and the optical waveguide region R123. More specifically, on the semiconductor substrate 1201, active layers 1202a and 1202d and core layers 1201b-1201c are stacked, and on the active layers 1201b-1201c and core layers 1202b and 1202c, upper cladding layers 1203a, 1203d, 1203b and 1203c are stacked, respectively. As the semiconductor substrate 1201 and upper cladding layers 1203a-1203d, InP can be used and as the active layers 1202a and 1202d and core layers 1202b and 1202c, GaInAsP with the light-emitting wavelength of 1.55 μm can be used for example. In addition, the semiconductor substrate 1201 can be made an n-type, and the upper cladding layers 1203a-1203d can be made a p-type, for example. Then, by etching the semiconductor substrate 1201 on which the active layers 1202a and 1202d and core layers 1202c and 1202c have been stacked, and then the upper cladding layers 1203a-1203d are stacked thereon, grooves 1204a and 1204c disposed perpendicularly to the waveguide direction are formed, and a concave section 1204b separated from the grooves 1204a and 1204c by a predetermined spacing, is formed on the semiconductor substrate 1201. Thus, the active layers 1202a and 1202d can be disposed corresponding to the optical waveguide regions R121 and R123, and the core layers 1202b and 1202c can be disposed corresponding to the semiconductor boards B121 and B122. Then, the grooves A121 and A122 disposed at the interfaces with the optical waveguide regions R121 and R123 can be formed by burying a core layer 1206a sandwiched by cladding layers 1205a and 1207a into a groove 1204a, and by burying a core layer 1206c sandwiched by cladding layers 1205c and 1207c into a groove 1204c. In addition, the optical waveguide region R122 disposed across the grooves A121 and A122 via the semiconductor boards B121 and B122 can be formed by burying a core layer 1206b sandwiched by cladding layers 1205b and 1207b into a concave section 1204b. Furthermore, a laser diode can be built in the optical waveguide region R121 and optical waveguide region R123 by forming electrodes 1208a and 1208b on the upper cladding layers 1203a and 1203d, and by forming an electrode 1208c on the back surface of the semiconductor substrate 1201. As the material of the core layers 1206a-1206c, BCB can be used and as the material of the cladding layers 1205a-1205c and 1207a-1207c, polyimide whose refractive index is lower than that of the core layers 1206a-1206c can be used for example. In addition, the optical waveguide region R122 can be formed using a material with a negative refractive index temperature differential coefficient such as PMMA. This makes it possible to keep the cavity length constant regardless of the temperature, and suppress the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser. Also, the optical waveguide regions R121 and R123 may have a diffraction grating to provide the wavelength selectivity, and it is also possible to fabricate a distributed feedback (DFB) semiconductor laser or distributed reflector (DBR). As for the structure of the active layers 1202a and 1202d and core layers 1202b and 1202c, it is possible to employ a separate confinement heterostructure (SCH) that sandwiches them with materials having a refractive index between the refractive index at the center of the active layers or core layers and the refractive index of the cladding layers, or a graded index (GI-) SCH that has its refractive index varyed stepwise. As for the shapes of the active layers 1202a and 1202d, any of the bulk, MQW (multiple quantum well), quantum wire and quantum dot structures can be use, and as for the waveguide structure of the active regions, any of the pn buried, ridge structure, semi-insulating buried structure and high-mesa structure can be used. As for the materials, they are not limited to the combination of the InP and GaInAsP, but any suitable materials such as GaAs, AlGaAs, InGaAs and GaInNAs are applicable. FIG. 18 is a perspective view showing a schematic configuration of a coupling section of an integrated optical waveguide of a 12th example in accordance with the present invention. The 12th example increases the wavelength range, in which the reflection on the boundary between an optical waveguide region R131 and an optical waveguide region R132 can be reduced, by providing two pairs of grooves A131 and A132 and semiconductor boards B131 and B132. In FIG. 18, on a semiconductor substrate 711, the optical waveguide region R131, the groove A131, the semiconductor board B131, the groove A132, the semiconductor board B132 and the optical waveguide region R132 are successively formed along the waveguide direction. Here, the refractive indices of the optical waveguide regions R131 and R132 may differ from each other. For example, the optical waveguide region R131 may be composed of semiconductor materials, and the optical waveguide region R132 may be composed of materials other than the semiconductors. The grooves A131 and A132 can be filled with a material other than the semiconductors such as the same material as that of the optical waveguide region R132. Also, the semiconductor boards B131 and B132 may be configured to have the same structure as the optical waveguide region R131. The grooves A131 and A132 and semiconductor boards B131 and B132 are placed in such a manner that they traverse the waveguide direction. Preferably, the grooves A131 and A132 and semiconductor boards B131 and B132 be placed perpendicularly to the waveguide direction. The widths of the grooves A131 and A132 and the thicknesses of the semiconductor boards B131 and B132 can be set in such a fashion that the light reflected off the interface between the optical waveguide region R131 and groove A131 is weakened by the light reflected from the interface between the groove A131 and the semiconductor board B131, by the light reflected from the interface between the semiconductor board B131 and the groove A132, by the light reflected from the interface between the groove A132 and the semiconductor board B132, and by the light reflected from the interface between the semiconductor board B132 and the optical waveguide region R132. This makes it possible to reduce the reflection between the optical waveguides even in the case where the semiconductor optical waveguide and the non-semiconductor optical waveguide are integrated on the same semiconductor substrate 711, thereby allowing an implemention of an optical waveguide with new characteristics that cannot be achieved by semiconductor-only configuration while maintaining the flexibility of the waveguide design. The grooves A131 and A132 and semiconductor boards B131 and B132 can be formed in the semiconductor substrate 711 by etching the semiconductor substrate 711 on which the optical waveguide region R131 have been formed. Thus, the reflection from the boundary between the optical waveguide region R131 and the optical waveguide region R132 can be reduced without forming the antireflection film at the interface between the optical waveguide region R131 and the optical waveguide region R132, thereby facilitating the integration of the optical waveguides. In addition, adjusting the widths of the grooves A131 and A132 and the thicknesses of the semiconductor boards B131 and B132 enables an increase of the wavelength range in which the reflection from the boundary between the optical waveguide region R131 and optical waveguide region R132 can be reduced. This makes it possible to implement an optical waveguide with new characteristics that cannot be achieved by semiconductor-only, while enabling application to a wavelength division multiplexing optical network or the like. FIG. 19 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line XIX, XX-XIX, XX in the waveguide direction of FIG. 18. In FIG. 19, core layers 712a-712c are stacked on the semiconductor substrate 711, and upper cladding layers 713a-713c are stacked on the core layers 712a-712c, respectively. As the semiconductor substrate 711 and upper cladding layers 713a-713c, InP can be used and as the core layers 712a-712c, GaInAsP with the light-emitting wavelength of 1.3 μm can be used for example. Then, by etching the semiconductor substrate 711, on which the core layers 712a-712c and upper cladding layers 713a-713c have been stacked, formed on the semiconductor substrate 711 are a groove 714a with the width d1 which is disposed perpendicularly to the waveguide direction, as well as a groove 714b with a width d3 which is disposed separately from the groove 714a by a predetermined spacing d2, and a notch 714b disposed apart from the groove 714b by a predetermined spacing d4. Then, by filling the grooves 714a and 714b with filler materials 715a and 715b, respectively, it makes possible to form the groove A131 at the interface with the optical waveguide region R131, as well as the groove A132 separated from the groove A131 by the semiconductor board B131 with the thickness d2. In addition, by filling the notch 714c with an optical waveguide material 715c, it makes possible to form the optical waveguide region R132 separated from the groove A132 via a semiconductor board B132 with a thickness d4. As the filler materials 715a and 715b and the optical waveguide material 715c, a material such as BCB can be used, which has the refractive index different from that of the semiconductors. In this case, the optical waveguide region R131 and semiconductor boards B131 and B132 can each have an equivalent refractive index of 3.12, and the optical waveguide region R132 and grooves A131 and A132 can each have an equivalent refractive index of 1.54. Thus the present example can integrate the optical waveguide region R131 and optical waveguide region R132 whose refractive indices differ from each other on the same semiconductor substrate 711 while enabling reduction of the reflection from the boundary between the optical waveguide region R131 and optical waveguide region R132 in a wide wavelength range, thereby allowing an implementation of the optical waveguide with new characteristics which cannot be achieved by semiconductor-only configuration. The waveguide loss in the grooves A131 and A132 and optical waveguide region R132 is negligibly small when their propagation distances in them are short. However, as the propagation distances in the grooves A131 and A132 and optical waveguide region R132 increase, the waveguide loss becomes nonnegligible. For this reason, the sectional structure of FIG. 19 taken along the line XX-XX of FIG. 18 can be replaced by the sectional structure of FIG. 20. FIG. 20 is a cross-sectional view showing, along the waveguide direction, a schematic configuration of a coupling section of the integrated optical waveguide of a 13th example in accordance with the present invention. The 13th example is configured to comprise core layers in the grooves A131 and A132 and optical waveguide region R132 of FIG. 19. In FIG. 20, on the semiconductor substrate 811, an optical waveguide region R141, a groove A141, a semiconductor board B141, a groove A142, a semiconductor board B142 and an optical waveguide region R142 are formed successively along the waveguide direction. More specifically, core layers 812a-812c are stacked on the semiconductor substrate 811, and upper cladding layers 813a-813c are stacked on the core layers 812a-812c, respectively. Here, as the semiconductor substrate 811 and upper cladding layers 813a-813c, InP can be used and as the core layers 812a-812c, GaInAsP with the light-emitting wavelength of 1.3 μm can be used for example. Then, by etching the semiconductor substrate 811 on which the core layers 812a-812c and upper cladding layers 813a-813c have been stacked successively, formed on the semiconductor substrate 811 are a groove 814a perpendicularly to the waveguide direction, as well as a groove 814b separated from the groove 814a by a predetermined spacing, and a notch 814c separated from the groove 814b by a predetermined spacing. This enables to form the groove A141 disposed at the interface with the optical waveguide region R141, and the groove A142 separated from the groove A141 via the semiconductor board B141 by burying a core layer 816a sandwiched by cladding layers 815a and 817a in the groove 814a, and by burying a core layer 816b sandwiched by cladding layers 815b and 817b in the groove 814b. In addition, the optical waveguide region R142 separated from the groove A142 via the semiconductor board B142 can be formed by burying a core layer 816c sandwiched by cladding layers 815c and 817c into the notch 814c. Here, as the material of the core layers 816a-816c, BCB can be used and as the material of the cladding layers 815a-815c and 817a-817c, polyimide whose refractive index is lower than that of the core layers 816a-816c can be used for example. This makes it possible to reduce the waveguide loss in the grooves A141 and A142 and optical waveguide region R142, while enabling reduction of the reflection from the boundary between the optical waveguide region R141 and optical waveguide region R142. To suppress the waveguide loss in the lateral direction of the optical waveguide region R131 of FIG. 19, the sectional structure taken along the line XIII-XIII of FIG. 18 can be replaced by the sectional structure of FIG. 13. In addition, to suppress the waveguide loss in the lateral direction of the optical waveguide region R132 of FIG. 18, the sectional structure taken along the line XIV-XIV of FIG. 18 can be replaced by the sectional structure of FIG. 14. As for the shape of the core layers 712a and 712b of FIG. 19, it is not intended to limit. For example, it is possible to employ a separate confinement heterostructure (SCH) in which the core layers are sandwiched with materials having a refractive index between the refractive index at the center of the core layer and the refractive index of the cladding layer, or a graded index (GI-) SCH that has its refractive index varyed stepwise. To apply the present structure to a semiconductor laser, an active region can be used as the core, and its structure can be any of the bulk, MQW (multiple quantum well), quantum wire and quantum dot structures. As for the waveguide structure of the active region, any of the pn buried, ridge structure, semi-insulating buried structure and high-mesa structure can be used. As for the materials, they are not limited to the combination of the InP and GaInAsP, but any suitable materials such as GaAs, AlGaAs, InGaAs and GaInNAs are applicable. In FIG. 19, assume that the equivalent refractive index N1 of the optical waveguide region R131 and semiconductor boards B131 and B132 is 3.12, and the equivalent refractive index N2 of the optical waveguide region R132 and grooves A131 and A132 is 1.54. In this case, as for the optical waveguide composed of the optical waveguide region R131, groove A131, semiconductor board B131 and groove A132, the reflectance with respect to the width d1 of the groove A131 and the thickness d2 of the semiconductor board B131 are the same as in FIG. 15. Accordingly, to reduce the reflectance of the optical waveguide composed of the optical waveguide region R131, groove A131, semiconductor board B131 and groove A132, the width d1 of the groove A131 and the thickness d2 of the semiconductor board B131 can be set in such a manner that they satisfy the relationship of expression (6) or (7). In addition, to achieve zero reflectance of the optical waveguide composed of the optical waveguide region R131, groove A131, semiconductor board B131 and groove A132, the width d1 of the groove A131 and the thickness d2 of the semiconductor board B131 can be set in such a manner that they satisfy the relationship of expression (8) or (9). Consider the case where the reflection at a particular wavelength λ is made zero through the entire optical waveguide of FIG. 19. In this case, assume that the entire configuration of FIG. 19 is divided by the groove A132, and hence suppose the optical waveguide composed of the optical waveguide region R131, groove A131, semiconductor board B131 and groove A132, and the optical waveguide composed of the groove A132, semiconductor board B132 and optical waveguide region R132, then the reflectance must be made zero in both of these optical waveguides. Thus, it is necessary not only for the reflectance of the optical waveguide composed of the optical waveguide region R131, groove A131, semiconductor board B131 and groove A132 to be made zero, but also for the reflectance of the optical waveguide composed of the groove A132, semiconductor board B132 and optical waveguide region R132 to be made zero. Here, the condition for making the reflectance zero of the optical waveguide composed of the groove A132, semiconductor board B132 and optical waveguide region R132 is given by the following expression (10). N2d4=λ/2n (10) where n is an integer. FIG. 21 is a diagram illustrating relationships between the reflectance of the optical waveguide, which is composed of the groove A132, semiconductor board B132 and optical waveguide region R132 of FIG. 19, and the thickness d4 of the semiconductor board B132. The incident wavelength is set at 1.55 μm. In shaded regions of FIG. 21, the reflectance of the optical waveguide composed of the groove A132, semiconductor board B132 and optical waveguide region R132 is smaller than that of the mere splice of two waveguides (about 12%). The condition of making the reflectance of the optical waveguide composed of the groove A132, semiconductor board B132 and optical waveguide region R132 smaller than that of the mere splice of two waveguides is given by the following expression (11). λ/2n−λ/16<N2d4<λ/2n+λ/16 (11) where n is an integer. Here, the whole optical waveguide of FIG. 19 has a left side optical waveguide and a right side optical waveguide connected with each other. The former is composed of the optical waveguide region R131, groove A131, semiconductor board B131 and groove A132, and the latter is composed of the groove A132, semiconductor board B132 and optical waveguide region R132. Since the rear end of the left side optical waveguide has the same refractive index as the front end of the right side optical waveguide, no reflection occurs in that portion. Accordingly, considering the whole optical waveguide before the division, the reflection can be made zero at the coupling section between the optical waveguide region R131 and optical waveguide region R132 when the incident wavelength is λ, which holds true independently of the width d3 of the groove A132. FIG. 22 is a chart illustrating relationships between the width d3 of the groove A132 of FIG. 18 and the reflectance for the incident wavelength. In FIG. 22, it is determined such that d1=1.08 μm, d2=1.00 μm and d4=0.966 μm to satisfy the condition of making the reflectance zero when N1=1.54, N2=3.21 and incident wavelength λ=1.55 μm. To make more general description, optical length is also shown. In FIG. 22, the region d is an area in which the reflectance is smaller than the reflectance (about 12%) of the simple splice between the optical waveguide region R131 and the optical waveguide region R132; the region c is an area in which the reflectance is equal to or less than 10%; the region b is an area in which the reflectance is equal to or less than 5%; and the region a is an area in which the reflectance is equal to or less than 1%. Thus, the regions that provide low reflectance can be changed by varying the width d3 of the groove A132. For example, to increase the wavelength width of the region d, the following can be met. λ/2(n+¼)<N1d3<λ/2(n+1) where n is an integer. Likewise, to increase the wavelength width of the region a, the following can be met. λ/2(m+⅜)<N1d3<λ/2(m+¾) where m is an integer. Although the foregoing description is made by way of example in which the material filling the grooves A131 and A132 is the same as the material of the optical waveguide region R132, the materials can differ from each other. Also, it is not necessary for the optical waveguide region R131 and the semiconductor boards B131 and B132 to have the same layer structure. FIG. 23 is a cross-sectional view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of a 14th example in accordance with the present invention. The 14th example is configured to dispose grooves A151-A154 and semiconductor boards B151-B154 alternately to sharpen the wavelength band that achieves low reflection. In FIG. 23, on a semiconductor substrate 911, an optical waveguide region R151 and an optical waveguide region R152 are formed along the waveguide direction, and grooves A151-A154 and semiconductor boards B151-B154 are disposed alternately across the optical waveguide region R151 and optical waveguide region R152 along the waveguide direction. The refractive indices of the optical waveguide region R151 and optical waveguide region R152 can be made different from each other. For example, the optical waveguide region R151 may be composed of semiconductor materials, and the optical waveguide region R152 may be composed of materials other than the semiconductors. The grooves A151-A154 can be filled with materials other than the semiconductors such as the materials of the optical waveguide region R152. The semiconductor boards B151-B154 can have the same structure as the optical waveguide region R151. The grooves A151-A154 and semiconductor boards B151-B154 are disposed in such a manner that they traverse the waveguide direction, and preferably the grooves A151-A154 and semiconductor boards B151-B154 are disposed perpendicularly to the waveguide direction. The width of the groove A151 and the thickness of the semiconductor board B151 can be set in such a manner that the reflectance is weakened in the optical waveguide composed of the optical waveguide region R14, groove A151, semiconductor board B151 and groove A152. The width of the groove A152 and the thickness of the semiconductor board B152 can be set in such a manner that the optical waveguide composed of the groove A152, semiconductor board B152 and groove A153 satisfies the non-reflectance conditions. In addition, the width of the grooves A153 and A154 and the thickness of the semiconductor boards B153 and B154 can be set equal to the width of the groove A152 and the thickness of the semiconductor board B152, respectively. The structure having the grooves A151-A154 and semiconductor boards B151-B154 disposed alternately can maintain the reflectance at the incident wavelength λ at a constant value by setting the width of the groove A152 and the thickness of the semiconductor board B152 such that the optical waveguide composed of the groove A152, semiconductor board B152 and groove A153 satisfy the conditions of non-reflectance, and by setting the width of the grooves A153 and A154 and the thickness of the semiconductor boards B153 and B154 such that they become equal to the width of the groove A152 and the thickness of the semiconductor board B152, respectively. More specifically, on the semiconductor substrate 911, core layers 912a-912e are stacked, and on the core layers 912a-912e, upper cladding layers 913a-913e are stacked, respectively. As the semiconductor substrate 911 and upper cladding layers 913a-913e, InP can be used and as the core layers 912a-912e, GaInAsP with the light-emitting wavelength of 1.3 μm can be used for example. Then, by etching the semiconductor substrate 911 on which the core layers 912a-912e and upper cladding layers 913a-913e have been stacked successively, grooves 914a-914d disposed perpendicularly to the waveguide direction are formed, and a notch 914e separated from the groove 914d by a predetermined spacing is formed on the semiconductor substrate 911. Then, by filling the grooves 914a-914d with filler materials 915a-915d, and by filling the notch 914e with an optical waveguide material 915e, the grooves A151-A154 and semiconductor boards B151-B154 disposed along the waveguide direction can be formed between the optical waveguide region R151 and the optical waveguide region R152, and on the semiconductor substrate 911, the optical waveguide region R152 separated from the groove A154 via the semiconductor board B154 can also be formed. Thus, by etching the semiconductor substrate 911 to form the grooves 914a-914d, the wavelength band that achieves low reflection can be sharpened. As a result, even when the semiconductor optical waveguide and the non-semiconductor optical waveguide are integrated on the same semiconductor substrate 911, the reflection of a certain wavelength between these optical waveguides can be reduced effectively. Although the foregoing description is made by way of example that alternates the grooves A151-A154 and semiconductor boards B151-B154 four times, the grooves and semiconductor boards can be alternated three times, or five times or more. FIG. 24 is a cross-sectional view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of a 15th example in accordance with the present invention. The 15th example has the structures of FIG. 19 disposed opposingly. In FIG. 24, on a semiconductor substrate 1011, an optical waveguide region R161, a groove A161, a semiconductor board B161, a groove A162, a semiconductor board B162, an optical waveguide region R162, a semiconductor board B163, a groove A163, a semiconductor board B164, a groove A164 and an optical waveguide region R163 are formed successively along the waveguide direction. Here, the refractive index of the optical waveguide regions R161 and R163 may differ from the refractive index of the optical waveguide region R162. For example, the optical waveguide regions R161 and R163 may be built from semiconductor materials and the optical waveguide region R162 may be built from materials other than the semiconductors. In addition, the grooves A161-A164 can be filled with a material other than the semiconductors such as the material identical to that of the optical waveguide region R162. The semiconductor boards B161-B164 may have the same structure as the optical waveguide regions R161 and R163. The grooves A161-A164 and semiconductor boards B161-B164 are placed in such a manner that they traverse the waveguide direction, and are preferably disposed perpendicularly to the waveguide direction. As for the width of the groove A161 and the thickness of the semiconductor board B161, they can be set such that the light reflected off the interface between the optical waveguide region R161 and the groove A161 is weakened by the light reflected from the interface between the groove A161 and the semiconductor board B161, by the light reflected from the interface between the semiconductor board B161 and the groove A162, by the light reflected from the interface between the groove A162 and the semiconductor board B162, and by the light reflected from the interface between the semiconductor board B162 and the optical waveguide region R162. As for the width of the groove A164 and the thickness of the semiconductor board B164, they can be set such that the light reflected off the interface between the optical waveguide region R163 and the groove A164 is weakened by the light reflected from the interface between the groove A164 and the semiconductor board B164, by the light reflected from the interface between the semiconductor board B164 and the groove A163, by the light reflected from the interface between the groove A163 and the semiconductor board B163, and by the light reflected from the interface between the semiconductor board B163 and the optical waveguide region R162. More specifically, on the semiconductor substrate 1011, core layers 1012a-1012f are stacked, and on the core layers 1012a-1012f, upper cladding layers 1013a-1013f are stacked, respectively. As the semiconductor substrate 1011 and upper cladding layers 1013a-1013f, InP can be used and as the core layers 1012a-1012f, GaInAsP with the light-emitting wavelength of 1.3 μm can be used for example. Then, by etching the semiconductor substrate 1011 on which the core layers 1012a-1012f and upper cladding layers 1013a-1013f have been stacked successively, grooves 1014a, 1014b, 1014d and 1014e disposed perpendicularly to the waveguide direction are formed, and a concave section 1014c, which is separated from the grooves 1014b and 1014d by a predetermined spacing, is formed on the semiconductor substrate 1011. Then, grooves A161 and A162 disposed between the optical waveguide regions R161 and R162 can be formed by burying a core layer 1016a sandwiched by cladding layers 1015a and 1017a in the groove 1014a, and by burying a core layer 1016b sandwiched by cladding layers 1015b and 1017b in the groove 1014b. Likewise, grooves A163 and A164 disposed between the optical waveguide regions R162 and R163 can be formed by burying a core layer 1016d sandwiched by cladding layers 1015d and 1017d in the groove 1014d, and by burying a core layer 1016e sandwiched by cladding layers 1015e and 1017e in the groove 1014e. The optical waveguide region R162 can be formed which is separated from the grooves A162 and A164 via the semiconductor boards B162 and B164 by burying a core layer 1016c sandwiched by cladding layers 1015c and 1017c in the concave section 1014c. As the material of the core layers 1016a-1016e, BCB can be used and as the material of the cladding layers 1015a-1015e and 1017a-1017e, polyimide whose refractive index is lower than that of the core layers 1016a-1016e can be used for example. The example of FIG. 24 has the structures of FIG. 20 disposed opposingly. Accordingly, as for the materials and structure of the waveguides, core layers and cladding layers of the example of FIG. 24, it is not intended to limit, but materials and structure other than those described herein can also be used. Although only a pair of structures of FIG. 20 is disposed face to face in the example of FIG. 24, three or more structures of FIG. 20 can be connected in cascade. Here, using the structures of FIG. 20 enables the suppression of the reflectance between the individual optical waveguides, thereby suppressing the reflectance throughout the integrated optical waveguide. Considering the optical length of the foregoing integrated optical waveguide, the refractive indices of the semiconductors increase with the temperature, that is, the refractive indices have a positive temperature differential coefficient. Accordingly, the optical length of the optical waveguide increases with an increase of the ambient temperature. Thus, the optical waveguide region R132 of FIG. 19 and the optical waveguide region R162 of FIG. 24 can be configured by using a material having a negative refractive index temperature differential coefficient, for example. This makes it possible to suppress the temperature changes of the overall optical length of the optical waveguides, even if the optical lengths of the individual optical waveguides vary because of the temperature changes. As a material with the negative refractive index temperature differential coefficient, PMMA can be used, for example. FIG. 25 is a cross-sectional view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of a 16th example in accordance with the present invention. The 16th example includes semiconductor lasers integrated in the structure of FIG. 24. In FIG. 25, on a semiconductor substrate 1111, an optical waveguide region R171, a groove A171, a semiconductor board B171, a groove A172, a semiconductor board B172, an optical waveguide region R172, a semiconductor board B173, a groove A173, a semiconductor board B174, a groove A174 and an optical waveguide region R173 are formed successively along the waveguide direction. In addition, a laser diode is formed in the optical waveguide region R171 and optical waveguide region R173, each. The refractive index of the optical waveguide regions R171 and R173 may differ from the refractive index of the optical waveguide region R172. For example, the optical waveguide regions R171 and R173 may be built from semiconductor materials and the optical waveguide region R172 may be built from materials other than the semiconductors. Also, the grooves A171-A174 can be filled with a material other than the semiconductors such as the material identical to that of the optical waveguide region R172. The semiconductor boards B171-B174 may have the same structure as the optical waveguide regions R171 and R173. The grooves A171-A174 and semiconductor boards B171-B174 are placed in such a manner that they traverse the waveguide direction, and are preferably disposed perpendicularly to the waveguide direction. As for the width of the groove A171 and the thickness of the semiconductor board B171, they can be set such that the light reflected off the interface between the optical waveguide region R171 and the groove A171 is weakened by the light reflected from the interface between the groove A171 and the semiconductor board B171, by the light reflected from the interface between the semiconductor board B171 and the groove A172, by the light reflected from the interface between the groove A172 and the semiconductor board B172, and by the light reflected from the interface between the semiconductor board B172 and the optical waveguide region R172. As for the width of the groove A174 and the thickness of the semiconductor board B174, they can be set such that the light reflected off the interface between the optical waveguide region R173 and the groove A174 is weakened by the light reflected from the interface between the groove A174 and the semiconductor board B174, by the light reflected from the interface between the semiconductor board B174 and the groove A173, by the light reflected from the interface between the groove A173 and the semiconductor board B173, and by the light reflected from the interface between the semiconductor board B173 and the optical waveguide region R172. More specifically, on the semiconductor substrate 1111, active layers 1112a and 1112f and core layers 1112b-1112e are stacked. On the active layers 1112a and 1112f and core layers 1112b-1112e, upper cladding layers 1113a, 1113f and 1113b-1113e with a conductivity type different from that of the semiconductor substrate 1111 are stacked. As the semiconductor substrate 1111 and upper cladding layers 1113a-1113f, InP can be used and as the active layers 1112a and 1112f and core layers 1112b-1112e, GaInAsP with a light-emitting wavelength of 1.55 μm can be used for example. Also, the semiconductor substrate 1111 can be made of an n-type, and the upper cladding layers 1113a-113f can be made of a p-type, for example. The, by etching the semiconductor substrate 1111 on which the active layers 1112a and 1112f and core layers 1112c-1112e and then the upper cladding layers 1113a-1113f have been stacked, grooves 1114a, 1114b, 1114d and 1114e disposed perpendicularly to the waveguide direction are formed, and a concave section 1114c separated from the grooves 1114b and 1114d by a predetermined spacing is formed on the semiconductor substrate 1111. The active layers 1112a and 1112f can be disposed corresponding to the optical waveguide regions R171 and R173, and the core layers 1112b-1112e can be disposed corresponding to the semiconductor boards B171-B174. Then, the grooves A171 and A172 disposed between the optical waveguide regions R171 and R172 can be formed by burying a core layer 1116a sandwiched by cladding layers 1115a and 1117a in the groove 1114a, and by burying a core layer 1116b sandwiched by cladding layers 1115b and 1117b in the groove 1114b. Likewise, the grooves A173 and A174 disposed between the optical waveguide regions R172 and R173 can be formed by burying a core layer 1116d sandwiched by cladding layers 1115d and 1117d in the groove 1114d, and by burying a core layer 1116e sandwiched by cladding layers 1115e and 1117e in the groove 1114e. Also, the optical waveguide region R172 which is separated from the grooves A172 and A174 via the semiconductor boards B172 and B174 can be formed by burying the core layer 1116c sandwiched by the cladding layers 1115c and 1117c in the concave section 1114c. Furthermore, the laser diodes can be formed in the optical waveguide region R171 and optical waveguide region R173, respectively, by forming electrodes 1118a and 1118b on the upper cladding layers 1113a and 1113f, and an electrode 1118c on the back surface of the semiconductor substrate 1111. As the material of the core layers 1116a-1116e, BCB can be used and as the material of the cladding layers 1115a-1115e and 1117a-1117e, polyimide whose refractive index is lower than that of the core layers 1116a-116e can be used for example. Also, the optical waveguide region R172 can be formed using a material with a negative refractive index temperature differential coefficient such as PMMA. This makes it possible to keep the cavity length constant regardless of the temperature, and suppress the temperature dependence of the oscillation wavelength of the semiconductor laser. Moreover, the optical waveguide regions R171 and R173 can have a diffraction grating to provide the wavelength selectivity, and it is possible to fabricate a distributed feedback (DFB) semiconductor laser or distributed reflector (DBR). As for the structure of the active layers 1112a and 1112f and core layers 1112b-1112e, it is possible to employ a separate confinement heterostructure (SCH) that sandwiches them with materials having a refractive index between the refractive index at the center of the active layers or core layers and the refractive index of the cladding layers, or a graded index (GI-) SCH that has its refractive index varyed stepwise. As for the shapes of the active layers 1112a and 1112f, any of the bulk, MQW (multiple quantum well), quantum wire and quantum dot structures can be use, and as for the waveguide structure of the active regions, any of the pn buried, ridge structure, buried heterostructure and high-mesa structure can be used. As for the materials, they are not limited to the combination of the InP and GaInAsP, but any suitable materials such as GaAs, AlGaAs, InGaAs and GaInNAs are applicable. As described above, according to the second embodiment in accordance with the present invention, the reflection from the boundary between the first optical waveguide and second optical waveguide can be reduced without forming an antireflection film at the interface between the first optical waveguide and second optical waveguide. This makes it possible to easily implement, on the semiconductor substrate, an optical waveguide with new characteristics that cannot be achieved by only the semiconductors, while enabling the integration of the optical waveguide. (Optical Waveguide and Optical Device Using Brewster Angle) Next, an integrated optical waveguide of the third embodiment in accordance with the present invention will now be described with reference to the drawings. The third embodiment can provide an optical waveguide and optical device that can be integrated on a semiconductor substrate, while enabling the improvement in the flexibility of the design of the waveguide direction, and reducing the waveguide loss due to the reflection and refraction between the waveguides with different refractive indices. Some specific examples of the present embodiment will now be described. FIG. 26 is a cross-sectional plan view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of a 17th example in accordance with the present invention. In FIG. 26, on a semiconductor substrate 1200, a first waveguide 1201, a second waveguide region 1202 and a third waveguide 1203 are formed. The second waveguide region 1202 is disposed across the first waveguide 1201 and the third waveguide 1203. Here, the first waveguide 1201 and third waveguide 1203 may have the same refractive index, whereas the first waveguide 1201 and second waveguide region 1202 may have different refractive indices. For example, the first waveguide 1201 and third waveguide 1203 may be composed of the semiconductor materials, whereas the second waveguide region 1202 may be composed of materials other than the semiconductors. As the materials of the second waveguide region 1202, poly-fluoromethacrylate deuteride (d-PFMA) can be used, for example. An interface surface 1204 between the first waveguide 1201 and second waveguide region 1202 can be inclined with respect to the propagation direction of the first waveguide 1201. Likewise, an interface surface 1205 between the second waveguide region 1202 and third waveguide 1203 can be inclined with respect to an extension line of the refraction direction through the interface surface 1204 between the first waveguide 1201 and second waveguide region 1202. When the interface surface 1205 between the second waveguide region 1202 and third waveguide 1203 is inclined with respect to the extension line of the refraction direction through the interface surface 1204 between the first waveguide 1201 and second waveguide region 1202, the refraction direction through the interface surface 1205 between the second waveguide region 1202 and third waveguide 1203 can be set in such a manner that the refraction direction is in line with the propagation direction of the third waveguide 1203. Thus, even when the second waveguide region 1202 whose refractive index differs from that of the first waveguide 1201 and third waveguide 1203 is disposed between them, it is possible to reduce the reflection and the loss due to the refraction at the interface surface 1204 between the first waveguide 1201 and second waveguide region 1202 and at the interface surface 1205 between the second waveguide region 1202 and third waveguide 1203. More specifically, since the first waveguide 1201 and second waveguide region 1202 are connected in such a manner that the interface surface 1204 between them is inclined with respect to the propagation direction of the first waveguide 1201, the light reflected off the interface surface 1204 does not return to the first waveguide 1201, which can prevent the first waveguide 1201 from forming a local cavity. Likewise, the second waveguide region 1202 and third waveguide 1203 are connected in such a manner that the interface surface 1205 between them is inclined with respect to the propagation direction of the second waveguide region 1202, which can prevent the second waveguide region 1202 and third waveguide 1203 from forming a local cavity. In addition, by aligning the refraction direction through the interface surface 1205 between the second waveguide region 1202 and third waveguide 1203 with the propagation direction of the third waveguide 1203, it can prevent the light propagating through the first waveguide 1201, second waveguide region 1202 and third waveguide 1203 from leaking out of the first waveguide 1201, second waveguide region 1202 and third waveguide 1203 even if the light is refracted through the interface surface 1204 between the first waveguide 1201 and second waveguide region 1202 and through the interface surface 1205 between the second waveguide region 1202 and third waveguide 1203. As a result, the light launched into the first waveguide 1201 can propagate through the first waveguide 1201, second waveguide region 1202 and third waveguide 1203 with a smaller loss than in a conventional device and emit from the third waveguide 1203. When the interface surface 1204 between the first waveguide 1201 and second waveguide region 1202 is inclined with respect to the propagation direction of the first waveguide 1201, the inclination angle of the interface surface 1204 can be set in such a manner that it satisfies the Brewster angle. Likewise, when the interface surface 1205 between the second waveguide region 1202 and third waveguide 1203 is inclined with respect to the propagation direction of the second waveguide region 1202, the inclination angle of the interface surface 1205 can be set in such a manner that it satisfies the Brewster angle. In this case, the first waveguide 1201 and third waveguide 1203 can be connected to the second waveguide region 1202 such that they are point symmetry with respect to the midpoint of the second waveguide region 1202. This makes it possible to reduce the reflection at the interface surface 1204 between the first waveguide 1201 and second waveguide region 1202 and at the interface surface 1205 between the second waveguide region 1202 and third waveguide 1203, and to make the directions of the first waveguide 1201 and the third waveguide 1203 in parallel. Thus, the incident direction and emitting direction can be matched with each other even when the Brewster angle is used to limit the reflection between the waveguides, between which the materials with different refractive indices are inserted. In this way, even when the material with different refractive index is inserted between the first waveguide 1201 and third waveguide 1203, it is possible to make effective use of the crystal orientation suitable for cleavage, etching or burying while suppressing the waveguide loss; to implement the optical waveguide with new characteristics that cannot be achieved with semiconductor-only configuration while limiting the degradation in the reliability during the fabrication of the first waveguide 1201 and third waveguide 1203, and to improve the flexibility of the waveguide design. FIG. 27 is a cross-sectional view showing a schematic configuration of the first waveguide 1201 and third waveguide 1203 of FIG. 26. In FIG. 27, on a semiconductor substrate 1200, a core layer 1301 and an upper cladding layer 1302 are stacked successively. Then, the upper cladding layer 1302, core layer 1301 and an upper portion of the semiconductor substrate 1201 are etched in stripes along the waveguide direction to form burying layers 1303 and 1304 on both sides of the upper cladding layer 1302, core layer 1301 and upper portions of the semiconductor substrate 1200. This can provide the first waveguide 1201 and third waveguide 1203 with the buried heterostructure (BH) structure, which enables optical confinement in the lateral direction, and can reduce the waveguide loss in the first waveguide 1201 and third waveguide 1203. As the semiconductor substrate 1200, upper cladding layer 1302 and burying layers 1303 and 1304, InP can be used and as the core layer 1301, GaInAsP can be used for example. When stacking the core layer 1301 and upper cladding layer 1302 successively on the semiconductor substrate 1200, epitaxial growth such as MBE (molecular beam epitaxy), MOCVD (metal organic chemical vapor deposition) or ALCVD (atomic layer chemical vapor deposition) can be used. FIG. 28 is a plan view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of an 18th example in accordance with the present invention. In FIG. 28, on a semiconductor substrate 1400, a first waveguide 1401, a second waveguide 1402 and a third waveguide 1403 are formed. The second waveguide 1402 is disposed across the first waveguide 1401 and the third waveguide 1403. Here, the first waveguide 1401 and third waveguide 1403 may have the same refractive index, whereas the first waveguide 1401 and second waveguide 1402 may have different refractive indices. For example, the first waveguide 1401 and third waveguide 1403 may be composed of semiconductor materials, whereas the second waveguide 1402 may be composed of materials other than the semiconductors. In addition, an interface surface 1404 between the first waveguide 1401 and second waveguide 1402 can be inclined with respect to the propagation direction of the first waveguide 1401. Likewise, an interface surface 1405 between the second waveguide 1402 and third waveguide 1403 can be inclined with respect to an extension line of the refraction direction through the interface surface 1404 between the first waveguide 1401 and second waveguide 1402. When the interface surface 1405 between the second waveguide 1402 and third waveguide 1403 is inclined with respect to the extension line of the refraction direction through the interface surface 1404 between the first waveguide 1401 and second waveguide 1402, the refraction direction through the interface surface 1405 between the second waveguide 1402 and third waveguide 1403 can be set in such a manner that the refraction direction is in line with the propagation direction of the third waveguide 1403. For example, it is possible to set the inclination angles at the interface surfaces 1404 and 1405 in such a manner that they satisfy the Brewster angle, and to connect the first waveguide 1401 and third waveguide 1403 to the second waveguide 1402 in such a manner that they are point symmetry with respect to the midpoint of the second waveguide 1402. FIG. 29 is a cross-sectional view showing a schematic configuration of the second waveguide 1402 of FIG. 28. In FIG. 29, on a semiconductor substrate 1400, a core layer 1501 surrounded by a cladding layer 1502 is formed. As the semiconductor substrate 1400, InP can be used for example. As the cladding layer 1502 and core layer 1501, poly-fluoromethacrylate deuteride (d-PFMA) whose refractive index is altered by varying its fluorine content can be used, for example. This makes it possible to reduce the waveguide loss in the second waveguide 1402, and to reduce the reflection at the interface surface 1404 between the first waveguide 1401 and second waveguide region 1402 and at the interface surface 1405 between the second waveguide region 1402 and third waveguide 1403. As for the first waveguide 1201 and third waveguide 1203 of FIG. 26, and the first waveguide 1401, second waveguide 1402 and third waveguide 1403 of FIG. 28, it is not intended to limit. For example, commonly used ridge waveguide or high-mesa waveguide can also be employed as the semiconductor waveguide structure. As for the shapes of the core layer and cladding layer, it is not intended to limit. For example, it is possible to employ a separate confinement heterostructure (SCH) that sandwiches them with materials having a refractive index between the refractive index at the center of the core layer and the refractive index of the cladding layer, or a graded index (GI-) SCH that has its refractive index varyed stepwise. To apply the present structure to a semiconductor laser, an active region can be used as the core, and its structure can be any of the bulk, MQW (multiple quantum well), quantum wire and quantum dot structures. As for the waveguide structure of the active region, any of the pn buried, ridge structure, semi-insulating buried structure and high-mesa structure can be used. As for the materials, they are not limited to the combination of the InP and GaInAsP, but any suitable materials such as GaAs, AlGaAs, InGaAs and GaInNAs are applicable. Also, as for the second waveguide region 1202 of FIG. 26 and the second waveguide 1402 of FIG. 28, it is not intended to limit. For example, polyimide or benzocyclobutene can be used. Considering the optical length of the foregoing integrated optical waveguide, the optical length of the optical waveguide increases with an increase of the ambient temperature because the refractive index of the semiconductors increases with the temperature, that is, the refractive index has a positive temperature differential coefficient. Thus, the second waveguide region 1202 of FIG. 26 and the second waveguide 1402 of FIG. 28 can be configured by using a material having a negative refractive index temperature differential coefficient. This makes it possible to suppress the temperature changes of the total optical length of the optical waveguides, even if the optical lengths of the individual optical waveguides vary because of the temperature changes. As a material with the negative refractive index temperature differential coefficient, PMMA can be used, for example. The operation principle of the example of FIGS. 26 and 28 will now be described in detail. FIG. 30 is a schematic diagram illustrating a relationship between an incident angle and refraction angle when the light incident to a splice plane of materials with different refractive indices. In FIG. 30, the light launched from a material having a refractive index N1 to a material having a refractive index N2 at the incident angle θ1 is refracted through the interface of the materials at the refraction angle θ2. In this case, the relationship between the incident angle θ1 and refraction angle θ2 is given by the foregoing expression (4). In particular, the reflection component parallel to the incidence plane can be eliminated when the incident angle θ1 satisfies the relationship represented by expression (5), and agrees with the Brewster angle θB. When the incident angle θ1 equals the Brewster angle θB, the following expression (12) holds from expressions (4) and (5). cos θ1=sin θ2 ∴θ2=π/2−θ1 (12) Accordingly, by connecting the first waveguide 1401 and third waveguide 1403 to the second waveguide 1402 in such a manner that they are point symmetry with respect to the midpoint of the second waveguide 1402 of FIG. 28, it becomes possible to make the inclination angle equal to the Brewster angle, the inclination angle being of the interface surface 1404 between the first waveguide 1401 and second waveguide 1402 and that of the interface surface 1405 between the second waveguide 1402 and third waveguide 1403, and to make the directions of the first waveguide 1201 and the third waveguide 1203 in parallel each other. As is clearly seen from FIG. 30, an angle θ12 between the waveguide direction through the material having the refractive index N1 and the waveguide direction through the material having the refractive index N2 is given by the following expression (13). θ12=π/2−2θ1 (13) FIG. 31 is a graph illustrating relationships between the angle θ12, which is made by the waveguide direction when the light is launched from the material having the refractive index N1 to the material having the refractive index N2, and the refractive index ratio N2/N1. Here, the angle θ12 the waveguide direction makes is equal to the angle between the waveguide direction of the first waveguide 1201 and the waveguide direction of the second waveguide region 1202 in the configuration of FIG. 26, and is equal to the angle between the direction of the first waveguide 1401 and the direction of the second waveguide 1402 in the configuration of FIG. 28. In FIG. 31, take the configuration of FIG. 28 as an example, and assume that the refractive index ratio between the first waveguide 1401 and second waveguide 1402 is 0.9 (e.g. when the refractive index of the first waveguide 1401 is 3.21, then the refractive index of the second waveguide 1402 is 2.89), then the angle θ12 the first waveguide 1401 makes with the second waveguide 1402 is about six degrees. Accordingly, when the waveguide length of the second waveguide 1402 is 10 μm, for example, the light-emitting position from the second waveguide 1402 shifts about 1 μm from the extension line of the first waveguide 1401. When the refractive index ratio between the first waveguide 1401 and second waveguide 1402 is 0.8, then the angle θ12 the first waveguide 1401 makes with the second waveguide 1402 is about 12 degrees; when the refractive index ratio between the first waveguide 1401 and second waveguide 1402 is 0.7, then the angle θ12 the first waveguide 1401 makes with the second waveguide 1402 is about 20 degrees; when the refractive index ratio between the first waveguide 1401 and second waveguide 1402 is 0.6, then the angle θ12 the first waveguide 1401 makes with the second waveguide 1402 is about 28 degrees; and when the refractive index ratio between the first waveguide 1401 and second waveguide 1402 is 0.5, then the angle θ12 the first waveguide 1401 makes with the second waveguide 1402 is about 37 degrees. Thus, the shift increases from the extension line of the first waveguide 1401. Although aligning the first waveguide 1401 and the third waveguide 1403 will prevent the effective waveguide of light, the light can be guided efficiently by disposing the third waveguide 1403 with shifting it from the extension line of the first waveguide 1401 according to the angle θ12 the first waveguide 1401 makes with the second waveguide 1402, and the waveguide length of the second waveguide 1402. Since the path of light is not changed even if the traveling direction is reversed, in case of N2>N1, N2 and N1 can be replaced as apparent from expressions (3)-(5) and (12). For example, assume that the refractive index of the first waveguide 1401 and third waveguide 1403 is 3.12, the refractive index of the second waveguide 1402 is 1.54, and hence the refractive index ratio between the first waveguide 1401 and second waveguide 1402 is 0.48, then the Brewster angle θB from the first waveguide 1401 to the second waveguide 1402 is 25.6 degrees and the refraction angle θ2 is 25.6 degrees. Accordingly, the angle θ12 between the first waveguide 1401 and second waveguide 1402 is 38.8 degrees. On the other hand, considering the case from the second waveguide 1402 to the third waveguide 1403, it corresponds to the case where the refractive indices of the first waveguide 1401 and second waveguide 1402 are exchanged as apparent from expressions (3)-(5) and (12). Accordingly, the Brewster angle θB is 64.4 degrees and the refraction angle θ2 is 25.6 degrees. Therefore, by connecting the first waveguide 1401 and third waveguide 1403 to the second waveguide 1402 in such a manner that they are point symmetry with respect to the midpoint of the second waveguide 1402 of FIG. 28, it becomes possible to make the directions of the first waveguide 1401 and the third waveguide 1403 in parallel each other while suppressing the reflection between the waveguides. As a result, the first waveguide 1401 and third waveguide 1403 can be formed along the same crystal orientation, which enables the first waveguide 1401 and third waveguide 1403 with the buried heterostructure to be built at high reliability. In particular, as seen from FIG. 31, the angle θ12 between the first waveguide 1401 and second waveguide 1402 can be adjusted to 45 degrees when the refractive index ratio between the first waveguide 1401 and second waveguide 1402 is about 0.41, thereby making the directions of the first waveguide 1401 and third waveguide 1403 orthogonal to each other. Since the principle of the present invention is the same even when the first waveguide 1401 and third waveguide 1403 are composed of materials other than the semiconductors, the directions of the first waveguide 1401 and third waveguide 1403 can also be made in parallel each other in this case. Next, assume that the refractive index of the first waveguide 1401 is N1, and the refractive index of the second waveguide 1402 is N2, then the reflectance R of the component parallel to the incidence plane is given by the following expression (14). R=\| tan(θ1−sin−1(N2/N1 sin θ1))/tan(θ1+sin−1(N2/N1 sin θ1))\|2 (14) FIG. 32 is a graph illustrating relationships between the incident angle and the reflectance of the component parallel to the incidence plane when light incident to the splice plane between the materials having different refractive indices. In the example of FIG. 32, it is assumed that the refractive index of the first waveguide 1401 is N1=3.21, and the refractive index of the second waveguide 1402 is N2=1.54. In FIG. 32, as the incident angle θ1 increases, the reflectance R of the component parallel to the incidence plane gradually decreases, and becomes zero when the incident angle θ1 is aligned with the Brewster angle θB=25.6 degrees. Then, when the incident angle θ1 exceeds the Brewster angle θB, the reflectance R of the component parallel to the incidence plane increases sharply, and asymptotically approaches the total reflection angle θA=28.7 degrees. The total reflection angle θA is given by the following expression (15). θA=sin−1(N2/N1) (15) As an example of the incident angle θ1 that provides small reflectance R, consider the incident angle θ1 that will give reflectance equal to ⅓ of the reflectance R at the incident angle of zero degree. In this case, the incident angle ranges from ⅘ of the Brewster angle θB to the Brewster angle θB plus ⅔ of the difference between the total reflection angle θA and the Brewster angle θB. In other words, the incident angle θ1 that achieves small reflectance R is given by the following expression (16). 4θB/5≦θ1≦θB+⅔(θA−θB) (16) Thus the reflectance of the component parallel to the interface surface 1404 can be made zero by matching to the Brewster angle θB the incident angle θ1, that is, the angle made by the interface surface 1404 between the first waveguide 1401 and second waveguide 1402 and the propagation direction of the first waveguide 1401. The light propagating through the waveguide is usually a TE mode that has only the component parallel to the interface surface. Accordingly, the light propagating through the first waveguide 1401 can be transmitted to the second waveguide 1402 without suffering a loss by the interface surface 1404. In addition, setting the incident angle θ1 in the range given by expression (16) can reduce the loss due to reflection. FIG. 33 is a plan view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of a 19th example in accordance with the present invention. In FIG. 33, on a semiconductor substrate 1600, a first waveguide 1601, a second waveguide 1602 and a third waveguide 1603 are formed, and the second waveguide 1602 is disposed across the first waveguide 1601 and the third waveguide 1603. Here, the refractive index of the first waveguide 1601 and that of the third waveguide 1603 can be made equal to each other. Also, the refractive index of the first waveguide 1601 can differ from that of the second waveguide 1602, and the refractive index ratio between the first waveguide 1401 and second waveguide 1402 can be set at about 0.41. The interface surface 1604 between the first waveguide 1601 and second waveguide 1602, and the interface surface 1605 between the second waveguide 1602 and third waveguide 1603 can be inclined with respect to the incident direction to satisfy the Brewster angle, respectively. This enables the angle between the first waveguide 1601 and second waveguide 1602 and the angle between the second waveguide 1602 and third waveguide 1603 to be set at 45 degrees. Thus, it is possible to make the directions of the first waveguide 1601 and third waveguide 1603 orthogonal, and to reduce the reflection from the interface surface 1604 between the first waveguide 1601 and second waveguide 1602, and from the interface surface 1605 between the second waveguide 1602 and third waveguide 1603. As a result, from the viewpoint of the crystal structure, when forming cleaved surfaces in the first waveguide 1601 and third waveguide 1603, the cleaved surfaces can be placed perpendicularly, if not parallel. FIG. 34 is a plan view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of 4th example in accordance with the present invention. In FIG. 34, on a semiconductor substrate 1700, a first waveguide 1701, a second waveguide 1702, a third waveguide 1703, a fourth waveguide 1704 and a fifth waveguide 1705 are formed. The second waveguide 1702 is disposed across the first waveguide 1701 and third waveguide 1703, and the fourth waveguide 1704 is disposed across the third waveguide 1703 and fifth waveguide 1705. The refractive indices of the first waveguide 1701, third waveguide 1703 and fifth waveguide 1705 may be set equal to each other, and the refractive indices of the second waveguide 1702 and fourth waveguide 1704 may be set equal to each other. In addition, the refractive index of the first waveguide 1701 can differ from that of the second waveguide 1702. For example, the first waveguide 1701, third waveguide 1703 and fifth waveguide 1705 may be composed of semiconductor materials, and the second waveguide 1702 and fourth waveguide 1704 may be composed of materials other than the semiconductors. Furthermore, the interface surface 1706 between the first waveguide 1701 and second waveguide 1702 can be inclined with respect to the propagation direction of the first waveguide 1701. Likewise, the interface surface 1707 between the second waveguide 1702 and third waveguide 1703 can be inclined with respect to the extension line of the refraction direction through the interface surface 1706 between the first waveguide 1701 and second waveguide 1702. When the interface surface 1707 between the second waveguide 1702 and third waveguide 1703 is inclined with respect to the extension line of the refraction direction through the interface surface 1706 between the first waveguide 1701 and second waveguide 1702, the refraction direction through the interface surface 1706 between the second waveguide 1702 and third waveguide 1703 can be set in such a manner that the refraction direction is in line with the propagation direction of the third waveguide 1703. In addition, the interface surface 1708 between the third waveguide 1703 and fourth waveguide 1704 can be inclined with respect to the propagation direction of the third waveguide 1703. Likewise, the interface surface 1709 between the fourth waveguide 1704 and fifth waveguide 1705 can be inclined with respect to the extension line of the refraction direction through the interface surface 1708 between the third waveguide 1703 and fourth waveguide 1704. When the interface surface 1709 between the fourth waveguide 1704 and fifth waveguide 1705 is inclined with respect to the extension line of the refraction direction through the interface surface 1708 between the third waveguide 1703 and fourth waveguide 1704, it is possible to set the refraction direction through the interface surface 1709 between the fourth waveguide 1704 and fifth waveguide 1705 in such a manner that the refraction direction is in line with the propagation direction of the fifth waveguide 1705. For example, it is possible to set the inclination angles of the interface surfaces 1706-1709 in such a manner that they satisfy the Brewster angle; to connect the first waveguide 1701 and third waveguide 1703 to the second waveguide 1702 in such a manner that they are point symmetry with respect to the midpoint of the second waveguide 1702; and to connect the third waveguide 1703 and fifth waveguide 1705 to the fourth waveguide 1704 in such a manner that they are point symmetry with respect to the midpoint of the fourth waveguide 1704. This makes it possible to reduce the reflection from the interface surfaces 1706-1709, and to align the input side first waveguide 1701 with the output side fifth waveguide 1705, thereby improving the flexibility of the waveguide design. The 20th example of FIG. 34 is configured by connecting the configurations of FIG. 28 in mirror symmetry. Thus, as for the materials and shapes of the first waveguide 1701, second waveguide 1702, third waveguide 1703, fourth waveguide 1704 and fifth waveguide 1705, they can be those employed by the foregoing examples. In addition, a plurality of configurations of FIG. 34 can be connected in cascade. This makes it possible to distribute the waveguide regions composed of materials different from the semiconductors, which enables the implementation of the optical waveguide with new characteristics that cannot be achieved by semiconductor-only configuration. FIG. 35 is a plan view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of a 5th example in accordance with the present invention. In FIG. 35, on a semiconductor substrate 1800, a first waveguide 1801, a second waveguide 1802 and a third waveguide 1803 are formed, and the second waveguide 1802 is disposed across the first waveguide 1801 and third waveguide 1803. Here, the refractive index of the first waveguide 1801 can be made equal to that of the third waveguide 1803, but different from that of the second waveguide 1802. For example, the first waveguide 1801 and third waveguide 1803 may be composed of semiconductor materials, and the second waveguide 1802 may be composed of the materials other than the semiconductors. Also, the interface surface 1804 between the first waveguide 1801 and second waveguide 1802 can be inclined with respect to the propagation direction of the first waveguide 1801. Likewise, the interface surface 1805 between the second waveguide 1802 and third waveguide 1803 can be inclined with respect to the extension line of the refraction direction through the interface surface 1804 between the first waveguide 1801 and second waveguide 1802. The first waveguide 1801 and third waveguide 1803 can be aligned, and the second waveguide 1802 can be curved in an arc to enable the first waveguide 1801 and third waveguide 1803 to be connected in accordance with the refraction directions through the interface surfaces 1804 and 1805. For example, the inclination angles of the interface surfaces 1804 and 1805 are set to satisfy the Brewster angle, and the first waveguide 1801 and third waveguide 1803 are connected with the second waveguide 1802 in such a manner that they are line symmetry with respect to the center line of the second waveguide 1802. This makes it possible to correct the bend of the light beam due to the refraction angle while suppressing the waveguide loss, and to set the location of the third optical waveguide 1803 at any desired position, thereby improving the flexibility of the waveguide design. Although the second waveguide region 1802 is composed of a curved waveguide to correct the bending of the light due to the refraction angle in the 21st example of FIG. 10 described above, a configuration is also possible in which the first waveguide region 1801 or third waveguide region 1803 is composed of a curved waveguide. Since the 21st example of FIG. 35 is a variation of the configuration of FIG. 28, the materials and shapes of the first waveguide 1801, second waveguide 1802 and third waveguide 1803 can be the same as those of the foregoing examples. Furthermore, a plurality of configurations of FIG. 35 can be connected in cascade. This makes it possible to distribute the waveguide regions composed of materials different from the semiconductors, which enables the implementation of the optical waveguide with new characteristics that cannot be achieved by semiconductor-only configuration. FIG. 36 is a cross-sectional perspective view showing a schematic configuration of an integrated optical waveguide of the 22nd example in accordance with the present invention. In FIG. 36, on a semiconductor substrate 1900, a first waveguide WG1, a second waveguide WG2 and a third waveguide WG3 are formed, and the second waveguide WG2 is disposed across the first waveguide WG1 and third waveguide WG3. The refractive index of the first waveguide WG1 can be set equal to that of the third waveguide WG3, but different from that of the second waveguide WG2. For example, the first waveguide WG1 and third waveguide WG3 may be composed of semiconductor materials, and the second waveguide WG2 may be composed of materials other than the semiconductors. The interface surface between the first waveguide WG1 and second waveguide WG2 can be inclined with respect to the propagation direction of the first waveguide WG1. Likewise, the interface surface between the second waveguide WG2 and third waveguide WG3 can be inclined with respect to the extension line of the refraction direction through the interface surface between the first waveguide WG1 and second waveguide WG2. To incline the interface surface between the second waveguide WG2 and third waveguide WG3 with respect to the extension line of the refraction direction through the interface surface between the first waveguide WG1 and second waveguide WG2, it is possible to align the refraction direction through the interface surface between the second waveguide WG2 and third waveguide WG3 with the propagation direction of the third waveguide WG3. Also, a laser diode is formed in each of the first waveguide WG1 and third waveguide WG3. More specifically, on the semiconductor substrate 1900, a core layer 1901 is stacked, and on the core layer 1901, an upper cladding layer 1902 whose conductivity type differs from that of the semiconductor substrate 1900 is stacked. As the semiconductor substrate 1900 and upper cladding layer 1902, InP can be used and as the core layer 1901, GaInAsP can be used for example. Also, the semiconductor substrate 1901 can be an n-type, and the upper cladding layer 1902 can be a p-type, for example. Then, by etching the semiconductor substrate 1900 on which the core layer 1901 and upper cladding layer 1902 have been stacked successively, the upper cladding layer 1902, the core layer 1901 and the upper region of the semiconductor substrate 1900 are shaped into the form of the first waveguide WG1 and third waveguide WG3. Then, a buried heterostructure is formed by growing burying layers 1903 and 1905 on both sides of the first waveguide WG1 and third waveguide WG3. As the burying layers 1903 and 1905, a Fe-doped InP insulating layer can be used for example. Subsequently, the upper cladding layer 1902, the core layer 1901 and the upper region of the semiconductor substrate 1900 between the first waveguide WG1 and third waveguide WG3 are removed along the boundary between the first waveguide WG1 and second waveguide WG2 and along the boundary between the second waveguide WG2 and third waveguide WG3. After that, the second waveguide WG2 connected with the first waveguide WG1 and third waveguide WG3 is formed on the semiconductor substrate 1900 by burying an organic material such as BCB between the first waveguide WG1 and third waveguide WG3 in such a manner that it conforms to the shape of the second waveguide WG2. In addition, electrodes 1906 and 1907 are formed on the upper cladding layer 1902 corresponding to the positions of the first waveguide WG1 and third waveguide WG3, and an electrode 1908 is formed on the back surface of the semiconductor substrate 1900. Thus, the laser diodes are formed on the first waveguide WG1 and third waveguide WG3. In the 22nd example of FIG. 36, although a method of providing the electrodes 1906-1908 is described by way of example of the structure of FIG. 28, the electrodes can be attached to one of the structures of FIG. 26 and FIGS. 33-35. Since the 22nd example of FIG. 36 has a structure in which the semiconductor waveguide includes the active layer for injecting the current, the first waveguide WG1, second waveguide WG2 and third waveguide WG3 can employ the same materials and shapes as those described in the foregoing examples. A diffraction grating can be formed on the semiconductor waveguide sections to provide the wavelength selectivity, or a distributed feedback (DFB) semiconductor laser or distributed reflector (DBR) can be formed. Furthermore, using a material whose refractive index has a negative temperature coefficient as the second waveguide WG2 can generate a single oscillation wavelength because of the wavelength selectivity, and implement the laser whose wavelength is constant regardless of the temperature. As described above, according to the third embodiment of the present invention, even when the materials with refractive indices different from each other are inserted between the waveguide regions, it is possible to improve the flexibility of the waveguide design while suppressing the reflection from the interface surfaces; to make effective use of the crystal orientation suitable for cleavage, etching or burying during the fabrication of the integrated optical waveguide; and to easily implement the optical waveguide and optical device with new characteristics that cannot be achieved with semiconductor-only configuration on the semiconductor substrate. INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY As described above, the present invention can provide an optical semiconductor device and optical semiconductor integrated circuit that can facilitate the process and integration, and have new characteristics that cannot be achieved by semiconductor-only configuration by applying the materials having refractive indices whose temperature dependence differs from each other to the propagating regions and/or waveguide regions on the semiconductor substrate.	G	G02	G02B	6	12
11920315	US20090176556A1-20090709	Wagering game system with shared outcome determined by a gaming machine	ACCEPTED	20090624	20090709		[]	A63F924	["A63F924"]	7980954	20071113	20110719	463	025000	63073.0	AHMED	MASUD	[{"inventor_name_last": "Gagner", "inventor_name_first": "Mark B.", "inventor_city": "West Chicago", "inventor_state": "IL", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Pacey", "inventor_name_first": "Larry J.", "inventor_city": "Northbrook", "inventor_state": "IL", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Englman", "inventor_name_first": "Allon G", "inventor_city": "Chicago", "inventor_state": "IL", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A gaming system for playing a wagering game and a community event includes a first gaming machine and a second gaming machine. The first gaming machine determines a randomly selected community-event outcome for the community event, and sends information related to the outcome to at least one other gaming machine of the plurality of gaming machines. The second gaming machine receives the information from the first gaming machine and plays the community event.	1. A gaming system for playing a wagering game, comprising: a first gaming machine of a plurality of gaming machines for playing said wagering game and a community event, said first gaming machine determining a randomly selected community-event outcome for said community event, said first gaming machine sending information related to said community-event outcome to at least one other gaming machine of said plurality of gaming machines, said information including said community-event outcome; and a second gaming machine of said plurality of gaming machines for receiving said information from said first gaming machine and playing said community event, said randomly selected community-event outcome being a shared outcome that is necessary for conducting said community event via both said first gaming machine and said second gaming machine. 2. The gaming system of claim 1, wherein said first gaming machine sends a community-event triggering signal to other ones of said plurality of gaming machines for initiating said community event in response to said first gaming machine achieving a community-event award outcome in said wagering game. 3. The gaming system of claim 1, wherein said first gaming machine sends a community-event triggering signal to a server for initiating said community event in response to said first gaming machine achieving a community-event award outcome in said wagering game. 4. The gaming system of claim 3, wherein said second gaming machine receives a community-event invitation in response to said community event being initiated. 5. The gaming system of claim 1, wherein said community event is randomly triggered in a manner unrelated to said wagering games being played on said plurality of gaming machines, a random number generator in one of said plurality of gaming machines being used for determining a community-event triggering outcome. 6. The gaming system of claim 1, further including a server coupled to said plurality of gaming machines, said server performing one of the functions consisting of coordinating signals between said plurality of gaming machines, triggering said community event, and determining another community-event outcome. 7. The gaming system of claim 1, wherein said second gaming machine is eligible for playing said community event, said second gaming machine receiving an invitation for playing said community event, said second gaming machine playing said community event in response to sending an acceptance signal. 8. The gaming system of claim 1, wherein said first gaming machine includes a controller having a random number generator that dictates said randomly selected community-event outcome. 9. The gaming system of claim 1, wherein said wagering game played at said first gaming machine and said second gaming machine is the same wagering game. 10. A method of conducting a wagering game on a plurality of gaming machines that are eligible to play a community event, comprising: determining a randomly selected community-event outcome within a first one of said plurality of gaming machines; transmitting said community-event outcome to at least one of said plurality of gaming machines participating in said community event; and conducting said community event at participating ones of said plurality of gaming machines in accordance with said community-event outcome, said community-event outcome being a shared outcome that is necessary for conducting said community event via said participating ones of said plurality of gaming machines. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein said determining step includes aggregating a randomly selected first sub-outcome and a randomly selected second sub-outcome to obtain said randomly selected community-event outcome. 12. The method of claim 10, wherein said determining step includes random-number generating within said first one of said plurality of gaming machines. 13. The method of claim 12, wherein said random-number generating results in said community event being triggered. 14. The method of claim 12, wherein said random-number generating resulting in said community event being triggered is unrelated to an outcome of said wagering game being played at said first one of said plurality of gaming machines. 15. The method of claim 10, wherein said conducting includes displaying said community event on a display that is viewable by the players at said plurality of gaming machines. 16. The method of claim 10, further comprising receiving, at said participating ones of said plurality of gaming machines, an invitation for playing said community event in response to said community event being triggered, said invitation being accepted in response to a player input. 17. The method of claim 16, further comprising providing a time limit for receiving said player input, a player being unable to join said community event after said time limit has expired. 18. The method of claim 10, further comprising playing said wagering game locally in said first one of said plurality of gaming machines, said wagering game having outcomes determined by a random number generator that is also used for determining said randomly selected community-event outcome. 19. The method of claim 10, further comprising distributing, via a community-event server, signals related to said community event. 20. The method of claim 10, further comprising interrupting a local wagering game being performed on said first one of said plurality of gaming machines to perform said conducting of said community event. 21. A computer readable storage medium or media encoded with instructions for directing said gaming machines to perform the method of claim 10. 22. A gaming system for playing wagering games that allow a player to be eligible for a community event, comprising: a first gaming machine of a plurality of linked gaming machines for sharing triggering information with other ones of said plurality of gaming machines, said triggering information including a randomly selected community-event triggering outcome; a second gaming machine of said plurality of linked gaming machines for being able to participate in said community event in response to receiving said triggering information from said first gaming machine; and a third gaming machine of said plurality of linked gaming machines for determining a randomly selected community-event outcome, said randomly selected community-event outcome being shared with at least said second gaming machine at which said community event is being played, said second gaming machine being able to play said community event only in response to having access to said randomly selected community-event outcome determined by said third gaming machine. 23. The gaming system of claim 22, wherein said third gaming machine includes a random number generator for determining said randomly selected community-event triggering outcome. 24. A method of conducting a wagering game having a community event, comprising: providing a plurality of linked gaming machines for playing said community event; initiating a session of said community event in which at least one of said plurality of linked gaming machines participates; determining an outcome for said community event at one of said plurality of linked gaming machines; and sharing said outcome with at least another one of said plurality of linked gaming machines, said outcome being necessary for playing said community event at said at least another one of said plurality of linked gaming machines. 25. The method of claim 24, further comprising: initiating another session of said community event; and determining another outcome for said community event at another one of said plurality of linked gaming machines. 26. The method of claim 24, wherein said initiating is performed at one of said plurality of linked gaming machines. 27. A gaming system having a plurality of linked gaming machines for playing a community event of a wagering game, any one of said plurality of linked gaming machines dictating a randomly selected outcome of said community event, said outcome being shared with at least another one of said plurality of linked gaming machines at which said community event is being played, said randomly selected outcome being necessary for playing said community event at said at least another one of said plurality of linked gaming machines. 28. The gaming system of claim 27, further comprising a server for distributing, among said plurality of linked gaming machines, signals related to said community event. 29. The gaming system of claim 27, wherein said outcome includes a plurality of aggregated sub-outcomes for determining the overall award for the player.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Gaming machines, such as slot machines, video poker machines and the like, have been a cornerstone of the gaming industry for several years. Generally, the popularity of such machines with players is dependent on the likelihood (or perceived likelihood) of winning money at the machine and the intrinsic entertainment value of the machine relative to other available gaming options. Where the available gaming options include a number of competing machines and the expectation of winning at each machine is roughly the same (or believed to be the same), players are likely to be attracted to the most entertaining and exciting machines. Shrewd operators consequently strive to employ the most entertaining and exciting machines, features, and enhancements available because such machines attract frequent play and hence increase profitability to the operator. Therefore, there is a continuing need for gaming machine manufacturers to continuously develop new games and improved gaming enhancements that will attract frequent play through enhanced entertainment value to the player. One concept that has been successfully employed to enhance the entertainment value of a game is the concept of a “secondary” or “bonus” game that may be played in conjunction with a “basic” game. The bonus game may comprise any type of game, either similar to or completely different from the basic game, which is entered upon the occurrence of a selected event or outcome in the basic game. Generally, bonus games provide a greater expectation of winning than the basic game and may also be accompanied with more attractive or unusual video displays and/or audio. Bonus games may additionally award players with “progressive jackpot” awards that are funded, at least in part, by a percentage of coin-in from the gaming machine or a plurality of participating gaming machines. Because the bonus game concept offers tremendous advantages in player appeal and excitement relative to other known games, and because such games are attractive to both players and operators, there is a continuing need to develop gaming machines with new types of bonus games to satisfy the demands of players and operators. To provide randomly generated numbers related to the bonus game, some current bonus games use a random number generator that is included in a server of the bonus game. One problem associated with this type of server is that the server is categorized as a gaming machine and, therefore, it is required to meet numerous gaming regulations typically associated with a gaming machine. For example, this type of server is generally required to pass criteria related to randomness, fairness, and/or tampering. Thus, a need exists for a wagering game system with a bonus game, or community event, having a shared outcome that is determined by a gaming machine. The present invention is directed to satisfying this need and to solving other problems.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>According to one aspect of the present invention, a gaming system for playing a wagering game and a community event includes a first gaming machine and a second gaming machine. The first gaming machine determines a randomly selected community-event outcome for the community event, and sends information related to the outcome to at least one other gaming machine of the plurality of gaming machines. The second gaming machine receives the information from the first gaming machine and plays the community event. According to another aspect of the invention, a method of conducting a wagering game on a plurality of gaming machines that are eligible to play a community event includes determining a randomly selected community-event outcome within a first one of the plurality of gaming machines. The method further includes transmitting the outcome to the plurality of gaming machines participating in the community event. The community event is conducted at participating ones of the plurality of gaming machines in accordance with the community-event outcome. According to yet another aspect of the invention, a method of conducting a wagering game having a community event includes providing a plurality of linked gaming machines for playing the community event. The method further includes initiating a session of the community event in which at least one of the plurality of linked gaming machines participate, and determining an outcome for the community event at one of the plurality of linked gaming machines. In addition, the method also includes sharing the outcome with at least one of the plurality of linked gaming machines. According to yet another aspect of the invention, a computer readable storage medium or media is encoded with instructions for directing a gaming device to perform the above methods. According to yet another aspect of the invention, a gaming system for playing wagering games that allow a player to be eligible for a community event includes a first gaming machine, a second gaming machine, and a third gaming machine of a plurality of linked gaming machines. The first gaming machine sends triggering information to other ones of the plurality of gaming machines. The triggering information is related to a randomly selected community-event triggering outcome. The second gaming machine plays the community event in response to receiving the triggering information. The third gaming machine determines a randomly selected community-event outcome, which is shared with at least the second gaming machine at which the community event is being played. According to yet another aspect of the invention, a gaming system includes a plurality of linked gaming machines for playing a community event of a wagering game. Any one of the plurality of linked gaming machines dictates a randomly selected outcome of the community event. The outcome is shared with at least another one of the plurality of linked gaming machines at which the community event is being played. Additional aspects of the invention will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art in view of the detailed description of various embodiments, which is made with reference to the drawings, a brief description of which is provided below.	COPYRIGHT A portion of the disclosure of this patent document contains material which is subject to copyright protection. The copyright owner has no objection to the facsimile reproduction by anyone of the patent disclosure, as it appears in the Patent and Trademark Office patent files or records, but otherwise reserves all copyright rights whatsoever. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to gaming machines, and methods for playing wagering games, and more particularly, to a gaming system having a gaming machine for determining a community-event outcome that is shared with other gaming machines of the gaming system. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Gaming machines, such as slot machines, video poker machines and the like, have been a cornerstone of the gaming industry for several years. Generally, the popularity of such machines with players is dependent on the likelihood (or perceived likelihood) of winning money at the machine and the intrinsic entertainment value of the machine relative to other available gaming options. Where the available gaming options include a number of competing machines and the expectation of winning at each machine is roughly the same (or believed to be the same), players are likely to be attracted to the most entertaining and exciting machines. Shrewd operators consequently strive to employ the most entertaining and exciting machines, features, and enhancements available because such machines attract frequent play and hence increase profitability to the operator. Therefore, there is a continuing need for gaming machine manufacturers to continuously develop new games and improved gaming enhancements that will attract frequent play through enhanced entertainment value to the player. One concept that has been successfully employed to enhance the entertainment value of a game is the concept of a “secondary” or “bonus” game that may be played in conjunction with a “basic” game. The bonus game may comprise any type of game, either similar to or completely different from the basic game, which is entered upon the occurrence of a selected event or outcome in the basic game. Generally, bonus games provide a greater expectation of winning than the basic game and may also be accompanied with more attractive or unusual video displays and/or audio. Bonus games may additionally award players with “progressive jackpot” awards that are funded, at least in part, by a percentage of coin-in from the gaming machine or a plurality of participating gaming machines. Because the bonus game concept offers tremendous advantages in player appeal and excitement relative to other known games, and because such games are attractive to both players and operators, there is a continuing need to develop gaming machines with new types of bonus games to satisfy the demands of players and operators. To provide randomly generated numbers related to the bonus game, some current bonus games use a random number generator that is included in a server of the bonus game. One problem associated with this type of server is that the server is categorized as a gaming machine and, therefore, it is required to meet numerous gaming regulations typically associated with a gaming machine. For example, this type of server is generally required to pass criteria related to randomness, fairness, and/or tampering. Thus, a need exists for a wagering game system with a bonus game, or community event, having a shared outcome that is determined by a gaming machine. The present invention is directed to satisfying this need and to solving other problems. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION According to one aspect of the present invention, a gaming system for playing a wagering game and a community event includes a first gaming machine and a second gaming machine. The first gaming machine determines a randomly selected community-event outcome for the community event, and sends information related to the outcome to at least one other gaming machine of the plurality of gaming machines. The second gaming machine receives the information from the first gaming machine and plays the community event. According to another aspect of the invention, a method of conducting a wagering game on a plurality of gaming machines that are eligible to play a community event includes determining a randomly selected community-event outcome within a first one of the plurality of gaming machines. The method further includes transmitting the outcome to the plurality of gaming machines participating in the community event. The community event is conducted at participating ones of the plurality of gaming machines in accordance with the community-event outcome. According to yet another aspect of the invention, a method of conducting a wagering game having a community event includes providing a plurality of linked gaming machines for playing the community event. The method further includes initiating a session of the community event in which at least one of the plurality of linked gaming machines participate, and determining an outcome for the community event at one of the plurality of linked gaming machines. In addition, the method also includes sharing the outcome with at least one of the plurality of linked gaming machines. According to yet another aspect of the invention, a computer readable storage medium or media is encoded with instructions for directing a gaming device to perform the above methods. According to yet another aspect of the invention, a gaming system for playing wagering games that allow a player to be eligible for a community event includes a first gaming machine, a second gaming machine, and a third gaming machine of a plurality of linked gaming machines. The first gaming machine sends triggering information to other ones of the plurality of gaming machines. The triggering information is related to a randomly selected community-event triggering outcome. The second gaming machine plays the community event in response to receiving the triggering information. The third gaming machine determines a randomly selected community-event outcome, which is shared with at least the second gaming machine at which the community event is being played. According to yet another aspect of the invention, a gaming system includes a plurality of linked gaming machines for playing a community event of a wagering game. Any one of the plurality of linked gaming machines dictates a randomly selected outcome of the community event. The outcome is shared with at least another one of the plurality of linked gaming machines at which the community event is being played. Additional aspects of the invention will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art in view of the detailed description of various embodiments, which is made with reference to the drawings, a brief description of which is provided below. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a gaming machine embodying the present invention; FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a control system suitable for operating the gaming machine; FIG. 3 is a representation of a gaming system for conducting a community event, according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a diagrammatic of a community-event process, according to another embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 5 is a perspective illustration of a gaming system for conducting a community event, according to yet another embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION While this invention is susceptible of embodiment in many different forms, there is shown in the drawings and will herein be described in detail preferred embodiments of the invention with the understanding that the present disclosure is to be considered as an exemplification of the principles of the invention and is not intended to limit the broad aspect of the invention to the embodiments illustrated. Referring to FIG. 1, a gaming machine 10 is used in gaming establishments such as casinos. With regard to the present invention, the gaming machine 10 may be any type of gaming machine and may have varying structures and methods of operation. For example, the gaming machine 10 may be an electromechanical gaming machine configured to play mechanical slots, or it may be an electronic gaming machine configured to play a video casino game, such as blackjack, slots, keno, poker, blackjack, roulette, etc. The gaming machine 10 comprises a housing 12 and includes input devices, including a value input device 18 and a player input device 24. For output the gaming machine 10 includes a primary display 14 for displaying information about the basic wagering game. The primary display 14 can also display information about a bonus wagering game and a progressive wagering game. The gaming machine 10 may also include a secondary display 16 for displaying game events, game outcomes, and/or signage information. While these typical components found in the gaming machine 10 are described below, it should be understood that numerous other elements may exist and may be used in any number of combinations to create various forms of a gaming machine 10. The value input device 18 may be provided in many forms, individually or in combination, and is preferably located on the front of the housing 12. The value input device 18 receives currency and/or credits that are inserted by a player. The value input device 18 may include a coin acceptor 20 for receiving coin currency (see FIG. 1). Alternatively, or in addition, the value input device 18 may include a bill acceptor 22 for receiving paper currency. Furthermore, the value input device 18 may include a ticket reader, or barcode scanner, for reading information stored on a credit ticket, a card, or other tangible portable credit storage device. The credit ticket or card may also authorize access to a central account, which can transfer money to the gaming machine 10. The player input device 24 comprises a plurality of push buttons 26 on a button panel for operating the gaming machine 10. In addition, or alternatively, the player input device 24 may comprise a touch screen 28 mounted by adhesive, tape, or the like over the primary display 14 and/or secondary display 16. The touch screen 28 contains soft touch keys 30 denoted by graphics on the underlying primary display 14 and used to operate the gaming machine 10. The touch screen 28 provides players with an alternative method of input. A player enables a desired function either by touching the touch screen 28 at an appropriate touch key 30 or by pressing an appropriate push button 26 on the button panel. The touch keys 30 may be used to implement the same functions as push buttons 26. Alternatively, the push buttons 26 may provide inputs for one aspect of the operating the game, while the touch keys 30 may allow for input needed for another aspect of the game. The various components of the gaming machine 10 may be connected directly to, or contained within, the housing 12, as seen in FIG. 1, or may be located outboard of the housing 12 and connected to the housing 12 via a variety of different wired or wireless connection methods. Thus, the gaming machine 10 comprises these components whether housed in the housing 12, or outboard of the housing 12 and connected remotely. The operation of the basic wagering game is displayed to the player on the primary display 14. The primary display 14 can also display the bonus game associated with the basic wagering game. The primary display 14 may take the form of a cathode ray tube (CRT), a high resolution LCD, a plasma display, an LED, or any other type of display suitable for use in the gaming machine 10. As shown, the primary display 14 includes the touch screen 28 overlaying the entire monitor (or a portion thereof) to allow players to make game-related selections. Alternatively, the primary display 14 of the gaming machine 10 may include a number of mechanical reels to display the outcome in visual association to at least one payline 32. In the illustrated embodiment, the gaming machine 10 is an “upright” version in which the primary display 14 is oriented vertically relative to the player. Alternatively, the gaming machine may be a “slant-top” version in which the primary display 14 is slanted at about a thirty-degree angle toward the player of the gaming machine 10. A player begins play of the basic wagering game by making a wager via the value input device 18 of the gaming machine 10. A player can select play by using the player input device 24, via the buttons 26 or the touch screen keys 30. The basic game consists of a plurality of symbols arranged in an array, and includes at least one payline 32 that indicates one or more outcomes of the basic game. Such outcomes are randomly selected in response to the wagering input by the player. At least one of the plurality of randomly selected outcomes may be a start-bonus outcome, which can include any variations of symbols or symbol combinations triggering a bonus game. In some embodiments, the gaming machine 10 may also include a player information reader 52 that allows for identification of a player by reading a card with information indicating his or her true identity. The player information reader 52 is shown in FIG. 1 as a card reader, but may take on many forms including a ticket reader, bar code scanner, RFID transceiver or computer readable storage medium interface. Currently, identification is generally used by casinos for rewarding certain players with complimentary services or special offers. For example, a player may be enrolled in the gaming establishment's loyalty club and may be awarded certain complimentary services as that player collects points in his or her player-tracking account. The player inserts his or her card into the player information reader 52, which allows the casino's computers to register that player's wagering at the gaming machine 10. The gaming machine 10 may use the secondary display 16 or other dedicated player-tracking display for providing the player with information about his or her account or other player-specific information. Also, in some embodiments, the information reader 52 may be used to restore game assets that the player achieved and saved during a previous game session. Turning now to FIG. 2, the various components of the gaming machine 10 are controlled by a central processing unit (CPU) 34, also referred to herein as a controller or processor (such as a microcontroller or microprocessor). To provide gaming functions, the controller 34 executes one or more game programs stored in a computer readable storage medium, in the form of memory 36. The controller 34 performs the random selection (using a random number generator (RNG)) of an outcome from the plurality of possible outcomes of the wagering game. Alternatively, the random event may be determined at a remote controller. The remote controller may use either an RNG or pooling scheme for its central determination of a game outcome. It should be appreciated that the controller 34 may include one or more microprocessors, including but not limited to a master processor, a slave processor, and a secondary or parallel processor. The controller 34 is also coupled to the system memory 36 and a money/credit detector 38. The system memory 36 may comprise a volatile memory (e.g., a random-access memory (RAM)) and a non-volatile memory (e.g., an EEPROM). The system memory 36 may include multiple RAM and multiple program memories. The money/credit detector 38 signals the processor that money and/or credits have been input via the value input device 18. Preferably, these components are located within the housing 12 of the gaming machine 10. However, as explained above, these components may be located outboard of the housing 12 and connected to the remainder of the components of the gaming machine 10 via a variety of different wired or wireless connection methods. As seen in FIG. 2, the controller 34 is also connected to, and controls, the primary display 14, the player input device 24, and a payoff mechanism 40. The payoff mechanism 40 is operable in response to instructions from the controller 34 to award a payoff to the player in response to certain winning outcomes that might occur in the basic game or the bonus game(s). The payoff may be provided in the form of points, bills, tickets, coupons, cards, etc. For example, in FIG. 1, the payoff mechanism 40 includes both a ticket printer 42 and a coin outlet 44. However, any of a variety of payoff mechanisms 40 well known in the art may be implemented, including cards, coins, tickets, smartcards, cash, etc. The payoff amounts distributed by the payoff mechanism 40 are determined by one or more pay tables stored in the system memory 36. Communications between the controller 34 and both the peripheral components of the gaming machine 10 and external systems 50 occur through input/output (I/O) circuits 46, 48. More specifically, the controller 34 controls and receives inputs from the peripheral components of the gaming machine 10 through the input/output circuits 46. Further, the controller 34 communicates with the external systems 50 via the I/O circuits 48 and a communication path (e.g., serial, parallel, IR, RC, 10bT, etc.). The external systems 50 may include a gaming network, other gaming machines, a gaming server, communications hardware, or a variety of other interfaced systems or components. Although the I/O circuits 46, 48 may be shown as a single block, it should be appreciated that each of the I/O circuits 46, 48 may include a number of different types of I/O circuits. Controller 34, as used herein, comprises any combination of hardware, software, and/or firmware that may be disposed or resident inside and/or outside of the gaming machine 10 that may communicate with and/or control the transfer of data between the gaming machine 10 and a bus, another computer, processor, or device and/or a service and/or a network. The controller 34 may comprise one or more controllers or processors. In FIG. 2, the controller 34 in the gaming machine 10 is depicted as comprising a CPU, but the controller 34 may alternatively comprise a CPU in combination with other components, such as the I/O circuits 46, 48 and the system memory 36. Turning now to FIG. 3, a gaming system includes a plurality of gaming machines 10a, 10b, a server 60, and an optional overhead sign 62 that is viewable by players at gaming machines 10a, 10b. The gaming system is used for conducting a community event, which in this case is the “Monopoly® Big Event” game (hereinafter “Big Event Game”), in which a plurality of gaming machines 10a, 10b share community-event outcomes. The community event can be, for example, a community bonus game. The Big Event Game is initiated by an event within one of the gaming machines 10a, 10b. For example, the Big Event Game can be triggered when a player achieves a particular set of symbols on the basic game. In another example, the Big Event Game can be triggered at random intervals. For example, the Big Event Game can be triggered if a selected random number is within a predetermined range. The gaming machine that initiates the Big Event Game is also referred to as the “initiator” machine. When the Big Event Game has been triggered, other ones of the gaming machines 10a, 10b are notified and invited to participate. If a player accepts the invitation, then the Big Event Game is initiated on his or her gaming machine and it is displayed for allowing the player to observe outcomes of the Big Event Game. At least one of the gaming machines 10a, 10b includes a Big Event Client 70, a basic game 72, a game environment 74, a game manager 76, and an RNG Service 78. The Big Event Client 70 is, for example, an additional software component that is added to the system memory 36 and that is controlled by the controller 34 (FIG. 2). The server 60 includes a Big Event Service 80 (referred to hereinafter as a Big Event Coordinator 80), a multiplayer game log 82, and an optional overhead sign manager 84. The Big Event Coordinator 80 resides, and executes, on the server 60, which can also be, optionally, an overhead sign controller, a carousel controller, or a dedicated platform. In alternate embodiments, the Big Event Coordinator 80 may reside and execute on one of the gaming machines 10a, 10b. In operation, when the Big Event Game is triggered, the RNG Service 78 within a designated or selected gaming machine, such as gaming machine 10b, dictates one or more of the outcomes in the Big Event Game. As such, the Big Event Coordinator 80 in the server 60 requests random outcomes, e.g., random numbers, from the RNG Service 78 when the Big Event Game is being played. After receiving one or more of the random outcomes from the Big Event Client 70, the Big Event Coordinator 80 distributes the received random outcomes to all participating machines of the gaming machines 10a, 10b. In other words, the Big Event Coordinator 80 provides a shared determination to participating ones of the gaming machines 10a, 10b but does not determine the random outcomes. Referring to FIG. 4, a process of triggering and playing the Big Event Game is illustrated using the two gaming machines 10a, 10b (referred to as gaming machine one (“GM1”) and gaming machine two (“GM2”), respectively) and the server 60 of FIG. 3. GM 1 includes the RNG Service 78a and the Big Event Client 70a. GM 2 includes its own Big Event Client 70b. Optionally, GM 2 can also include an RNG Service. At step S100, GM 1 is enabled as the initiator. For example, the Big Event Coordinator 80 sends a message signal to the Big Event Client 70a of GM 1 to set the initiator to an “Enabled” state, e.g., the message signal can instruct GM 1 to “SET INITIATOR STATE ‘ENABLED’.” Then, at step S102, the enabled GM 1 sends a “INITIATE REQUEST” message signal to the Big Event Coordinator 80, which is a request for initiating a session of the Big Event Game. The Big Event Coordinator 80 accepts the “INITIATE REQUEST” message signal, at step S104, replying with an “INITIATE RESPONSE ‘ACCEPTED’” message signal. The session of the Big Event Game is then initiated by the Big Event Coordinator 80. Alternatively, more than one gaming machine can be enabled as an initiator. For example, if both GM 1 and GM 2 are enabled as initiators, then prioritization conditions may occur when both GM 1 and GM 2 attempt to initiate a session concurrently. If a session of the Big Event Game is already in progress, the Big Event Coordinator 80 may deny any subsequent requests. For example, if GM 2 requests the initiation of a session after a session has been initiated at the request of GM 1, the GM 2 request will be denied. The request will be denied indefinitely or until a predetermined condition occurs, e.g., until the session ends. In alternative embodiments, multiple concurrent or overlapping requests may be allowed. When the session of the Big Event Game is initiated, the Big Event Coordinator 80 sends invitations to all of the connected gaming machines, i.e., GM 1 and GM 2. Thus, at step S106, each one of GM 1 and GM 2 receives an “INVITATION INDICATION” message signal from the Big Event Coordinator 80. Each one of GM 1 and GM 2 displays an invitation dialog and waits for a response from the corresponding player. Each player can choose to accept or reject the invitation. Alternatively, the initiator is automatically included and the invitation is sent to other gaming machines. For example, in the above example an invitation is sent only to GM 2 because GM 1 is the initiator. In this example, the player of GM 2 chooses not to participate in the Big Event Game. Consequently, at step S108, the player of GM 2 sends an “INVITATION REFUSE” message signal to the Big Event Coordinator 80. In contrast, the player of GM 1 chooses to participate in the Big Event Game. Consequently, at step S110, the player of GM 1 sends an “INVITATION JOIN REQUEST” message signal to the Big Event Coordinator 80. When GM 1 joins the Big Event Game, it is added to a list of participating gaming machines. Alternatively, a global time limit may be used to limit the time for receiving a late acceptance. If, for example, the player of GM 2 sends an “INVITATION JOIN REQUEST” message signal after the global time limit has expired, then the Big Event Coordinator 80 returns a message signal indicating that the request is denied. As an example, a timer can be displayed on at least one of a primary display 14 or a secondary display 16 corresponding to one or more of GM 1, GM 2, and overhead sign 62 to let the player know how much time there is left. At step S112, the Big Event Coordinator 80 accepts the “INVITATION JOIN REQUEST” from GM 1 and returns an “INVITATION JOIN RESPONSE ‘ACCEPTED’” message signal to indicate acceptance of GM 1 as a participating gaming machine. In some embodiments the players of GM 1 and GM 2 may place one or more side wagers for the Big Event Game. Then, at step S114, the player of GM 1 sends a “READY INDICATION” message signal, to indicate that he or she is ready to continue playing the Big Event Game. Optionally, if the player of GM 1 does not place a side wager within a predetermined time limit, GM 1 closes the opportunity for placing side wagers and sends the “READY INDICATION” message signal without having received a side wager. In the above example, participation of GM 1 is determined using a buy-in model, wherein participation is voluntary and it is decided by the player. Alternatively, in an eligibility model, a gaming machine participates in the Big Event Game after an eligibility determination has been made. Participation in the eligibility model is automatic and it is decided by the gaming machine, rather than the player. Each one of the connected gaming machines makes a determination whether the player is eligible for joining the Big Event Game. If the player is eligible, then the corresponding gaming machine sends an “INVITATION JOIN REQUEST” message signal to the Big Event Coordinator 80. If the player is not eligible, then the corresponding gaming machine sends an “INVITATION REFUSE” message signal to the Big Event Coordinator 80. At this point, in the process of FIG. 4, all of the participating gaming machines, i.e., GM 1, are ready to continue playing the Big Event Game. The Big Event Coordinator 80 requests a random number (or numbers) from the RNG Service 78a of GM 1. The random number, which dictates one or more of the randomly selected outcomes of the Big Event Game, is requested at step S116 using a “RNG REQ” message signal. At step S118, GM 1 sends a message signal providing the requested random number, e.g., sending a “RNG RESPONSE” message signal. If there is more than one participating gaming machine in the Big Event Game, random number generation can be provided by any of the participating gaming machines. For example, a first gaming machine 10a can provide random number generation related to the triggering of the Big Event Game (e.g., the Big Event Game is triggered if a randomly generated number is within a predetermined range) and a second gaming machine 10b can provide random number generation related to the randomly selected outcomes within the Big Event Game. Optionally, the Big Event Game can be triggered by the Big Event Coordinator 80. In another example, a first gaming machine 10a can provide random number generation for a first outcome of the Big Event Game and a second gaming machine 10b can provide random number generation for a second outcome of the Big Event Game. Thus, the random number generation associated with the Big Event Game can be provided by any and more than one of the participating gaming machines 10a, 10b. The numbers selected during the random number generation are aggregated to encompass a plurality of outcomes for the session (e.g., the first outcome and the second outcome of the Big Event Game). The aggregation of outcomes is transmitted to the participating gaming machines. For example, if the Big Event Game is a community Monopoly® board game (FIG. 5), the first outcome can be a first roll of the dice and the second outcome can be a subsequent roll of the dice. The first roll of the dice and the second roll of the dice are aggregated and transmitted to the participating gaming machines. Optionally, one or more of the randomly selected outcomes within the Big Event Game can have a number of sub-outcomes. For example, while playing the community Monopoly® board game, the player receives an award if an outcome of the game allows a player's game piece to move past the starting point of the game twice. To receive the award, the player will generally require a plurality of dice rolls, i.e., a plurality of sub-outcomes, to move across the board. Each dice roll requires a randomly generated number, which can be provided from any of the gaming machines 10a, 10b. After the random number has been received from the RNG Service 78a, the Big Event Coordinator 80 sends at step S120 an “RNG INDICATION” message signal to all the participating gaming machines (which in the above example is only GM 1) to share the outcome determined by the RNG Service 78a of GM 1. Then, at step S122 the Big Event Coordinator 80 sends a “SESSIONSYNCIND (START PLAY)” message signal to all the connected gaming machines to coordinate, for example, the display and/or enactment of the shared outcome on each of the connected gaming machines 10a, 10b. The shared outcome of the game (e.g., moving a game piece across the Monopoly® game-board as a function of the randomly selected outcome indicated by the dice) is displayed on one or more of a corresponding primary display 14 and secondary display 16 of the gaming machines 10a, 10b. In addition, the shared outcome is optionally displayed on the overhead sign 62. If the gaming machine 10a, 10b is a participating machine 10a in the Big Event Game, then it will commit the player's side wagers, if appropriate. If the gaming machine 10a, 10b is not participating in the Big Event Game, then it may use the message signal, for example, to inhibit timed expiration of the player's current eligibility while the game is in progress. When the Big Event Game is finished, at step S124, the Big Event Coordinator 80 sends a “SESSION COMPLETE” message signal to each of the participating gaming machines. The participating gaming machines will, then, display game-related information, such as the player's winnings, and return to the basic game 72. Referring to FIG. 5, a gaming system for conducting a Big Event community bonus game includes a plurality of gaming machines 10a-10f, a server 60, and a signage 62. The gaming machines 10a-10f and the signage 62 are connected to the server 60, which is used for distributing information to and from one or more of the gaming machines 10a-10f. The gaming machines 10a-10f are arranged in a semicircular arrangement around the signage 62, and each player of any of the gaming machines 10a-10f is able to observe the signage 62 for playing the bonus game. The bonus game can be played similarly to the method described above in reference to FIGS. 3 and 4. Each gaming machine 10 includes a controller 34 (FIG. 2), which includes an RNG Service 78 for coordinating a basic game that is typically played locally and individually at the gaming machine 10. However, one or more of gaming machines 10a-10f has its controller 34 and associated RNG Service 78 used for determining the outcomes of the basic game and for determining a randomly selected outcome in the community event that is shared by several of the gaming machines 10a-10f. As such, at least one controller 34 has an RNG Service 78 for controlling the community-event outcome of a neighboring gaming machine 10. In an alternative embodiment, the server 60 is replaced by any one of the gaming machines 10a-10f. For example, a first gaming machine 10a performs the functions of the server 60, e.g., game coordination, and becomes a master gaming machine 10a. Thus, the master gaming machine 10a performs the functions associated with any one of a game coordinator, a game initiator, and/or a random number source, i.e., the master gaming machine 10a is both a community-event server and a gaming machine. In another alternative embodiment, a server 60 is coupled to a memory 36 and includes data for determining a randomly selected bonus-game outcome based on a randomly selected number. A gaming machine 10 includes an RNG Service 78 for selecting the randomly selected number. After the server 60 receives the randomly selected number from the RNG Service 78, the server 60 determines the randomly selected bonus-game outcome that corresponds to the randomly selected number. For example, the server 60 includes a look-up table that associates a plurality of randomly selected bonus-game outcomes corresponding to a plurality of randomly selected numbers. When a randomly selected number is sent by the RNG Service 78, the server 60 matches the selected number to the corresponding outcome. Alternatively, the RNG Service 78 determines both the randomly selected number and its associated randomly selected bonus-game outcome. In this embodiment, as opposed to only the randomly selected number being transmitted to the server 60, only the bonus-game outcome is transmitted to the server 60. The functions of triggering a session of the community event, sharing information related to the community event, and determining outcomes of the community event can vary dynamically and/or randomly over time among the plurality of gaming machines 10a-10f and, optionally, the server 60. For example, the initiator machine that triggers a session of the community event can vary from one session of the community event to another session of the community event. As such, assuming that in a first session of the community event the initiator machine is the first gaming machine 10a, in a second session of the community event the initiator machine can be the first gaming machine 10a, the second gaming machine 10b, or the server 60. The type of triggering can be an outcome achieved during the wagering game, or it can be a random event unrelated to the wagering games being played at the gaming machines 10a-10f (e.g., selection of a random number within a predetermined range). Information related to the community event (e.g., triggering of the game, sub-outcomes within the event, outcomes of the event, etc.) can be shared directly among the plurality of gaming machines 10a-10f, or can be shared indirectly via one of the gaming machines 10a-10f or the server 60. For example, in a first session of the community event the information is shared directly from the first gaming machine 10a to the second gaming machine 10b. In a second session of the community event, the information is shared indirectly from the first gaming machine 10a to the second gaming machine 10b via the third gaming machine 10c. Optionally, the information can be shared via the server 60. Determination of outcomes of the community event can vary from one session of the community event to another session of the community event among the plurality of gaming machines 10a-10f. For example, a first outcome of the community event is determined by the first gaming machine 10a in a first session of the community event, a second outcome of the community event is determined by the second gaming machine 10b in a second session of the community event, and so on. While the figures describe the same type of gaming machines within the system, in an alternative embodiment of the present invention, at least two of the gaming machines 10a-10f play a different type of wagering game, although they participate in the same community event. For example, each player of a first gaming machine 10a and a second gaming machine 10b play, individually, a different local slots game, but play the Big Event Game when triggered. Each of these embodiments and obvious variations thereof is contemplated as falling within the spirit and scope of the claimed invention, which is set forth in the following claims.	A	A63	A63F	9	24
11622700	US20080023632A1-20080131	MILLIMETER AND SUB-MILLIMETER WAVE DETECTION	ACCEPTED	20080116	20080131		[]	G01J500	["G01J500"]	7486247	20070112	20090203	343	767000	97884.0	HO	TAN	[{"inventor_name_last": "Ridgway", "inventor_name_first": "Richard", "inventor_city": "Westerville", "inventor_state": "OH", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Risser", "inventor_name_first": "Steven", "inventor_city": "Reynoldsburg", "inventor_state": "OH", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Nippa", "inventor_name_first": "David", "inventor_city": "Dublin", "inventor_state": "OH", "inventor_country": "US"}]	In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, an antenna assembly comprising an antenna portion and an electrooptic waveguide portion is provided. The antenna portion comprises at least one tapered slot antenna. The waveguide portion comprises at least one electrooptic waveguide. The electrooptic waveguide comprises a waveguide core extending substantially parallel to a slotline of the tapered slot antenna in an active region of the antenna assembly. The electrooptic waveguide at least partially comprises a velocity matching electrooptic polymer in the active region of the antenna assembly. The velocity Ve of a millimeter or sub-millimeter wave signal traveling along the tapered slot antenna in the active region is at least partially a function of the dielectric constant of the velocity matching electrooptic polymer. In addition, the velocity vO of an optical signal propagating along the waveguide in the active region is at least partially a function of the index of refraction of the velocity matching electrooptic polymer. Accordingly, the active region and the velocity matching electrooptic polymer can be configured such that ve and vO are substantially the same, or at least within a predetermined range of each other, in the active region. Additional embodiments are disclosed and claimed.	1. An antenna assembly comprising an antenna portion and an electrooptic waveguide portion, wherein: the antenna portion comprises at least one tapered slot antenna; the electrooptic waveguide extends along at least a portion of an optical path between an optical input and an optical output of the antenna assembly; the electrooptic waveguide comprises a waveguide core extending substantially parallel to a slotline of the tapered slot antenna in an active region of the antenna assembly; the electrooptic waveguide at least partially comprises a velocity matching electrooptic polymer in the active region of the antenna assembly; a velocity ve of a millimeter or sub-millimeter wave signal traveling along the tapered slot antenna in the active region is at least partially a function of the dielectric constant of the velocity matching electrooptic polymer; a velocity vO of an optical signal propagating along the waveguide in the active region is at least partially a function of the index of refraction of the velocity matching electrooptic polymer; and the active region and the velocity matching electrooptic polymer are configured such that ve and vO satisfy the following relation:  v e - v O  v O ≤ 20 ⁢ ⁢ % . 2. An antenna assembly as claimed in claim 1 wherein: the active region comprises electrically conductive elements of the tapered slot antenna and a dielectric substrate; the dielectric substrate defines a thickness t in the active region and comprises a base layer, the waveguide core, the velocity matching electrooptic polymer, at least one additional optical cladding layer, each of which contribute to the thickness t in the active region; the velocity ve of the millimeter or sub-millimeter wave signal in the active region is a function of effective permittivity εeff the active region; the effective permittivity εeff is a function of the substrate thickness t and the respective dielectric constants of the base layer, the waveguide core, the velocity matching electrooptic polymer, and the additional optical cladding layer; the velocity vO of the optical signal propagating along the waveguide in the active region is a function of the effective index of refraction εeff of the active region; and the effective index of refraction εeff is a function of the respective indices of refraction of the waveguide core, the velocity matching electrooptic polymer, and the additional optical cladding layer. 3. An antenna assembly as claimed in claim 1 wherein the active region and the velocity matching electrooptic polymer are configured such that the velocity ve and the velocity vO satisfy the following relation:  1 - v e v O  ≤ 2.8 L ⁢ ⁢ β where L is the length of the active region and β is the propagation constant of the waveguide. 4. An antenna assembly as claimed in claim 1 wherein the antenna portion and the electrooptic waveguide portion are configured such that an optical signal propagating from the optical input to the optical output of the antenna assembly passes through a single one of the active regions of the antenna assembly, the single active region comprising a single tapered slot antenna. 5. An antenna assembly as claimed in claim 1 wherein: the tapered slot antenna comprises first and second electrically conductive elements arranged to define a radiating slot of the antenna; and the first and second electrically conductive elements are arranged in a common plane, above the electrooptic waveguide. 6. An antenna assembly as claimed in claim 1 wherein: the tapered slot antenna comprises first and second electrically conductive elements arranged to define a radiating slot of the antenna; the first electrically conductive element is arranged in a plane above the electrooptic waveguide; and the second electrically conductive element is arranged in a plane below the electrooptic waveguide. 7. An antenna assembly as claimed in claim 6 wherein the first and second electrically conductive element are arranged to overlap in the active region of the antenna assembly. 8. An antenna assembly as claimed in claim 1 wherein the antenna portion comprises a plurality of the tapered slot antennae arranged in a one-dimensional, focal plane array. 9. An antenna assembly as claimed in claim 1 wherein the antenna portion comprises a plurality of the tapered slot antennae arranged in a two-dimensional, focal plane array. 10. An antenna assembly as claimed in claim 1 wherein the antenna assembly further comprises a frequency-dependent filter positioned to discriminate frequency sidebands from a carrier frequency band in an optical signal propagating along the electrooptic waveguide portion, downstream of the active region. 11. An antenna assembly as claimed in claim 10 wherein the frequency-dependent filter comprises a plurality of filter output ports and discriminates the frequency sidebands from the carrier frequency band by separating the frequency sidebands from the optical carrier and directing the sidebands and the optical carrier to individual ones of the filter output ports. 12. An antenna assembly as claimed in claim 11 wherein the frequency-dependent filter is configured to discriminate the sidebands and the carrier band coherently such that the frequency sidebands can be recombined at the optical output of the antenna assembly. 13. An antenna assembly as claimed in claim 10 wherein: the antenna assembly comprises a plurality of the optical outputs; the antenna portion comprises a plurality of the tapered slot antennae and electrooptic waveguides arranged in a focal plane array; and the frequency-dependent filter comprises a plurality of input ports optically coupled to corresponding ones of the electrooptic waveguides and a plurality of filter output ports configured to direct optical signals to corresponding ones of the optical outputs of the antenna assembly. 14. An antenna assembly comprising an antenna portion and an electrooptic waveguide portion, wherein: the antenna portion comprises at least one tapered slot antenna; the waveguide portion comprises at least one electrooptic waveguide; the electrooptic waveguide extends along at least a portion of an optical path between an optical input and an optical output of the antenna assembly; the electrooptic waveguide comprises a waveguide core in an active region of the antenna assembly; the electrooptic waveguide at least partially comprises a velocity matching electrooptic polymer in the active region of the antenna assembly; a velocity ve of a millimeter or sub-millimeter wave signal traveling along the tapered slot antenna in the active region is at least partially a function of the dielectric constant of the electrooptic polymer; a velocity vO of an optical signal propagating along the waveguide in the active region is at least partially a function of the index of refraction of the electrooptic polymer; the tapered slot antenna comprises first and second electrically conductive elements arranged to define a radiating slot of the antenna; the first electrically conductive element is arranged in a plane above the electrooptic waveguide; and the second electrically conductive element is arranged in a plane below the electrooptic waveguide. 15. An antenna assembly as claimed in claim 14 wherein the first and second electrically conductive elements are arranged to overlap in the active region of the antenna assembly. 16. An antenna assembly comprising an antenna portion, a waveguide portion, and a frequency dependent filter, wherein: the antenna portion comprises at least one tapered slot antenna; the waveguide portion extends along at least a portion of an optical path between an optical input and an optical output of the antenna assembly; the waveguide portion comprises a waveguide core in an active region of the antenna assembly; the tapered slot antenna and the electrooptic waveguide are configured such that the millimeter or sub-millimeter wave signal traveling along the tapered slot antenna is imparted on the optical signal as frequency sidebands of an optical carrier frequency; and the frequency-dependent filter comprises a plurality of filter output ports and is configured to discriminate the frequency sidebands from the carrier frequency band in an optical signal propagating along the waveguide portion, downstream of the active region such that frequency sidebands having wavelengths that are shorter and longer than a wavelength of said carrier band can be recombined at the optical output of the antenna assembly. 17. An antenna assembly as claimed in claim 16 wherein: the waveguide portion at least partially comprises a velocity matching electrooptic polymer in the active region of the antenna assembly; a velocity ve of a millimeter or sub-millimeter wave signal traveling along the tapered slot antenna in the active region is at least partially a function of the dielectric constant of the electrooptic polymer; a velocity vO of an optical signal propagating along the waveguide in the active region is at least partially a function of the index of refraction of the electrooptic polymer; 18. An antenna assembly as claimed in claim 16 wherein the waveguide portion at least partially comprises lithium niobate. 19. An antenna assembly as claimed in claim 16 wherein: the antenna assembly comprises a plurality of the optical outputs; the antenna portion comprises a plurality of the tapered slot antennae and electrooptic waveguides arranged in a focal plane array; and the frequency-dependent filter comprises a plurality of input ports optically coupled to corresponding ones of the electrooptic waveguides and a plurality of filter output ports configured to direct optical signals to corresponding ones of the optical outputs of the antenna assembly. 20. An antenna assembly comprising a plurality of tapered slot antennae and a plurality of waveguide cores, wherein: each of the waveguide cores extends from an optical input portion to an optical output portion along an optical path; at least a portion of the optical path between the optical input portion and the optical output portion of each waveguide core is substantially parallel to a slotline of a corresponding tapered slot antenna in the active region of the tapered slot antenna; the tapered slot antennae are arranged in a one or two-dimensional, focal plane array such that each of the tapered slot antennae defines an antenna pixel within said focal plane array; and the tapered slot antennae are configured such that each of said tapered slot antennae receives a distinct pixel portion of a millimeter or sub-millimeter wave signal incident on said focal plane array. 21. An antenna assembly as claimed in claim 20 wherein the waveguide cores and the tapered slot antennae are configured as a parallel electrooptical circuit. 22. An antenna assembly as claimed in claim 20 wherein the waveguide cores and the tapered slot antennae are configured such that an optical signal propagating from an optical input portion of one of the waveguide cores to the optical output of the waveguide core passes through a single one of the active regions of the antenna assembly, the single active region comprising a single tapered slot antenna. 23. A method of fabricating an antenna assembly comprising an antenna portion and an electrooptic waveguide portion, wherein: the antenna portion is provided with at least one tapered slot antenna; the waveguide portion is provided with at least one electrooptic waveguide; the electrooptic waveguide is configured to extend along at least a portion of an optical path between an optical input and an optical output of the antenna assembly; the electrooptic waveguide is provided with a waveguide core extending substantially parallel to a slotline of the tapered slot antenna in an active region of the antenna assembly; the electrooptic waveguide at least partially comprises a velocity matching electrooptic polymer in the active region of the antenna assembly such that a velocity ve of a millimeter or sub-millimeter wave signal traveling along the tapered slot antenna in the active region is at least partially a function of the dielectric constant of the velocity matching electrooptic polymer and a velocity vO of an optical signal propagating along the waveguide in the active region is at least partially a function of the index of refraction of the velocity matching electrooptic polymer; and the effective permittivity εeff of the active region and the effective index of refraction εeff of the active region are established such that ve and vO satisfy the following relation:  v e - v O  v O ≤ 20 ⁢ ⁢ % . 24. A method as claimed in claim 20 wherein the effective permittivity εeff of the active region and the effective index of refraction ηeff of the active region are established by controlling one or more of the following parameters: the dielectric constant of the velocity matching electrooptic polymer; the dielectric constant of the substrate material forming the antenna portion; the geometry of the velocity matching electrooptic polymer; the geometry of the substrate material forming the antenna portion; the thickness t of the active region; the effective permittivity εeff of the active region; the effective index of refraction ηeff of the active region; the length of the active region; and the propagation constant of the waveguide.		<SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to the detection of millimeter and sub-millimeter waves. More specifically, the present invention relates to the design and fabrication of an antenna assembly including an electrooptic waveguide configured to detect 30 GHz or greater electromagnetic signals. For the purposes of describing and defining the present invention, it is noted that reference herein to millimeter and sub-millimeter wave signals denote frequencies that are≧30 GHz. In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, an antenna assembly comprising an antenna portion and an electrooptic waveguide portion is provided. The antenna portion comprises at least one tapered slot antenna. The waveguide portion comprises at least one electrooptic waveguide. The electrooptic waveguide comprises a waveguide core extending substantially parallel to a slotline of the tapered slot antenna in an active region of the antenna assembly. The electrooptic waveguide at least partially comprises a velocity matching electrooptic polymer in the active region of the antenna assembly. The velocity v e of a millimeter or sub-millimeter wave signal traveling along the tapered slot antenna in the active region is at least partially a function of the dielectric constant of the velocity matching electrooptic polymer. In addition, the velocity v O of an optical signal propagating along the waveguide in the active region is at least partially a function of the index of refraction of the velocity matching electrooptic polymer. Accordingly, the active region and the velocity matching electrooptic polymer can be configured such that v e and v O are substantially the same, or at least within a predetermined range of each other, in the active region. In accordance with another embodiment of the present invention, the tapered slot antenna comprises first and second electrically conductive elements arranged to define a radiating slot of the antenna. The first electrically conductive element is arranged in a plane above the electrooptic waveguide and the second electrically conductive element is arranged in a plane below the electrooptic waveguide. In accordance with yet another embodiment of the present invention, the tapered slot antenna and the electrooptic waveguide are configured such that the millimeter or sub-millimeter wave signal traveling along the tapered slot antenna is imparted on the optical signal as frequency sidebands of an optical carrier frequency. In addition, a frequency-dependent filter is positioned to discriminate the frequency sidebands from the carrier frequency band in an optical signal propagating along the electrooptic waveguide portion, downstream of the active region. In accordance with yet another embodiment of the present invention, a method of fabricating an antenna assembly is provided. According to the method, the electrooptic waveguide at least partially comprises a velocity matching electrooptic polymer in the active region of the antenna assembly such that a velocity v e of a millimeter or sub-millimeter wave signal traveling along the tapered slot antenna in the active region is at least partially a function of the dielectric constant of the velocity matching electrooptic polymer and a velocity v O of an optical signal propagating along the waveguide in the active region is at least partially a function of the index of refraction of the velocity matching electrooptic polymer. In addition, the effective permittivity ε eff of the active region and the effective index of refraction η eff of the active region are established such that v e and v O are substantially the same or satisfy a predetermined relation.	CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. Nos. 60/772,921 (OPI 0028 MA), filed Feb. 13, 2006, and 60/805,524 (OPI 0030 MA), filed Jun. 22, 2006. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to the detection of millimeter and sub-millimeter waves. More specifically, the present invention relates to the design and fabrication of an antenna assembly including an electrooptic waveguide configured to detect 30 GHz or greater electromagnetic signals. For the purposes of describing and defining the present invention, it is noted that reference herein to millimeter and sub-millimeter wave signals denote frequencies that are≧30 GHz. In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, an antenna assembly comprising an antenna portion and an electrooptic waveguide portion is provided. The antenna portion comprises at least one tapered slot antenna. The waveguide portion comprises at least one electrooptic waveguide. The electrooptic waveguide comprises a waveguide core extending substantially parallel to a slotline of the tapered slot antenna in an active region of the antenna assembly. The electrooptic waveguide at least partially comprises a velocity matching electrooptic polymer in the active region of the antenna assembly. The velocity ve of a millimeter or sub-millimeter wave signal traveling along the tapered slot antenna in the active region is at least partially a function of the dielectric constant of the velocity matching electrooptic polymer. In addition, the velocity vO of an optical signal propagating along the waveguide in the active region is at least partially a function of the index of refraction of the velocity matching electrooptic polymer. Accordingly, the active region and the velocity matching electrooptic polymer can be configured such that ve and vO are substantially the same, or at least within a predetermined range of each other, in the active region. In accordance with another embodiment of the present invention, the tapered slot antenna comprises first and second electrically conductive elements arranged to define a radiating slot of the antenna. The first electrically conductive element is arranged in a plane above the electrooptic waveguide and the second electrically conductive element is arranged in a plane below the electrooptic waveguide. In accordance with yet another embodiment of the present invention, the tapered slot antenna and the electrooptic waveguide are configured such that the millimeter or sub-millimeter wave signal traveling along the tapered slot antenna is imparted on the optical signal as frequency sidebands of an optical carrier frequency. In addition, a frequency-dependent filter is positioned to discriminate the frequency sidebands from the carrier frequency band in an optical signal propagating along the electrooptic waveguide portion, downstream of the active region. In accordance with yet another embodiment of the present invention, a method of fabricating an antenna assembly is provided. According to the method, the electrooptic waveguide at least partially comprises a velocity matching electrooptic polymer in the active region of the antenna assembly such that a velocity ve of a millimeter or sub-millimeter wave signal traveling along the tapered slot antenna in the active region is at least partially a function of the dielectric constant of the velocity matching electrooptic polymer and a velocity vO of an optical signal propagating along the waveguide in the active region is at least partially a function of the index of refraction of the velocity matching electrooptic polymer. In addition, the effective permittivity εeff of the active region and the effective index of refraction ηeff of the active region are established such that ve and vO are substantially the same or satisfy a predetermined relation. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS The following detailed description of specific embodiments of the present invention can be best understood when read in conjunction with the following drawings, where like structure is indicated with like reference numerals and in which: FIG. 1A is a schematic illustration of an antenna assembly according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 1B is a schematic cross sectional illustration of the active region of the antenna assembly illustrated in FIG. 1A; FIGS. 2 and 3 are schematic illustrations of two of the many alternative tapered slot antenna configurations for use in the present invention; FIG. 4 is a schematic plan view of an antenna assembly according to another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a schematic cross sectional illustration of the active region of the antenna assembly illustrated in FIG. 4; FIG. 6 is a schematic illustration of an antenna assembly according to the present invention configured as a one-dimensional focal plane array; and FIG. 7 is a schematic, partially exploded illustration of an antenna assembly according to the present invention configured as a two-dimensional focal plane array. DETAILED DESCRIPTION An antenna assembly 10 according to one embodiment of the present invention is illustrated in FIGS. 1A and 1B. Generally, the antenna assembly 10 comprises an antenna portion 20 and an electrooptic waveguide portion 30. The antenna portion 20 is configured as a tapered slot antenna, the design of which will be described in further detail below with reference to FIGS. 2 and 3. The waveguide portion 30 comprises at least one electrooptic waveguide 32 that extends along at least a portion of an optical path between an optical input 34 and an optical output 36 of the antenna assembly 10. For the purposes of describing and defining the present invention, it is noted that reference herein to an “optical” signal denotes electromagnetic radiation in the ultraviolet, visible, infrared, or near-infrared portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The electrooptic waveguide 32 comprises a waveguide core 35 that extends substantially parallel to a slotline 22 of the tapered slot antenna 20 in an active region 15 of the antenna assembly 10 and at least partially comprises a velocity matching electrooptic polymer 38 in the active region 15 of the antenna assembly 10. It is contemplated that the velocity matching electrooptic polymer 38 may form the waveguide core 35, all or part of the cladding surrounding a non-polymeric waveguide core, or both the core 35 and the cladding of the waveguide 32. The tapered slot antenna 20 and the electrooptic waveguide 32 are positioned relative to each other such that: (i) the velocity ve of a millimeter or sub-millimeter wave signal 100 traveling along the tapered slot antenna 20 in the active region 15 is at least partially a function of the dielectric constant of the velocity matching electrooptic polymer 38 and (ii) the velocity vO of an optical signal propagating along the waveguide core 35 in the active region 15 is at least partially a function of the index of refraction of the velocity matching electrooptic polymer 38. For the purposes of describing and defining the present invention, it is noted that reference herein to a variable being a “function” of a parameter or another variable is not intended to denote that the variable is exclusively a function of the listed parameter or variable. Rather, reference herein to a variable that is a “function” of a listed parameter is intended to be open ended such that the variable may be a function of a single parameter or a plurality of parameters. Given this common dependency on the properties of the velocity matching electrooptic polymer 38, the active region 15 and the velocity matching electrooptic polymer 38 of the antenna assembly 10 can be configured to enhance the velocity matching of the millimeter wave and the optical signal in the active region 15. For example, it is contemplated that the active region 15 and the velocity matching electrooptic polymer 38 can be configured such that ve and vO are substantially the same in the active region or such that they at least satisfy the following relation:  v e - v O  v O ≤ 20 ⁢ ⁢ % . Although the antenna assembly described above is not limited to specific antenna applications, the significance of the velocity matching characteristics of the assembly can be described with reference to applications where a millimeter-wave signal traveling along the tapered slot antenna 20 creates sidebands on an optical carrier signal propagating in the waveguide core 35. Specifically, as is illustrated in U.S. Patent Application Pub. No. ______(11/381,618, OPI 0022 PA, filed May 9, 2006), the relevant portions of which are incorporated herein by reference, a millimeter-wave signal is used to create sidebands on an optical carrier by directing a coherent optical signal of frequency ω0 along the electrooptic waveguide portion of an electrooptic modulator while a millimeter-wave voltage of frequency ωm is input to the traveling wave electrodes of the modulator. In the embodiment of the present invention illustrated in FIGS. 1A and 1B, the first and second electrically conductive elements 24, 26 of the tapered slot antenna 20 and the electrooptic waveguide 32 form the electrooptic modulator and a coherent optical carrier signal is directed along the electrooptic waveguide 32. The first and second electrically conductive elements 24, 26 function in a manner that is analogous to the respective traveling wave electrodes described in the aforementioned publication and, as such, cooperate with the electrooptic waveguide 32 to create sidebands on the optical carrier propagating along electrooptic waveguide 32. More specifically, as the optical carrier ω0 and millimeter-wave signal 100 co-propagate along the length of the electrooptic modulator formed by the tapered slot antenna 20 and the electrooptic waveguide 32, the interaction of the electric field of the millimeter-wave 100 with the electrooptic material of the polymer in the active region 15 creates a refractive index change in the electrooptic waveguide 32 which oscillates with the time-varying electric field of the millimeter-wave 100. This time variation of the refractive index results in a time-dependent phase shift of the optical carrier, which is equivalent to imparting sidebands to the optical carrier ω0. The modulation of the optical carrier by the millimeter-wave voltage results in an optical output from the modulator which has a component at the carrier frequency ω0 and at sideband frequencies ω0±ωm. The present inventors have recognized that magnitude of the response at the sidebands is determined by the ratio of the millimeter-wave voltage to Vπ, the voltage required to completely change the modulator from the on to the off state, and by the degree of velocity matching between the optical carrier and the millimeter-wave that co-propagate along the modulator. Although the millimeter-wave voltage is an external variable, the degree of velocity matching between the optical carrier and the millimeter-wave is primarily a function of the design parameters of the antenna assembly 10 and, as such, can be optimized through careful control of the design of the parameters of the antenna assembly 10. For example, as the millimeter-wave propagates through the active region 15, which comprises the electrically conductive elements 24, 26 of the tapered slot antenna 20 and a dielectric substrate 40, the velocity ve of the millimeter or sub-millimeter wave signal in the active region 15 is a function of effective permittivity εeff of the active region 15: vec/√{square root over (εeff)} In the active region 15, the dielectric substrate 40 defines a thickness t and comprises a base layer 42, the waveguide core 35, the velocity matching electrooptic polymer 38, at least one additional optical cladding layer 44, each of which contribute to the thickness t in the active region 15. Thus, the effective permittivity εeff of the active region 15 is a function of the substrate thickness t and the respective dielectric constants of the base layer 42, the waveguide core 35, the velocity matching electrooptic polymer 38, and the additional optical cladding layers 44. The velocity vO of the optical signal propagating along the waveguide 32 in the active region 15 is a function of the effective index of refraction ηeff of the active region 15: vOc/ηeff The effective index of refraction ηeff of the active region 15 is a function of the respective indices of refraction of the waveguide core 35, the velocity matching electrooptic polymer 38, and the additional optical cladding layers 44. Accordingly, the degree of velocity matching between the optical carrier and the millimeter-wave can be optimized by controlling the effective permittivity εeff and the effective index of refraction ηeff of the active region 15. Where a velocity matching electrooptic polymer is selected as a component of the waveguide 32, it is possible to configure the electrooptic modulator such that the effective index of refraction ηeff of the active region 15 is 1.5 and the velocity vO of the optical signal is: vO=c/1.5 In the same context, if we select a silica-based dielectric substrate 40 and use the velocity matching electrooptic polymer in the waveguide 32, it is possible to configure the active region such that the effective permittivity εeff of the active region is 2.25 and the velocity ve of the millimeter or sub-millimeter wave signal matches the velocity vO of the optical signal: ve=c/√{square root over (2.25)}=c/2.25 In contrast, the velocity ve of the millimeter or sub-millimeter wave signal in a conventional silica-based tapered slot antenna having an effective permittivity εeff of about 3.76 would be significantly different than the velocity vO of the optical signal: ve=c/√{square root over (3.76)}==c/1.94 To maintain total phase shift in the electrooptic modulator structure of the active region 15 within 50% of the maximum possible phase shift, the active region 15 and the velocity matching electrooptic polymer 38 should be configured such that the velocity ve and the velocity vO satisfy the following relation:  1 - v e v O  ≤ 2.8 L ⁢ ⁢ β where L is the length of the active region and β is the propagation constant of the waveguide. One method to achieve velocity matching is to use materials where the respective velocities of the optical signal and the millimeter-wave is effectively equal. Velocity matching can also be achieved through specialized device design. For example, the thickness of the dielectric substrate or any of its component layers can be tailored through silicon micromachining, reactive ion etching, or otherwise to achieve velocity matching. Alternatively, one can construct an effective dielectric constant by altering the geometry of the dielectric substrate 40, e.g., by forming holes in the dielectric, or changing the shape or dimensions of the dielectric. Referring to the antennae 20 illustrated in FIGS. 2 and 3, in the context of a 94 GHz wave traveling along the antennae 20, assuming the slotline 22 is characterized by an electrode gap of 20 microns in the active region 15 and the electrodes 24, 26 are fabricated on silica, a dielectric substrate thickness t of approximately 170 microns can form the basis of a device design with suitable velocity matching between the millimeter wave and an optical signal wave. The antenna assembly 10 illustrated in FIGS. 1A and 1B is configured such that an optical signal propagating from the optical input 34 to the optical output 36 merely passes through a single active region 15 comprising a single tapered slot antenna 20. Turning more specifically to the design of the tapered slot antenna 20, it is noted that tapered slot antennae (TSA) are end-fire traveling wave antennae and typically consist of a tapered slot etched onto a thin film of metal. This can be done either with or without a dielectric substrate on one side of the film. Planar tapered slot antennae have two common features: the radiating slot and a feed line. The radiating slot acts as the ground plane for the antenna and the antenna is fed by the feed line, which may, for example, be a balanced slotline or any suitable feed structure. The nature of the specific feed structure to be used is beyond the scope of the present invention and may be gleaned from any conventional or yet to be developed teachings on the subject, including those teachings set forth in U.S. Pat. No. 6,317,094, the germane portions of which are incorporated herein by reference. Generally, the feed structure should be relatively compact and have low loss. Suitable feed structures include, but are not limited to, coaxial line feeds and the microstrip line feeds. For the purposes of defining and describing the present invention, it is noted that reference herein to an antenna “assembly” is not intended to imply that the assembly is a one-piece, integral assembly or even an assembly where all of the recited components are physical connected to each other. Rather, antenna assemblies according to the present invention may merely be a collection of components that are functionally linked to each other in a particular manner. Many taper profiles exist for TSA including, but not limited to, exponential, tangential, parabolic, linear, linear-constant, exponential-constant, step-constant, broken linear, etc. FIG. 2 shows a linearly tapered profile. FIG. 3 shows a Vivaldi profile. In FIGS. 2 and 3, the gap between the first and second electrically conductive elements 24, 26 of the tapered slot antenna 20 is much smaller in the active region 15, e.g., on the order of 20 microns, and behaves much more like a waveguide for the millimeter-wave signal. The reduction in the gap between the two electrically conductive elements 24, 26 of the antenna 20 increases the magnitude of the electric field of the millimeter-wave signal, which is important for electrooptic materials where the response is proportional to the electric field, as opposed to the voltage across the gap. In operation, incident millimeter-wave radiation enters the antenna opening and propagates along the antenna elements 24, 26 toward the active region 15. The millimeter-wave signal exits the active region 15 and can be re-radiated or terminated into a fixed impedance. The antenna assemblies illustrated in FIGS. 1-3 may, for example, be fabricated by first providing the base layer 42 with a degree of surface roughness that is sufficiently low for optical applications. The lower cladding 44 is coated onto this substrate and a waveguide pattern is etched therein. The waveguide core and the velocity matching electrooptic polymer 38, which may be formed of the same or different materials, are then coated onto the etched cladding and an upper cladding 44 is formed over the electrooptic layer 38. Finally, the electrically conductive elements 24, 26 of the tapered slot antenna 20 is fabricated on the top cladding. The electrooptic material 38 can be poled, if required for the response. The refractive indices of the lower and upper claddings 44 are lower than that of the electrooptic layer 38, and the thickness of the claddings 44 are sufficient to optically isolate the optical carrier from the substrate 42 and the antenna 20. The thickness of the electrooptic layer 38 is such that guided modes of the optical carrier are confined to the defined electrooptic waveguide. Although waveguide fabrication has been described herein in the context of etching the lower cladding, any other method for forming an electrooptic waveguide in an electrooptic material, such as etching the electrooptic material, photobleaching, or diffusion, can be used to define the electrooptic waveguide. As is noted above, the tapered slot antenna 20 comprises first and second electrically conductive elements 24, 26 arranged to define the radiating slot of the antenna 20. Although the embodiments of FIGS. 1-3 include first and second electrically conductive elements 24, 26 arranged in a common plane, above the electrooptic waveguide 32, alternative configurations are contemplated. For example, referring to FIGS. 4 and 5, the first and second electrically conductive elements 24, 26 can be arranged in different planes, one above the electrooptic waveguide 32 and the other below the electrooptic waveguide 32. In addition, as is illustrated in FIGS. 4 and 5, the first and second electrically conductive elements 24, 26 can be are arranged to overlap in the active region 15 of the antenna assembly. It is contemplated that the fabrication approach illustrated in FIGS. 4 and 5 can lead to an enhanced response of the EO polymer modulator to the millimeter wave, improving the responsiveness of the antenna. This enhanced response can result from both improved poling of the electrooptic material and stronger interaction between the millimeter-wave electric field and the electrooptic material. The assembly of FIGS. 4 and 5 can be fabricated by forming the lower electrode 26 on the substrate 42, applying the lower cladding 44, forming the waveguide core 35, applying the electrooptic layer 38 and the upper cladding 44, and finally forming the upper electrode 24 of the tapered slot antenna 20. The present inventors have recognized that many current electrooptic polymers have better electrooptic response when poled by parallel plate electrodes, as compared to coplanar electrodes. Accordingly, at this point, the electrooptic material can be poled, if required for the EO response, using conventional or other suitable, yet to be developed poling conditions for the EO material. The total thickness of the claddings and electrooptic layer is typically in the range of 5 to 25 microns, although other thicknesses are within the scope of the present invention. When the millimeter-wave radiation is first incident on the antenna, the electric field is polarized along the X-axis in FIGS. 4 and 5. However, as the millimeter-wave propagates along the antenna 20, the polarization of the electric field is rotated until the field is polarized in the Z-direction in the active region 15. In the active region, because the millimeter-wave is more tightly confined to the cladding and electrooptic material, the velocity of the millimeter-wave signal is determined by the effective dielectric constant of these combined layers. In applications of the present invention where TM light does not guide in the waveguide 32 until after the device has been poled, additional metal can be added on the substrate surface to allow for poling of the complete length of the waveguide 32. For simplicity, the waveguide can be routed to exit the device on the same side as which it entered, although this is not a requirement. The device is fabricated by first forming the lower electrode 26 on the base layer 42, applying the lower cladding 44, forming the waveguide core 35 and the electrooptic layer 38, then the upper cladding 44. After the upper cladding 44 is placed on the device, a set of poling electrodes is formed over the waveguide 32 and the electrooptic material 38 is poled. These poling electrodes can be removed for convenient fabrication of the upper electrode 24, which is subsequently formed on the upper cladding 44. In the configuration of FIGS. 4 and 5, where the vertical separation between the first and second electrically conductive elements 24, 26 is on the order of about 5 to 25 microns, the electric field in the active region 15 will alter the refractive index seen by the TM polarized light propagating in the electrooptic waveguide 32. The electrodes provide a parallel plate field, which can be more efficient interacting with the electrooptic material than the field generated with the coplanar electrodes illustrated in FIGS. 1-3. This enhanced electric field and the potentially smaller electrode gap can dramatically enhance the response of the antenna assembly 10 to millimeter-wave radiation. In each of the embodiments described herein with reference to FIGS. 1-5, an optical carrier signal at the optical input 34 of the waveguide 32 enters the antenna slot 22 and continues through to the active region 15. In the active region 15, the electric field of the incident millimeter-wave (MMW) 100 interacts with the electrooptic material 38 of the active region 15 to alter the phase of the optical signal. The optical signal accumulates phase shift over the entire length of the active region 15 and propagates to the optical output 36 of the waveguide 32, where the optical carrier is transitioned to an optical fiber, waveguide, or other optical medium. FIGS. 1-5 depict the active region 15 as a phase modulating electrooptic modulator, where the optical signal remains in a single waveguide. Alternatively, it is possible to configure the active region as a Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI). In this case, the optical signal would be evenly divided between two electrooptic waveguides before one of the arms enters the active region 15 between the two electrodes 24, 26 of the tapered slot antenna 20. The second arm would remain outside the active region of the antenna 20. Downstream of the active region, the two optical signals would be recombined. It is also contemplated that one or both of the waveguide arms could have a mechanism to alter the phase of light propagating along that arm. The relative phase between the two waveguide arms could be adjusted so the MZI could be in its lowest power state. In this state, the optical carrier could be reduced by 15 or more dB, while the power contained in the sidebands would be unaltered. Because only half the original optical power traverses the active region, the power in the sideband would be approximately 3 dB lower than in the phase modulator case. However, because the carrier would be reduced by much more than 3 dB, it is contemplated that the signal to noise ratio would be greatly improved using the MZI configuration. Turning now to FIGS. 6 and 7, a plurality of tapered slot antennae 20 and corresponding waveguide cores having respective input and output portions 34, 36 can be arranged on a common substrate 40. For each tapered slot antennae 20, the optical signal at the optical output 36 of the waveguide core includes the carrier frequency band ωo and the frequency sidebands ω0±ωm. Each of these signals can be directed through a frequency dependent optical filter 50 to discriminate the frequency sidebands ω0±ωm from the carrier frequency band ω0 by separating the frequency sidebands ωo±ωm from the optical carrier ω0 and directing the sidebands ω0±ωm and the optical carrier ω0 to individual component outputs A, B, C of one of the filter output ports 51, 52, 53, 54. Further waveguides, fibers, or other suitable optical propagation media are provided downstream of the filter output ports 51-54 to direct the signals to a photodetector array or some other type of optical sensor. FIGS. 6 and 7 also illustrate an embodiment of the present invention where the tapered slot antennae 20 are arranged in a one or two-dimensional focal plane array. In addition, the waveguide cores and the tapered slot antennae 20 can be configured as a parallel electrooptical circuit. In such a configuration, the output of the photodetector array can be used to analyze the MMW signal 100 in one or two dimensions because the respective output 36 of each sensor element within the photodetector array will be a function of the magnitude of the millimeter-wave voltage input to the modulator at a position corresponding to the sensor element defined by the corresponding antenna 20. More specifically, as is illustrated in FIGS. 6 and 7, each of the tapered slot antennae 20 arranged in the array defines an antenna pixel within the focal plane array. As such, each antenna 20 receives a distinct pixel portion of a millimeter or sub-millimeter wave signal 100 incident on the focal plane array and the optical signals at the respective output portions 36 of each waveguide will provide a sensor output indicative of the one or two-dimensional distribution of the MMW signal 100. In the case of the one-dimensional array illustrated in FIG. 6, it is noted that the one-dimensional array of tapered slot antennae 20 can be formed on a common substrate 40 and a twelve or more channel AWG 50, also formed on the common substrate 40, can be provided to filter the signals from all four antennae 20 simultaneously. FIG. 7 illustrates a similar embodiment of the present invention, with the exception that a plurality of the one-dimensional arrays illustrated in FIG. 6 are stacked to form a two-dimensional array of tapered slot antennae 20. In the embodiment of FIG. 7, it is contemplated that a single AWG can be used for each one-dimensional grouping of antennae 20 or, if desired, a single AWG can be used to perform the filtering for the stacked antenna array. Although FIGS. 6 and 7 schematically illustrate the use of an arrayed waveguide grating (AWG) as the optical filter 50, the optical filtering function of the illustrated embodiment can be accomplished using a variety of technologies including Bragg grating reflective filters, wavelength-selective Mach-Zehnder filters, multilayer thin film optical filters, micro ring resonator filters, and directional coupler filters that are wavelength selective. It is further contemplated that the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 6 and 7 is also a viable alternative where lithium niobate or other non-polymeric electrooptic materials are utilized in forming the waveguide 32. An arrayed waveguide grating is particularly useful because it is an integrated optical device with multiple channels characterized by relatively narrow bandwidths. In operation, an AWG will take an input optical signal which has multiple frequencies, and will output N evenly spaced frequencies at different outputs. For example, an AWG with a channel spacing of 30 GHz or 60 GHz would be well-suited for a 120 GHz antenna system. The desired channel spacing of the AWG should be such that the frequency of the millimeter-wave is a multiple or close to a multiple of the AWG channel spacing. Although the above discussion of the properties of AWGs focused on the use of a single input port of the AWG, an AWG with N output ports will often also have N input ports, each of which outputs light to all N output ports. For example, in the context of an 16×16 AWG (16 inputs×16 outputs), each of the 16 input ports has 16 evenly spaced wavelengths of light, with spacing of the light corresponding to the designed spacing of the AWG. If we then look at the output of a single port, we see that the optical output of the selected port also has the 16 individual wavelengths, but each wavelength from came from a different input port. Accordingly, as is illustrated in FIG. 6, if four distinct optical signals are output from four distinct optical outputs 36 corresponding to four distinct antennae 20, each of these outputs can include an optical carrier ω0 and two sidebands ω0±ωm. If these four optical signals are then fed into four different input ports A of the AWG, the four optical carriers and their corresponding eight sidebands will exit from twelve different output ports of the AWG. Thus, a single AWG can be used to filter multiple input signals, as long as the number of input signals is less than the number of AWG ports divided by three (the number of distinct wavelength bands input at each port). A second advantage to using an AWG as the optical filter is also described in FIG. 6. An AWG distinguishes both sidebands from its associated optical carrier. In contrast, a standard bandpass filter would remove the optical carrier and one of the sidebands. Further, if the two sidebands are coherent, which they are in this case, they can be recombined downstream of the AWG, leading to a 3 dB increase in the optical response over using just a single sideband. It is noted that recitations herein of a component of the present invention being “configured” to embody a particular property, function in a particular manner, etc., are structural recitations, as opposed to recitations of intended use. More specifically, the references herein to the manner in which a component is “configured” denotes an existing physical condition of the component and, as such, is to be taken as a definite recitation of the structural characteristics of the component. For example, in the context of the present invention these structural characteristics may include the electrical & optical characteristics of the component or the geometry of the component. It is noted that terms like “preferably,” “commonly,” and “typically,” when utilized herein, should not be taken to limit the scope of the claimed invention or to imply that certain features are critical, essential, or even important to the structure or function of the claimed invention. Rather, these terms are merely intended to highlight alternative or additional features that may or may not be utilized in a particular embodiment of the present invention. For the purposes of describing and defining the present invention it is noted that the term “substantially” is utilized herein to represent the inherent degree of uncertainty that may be attributed to any quantitative comparison, value, measurement, or other representation. The term “substantially” is also utilized herein to represent the degree by which a quantitative representation may vary from a stated reference without resulting in a change in the basic function of the subject matter at issue. The term “substantially” is further utilized herein to represent a minimum degree to which a quantitative representation must vary from a stated reference to yield the recited functionality of the subject matter at issue. Having described the invention in detail and by reference to specific embodiments thereof, it will be apparent that modifications and variations are possible without departing from the scope of the invention defined in the appended claims. More specifically, although some aspects of the present invention are identified herein as preferred or particularly advantageous, it is contemplated that the present invention is not necessarily limited to these preferred aspects of the invention.	G	G01	G01J	5	00
11897922	US20080113704A1-20080515	Gaming system and method for providing automatic wild card assignment in video poker games	ACCEPTED	20080501	20080515		[]	A63F924	["A63F924"]	8449362	20070830	20130528	463	013000	97905.0	HENRY	THOMAS	[{"inventor_name_last": "Jackson", "inventor_name_first": "Kathleen Nylund", "inventor_city": "Scituate", "inventor_state": "MA", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A video poker-type wagering game in which a wager is made to play an underlying draw poker game consisting of at least a single hand of poker. An additional bet is required to utilize a wild card play option. A predetermined amount of initial cards are randomly dealt from a standard deck of 52 cards to form the initial player's hand. If the player has made a side bet wager, at least one up to the predetermined amount of player's hand cards are simultaneously dealt from a separate deck to a house hand. Any cards in the player's hand that match any cards in the house hand by rank, suit and/or position are automatically changed to be wild cards. The player chooses which cards to hold and which cards to discard from the player's hand. Replacement cards for the discarded cards are dealt from the remainder of cards in the player's hand deck. The outcome for this final hand is evaluated according to a predetermined paytable and any wins are provided to the player.	1. A gaming system comprising: at least one input device; at least one display device configured to display a poker game operable upon a wager by a player; at least one processor; and at least one memory device which stores a plurality of instructions which when executed by the at least one processor cause the at least one processor to operate with the at least one input device and the at least one display device to control a play of the poker game by: (a) enabling the player to place an additional wager; (b) displaying a first hand of playing cards from a first set of playing cards; (c) if the player placed the additional wager: (i) displaying a second hand of playing cards from a second set of playing cards; (ii) determining if any playing cards in the first hand of playing cards match any playing cards in the second hand of playing cards; and (iii) for each playing card in the first hand of playing cards which matches one of the playing cards in the second hand of playing cards, changing said matched playing card in the first hand to a wild playing card; (d) enabling the player to select zero, one or a plurality of the playing cards in the first hand of playing cards to discard; (e) discarding any selected playing cards from the first hand; (f) replacing any discarded playing cards with replacement playing cards from the playing cards remaining in the first set of playing cards to form a final hand of playing cards; (g) determining and displaying any award associated with the determined final hand of playing cards; and (h) providing any determined award to the player. 2. The gaming system of claim 1, wherein a match between the playing cards in the first hand and the playing cards in the second hand is determined by exact rank, exact suit and exact position. 3. The gaming system of claim 1, wherein a match between the playing cards in the first hand and the playing cards in the second hand is determined by exact rank and exact suit. 4. The gaming system of claim 1, wherein a match between the playing cards in the first hand and the playing cards in the second hand is determined by exact rank and exact position. 5. The gaming system of claim 1, wherein wild playing cards are playing cards that can be considered to be any card in the first set of playing cards. 6. The gaming system of claim 1, wherein when executed by the at least one processor, the instructions cause the at least one processor to control the play of the poker game by comparing the replacement playing cards to the playing cards in the second hand to determine if a match occurs. 7. The gaming system of claim 1, wherein the at least one processor resides remote from a housing which supports said at least one display device and said at least one input device. 8. A gaming system comprising: at least one input device; at least one display device configured to display a poker game operable upon a wager by a player; at least one processor; and at least one memory device which stores a plurality of instructions which when executed by the at least one processor cause the at least one processor to operate with the at least one input device and the at least one display device to control a play of the poker game by: (a) enabling the player to place an additional wager; (b) displaying a first hand of playing cards from a first set of playing cards; (c) if the player placed the additional wager: (i) displaying a second hand of playing cards from a second set of playing cards; (ii) determining if any playing cards in the first hand of playing cards match any playing cards in the second hand of playing cards; and (iii) for each playing card in the first hand of playing cards which matches one of the playing cards in the second hand of playing cards, changing said matched playing card in the first hand to a multiplier; (d) enabling the player to select zero, one or a plurality of the playing cards in the first hand of playing cards to discard; (e) discarding any selected playing cards from the first hand; (f) replacing any discarded playing cards with replacement playing cards from the playing cards remaining in the first set of playing cards to form a final hand of playing cards; (g) determining and displaying any award associated with the determined final hand of playing cards; and (h) providing any determined award to the player. 9. The gaming system of claim 8, wherein a match between the playing cards in the first hand and the playing cards in the second hand is determined by exact rank, exact suit and exact position. 10. The gaming system of claim 8, wherein a match between the playing cards in the first hand and the playing cards in the second hand is determined by exact rank and exact suit. 11. The gaming system of claim 8, wherein a match between the playing cards in the first hand and the playing cards in the second hand is determined by exact rank and exact position. 12. The gaming system of claim 8, wherein when executed by the at least one processor, the instructions cause the at least one processor to control the play of the poker game by comparing the replacement playing cards to the playing cards in the second hand to determine if a match occurs. 13. The gaming system of claim 8, wherein the at least one processor resides remote from a housing which supports said at least one display device and said at least one input device. 14. A method of operating a gaming device, said method comprising: (a) enabling a player to place a wager on a poker game; (b) enabling the player to place an additional wager; (c) displaying a first hand of playing cards from a first set of playing cards; (d) if the player placed the additional wager: (i) displaying a second hand of playing cards from a second set of playing cards; (ii) determining if any playing cards in the first hand of playing cards match any playing cards in the second hand of playing cards; and (iii) for each playing card in the first hand of playing cards which matches one of the playing cards in the second hand of playing cards, changing said matched playing card in the first hand to a wild playing card; (e) enabling the player to select zero, one or a plurality of the playing cards in the first hand of playing cards to discard; (f) discarding any selected playing cards from the first hand; (g) replacing any discarded playing cards with replacement playing cards from the playing cards remaining in the first set of playing cards to form a final hand of playing cards; (h) determining and displaying any award associated with the determined final hand of playing cards; and (i) providing any determined award to the player. 15. The method of claim 14, wherein a match between the playing cards in the first hand and the playing cards in the second hand is determined by exact rank, exact suit and exact position. 16. The method of claim 14, wherein a match between the playing cards in the first hand and the playing cards in the second hand is determined by exact rank and exact suit. 17. The method of claim 14, wherein a match between the playing cards in the first hand and the playing cards in the second hand is determined by exact rank and exact position. 18. The method of claim 14, wherein wild playing cards are playing cards that can be considered to be any card in the first set of playing cards. 19. The method of claim 14, wherein replacement playing cards are compared to the playing cards in the second hand to determine if a match occurs. 20. A method of operating a gaming device, said method comprising: (a) enabling a player to place a wager on a poker game; (b) enabling the player to place an additional wager; (c) displaying a first hand of playing cards from a first set of playing cards; (d) if the player placed the additional wager: (i) displaying a second hand of playing cards from a second set of playing cards; (ii) determining if any playing cards in the first hand of playing cards match any playing cards in the second hand of playing cards; and (iii) for each playing card in the first hand of playing cards which matches one of the playing cards in the second hand of playing cards, changing said matched playing card in the first hand to a modifier; (e) enabling the player to select zero, one or a plurality of the playing cards in the first hand of playing cards to discard; (f) discarding any selected playing cards from the first hand; (g) replacing any discarded playing cards with replacement playing cards from the playing cards remaining in the first set of playing cards to form a final hand of playing cards; (h) determining and displaying any award associated with the determined final hand of playing cards; and (i) providing any determined award to the player. 21. The method of claim 20, wherein a match between the playing cards in the first hand and the playing cards in the second hand is determined by exact rank, exact suit and exact position. 22. The method of claim 20, wherein a match between the playing cards in the first hand and the playing cards in the second hand is determined by exact rank and exact suit. 23. The method of claim 20, wherein a match between the playing cards in the first hand and the playing cards in the second hand is determined by exact rank and exact position. 24. The method of claim 20, wherein replacement playing cards are compared to the playing cards in the second hand to determine if a match occurs.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Electronic casino games, whether video poker or slot games, have grown exponentially in numbers in the last twenty years, as have the revenues generated by such machine games. It has been estimated that more than 70% of any casino's revenue is now provided by machine games as opposed to table games. Video poker in particular has become enormously popular with the casino player who prefers a game that requires decision-making. Although video poker is a randomly-dealt game of chance, there is an element of skill involved in the game play. After the player is dealt an initial hand, usually consisting of five cards, the player may select which cards to hold and which cards to discard. Replacement cards are provided for the discarded cards, and the final hand is evaluated for wins according to a predetermined paytable. By applying an optimal strategy in the hold/discard phase, the player can increase his chance of winning and/or decrease the average house hold. Standard video poker games consist mainly of two types of games: non-wild and wild card games. Non-wild games are exemplified by the most basic game of Jacks or Better, and include many other variations such as Bonus Poker and Double Bonus Poker. The two most popular wild card games are Deuces Wild and Joker Poker. In these games, certain cards are wild (the 2s in Deuces Wild, the Joker(s) in Jokers Wild), i.e., the wild card may be considered to be any other card, so as to enable the player to more easily make a winning hand. Wild card games are often more exciting to play, but the pays for most winning combinations are usually lower than in the non-wild games. There is a continuing need to provide new video poker games which blend the pays of standard non-wild video poker games with the excitement of wild card games to provide unique and exciting ways to play video poker. Accordingly, one advantage of the present invention is to provide players with new and enticing features that will stimulate player interest and increase time on the machine. In particular, the present invention seeks to provide the player with a dynamic game play that will heighten the player's expectations, boost confidence in the likelihood of a winning result, and provide non-wild pays for wild card play.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to electronic poker games suitable for use in casinos, on-line and in other gaming enterprises. The invention further relates to video gaming play that provides a random deal of a player's or first hand along with a random deal of a house or second hand in which cards in the player's hand that match cards in the house hand are considered wild. In one embodiment, a monitor screen is provided on which card symbols may be provided for use in a video poker game. In the video poker game, the player makes a wager to play an underlying draw poker game consisting of at least a single hand of poker. An additional bet or “side bet” may be required to utilize a wild card play option, the side bet being made before any cards are dealt. A predetermined number of initial cards are randomly dealt from a standard deck or decks of 52 cards (or up to 54 cards including jokers) to form the initial player's hand. In one embodiment, if the player has made a side bet wager, at least one up to the predetermined number of player's hand cards are simultaneously (or nearly simultaneously) dealt from a separate set (less or more than a complete multiple of a deck), deck or decks to a house hand. In one such embodiment, the player's hand is prominently displayed (e.g., in a central orientation) on the monitor screen and the house hand is conveniently displayed (e.g., above or below), with the first card of the house hand in an easily compared orientation (e.g., directly below) with respect to the first card of the player's hand, the second card of the house hand directly below the second card of the player's hand, and so on. In one embodiment, any cards in the player's hand that match any cards in the house hand (e.g., either in the exact adjacent location, such as the second cards in both hands, or anywhere in the two hands) by rank, suit and/or position are automatically changed to be wild cards, i.e., cards that can be considered to be any card in order to help achieve an optimum winning combination. A software program will automatically determine what specific card (or general card, such as a fifth ranked card added to four-of-a-kind) will best benefit the rank of the hand. The wild card may remain fixed throughout the remainder of the game or may change as replacement cards are drawn and the wild card might preferably be a different card then originally selected. In one embodiment, the player chooses which cards to hold and which cards to discard from the player's hand. Replacement cards for the discarded cards are dealt from the remainder of cards in the player's hand deck. The outcome for this final hand is evaluated according to a predetermined paytable. In one such embodiment, the predetermined paytable offers the traditional pays of a standard video poker game, and wherein the wild card option feature does not significantly lower the paytable but rather is compensated for by the side bet, varying certain payouts such as the full house or flush, and/or providing additional specific pays such as a wild royal, 5-of-a-kind and 5 wilds. Any winning payout amounts are then provided to the player. Those trained in the art will appreciate that these play options are exemplary and are not intended to dictate an exclusive method of play, nor limit or restrict specific game play. This invention may be played in the aforementioned single-hand game format as well as in a multi-hand format with multiple player hands against a single dealer hand. The wild card play methods may be utilized with any standard non-wild video poker game versions, as well as with standard wild video poker game versions. Additional features and advantages of the present invention are described in, and will be apparent from, the following Detailed Description of the Invention and the figures.	PRIORITY CLAIM This application is a non-provisional of, claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/840,993, filed on Aug. 30, 2006, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. COPYRIGHT NOTICE A portion of the disclosure of this patent document contains or may contain material which is subject to copyright protection. The copyright owner has no objection to the photocopy reproduction by anyone of the patent document or the patent disclosure in exactly the form it appears in the Patent and Trademark Office patent file or records, but otherwise reserves all copyright rights whatsoever. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Electronic casino games, whether video poker or slot games, have grown exponentially in numbers in the last twenty years, as have the revenues generated by such machine games. It has been estimated that more than 70% of any casino's revenue is now provided by machine games as opposed to table games. Video poker in particular has become enormously popular with the casino player who prefers a game that requires decision-making. Although video poker is a randomly-dealt game of chance, there is an element of skill involved in the game play. After the player is dealt an initial hand, usually consisting of five cards, the player may select which cards to hold and which cards to discard. Replacement cards are provided for the discarded cards, and the final hand is evaluated for wins according to a predetermined paytable. By applying an optimal strategy in the hold/discard phase, the player can increase his chance of winning and/or decrease the average house hold. Standard video poker games consist mainly of two types of games: non-wild and wild card games. Non-wild games are exemplified by the most basic game of Jacks or Better, and include many other variations such as Bonus Poker and Double Bonus Poker. The two most popular wild card games are Deuces Wild and Joker Poker. In these games, certain cards are wild (the 2s in Deuces Wild, the Joker(s) in Jokers Wild), i.e., the wild card may be considered to be any other card, so as to enable the player to more easily make a winning hand. Wild card games are often more exciting to play, but the pays for most winning combinations are usually lower than in the non-wild games. There is a continuing need to provide new video poker games which blend the pays of standard non-wild video poker games with the excitement of wild card games to provide unique and exciting ways to play video poker. Accordingly, one advantage of the present invention is to provide players with new and enticing features that will stimulate player interest and increase time on the machine. In particular, the present invention seeks to provide the player with a dynamic game play that will heighten the player's expectations, boost confidence in the likelihood of a winning result, and provide non-wild pays for wild card play. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to electronic poker games suitable for use in casinos, on-line and in other gaming enterprises. The invention further relates to video gaming play that provides a random deal of a player's or first hand along with a random deal of a house or second hand in which cards in the player's hand that match cards in the house hand are considered wild. In one embodiment, a monitor screen is provided on which card symbols may be provided for use in a video poker game. In the video poker game, the player makes a wager to play an underlying draw poker game consisting of at least a single hand of poker. An additional bet or “side bet” may be required to utilize a wild card play option, the side bet being made before any cards are dealt. A predetermined number of initial cards are randomly dealt from a standard deck or decks of 52 cards (or up to 54 cards including jokers) to form the initial player's hand. In one embodiment, if the player has made a side bet wager, at least one up to the predetermined number of player's hand cards are simultaneously (or nearly simultaneously) dealt from a separate set (less or more than a complete multiple of a deck), deck or decks to a house hand. In one such embodiment, the player's hand is prominently displayed (e.g., in a central orientation) on the monitor screen and the house hand is conveniently displayed (e.g., above or below), with the first card of the house hand in an easily compared orientation (e.g., directly below) with respect to the first card of the player's hand, the second card of the house hand directly below the second card of the player's hand, and so on. In one embodiment, any cards in the player's hand that match any cards in the house hand (e.g., either in the exact adjacent location, such as the second cards in both hands, or anywhere in the two hands) by rank, suit and/or position are automatically changed to be wild cards, i.e., cards that can be considered to be any card in order to help achieve an optimum winning combination. A software program will automatically determine what specific card (or general card, such as a fifth ranked card added to four-of-a-kind) will best benefit the rank of the hand. The wild card may remain fixed throughout the remainder of the game or may change as replacement cards are drawn and the wild card might preferably be a different card then originally selected. In one embodiment, the player chooses which cards to hold and which cards to discard from the player's hand. Replacement cards for the discarded cards are dealt from the remainder of cards in the player's hand deck. The outcome for this final hand is evaluated according to a predetermined paytable. In one such embodiment, the predetermined paytable offers the traditional pays of a standard video poker game, and wherein the wild card option feature does not significantly lower the paytable but rather is compensated for by the side bet, varying certain payouts such as the full house or flush, and/or providing additional specific pays such as a wild royal, 5-of-a-kind and 5 wilds. Any winning payout amounts are then provided to the player. Those trained in the art will appreciate that these play options are exemplary and are not intended to dictate an exclusive method of play, nor limit or restrict specific game play. This invention may be played in the aforementioned single-hand game format as well as in a multi-hand format with multiple player hands against a single dealer hand. The wild card play methods may be utilized with any standard non-wild video poker game versions, as well as with standard wild video poker game versions. Additional features and advantages of the present invention are described in, and will be apparent from, the following Detailed Description of the Invention and the figures. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1A is a front-side perspective view of one embodiment of the gaming device disclosed herein. FIG. 1B is a front-side perspective view of another embodiment of the gaming device disclosed herein. FIG. 2A is a schematic block diagram of the electronic configuration of one embodiment of the gaming device disclosed herein. FIG. 2B is a schematic block diagram illustrating a plurality of gaming terminals in communication with a central controller. FIGS. 3, 4, 5 and 6 are front elevational views of one embodiment of the gaming device disclosed herein illustrating different stages of an example poker game disclosed herein. FIGS. 7, 8, 9 and 10 are front elevational views of one embodiment of the gaming device disclosed herein illustrating different stages of another example poker game disclosed herein. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present disclosure may be implemented in various configurations for gaming machines, gaming devices or gaming systems, including but not limited to: (1) a dedicated gaming machine, gaming device, or gaming system wherein the computerized instructions for controlling any games (which are provided by the gaming machine or gaming device) are provided with the gaming machine or gaming device prior to delivery to a gaming establishment; and (2) a changeable gaming machine, gaming device, or gaming system where the computerized instructions for controlling any games (which are provided by the gaming machine or gaming device) are downloadable to the gaming machine or gaming device through a data network when the gaming machine or gaming device is in a gaming establishment. In one embodiment, the computerized instructions for controlling any games are executed by at least one central server, central controller or remote host. In such a “thin client” embodiment, the central server remotely controls any games (or other suitable interfaces) and the gaming device is utilized to display such games (or suitable interfaces) and receive one or more inputs or commands from a player. In another embodiment, the computerized instructions for controlling any games are communicated from the central server, central controller or remote host to a gaming device local processor and memory devices. In such a “thick client” embodiment, the gaming device local processor executes the communicated computerized instructions to control any games (or other suitable interfaces) provided to a player. In one embodiment, one or more gaming devices in a gaming system may be thin client gaming devices and one or more gaming devices in the gaming system may be thick client gaming devices. In another embodiment, certain functions of the gaming device are implemented in a thin client environment and certain other functions of the gaming device are implemented in a thick client environment. In one such embodiment, computerized instructions for controlling any primary games are communicated from the central server to the gaming device in a thick client configuration and computerized instructions for controlling any secondary games or bonus functions are executed by a central server in a thin client configuration. Referring now to the drawings, two example alternative embodiments of the gaming device disclosed herein are illustrated in FIGS. 1A and 1B as gaming device 10a and gaming device 10b, respectively. Gaming device 10a and/or gaming device 10b are generally referred to herein as gaming device 10. In the embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 1A and 1B, gaming device 10 has a support structure, housing or cabinet which provides support for a plurality of displays, inputs, controls and other features of a conventional gaming machine. It is configured so that a player can operate it while standing or sitting. The gaming device may be positioned on a base or stand or can be configured as a pub-style table-top game (not shown) which a player can operate preferably while sitting. As illustrated by the different configurations shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B, the gaming device may have varying cabinet and display configurations. In one embodiment, as illustrated in FIG. 2A, the gaming device preferably includes at least one processor 12, such as a microprocessor, a microcontroller-based platform, a suitable integrated circuit or one or more application-specific integrated circuits (ASIC's). The processor is in communication with or operable to access or to exchange signals with at least one data storage or memory device 14. In one embodiment, the processor and the memory device reside within the cabinet of the gaming device. The memory device stores program code and instructions, executable by the processor, to control the gaming device. The memory device also stores other data such as image data, event data, player input data, random or pseudo-random number generators, pay-table data or information and applicable game rules that relate to the play of the gaming device. In one embodiment, the memory device includes random access memory (RAM), which can include non-volatile RAM (NVRAM), magnetic RAM (MRAM), ferroelectric RAM (FeRAM) and other forms as commonly understood in the gaming industry. In one embodiment, the memory device includes read only memory (ROM). In one embodiment, the memory device includes flash memory and/or EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read only memory). Any other suitable magnetic, optical and/or semiconductor memory may operate in conjunction with the gaming device disclosed herein. In one embodiment, part or all of the program code and/or operating data described above can be stored in a detachable or removable memory device, including, but not limited to, a suitable cartridge, disk, CD ROM, DVD or USB memory device. In other embodiments, part or all of the program code and/or operating data described above can be downloaded to the memory device through a suitable network. In one embodiment, an operator or a player can use such a removable memory device in a desktop computer, a laptop personal computer, a personal digital assistant (PDA), portable computing device, or other computerized platform to implement the present disclosure. In one embodiment, the gaming device or gaming machine disclosed herein is operable over a wireless network, such as part of a wireless gaming system. In this embodiment, the gaming machine may be a hand held device, a mobile device or any other suitable wireless device that enables a player to play any suitable game at a variety of different locations. It should be appreciated that a gaming device or gaming machine as disclosed herein may be a device that has obtained approval from a regulatory gaming commission or a device that has not obtained approval from a regulatory gaming commission. It should be appreciated that the processor and memory device may be collectively referred to herein as a “computer” or “controller.” In one embodiment, as discussed in more detail below, the gaming device randomly generates awards and/or other game outcomes based on probability data. In one such embodiment, this random determination is provided through utilization of a random number generator (RNG), such as a true random number generator, a pseudo random number generator or other suitable randomization process. In one embodiment, each award or other game outcome is associated with a probability and the gaming device generates the award or other game outcome to be provided to the player based on the associated probabilities. In this embodiment, since the gaming device generates outcomes randomly or based upon one or more probability calculations, there is no certainty that the gaming device will ever provide the player with any specific award or other game outcome. In another embodiment, as discussed in more detail below, the gaming device employs a predetermined or finite set or pool of awards or other game outcomes. In this embodiment, as each award or other game outcome is provided to the player, the gaming device flags or removes the provided award or other game outcome from the predetermined set or pool. Once flagged or removed from the set or pool, the specific provided award or other game outcome from that specific pool cannot be provided to the player again. This type of gaming device provides players with all of the available awards or other game outcomes over the course of the play cycle and guarantees the amount of actual wins and losses. In another embodiment, as discussed below, upon a player initiating game play at the gaming device, the gaming device enrolls in a bingo game. In this embodiment, a bingo server calls the bingo balls that result in a specific bingo game outcome. The resultant game outcome is communicated to the individual gaming device to be provided to a player. In one embodiment, this bingo outcome is displayed to the player as a bingo game and/or in any form in accordance with the present disclosure. In one embodiment, as illustrated in FIG. 2A, the gaming device includes one or more display devices controlled by the processor. The display devices are preferably connected to or mounted to the cabinet of the gaming device. The embodiment shown in FIG. 1A includes a central display device 16 which displays a primary game. This display device may also display any suitable secondary game associated with the primary game as well as information relating to the primary or secondary game. The alternative embodiment shown in FIG. 1B includes a central display device 16 and an upper display device 18. The upper display device may display the primary game, any suitable secondary game associated or not associated with the primary game and/or information relating to the primary or secondary game. These display devices may also serve as digital glass operable to advertise games or other aspects of the gaming establishment. As seen in FIGS. 1A and 1B, in one embodiment, the gaming device includes a credit display 20 which displays a player's current number of credits, cash, account balance or the equivalent. In one embodiment, the gaming device includes a bet display 22 which displays a player's amount wagered. In one embodiment, as described in more detail below, the gaming device includes a player tracking display 40 which displays information regarding a player's playing tracking status. In another embodiment, at least one display device may be a mobile display device, such as a PDA or tablet PC, that enables play of at least a portion of the primary or secondary game at a location remote from the gaming device. The display devices may include, without limitation, a monitor, a television display, a plasma display, a liquid crystal display (LCD) a display based on light emitting diodes (LED), a display based on a plurality of organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), a display based on polymer light-emitting diodes (PLEDs), a display based on a plurality of surface-conduction electron-emitters (SEDs), a display including a projected and/or reflected image or any other suitable electronic device or display mechanism. In one embodiment, as described in more detail below, the display device includes a touch-screen with an associated touch-screen controller. The display devices may be of any suitable size and configuration, such as a square, a rectangle or an elongated rectangle. The display devices of the gaming device are configured to display at least one and preferably a plurality of game or other suitable images, symbols and indicia such as any visual representation or exhibition of the movement of objects such as mechanical, virtual or video reels and wheels, dynamic lighting, video images, images of people, characters, places, things and faces of cards, and the like. In one alternative embodiment, the symbols, images and indicia displayed on or of the display device may be in mechanical form. That is, the display device may include any electromechanical device, such as one or more mechanical objects, such as one or more rotatable wheels, reels or dice, configured to display at least one or a plurality of game or other suitable images, symbols or indicia. As illustrated in FIG. 2A, in one embodiment, the gaming device includes at least one payment device 24 in communication with the processor. As seen in FIGS. 1A and 1B, a payment device such as a payment acceptor includes a note, ticket or bill acceptor 28 wherein the player inserts paper money, a ticket or voucher and a coin slot 26 where the player inserts money, coins, or tokens. In other embodiments, payment devices such as readers or validators for credit cards, debit cards or credit slips may accept payment. In one embodiment, a player may insert an identification card into a card reader of the gaming device. In one embodiment, the identification card is a smart card having a programmed microchip or a magnetic strip coded with a player's identification, credit totals (or related data) and other relevant information. In another embodiment, a player may carry a portable device, such as a cell phone, a radio frequency identification tag or any other suitable wireless device, which communicates a player's identification, credit totals (or related data) and other relevant information to the gaming device. In one embodiment, money may be transferred to a gaming device through electronic funds transfer. When a player funds the gaming device, the processor determines the amount of funds entered and displays the corresponding amount on the credit or other suitable display as described above. As seen in FIGS. 1A, 1B and 2A, in one embodiment the gaming device includes at least one and preferably a plurality of input devices 30 in communication with the processor. The input devices can include any suitable device which enables the player to produce an input signal which is received by the processor. In one embodiment, after appropriate funding of the gaming device, the input device is a game activation device, such as a play button 32 or a pull arm (not shown) which is used by the player to start any primary game or sequence of events in the gaming device. The play button can be any suitable play activator such as a bet one button, a max bet button or a repeat the bet button. In one embodiment, upon appropriate funding, the gaming device begins the game play automatically. In another embodiment, upon the player engaging one of the play buttons, the gaming device automatically activates game play. In one embodiment, one input device is a bet one button. The player places a bet by pushing the bet one button. The player can increase the bet by one credit each time the player pushes the bet one button. When the player pushes the bet one button, the number of credits shown in the credit display preferably decreases by one, and the number of credits shown in the bet display preferably increases by one. In another embodiment, one input device is a bet max button (not shown) which enables the player to bet the maximum wager permitted for a game of the gaming device. In one embodiment, one input device is a cash out button 34. The player may push the cash out button and cash out to receive a cash payment or other suitable form of payment corresponding to the number of remaining credits. In one embodiment, when the player cashes out, a payment device, such as a ticket, payment or note generator 36 prints or otherwise generates a ticket or credit slip to provide to the player. The player receives the ticket or credit slip and may redeem the value associated with the ticket or credit slip via a cashier (or other suitable redemption system). In another embodiment, when the player cashes out, the player receives the coins or tokens in a coin payout tray. It should be appreciated that any suitable payout mechanisms, such as funding to the player's electronically recordable identification card may be implemented in accordance with the gaming device disclosed herein. In one embodiment, as mentioned above and seen in FIG. 2A, one input device is a touch-screen 42 coupled with a touch-screen controller 44, or some other touch-sensitive display overlay to allow for player interaction with the images on the display. The touch-screen and the touch-screen controller are connected to a video controller 46. A player can make decisions and input signals into the gaming device by touching the touch-screen at the appropriate places. One such input device is a conventional touch-screen button panel. The gaming device may further include a plurality of communication ports for enabling communication of the processor with external peripherals, such as external video sources, expansion buses, game or other displays, an SCSI port or a key pad. In one embodiment, as seen in FIG. 2A, the gaming device includes a sound generating device controlled by one or more sounds cards 48 which function in conjunction with the processor. In one embodiment, the sound generating device includes at least one and preferably a plurality of speakers 50 or other sound generating hardware and/or software for generating sounds, such as playing music for the primary and/or secondary game or for other modes of the gaming device, such as an attract mode. In one embodiment, the gaming device provides dynamic sounds coupled with attractive multimedia images displayed on one or more of the display devices to provide an audio-visual representation or to otherwise display full-motion video with sound to attract players to the gaming device. During idle periods, the gaming device may display a sequence of audio and/or visual attraction messages to attract potential players to the gaming device. The videos may also be customized for or to provide any appropriate information. In one embodiment, the gaming machine may include a sensor, such as a camera in communication with the processor (and possibly controlled by the processor) that is selectively positioned to acquire an image of a player actively using the gaming device and/or the surrounding area of the gaming device. In one embodiment, the camera may be configured to selectively acquire still or moving (e.g., video) images and may be configured to acquire the images in either an analog, digital or other suitable format. The display devices may be configured to display the image acquired by the camera as well as display the visible manifestation of the game in split screen or picture-in-picture fashion. For example, the camera may acquire an image of the player and the processor may incorporate that image into the primary and/or secondary game as a game image, symbol or indicia. Gaming device 10 can incorporate any suitable wagering primary or base game if the poker game described herein is implemented as a bonus or secondary game. The gaming machine or device may include some or all of the features of conventional gaming machines or devices. The primary or base game may comprise any suitable reel-type game, card game, cascading or falling symbol game, number game or other game of chance susceptible to representation in an electronic or electromechanical form, which in one embodiment produces a random outcome based on probability data at the time of or after placement of a wager. That is, different primary wagering games, such as video poker games, video blackjack games, video keno, video bingo or any other suitable primary or base game may be implemented. In one embodiment, as illustrated in FIGS. 1A and 1B, if the poker game described herein is implemented as a bonus or secondary game, a base or primary game may be a slot game with one or more paylines 52. The paylines may be horizontal, vertical, circular, diagonal, angled or any combination thereof. In this embodiment, the gaming device includes at least one and preferably a plurality of reels 54, such as three to five reels 54, in either electromechanical form with mechanical rotating reels or video form with simulated reels and movement thereof. In one embodiment, an electromechanical slot machine includes a plurality of adjacent, rotatable reels which may be combined and operably coupled with an electronic display of any suitable type. In another embodiment, if the reels 54 are in video form, one or more of the display devices, as described above, display the plurality of simulated video reels 54. Each reel 54 displays a plurality of indicia or symbols, such as bells, hearts, fruits, numbers, letters, bars or other images which preferably correspond to a theme associated with the gaming device. In another embodiment, one or more of the reels are independent reels or unisymbol reels. In this embodiment, each independent or unisymbol reel generates and displays one symbol to the player. In one embodiment, the gaming device awards prizes after the reels of the primary game stop spinning if specified types and/or configurations of indicia or symbols occur on an active payline or otherwise occur in a winning pattern, occur on the requisite number of adjacent reels and/or occur in a scatter pay arrangement. In an alternative embodiment, rather than determining any outcome to provide to the player by analyzing the symbols generated on any wagered upon paylines as described above, the gaming device determines any outcome to provide to the player based on the number of associated symbols which are generated in active symbol positions on the requisite number of adjacent reels (i.e., not on paylines passing through any displayed winning symbol combinations). In this embodiment, if a winning symbol combination is generated on the reels, the gaming device provides the player one award for that occurrence of the generated winning symbol combination. For example, if one winning symbol combination is generated on the reels, the gaming device will provide a single award to the player for that winning symbol combination (i.e., not based on the number of paylines that would have passed through that winning symbol combination). It should be appreciated that because a gaming device with wagering on ways to win provides the player one award for a single occurrence of a winning symbol combination and a gaming device with paylines may provide the player more than one award for the same occurrence of a single winning symbol combination (i.e., if a plurality of paylines each pass through the same winning symbol combination), it is possible to provide a player at a ways to win gaming device with more ways to win for an equivalent bet or wager on a traditional slot gaming device with paylines. In one embodiment, the total number of ways to win is determined by multiplying the number of symbols generated in active symbol positions on a first reel by the number of symbols generated in active symbol positions on a second reel by the number of symbols generated in active symbol positions on a third reel and so on for each reel of the gaming device with at least one symbol generated in an active symbol position. For example, a three reel gaming device with three symbols generated in active symbol positions on each reel includes 27 ways to win (i.e., 3 symbols on the first reel×3 symbols on the second reel×3 symbols on the third reel). A four reel gaming device with three symbols generated in active symbol positions on each reel includes 81 ways to win (i.e., 3 symbols on the first reel×3 symbols on the second reel×3 symbols on the third reel×3 symbols on the fourth reel). A five reel gaming device with three symbols generated in active symbol positions on each reel includes 243 ways to win (i.e., 3 symbols on the first reel×3 symbols on the second reel×3 symbols on the third reel×3 symbols on the fourth reel×3 symbols on the fifth reel). It should be appreciated that modifying the number of generated symbols by either modifying the number of reels or modifying the number of symbols generated in active symbol positions by one or more of the reels, modifies the number of ways to win. In another embodiment, the gaming device enables a player to wager on and thus activate symbol positions. In one such embodiment, the symbol positions are on the reels. In this embodiment, if based on the player's wager, a reel is activated, then each of the symbol positions of that reel will be activated and each of the active symbol positions will be part of one or more of the ways to win. In one embodiment, if based on the player's wager, a reel is not activated, then a designated number of default symbol positions, such as a single symbol position of the middle row of the reel, will be activated and the default symbol position(s) will be part of one or more of the ways to win. This type of gaming machine enables a player to wager on one, more or each of the reels and the processor of the gaming device uses the number of wagered on reels to determine the active symbol positions and the number of possible ways to win. In alternative embodiments, (1) no symbols are displayed as generated at any of the inactive symbol positions, or (2) any symbols generated at any inactive symbol positions may be displayed to the player but suitably shaded or otherwise designated as inactive. In one embodiment wherein a player wagers on one or more reels, a player's wager of one credit may activate each of the three symbol positions on a first reel, wherein one default symbol position is activated on each of the remaining four reels. In this example, as described above, the gaming device provides the player three ways to win (i.e., 3 symbols on the first reel×1 symbol on the second reel×1 symbol on the third reel×1 symbol on the fourth reel×1 symbol on the fifth reel). In another example, a player's wager of nine credits may activate each of the three symbol positions on a first reel, each of the three symbol positions on a second reel and each of the three symbol positions on a third reel wherein one default symbol position is activated on each of the remaining two reels. In this example, as described above, the gaming device provides the player twenty-seven ways to win (i.e., 3 symbols on the first reel×3 symbols on the second reel×3 symbols on the third reel×1 symbol on the fourth reel×1 symbol on the fifth reel). In one embodiment, to determine any award(s) to provide to the player based on the generated symbols, the gaming device individually determines if a symbol generated in an active symbol position on a first reel forms part of a winning symbol combination with or is otherwise suitably related to a symbol generated in an active symbol position on a second reel. In this embodiment, the gaming device classifies each pair of symbols which form part of a winning symbol combination (i.e., each pair of related symbols) as a string of related symbols. For example, if active symbol positions include a first cherry symbol generated in the top row of a first reel and a second cherry symbol generated in the bottom row of a second reel, the gaming device classifies the two cherry symbols as a string of related symbols because the two cherry symbols form part of a winning symbol combination. After determining if any strings of related symbols are formed between the symbols on the first reel and the symbols on the second reel, the gaming device determines if any of the symbols from the next adjacent reel should be added to any of the formed strings of related symbols. In this embodiment, for a first of the classified strings of related symbols, the gaming device determines if any of the symbols generated by the next adjacent reel form part of a winning symbol combination or are otherwise related to the symbols of the first string of related symbols. If the gaming device determines that a symbol generated on the next adjacent reel is related to the symbols of the first string of related symbols, that symbol is subsequently added to the first string of related symbols. For example, if the first string of related symbols is the string of related cherry symbols and a related cherry symbol is generated in the middle row of the third reel, the gaming device adds the related cherry symbol generated on the third reel to the previously classified string of cherry symbols. On the other hand, if the gaming device determines that no symbols generated on the next adjacent reel are related to the symbols of the first string of related symbols, the gaming device marks or flags such string of related symbols as complete. For example, if the first string of related symbols is the string of related cherry symbols and none of the symbols of the third reel are related to the cherry symbols of the previously classified string of cherry symbols, the gaming device marks or flags the string of cherry symbols as complete. After either adding a related symbol to the first string of related symbols or marking the first string of related symbols as complete, the gaming device proceeds as described above for each of the remaining classified strings of related symbols which were previously classified or formed from related symbols on the first and second reels. After analyzing each of the remaining strings of related symbols, the gaming device determines, for each remaining pending or incomplete string of related symbols, if any of the symbols from the next adjacent reel, if any, should be added to any of the previously classified strings of related symbols. This process continues until either each string of related symbols is complete or there are no more adjacent reels of symbols to analyze. In this embodiment, where there are no more adjacent reels of symbols to analyze, the gaming device marks each of the remaining pending strings of related symbols as complete. When each of the strings of related symbols is marked complete, the gaming device compares each of the strings of related symbols to an appropriate paytable and provides the player any award associated with each of the completed strings of symbols. It should be appreciated that the player is provided one award, if any, for each string of related symbols generated in active symbol positions (i.e., as opposed to being based on how many paylines that would have passed through each of the strings of related symbols in active symbol positions). In one embodiment, if the poker game described herein is implemented as a bonus or secondary game, a base or primary game may be another poker game wherein the gaming device enables the player to play a conventional game of video draw poker and initially deals five cards all face up from a virtual deck of fifty-two card deck. Cards may be dealt as in a traditional game of cards or in the case of the gaming device, may also include that the cards are randomly selected from a predetermined number of cards. If the player wishes to draw, the player selects the cards to hold via one or more input device, such as pressing related hold buttons or via the touch-screen. The player then presses the deal button and the unwanted or discarded cards are removed from the display and the gaming machine deals the replacement cards from the remaining cards in the deck. This results in a final five-card hand. The gaming device compares the final five-card hand to a payout table which utilizes conventional poker hand rankings to determine the winning hands. The gaming device provides the player with an award based on a winning hand and the credits the player wagered. In another embodiment, if the poker game described herein is implemented as a bonus or secondary game, the base or primary game may be a multi-hand version of video poker. In this embodiment, the gaming device deals the player at least two hands of cards. In one such embodiment, the cards are the same cards. In one embodiment each hand of cards is associated with its own deck of cards. The player chooses the cards to hold in a primary hand. The held cards in the primary hand are also held in the other hands of cards. The remaining non-held cards are removed from each hand displayed and for each hand replacement cards are randomly dealt into that hand. Since the replacement cards are randomly dealt independently for each hand, the replacement cards for each hand will usually be different. The poker hand rankings are then determined hand by hand and awards are provided to the player. In one embodiment, if the poker game described herein is implemented as a bonus or secondary game, a base or primary game may be a keno game wherein the gaming device displays a plurality of selectable indicia or numbers on at least one of the display devices. In this embodiment, the player selects at least one or a plurality of the selectable indicia or numbers via an input device such as the touch-screen. The gaming device then displays a series of drawn numbers to determine an amount of matches, if any, between the player's selected numbers and the gaming device's drawn numbers. The player is provided an award based on the amount of matches, if any, based on the amount of determined matches and the number of numbers drawn. In one embodiment, if the poker game described herein is implemented as a base or primary game, in addition to winning credits or other awards in a base or primary game, the gaming device may also give players the opportunity to win credits in a bonus or secondary game or bonus or secondary round. The bonus or secondary game enables the player to obtain a prize or payout in addition to the prize or payout, if any, obtained from the base or primary game. In general, a bonus or secondary game produces a significantly higher level of player excitement than the base or primary game because it provides a greater expectation of winning than the base or primary game and is accompanied with more attractive or unusual features than the base or primary game. In one embodiment, the bonus or secondary game may be any type of suitable game, either similar to or completely different from the base or primary game. In one embodiment, the triggering event or qualifying condition may be a selected outcome in the primary game or a particular arrangement of one or more indicia on a display device in the primary game. In other embodiments, the triggering event or qualifying condition may be by exceeding a certain amount of game play (such as number of games, number of credits, amount of time), or reaching a specified number of points earned during game play. In another embodiment, the gaming device processor 12 or central server 56 randomly provides the player one or more plays of one or more secondary games. In one such embodiment, the gaming device does not provide any apparent reasons to the player for qualifying to play a secondary or bonus game. In this embodiment, qualifying for a bonus game is not triggered by an event in or based specifically on any of the plays of any primary game. That is, the gaming device may simply qualify a player to play a secondary game without any explanation or alternatively with simple explanations. In another embodiment, the gaming device (or central server) qualifies a player for a secondary game at least partially based on a game triggered or symbol triggered event, such as at least partially based on the play of a primary game. In one embodiment, the gaming device includes a program which will automatically begin a bonus round after the player has achieved a triggering event or qualifying condition in the base or primary game. In another embodiment, after a player has qualified for a bonus game, the player may subsequently enhance his/her bonus game participation through continued play on the base or primary game. Thus, for each bonus qualifying event, such as a bonus symbol, that the player obtains, a given number of bonus game wagering points or credits may be accumulated in a “bonus meter” programmed to accrue the bonus wagering credits or entries toward eventual participation in a bonus game. The occurrence of multiple such bonus qualifying events in the primary game may result in an arithmetic or exponential increase in the number of bonus wagering credits awarded. In one embodiment, the player may redeem extra bonus wagering credits during the bonus game to extend play of the bonus game. In one embodiment, no separate entry fee or buy in for a bonus game need be employed. That is, a player may not purchase an entry into a bonus game, rather they must win or earn entry through play of the primary game thus, encouraging play of the primary game. In another embodiment, qualification of the bonus or secondary game is accomplished through a simple “buy in” by the player, for example, if the player has been unsuccessful at qualifying through other specified activities. In another embodiment, the player must make a separate side-wager on the bonus game or wager a designated amount in the primary game to qualify for the secondary game. In this embodiment, the secondary game triggering event must occur and the side-wager (or designated primary game wager amount) must have been placed to trigger the secondary game. In one embodiment, as illustrated in FIG. 2B, one or more of the gaming devices 10 are in communication with each other and/or at least one central server, central controller or remote host 56 through a data network or remote communication link 58. In this embodiment, the central server, central controller or remote host is any suitable server or computing device which includes at least one processor and at least one memory or storage device. In different such embodiments, the central server is a progressive controller or a processor of one of the gaming devices in the gaming system. In these embodiments, the processor of each gaming device is designed to transmit and receive events, messages, commands or any other suitable data or signal between the individual gaming device and the central server. The gaming device processor is operable to execute such communicated events, messages or commands in conjunction with the operation of the gaming device. Moreover, the processor of the central server is designed to transmit and receive events, messages, commands or any other suitable data or signal between the central server and each of the individual gaming devices. The central server processor is operable to execute such communicated events, messages or commands in conjunction with the operation of the central server. It should be appreciated that one, more or each of the functions of the central controller as disclosed herein may be performed by one or more gaming device processors. It should be further appreciated that one, more or each of the functions of one or more gaming device processors as disclosed herein may be performed by the central controller. In one embodiment, the game outcome provided to the player is determined by a central server or controller and provided to the player at the gaming device. In this embodiment, each of a plurality of such gaming devices are in communication with the central server or controller. Upon a player initiating game play at one of the gaming devices, the initiated gaming device communicates a game outcome request to the central server or controller. In one embodiment, the central server or controller receives the game outcome request and randomly generates a game outcome for the primary game based on probability data. In another embodiment, the central server or controller randomly generates a game outcome for the secondary game based on probability data. In another embodiment, the central server or controller randomly generates a game outcome for both the primary game and the secondary game based on probability data. In this embodiment, the central server or controller is capable of storing and utilizing program code or other data similar to the processor and memory device of the gaming device. In an alternative embodiment, the central server or controller maintains one or more predetermined pools or sets of predetermined game outcomes. In this embodiment, the central server or controller receives the game outcome request and independently selects a predetermined game outcome from a set or pool of game outcomes. The central server or controller flags or marks the selected game outcome as used. Once a game outcome is flagged as used, it is prevented from further selection from the set or pool and cannot be selected by the central controller or server upon another wager. The provided game outcome can include a primary game outcome, a secondary game outcome, primary and secondary game outcomes, or a series of game outcomes such as free games. The central server or controller communicates the generated or selected game outcome to the initiated gaming device. The gaming device receives the generated or selected game outcome and provides the game outcome to the player. In an alternative embodiment, how the generated or selected game outcome is to be presented or displayed to the player, such as a reel symbol combination of a slot machine or a hand of cards dealt in a card game, is also determined by the central server or controller and communicated to the initiated gaming device to be presented or displayed to the player. Central production or control can assist a gaming establishment or other entity in maintaining appropriate records, controlling gaming, reducing and preventing cheating or electronic or other errors, reducing or eliminating win-loss volatility and the like. In another embodiment, a predetermined game outcome value is determined for each of a plurality of linked or networked gaming devices based on the results of a bingo, keno or lottery game. In this embodiment, each individual gaming device utilizes one or more bingo, keno or lottery games to determine the predetermined game outcome value provided to the player for the interactive game played at that gaming device. In one embodiment, the bingo, keno or lottery game is displayed to the player. In another embodiment, the bingo, keno or lottery game is not displayed to the player, but the results of the bingo, keno or lottery game determine the predetermined game outcome value for the primary or secondary game. In the various bingo embodiments, as each gaming device is enrolled in the bingo game, such as upon an appropriate wager or engaging an input device, the enrolled gaming device is provided or associated with a different bingo card. Each bingo card consists of a matrix or array of elements, wherein each element is designated with a separate indicia, such as a number. It should be appreciated that each different bingo card includes a different combination of elements. For example, if four bingo cards are provided to four enrolled gaming devices, the same element may be present on all four of the bingo cards while another element may solely be present on one of the bingo cards. In operation of these embodiments, upon providing or associating a different bingo card to each of a plurality of enrolled gaming devices, the central controller randomly selects or draws, one at a time, a plurality of the elements. As each element is selected, a determination is made for each gaming device as to whether the selected element is present on the bingo card provided to that enrolled gaming device. This determination can be made by the central controller, the gaming device, a combination of the two, or in any other suitable manner. If the selected element is present on the bingo card provided to that enrolled gaming device, that selected element on the provided bingo card is marked or flagged. This process of selecting elements and marking any selected elements on the provided bingo cards continues until one or more predetermined patterns are marked on one or more of the provided bingo cards. It should be appreciated that in one embodiment, the gaming device requires the player to engage a daub button (not shown) to initiate the process of the gaming device marking or flagging any selected elements. After one or more predetermined patterns are marked on one or more of the provided bingo cards, a game outcome is determined for each of the enrolled gaming devices based, at least in part, on the selected elements on the provided bingo cards. As described above, the game outcome determined for each gaming device enrolled in the bingo game is utilized by that gaming device to determine the predetermined game outcome provided to the player. For example, a first gaming device to have selected elements marked in a predetermined pattern is provided a first outcome of win $10 which will be provided to a first player regardless of how the first player plays in a first game and a second gaming device to have selected elements marked in a different predetermined pattern is provided a second outcome of win $2 which will be provided to a second player regardless of how the second player plays a second game. It should be appreciated that as the process of marking selected elements continues until one or more predetermined patterns are marked, this embodiment ensures that at least one bingo card will win the bingo game and thus at least one enrolled gaming device will provide a predetermined winning game outcome to a player. It should be appreciated that other suitable methods for selecting or determining one or more predetermined game outcomes may be employed. In one example of the above-described embodiment, the predetermined game outcome may be based on a supplemental award in addition to any award provided for winning the bingo game as described above. In this embodiment, if one or more elements are marked in supplemental patterns within a designated number of drawn elements, a supplemental or intermittent award or value associated with the marked supplemental pattern is provided to the player as part of the predetermined game outcome. For example, if the four corners of a bingo card are marked within the first twenty selected elements, a supplemental award of $10 is provided to the player as part of the predetermined game outcome. It should be appreciated that in this embodiment, the player of a gaming device may be provided a supplemental or intermittent award regardless of if the enrolled gaming device's provided bingo card wins or does not win the bingo game as described above. In another embodiment, one or more of the gaming devices are in communication with a central server or controller for monitoring purposes only. That is, each individual gaming device randomly generates the game outcomes to be provided to the player and the central server or controller monitors the activities and events occurring on the plurality of gaming devices. In one embodiment, the gaming network includes a real-time or on-line accounting and gaming information system operably coupled to the central server or controller. The accounting and gaming information system of this embodiment includes a player database for storing player profiles, a player tracking module for tracking players and a credit system for providing automated casino transactions. In one embodiment, the gaming device disclosed herein is associated with or otherwise integrated with one or more player tracking systems. Player tracking systems enable gaming establishments to recognize the value of customer loyalty through identifying frequent customers and rewarding them for their patronage. In one embodiment, the gaming device and/or player tracking system tracks any players gaming activity at the gaming device. In one such embodiment, the gaming device includes at least one card reader 38 in communication with the processor. In this embodiment, a player is issued a player identification card which has an encoded player identification number that uniquely identifies the player. When a player inserts their playing tracking card into the card reader to begin a gaming session, the card reader reads the player identification number off the player tracking card to identify the player. The gaming device and/or associated player tracking system timely tracks any suitable information or data relating to the identified player's gaming session. Directly or via the central controller, the gaming device processor communicates such information to the player tracking system. The gaming device and/or associated player tracking system also timely tracks when a player removes their player tracking card when concluding play for that gaming session. In another embodiment, rather than requiring a player to insert a player tracking card, the gaming device utilizes one or more portable devices carried by a player, such as a cell phone, a radio frequency identification tag or any other suitable wireless device to track when a player begins and ends a gaming session. In another embodiment, the gaming device utilizes any suitable biometric technology or ticket technology to track when a player begins and ends a gaming session. During one or more gaming sessions, the gaming device and/or player tracking system tracks any suitable information or data, such as any amounts wagered, average wager amounts and/or the time these wagers are placed. In different embodiments, for one or more players, the player tracking system includes the player's account number, the player's card number, the player's first name, the player's surname, the player's preferred name, the player's player tracking ranking, any promotion status associated with the player's player tracking card, the player's address, the player's birthday, the player's anniversary, the player's recent gaming sessions, or any other suitable data. In one embodiment, such tracked information and/or any suitable feature associated with the player tracking system is displayed on a player tracking display 40. In another embodiment, such tracked information and/or any suitable feature associated with the player tracking system is displayed via one or more service windows (not shown) which are displayed on the central display device and/or the upper display device. In one embodiment, a plurality of the gaming devices are capable of being connected together through a data network. In one embodiment, the data network is a local area network (LAN), in which one or more of the gaming devices are substantially proximate to each other and an on-site central server or controller as in, for example, a gaming establishment or a portion of a gaming establishment. In another embodiment, the data network is a wide area network (WAN) in which one or more of the gaming devices are in communication with at least one off-site central server or controller. In this embodiment, the plurality of gaming devices may be located in a different part of the gaming establishment or within a different gaming establishment than the off-site central server or controller. Thus, the WAN may include an off-site central server or controller and an off-site gaming device located within gaming establishments in the same geographic area, such as a city or state. The WAN gaming system may be substantially identical to the LAN gaming system described above, although the number of gaming devices in each system may vary relative to each other. In another embodiment, the data network is an internet or intranet. In this embodiment, the operation of the gaming device can be viewed at the gaming device with at least one internet browser. In this embodiment, operation of the gaming device and accumulation of credits may be accomplished with only a connection to the central server or controller (the internet/intranet server) through a conventional phone or other data transmission line, digital subscriber line (DSL), T-1 line, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, or other suitable connection. In this embodiment, players may access an internet game page from any location where an internet connection and computer, or other internet facilitator is available. The expansion in the number of computers and number and speed of internet connections in recent years increases opportunities for players to play from an ever-increasing number of remote sites. It should be appreciated that enhanced bandwidth of digital wireless communications may render such technology suitable for some or all communications, particularly if such communications are encrypted. Higher data transmission speeds may be useful for enhancing the sophistication and response of the display and interaction with the player. As mentioned above, in one embodiment, the present disclosure may be employed in a server based gaming system. In one such embodiment, as described above, one or more gaming devices are in communication with a central server or controller. The central server or controller may be any suitable server or computing device which includes at least one processor and a memory or storage device. In alternative embodiments, the central server is a progressive controller or another gaming machine in the gaming system. In one embodiment, the memory device of the central server stores different game programs and instructions, executable by a gaming device processor, to control the gaming device. Each executable game program represents a different game or type of game which may be played on one or more of the gaming devices in the gaming system. Such different games may include the same or substantially the same game play with different pay tables. In different embodiments, the executable game program is for a primary game, a secondary game or both. In another embodiment, the game program may be executable as a secondary game to be played simultaneous with the play of a primary game (which may be downloaded to or fixed on the gaming device) or vice versa. In this embodiment, each gaming device at least includes one or more display devices and/or one or more input devices for interaction with a player. A local processor, such as the above-described gaming device processor or a processor of a local server, is operable with the display device(s) and/or the input device(s) of one or more of the gaming devices. In operation, the central controller is operable to communicate one or more of the stored game programs to at least one local processor. In different embodiments, the stored game programs are communicated or delivered by embedding the communicated game program in a device or a component (e.g., a microchip to be inserted in a gaming device), writing the game program on a disc or other media, downloading or streaming the game program over a dedicated data network, internet or a telephone line. After the stored game programs are communicated from the central server, the local processor executes the communicated program to facilitate play of the communicated program by a player through the display device(s) and/or input device(s) of the gaming device. That is, when a game program is communicated to a local processor, the local processor changes the game or type of game played at the gaming device. In another embodiment, a plurality of gaming devices at one or more gaming sites may be networked to the central server in a progressive configuration, as known in the art, wherein a portion of each wager to initiate a base or primary game may be allocated to one or more progressive awards. In one embodiment, a progressive gaming system host site computer is coupled to a plurality of the central servers at a variety of mutually remote gaming sites for providing a multi-site linked progressive automated gaming system. In one embodiment, a progressive gaming system host site computer may serve gaming devices distributed throughout a number of properties at different geographical locations including, for example, different locations within a city or different cities within a state. In one embodiment, the progressive gaming system host site computer is maintained for the overall operation and control of the progressive gaming system. In this embodiment, a progressive gaming system host site computer oversees the entire progressive gaming system and is the master for computing all progressive jackpots. All participating gaming sites report to, and receive information from, the progressive gaming system host site computer. Each central server computer is responsible for all data communication between the gaming device hardware and software and the progressive gaming system host site computer. In one embodiment, an individual gaming machine may trigger a progressive award win. In another embodiment, a central server (or the progressive gaming system host site computer) determines when a progressive award win is triggered. In another embodiment, an individual gaming machine and a central controller (or progressive gaming system host site computer) work in conjunction with each other to determine when a progressive win is triggered, for example through an individual gaming machine meeting a predetermined requirement established by the central controller. In one embodiment, a progressive award win is triggered based on one or more game play events, such as a symbol-driven trigger. In other embodiments, the progressive award triggering event or qualifying condition may be by exceeding a certain amount of game play (such as number of games, number of credits, or amount of time), or reaching a specified number of points earned during game play. In another embodiment, a gaming device is randomly or apparently randomly selected to provide a player of that gaming device one or more progressive awards. In one such embodiment, the gaming device does not provide any apparent reasons to the player for winning a progressive award, wherein winning the progressive award is not triggered by an event in or based specifically on any of the plays of any primary game. That is, a player is provided a progressive award without any explanation or alternatively with simple explanations. In another embodiment, a player is provided a progressive award at least partially based on a game triggered or symbol triggered event, such as at least partially based on the play of a primary game. In one embodiment, one or more of the progressive awards are each funded via a side bet or side wager. In this embodiment, a player must place or wager a side bet to be eligible to win the progressive award associated with the side bet. In one embodiment, the player must place the maximum bet and the side bet to be eligible to win one of the progressive awards. In another embodiment, if the player places or wagers the required side bet, the player may wager at any credit amount during the primary game (i.e., the player need not place the maximum bet and the side bet to be eligible to win one of the progressive awards). In one such embodiment, the greater the player's wager (in addition to the placed side bet), the greater the odds or probability that the player will win one of the progressive awards. It should be appreciated that one or more of the progressive awards may each be funded, at least in part, based on the wagers placed on the primary games of the gaming machines in the gaming system, via a gaming establishment or via any suitable manner. In another embodiment, one or more of the progressive awards are partially funded via a side-bet or side-wager which the player may make (and which may be tracked via a side-bet meter). In one embodiment, one or more of the progressive awards are funded with only side-bets or side-wagers placed. In another embodiment, one or more of the progressive awards are funded based on player's wagers as described above as well as any side-bets or side-wagers placed. In one alternative embodiment, a minimum wager level is required for a gaming device to qualify to be selected to obtain one of the progressive awards. In one embodiment, this minimum wager level is the maximum wager level for the primary game in the gaming machine. In another embodiment, no minimum wager level is required for a gaming machine to qualify to be selected to obtain one of the progressive awards. In another embodiment, a plurality of players at a plurality of linked gaming devices in a gaming system participate in a group gaming environment. In one embodiment, a plurality of players at a plurality of linked gaming devices work in conjunction with one another, such as playing together as a team or group, to win one or more awards. In one such embodiment, any award won by the group is shared, either equally or based on any suitable criteria, amongst the different players of the group. In another embodiment, a plurality of players at a plurality of linked gaming devices compete against one another for one or more awards. In one such embodiment, a plurality of players at a plurality of linked gaming devices participate in a gaming tournament for one or more awards. In another embodiment, a plurality of players at a plurality of linked gaming devices play for one or more awards wherein an outcome generated by one gaming device affects the outcomes generated by one or more linked gaming devices. Poker Game with Wild Cards In one embodiment, a processor driven system with a monitor screen is provided. Card symbols may be provided for view on the monitor screen for use in a video poker game. In the video poker game, the player makes a wager to play an underlying draw poker game consisting of at least a single hand of poker. In one embodiment, an additional bet or “side bet” may be required to utilize a wild card play option, the side bet being made before any cards are dealt. In different embodiments, the amount of the additional bet or side bet required to utilize the wild card play option is predetermined, randomly determined, determined based on the player's status (such as determined through a player tracking system), determined based on a generated symbol or symbol combination, determined based on a random determination by the central controller, determined based on a random determination at the gaming machine, determined based on a weighted parameter, determined based on one or more side wagers placed, determined based on the player's primary game wager, determined based on time (such as the time of day), determined based on an amount of coin-in accumulated in one or more pools or determined based on any other suitable method or criteria. In one embodiment, a predetermined number of initial cards are randomly dealt from a standard deck or decks of 52 cards (or up to 54 cards including jokers) to form the initial player's hand or first hand. If the player has made a side bet wager, at least one up to the predetermined number of player's hand cards are simultaneously (or nearly simultaneously) dealt from a separate deck or decks to for a house or dealer's hand or second hand. In one such embodiment, the player's hand is displayed in a central orientation on the monitor screen and the house hand is displayed below, with the first card of the house hand directly below the first card of the player's hand, the second card of the house hand directly below the second card of the player's hand, and so on. It should be appreciated that the player's hand and the house hand may be displayed in any suitable configuration. In one embodiment, any cards in the player's hand that match any cards in the house hand by rank, suit and/or position are automatically changed to be wild cards. In this embodiment, a wild card is a card that can be considered to be any card in order to help achieve an optimum winning combination. In different embodiments, the determination of if any card in the player's hand must match the rank and/or suit and/or position of any card in the house hand is predetermined, randomly determined, determined based on the player's status (such as determined through a player tracking system), determined based on a generated symbol or symbol combination, determined based on a random determination by the central controller, determined based on a random determination at the gaming machine, determined based on a weighted parameter, determined based on one or more side wagers placed, determined based on the player's primary game wager, determined based on time (such as the time of day), determined based on an amount of coin-in accumulated in one or more pools or determined based on any other suitable method or criteria. In one embodiment, the player chooses which cards to hold and which cards to discard from the player's hand. Replacement cards for the discarded cards are dealt from the remainder of cards in the player's hand deck. The outcome for this final hand is evaluated according to a predetermined paytable. In one embodiment, cards in the initial player's hand deal that have become wild may or may not appear in the replacement card set. In different embodiments, the determination of if playing cards in the initial player's hand that have become wild appear in the replacement card set is predetermined, randomly determined, determined based on the player's status (such as determined through a player tracking system), determined based on a generated symbol or symbol combination, determined based on a random determination by the central controller, determined based on a random determination at the gaming machine, determined based on a weighted parameter, determined based on one or more side wagers placed, determined based on the player's primary game wager, determined based on time (such as the time of day), determined based on an amount of coin-in accumulated in one or more pools or determined based on any other suitable method or criteria. In one embodiment, the predetermined paytable offers the traditional pays of a standard video poker game, and wherein the wild card option feature does not significantly lower the paytable but rather is compensated for by the side bet, varying certain payouts such as the full house or flush, and/or providing additional specific pays such as a wild royal, 5-of-a-kind and 5 wilds. Any winning hands are then provided with payouts distributed to the player. A software program will automatically determine what specific card (or general card, such as a fifth ranked card added to four-of-a-kind) will best benefit the rank of the hand. The wild card may remain fixed throughout the remainder of the game or may change as replacement cards are drawn and the wild card might preferably be a different card then originally selected. In different embodiments, the determination of whether a wild card remains fixed or changes as replacement cards are drawn is predetermined, randomly determined, determined based on the player's status (such as determined through a player tracking system), determined based on a generated symbol or symbol combination, determined based on a random determination by the central controller, determined based on a random determination at the gaming machine, determined based on a weighted parameter, determined based on one or more side wagers placed, determined based on the player's primary game wager, determined based on time (such as the time of day), determined based on an amount of coin-in accumulated in one or more pools or determined based on any other suitable method or criteria. In one embodiment of the gaming system disclosed herein requires a maximum wager on the base game, for example, 5 credits to play a single hand of 5-card draw poker. The side bet would require a wager of at least one credit for a 5-card house hand. After the wagering is completed, the gaming device initiates the deal, wherein a 5-card hand is randomly dealt from a 52-card deck to the player's hand, and a 5-card hand is randomly dealt from a separate 52-card deck to the house hand. On the monitor screen, the first card in the player's hand is positioned directly over the first card of the house hand, and likewise for the rest of the cards. If any card in the player's hand matches the rank AND suit AND position of any card in the house hand, that player card is immediately changed into a wild card. By adjusting the odds and payout amounts, a more general appearance of wild cards may be provided, as by not requiring that cards match in the exact adjacent location, such as the second cards in both hands, but rather may appear in any position in the two hands. In one embodiment, the graphics of rank and suit on said card(s) may be reduced in color intensity, so as to provide a muted but still visible appearance, while a more prominent “WILD” indicia is placed thereon. The player may choose to hold none, one, some or all of the player's hand cards, and the rest of the player cards are discarded. The discarded cards are randomly replaced with replacement cards from the remainder of the player's deck, and a final hand is shown. The final hand is evaluated according to a predetermined paytable and any wins are provided to the player. Because the frequency of the specific match wild card event is low (1/52), the paytable may remain the same or be changed. The amount of the side bet must appear worthwhile with respect to the amount to be won with a wild card hand. In another embodiment of the gaming system disclosed herein requires a maximum wager on the base game, for example, 5 credits to play a single hand of 5-card draw poker. The side bet would require a wager of at least one credit per card in the house hand. Alternately, the per card wager on the house hand may be in escalating fashion, for example one credit for one card, three credits for two cards, six credits for three cards, ten credits for four cards, or fifteen credits for five cards. In different embodiments, the per card wager on the house hand is predetermined, randomly determined, determined based on the player's status (such as determined through a player tracking system), determined based on a generated symbol or symbol combination, determined based on a random determination by the central controller, determined based on a random determination at the gaming machine, determined based on a weighted parameter, determined based on one or more side wagers placed, determined based on the player's primary game wager, determined based on time (such as the time of day), determined based on an amount of coin-in accumulated in one or more pools or determined based on any other suitable method or criteria. After the wagering is completed, the gaming device initiates the deal, wherein a 5-card hand is randomly dealt from a conventional 52-card deck to the player's hand, and at least one card and up to five cards are randomly dealt from a separate conventional 52-card deck to the house hand. On the monitor screen, the first card in the player's hand is positioned directly over the first card of the house hand, and likewise for the rest of the cards if there is more than one card in the house hand. If any card in the player's hand matches the rank AND suit (but not necessarily the position) of any card in the house hand, that player card is immediately changed into a wild card. The graphics of rank and suit on said card(s) may be reduced in color intensity, so as to provide a muted but still visible appearance, while a more prominent “WILD” indicia is placed thereon. The player may then choose to hold none, one, some or all of the player's hand cards, and the rest of the player cards are discarded. The discarded cards are randomly replaced with replacement cards from the remainder of the player's deck, and a final hand is shown. The final hand is evaluated according to a predetermined paytable and any wins are provided to the player. It is also an optional format for all five of the dealer's hand cards to be dealt in a line adjacent a single players card (forming a perpendicular line of five cards with respect to the player's hand, with each of the five cards compared to a single player card or for a greater initial wager, compared against all five player cards). In another embodiment of the gaming system disclosed herein requires a maximum wager on the base game, for example, 5 credits to play a single hand of 5-card draw poker. The side bet would require a wager of at least one credit per card in the house hand. After the wagering is completed, the gaming device initiates the deal, wherein a 5-card hand is randomly dealt from a 52-card deck to the player's hand, and at least one card and up to five cards are randomly dealt from a separate 52-card deck to the house hand. On the monitor screen, the first card in the player's hand is positioned directly over the first card of the house hand, and likewise for the rest of the cards if there is more than one wagered card in the house hand. If any card in the player's hand matches the rank AND position (but not necessarily the suit) of any card in the house hand, that player card is immediately changed into a wild card. The graphics of rank and suit on said card(s) may be reduced in color intensity, so as to provide a muted but still visible appearance, while a more prominent “WILD” indicia is placed thereon. The player may choose to hold none, one, some or all of the player's hand cards, and the rest of the player cards are discarded. The discarded cards are randomly replaced with replacement cards from the remainder of the player's deck, and a final hand is shown. The final hand is evaluated according to a predetermined paytable and any wins are provided to the player. An additional element may be applied to any the foregoing embodiments: any replacement cards that match any of the house cards may themselves be considered to be wild cards. This adds extra anticipation and excitement to the draw step, although it may require a larger side bet wager. In different embodiments, the determination of if any replacement cards that match any of the house cards may themselves be considered to be wild cards is predetermined, randomly determined, determined based on the player's status (such as determined through a player tracking system), determined based on a generated symbol or symbol combination, determined based on a random determination by the central controller, determined based on a random determination at the gaming machine, determined based on a weighted parameter, determined based on one or more side wagers placed, determined based on the player's primary game wager, determined based on time (such as the time of day), determined based on an amount of coin-in accumulated in one or more pools or determined based on any other suitable method or criteria. In another embodiment, a similar but separate game play incorporates all of the present invention's features as previously described, except that the WILD cards and WILD indicia are replaced by MULTIPLIER cards and MULTIPLIER indicia respectively. In other words, matching cards in the player's hand and house hand become random multipliers (from 2× pay to 10× pay, for instance) in the player's hand. The multiplier cards may or may not keep their original rank and suit. In different embodiments, the amounts of each multiplier is predetermined, randomly determined, determined based on the player's status (such as determined through a player tracking system), determined based on a generated symbol or symbol combination, determined based on a random determination by the central controller, determined based on a random determination at the gaming machine, determined based on a weighted parameter, determined based on one or more side wagers placed, determined based on the player's primary game wager, determined based on time (such as the time of day), determined based on an amount of coin-in accumulated in one or more pools or determined based on any other suitable method or criteria. It should be appreciated that the assignment of a wild symbol and/or multiplier disclosed herein may be implemented in accordance with any suitable primary game or any suitable secondary game which may include one or more wild symbols (or one or more multipliers). In different embodiments, the determination described herein of which symbol to function as a wild symbol or a multiplier symbol is incorporated into any suitable slot game, any suitable card game, any suitable keno game, any suitable bingo game, any suitable craps game, any suitable roulette game, any suitable baccarat game, any suitable wheel game, any suitable selection game, any suitable offer and acceptance game, any suitable cascading symbols game, any suitable ways to win game, any suitable scatter pay game or any other suitable type of game. FIG. 3 shows a video poker machine monitor screen 16, 18 with five touch-screen HOLD/DISCARD buttons for card play selection (134, 136, 138, 140, 142). The player has wagered 5 credits to play a 5-card player's hand of Jacks or Better poker as shown on the touch-screen button 104. The player has also wagered 2 credits as a Side Bet to play the wild card bonus option as shown on the touch-screen button 106. The wild card bonus option rules require that any matches between the player's hand and the house hand must include rank, suit AND position. The Total Bet of 7 credits is shown in the box 108. A Credits Won box is shown 110, along with the player's Total Available Credits (73 credits after the 7 credit wager) 112. The result of the initial deal of the player's hand from a first deck of 52 cards is shown, with the Ace of Hearts 114 in the first card position, the King of Clubs 116 in the second card position, the 6 of Spades 118 in the third card position, the Ace of Clubs 120 in the fourth card position, and the 9 of Spades 122 in the fifth card position. The wild card bonus option provides a 5-card house hand from a separate second 52-card deck, the result of which shows the 8 of Clubs 124 in the first card position, the King of Clubs 126 in the second card position, the 10 of Diamonds 128 in the third card position, the 4 of Clubs 130 in the fourth card position, and the 2 of Clubs 132 in the fifth card position. FIG. 4 refers to the game elements shown in FIG. 3 with the King of Clubs 126 in the house hand being highlighted 144 because it matches the rank, suit and position of the King of Clubs 116 in the player's hand. The graphics on the King of Clubs 116 in the player's hand are muted and a WILD indicia 146 is superimposed on the card. FIG. 5 refers to the game elements shown in FIG. 4 with the player using the touch-screen buttons (134, 136, 140) to elect to HOLD those cards (150, 152, 154). Initial cards 118 and 122 have been discarded. FIG. 6 refers to the game elements shown in FIG. 5 and shows the draw result, with replacement cards 160 (8 of Hearts) and 162 (Ace of Diamonds) being provided for the discarded cards. The final result of 4-of-a-Kind Aces is shown, and the win of 125 credits is displayed in the Credits Won box 110. The player's Total Credits 112 are now shown as 198 credits. FIG. 7 illustrates a different embodiment, showing a video poker machine monitor screen 16, 18 with five touch-screen HOLD/DISCARD buttons for card play selection (134, 136, 138, 140, 142). The player has wagered 5 credits to play a 5-card player's hand of Jacks or Better poker as shown on the touch-screen button 104. The player has also wagered 10 credits as a Side Bet to play the wild card bonus option as shown on the touch-screen button 106. The wild card bonus option rules require that any matches between the player's hand and the house hand must include rank and suit only (not necessarily position). The Total Bet of 15 credits is shown in the box 108. A Credits Won box is shown 110, along with the player's Total Available Credits (65 credits after the 15 credit wager) 112. The result of the initial deal of the player's hand from a first deck of 52 cards is shown, with the 9 of Spades 170 in the first card position, the 5 of Hearts 172 in the second card position, the 4 of Clubs 174 in the third card position, the 2 of Spades 176 in the fourth card position, and the 7 of Diamonds 178 in the fifth card position. The wild card bonus option provides a 5-card house hand from a separate second 52-card deck, the result of which shows the 2 of Spades 180 in the first card position, the 5 of Hearts 182 in the second card position, the 8 of Clubs 184 in the third card position, the 10 of Hearts 186 in the fourth card position, and the Ace of Spades 188 in the fifth card position. FIG. 8 refers to the game elements shown in FIG. 7 with the 2 of Spades 180 in the house hand being highlighted 190 because it matches the rank and suit of the 2 of Spades 176 in the player's hand. The 5 of Hearts 182 in the house hand is highlighted 192 because it matches the rank and suit of the 5 of Hearts 172 in the player's hand. The graphics on the those said cards in the player's hand are muted and a WILD indicia 194 and 196 is superimposed on both cards. FIG. 9 refers to the game elements shown in FIG. 8 with the player using the touch-screen buttons (136 and 140) to elect to HOLD those cards (172 and 176). Initial cards 170, 174, 178 have been discarded. FIG. 10 refers to the game elements shown in FIG. 9 and shows the draw result, with replacement cards 200 (10 of Diamonds), 202 (3 of Clubs) and 214 (8 of Spades) being provided for the discarded cards. The final result of 3-of-a-Kind is shown, and the win of 15 credits is displayed in the Credits Won box 110. The player's Total Credits 112 are now shown as 80 credits. It should be understood that various changes and modifications to the presently preferred embodiments described herein will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Such changes and modifications can be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention and without diminishing its intended advantages. It is therefore intended that such changes and modifications be covered by the appended claims.	A	A63	A63F	9	24
11923664	US20090113553A1-20090430	METHOD AND SYSTEM FOR HIDING INFORMATION IN THE INSTRUCTION PROCESSING PIPELINE	ACCEPTED	20090416	20090430		[]	G06F2100	["G06F2100", "H04L900"]	8141162	20071025	20120320	726	026000	65882.0	EL HADY	NABIL	[{"inventor_name_last": "Myles", "inventor_name_first": "Ginger Marie", "inventor_city": "San Jose", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A system, article of manufacture and method is provided for transferring secret information from a first location to a second location. The secret information is encoded and stalls in executable code are located. The executable code is configured to perform a predetermined function when executed on a pipeline processor. The encoded information is inserted into a plurality of instructions and the instructions are inserted into the executable code at the stalls. There is no net effect of all of the inserted instructions on the predetermined function of the executable code. The executable code is transferred to the second location. The location of the stalls in the transferred code is identified. The encoded information is extracted from the instructions located at the stalls. The encoded information may then be decoding information to generate the information at the second location.	1. A method for embedding information in a computer program comprising: performing data dependency analysis on said computer program to identify locations within said computer program where pipeline processing dependencies require a stall, said locations including no-operation instructions: encoding said information; and inserting an instruction in said location, said instruction containing at least a portion of said information by dividing said information into a plurality of consecutive sections and inserting said instructions containing said consecutive sections non-consecutively into said locations within said computer program. 2. (canceled) 3. (canceled) 4. (canceled) 5. (canceled) 6. (canceled) 7. (canceled) 8. (canceled) 9. (canceled) 10. (canceled) 11. (canceled) 12. (canceled) 13. (canceled) 14. (canceled) 15. (canceled) 16. (canceled) 17. (canceled) 18. (canceled) 19. (canceled) 20. (canceled)	<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Steganographic and watermarking techniques have been used to hide ancillary information in many different types of media. Steganographic techniques are generally used when the purpose is to conduct some type of secret communication and stealth is critical to prevent the interception of the hidden message. Watermarking techniques are more appropriate where the primary concern is to protect the hidden information, the watermark, from damage or removal. In steganography a classic model is known as the “prisoners' problem”. One example of the prisoners' problem is a scenario where Alice and Bob are two prisoners sent to different cells. Any communication between them must go through a warden Wendy. Because the warden wants to ensure that they are not developing an escape plan, she will not allow encrypted messages or any other suspicious communication. Therefore, Alice and Bob must set up a subliminal channel to communicate their escape plan invisibly. Based on this model, steganography works as follows. When Alice wants to send a secret message to Bob she first selects a cover-object c. The cover-object is some harmless message which will not raise suspicion. She then embeds the secret message m in the cover-object to produce the stego-object s. The stego-object must be created in such a way that Wendy, knowing only the seemingly harmless message s, will not be able to detect the presence of a secret in the cover-object c. Alice then transmits the message s over an insecure channel to Bob. Once received, Bob is able to decode the message m since he knows the embedding method and their shared secret key. Steganography is useful in many applications, such as the prevention of piracy of media. When using still images, video, or audio as the cover media we are able to leverage limitations in the human visual and auditory systems. This has led to a plethora of research on digital steganography and watermarking. Unfortunately, when the cover medium is an executable program we are far more restricted as to the type of transformations we can apply. These restrictions have resulted in fewer techniques, most of which suffer from inadequate data rates and/or poor resistance to attack. In contrast to image and sound steganography very little attention has been paid to code steganography. Most of the research directed at hiding information in executables has focused on providing piracy protection and thus has taken the form of software watermarking. A number of software watermarking techniques have been developed and proposed. Some software watermarking algorithms embed the watermark through an extension to a method's control flow graph. The watermark is encoded in a subgraph which is incorporated in the original graph. In other techniques, the instruction frequencies of the original program are modified to embed the watermark. A dynamic watermarking algorithm has been proposed which embeds the watermark in the structure of the graph, built on the heap at runtime, as the program executes on a particular input. Other proposed techniques are path-based and rely on the dynamic branching behavior of the program. To embed the watermark the sequence of branches taken and not taken on a particular input are modified. An abstract interpretation framework may also be used to embed a watermark in the values assigned to integer local variables during program execution. Other techniques leverage the ability to execute blocks of code on different threads. The watermark is encoded in the choice of blocks executed on the same thread. Also, a branch function may be used which generates the watermark as the program executes. In addition to software watermarking, other techniques are aimed directly at code steganography. For example one technique draws on the inherent redundancy in the instruction set to encode a message by noting that several instructions can be expressed in more than one way. For example, adding a value x to a register can be replaced with subtracting −x from the register. By creating sets of functionally equivalent instructions, message bits can be encoded in the machine code. Two improvements on the equivalent instruction substitution technique have been proposed using alternative encoding methods. The first technique is based on the ordering of basic blocks. The chain of basic blocks is selected based on the bits to be encoded. The second technique operates on a finer granularity and relies on the ordering of the instructions within a basic block. One recent code steganography technique is suggested not as a method for transferring secret messages, but as a way to provide additional information to the processor. The information encoding is accomplished by modifying operand bits in the instruction. To ensure proper execution a look-up table is stored in the program header. Each of the above techniques has certain disadvantages such as inadequate data rates and poor resistance to attack. Accordingly, there is a need for methods and systems for providing hidden messages in executable programs which have acceptable data rates and are very resistant to attack.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>To overcome the limitations in the prior art briefly described above, the present invention provides a method, computer program product, and system for hiding information in an instruction processing pipeline. In one embodiment of the present invention a method for embedding information in a computer program comprises: identifying at least one location within the computer program where pipeline processing dependencies require a stall; and inserting an instruction in the location, the instruction containing at least a portion of the information. In another embodiment of the present invention, a method of hiding information in the instruction processing pipeline of a computer program comprises: identifying at least one stall in the instruction processing pipeline; and filling the stall with an instruction that encodes a secret message, the instruction not altering the functionality of the computer program. In a further embodiment of the present invention includes an article of manufacture for use in a computer system tangibly embodying computer instructions executable by the computer system to perform process steps for transferring information from a first location to a second location the process steps comprising: encoding the information; locating stalls in executable code, the executable code being configured to perform a predetermined function when executed on a pipeline processor; inserting the encoded information into a plurality of instructions; inserting the instructions into the executable code at the stalls, there being no net effect of all of the inserted instructions on the predetermined function of the executable code; transferring the executable code to the second location; identifying the location of the stalls in the transferred executable code; extracting the encoded information from the instructions located at the stalls; and decoding the encoding information to generate the information at the second location. An additional embodiment of the present invention comprises a system for embedding a digital signature in executable code comprising: stall identifying unit for identifying the location of stalls within the executable code; and instruction insertion unit for inserting an instruction in a first of the locations, the instruction containing at least a first portion of a digital signature. Various advantages and features of novelty, which characterize the present invention, are pointed out with particularity in the claims annexed hereto and form a part hereof. However, for a better understanding of the invention and its advantages, reference should be made to the accompanying descriptive matter together with the corresponding drawings which form a further part hereof, in which there is described and illustrated specific examples in accordance with the present invention.	FIELD OF INVENTION The present invention generally relates to computer implemented steganographic and watermarking techniques, and particularly to methods and systems for encoding secret information in arbitrary program binaries. BACKGROUND Steganographic and watermarking techniques have been used to hide ancillary information in many different types of media. Steganographic techniques are generally used when the purpose is to conduct some type of secret communication and stealth is critical to prevent the interception of the hidden message. Watermarking techniques are more appropriate where the primary concern is to protect the hidden information, the watermark, from damage or removal. In steganography a classic model is known as the “prisoners' problem”. One example of the prisoners' problem is a scenario where Alice and Bob are two prisoners sent to different cells. Any communication between them must go through a warden Wendy. Because the warden wants to ensure that they are not developing an escape plan, she will not allow encrypted messages or any other suspicious communication. Therefore, Alice and Bob must set up a subliminal channel to communicate their escape plan invisibly. Based on this model, steganography works as follows. When Alice wants to send a secret message to Bob she first selects a cover-object c. The cover-object is some harmless message which will not raise suspicion. She then embeds the secret message m in the cover-object to produce the stego-object s. The stego-object must be created in such a way that Wendy, knowing only the seemingly harmless message s, will not be able to detect the presence of a secret in the cover-object c. Alice then transmits the message s over an insecure channel to Bob. Once received, Bob is able to decode the message m since he knows the embedding method and their shared secret key. Steganography is useful in many applications, such as the prevention of piracy of media. When using still images, video, or audio as the cover media we are able to leverage limitations in the human visual and auditory systems. This has led to a plethora of research on digital steganography and watermarking. Unfortunately, when the cover medium is an executable program we are far more restricted as to the type of transformations we can apply. These restrictions have resulted in fewer techniques, most of which suffer from inadequate data rates and/or poor resistance to attack. In contrast to image and sound steganography very little attention has been paid to code steganography. Most of the research directed at hiding information in executables has focused on providing piracy protection and thus has taken the form of software watermarking. A number of software watermarking techniques have been developed and proposed. Some software watermarking algorithms embed the watermark through an extension to a method's control flow graph. The watermark is encoded in a subgraph which is incorporated in the original graph. In other techniques, the instruction frequencies of the original program are modified to embed the watermark. A dynamic watermarking algorithm has been proposed which embeds the watermark in the structure of the graph, built on the heap at runtime, as the program executes on a particular input. Other proposed techniques are path-based and rely on the dynamic branching behavior of the program. To embed the watermark the sequence of branches taken and not taken on a particular input are modified. An abstract interpretation framework may also be used to embed a watermark in the values assigned to integer local variables during program execution. Other techniques leverage the ability to execute blocks of code on different threads. The watermark is encoded in the choice of blocks executed on the same thread. Also, a branch function may be used which generates the watermark as the program executes. In addition to software watermarking, other techniques are aimed directly at code steganography. For example one technique draws on the inherent redundancy in the instruction set to encode a message by noting that several instructions can be expressed in more than one way. For example, adding a value x to a register can be replaced with subtracting −x from the register. By creating sets of functionally equivalent instructions, message bits can be encoded in the machine code. Two improvements on the equivalent instruction substitution technique have been proposed using alternative encoding methods. The first technique is based on the ordering of basic blocks. The chain of basic blocks is selected based on the bits to be encoded. The second technique operates on a finer granularity and relies on the ordering of the instructions within a basic block. One recent code steganography technique is suggested not as a method for transferring secret messages, but as a way to provide additional information to the processor. The information encoding is accomplished by modifying operand bits in the instruction. To ensure proper execution a look-up table is stored in the program header. Each of the above techniques has certain disadvantages such as inadequate data rates and poor resistance to attack. Accordingly, there is a need for methods and systems for providing hidden messages in executable programs which have acceptable data rates and are very resistant to attack. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION To overcome the limitations in the prior art briefly described above, the present invention provides a method, computer program product, and system for hiding information in an instruction processing pipeline. In one embodiment of the present invention a method for embedding information in a computer program comprises: identifying at least one location within the computer program where pipeline processing dependencies require a stall; and inserting an instruction in the location, the instruction containing at least a portion of the information. In another embodiment of the present invention, a method of hiding information in the instruction processing pipeline of a computer program comprises: identifying at least one stall in the instruction processing pipeline; and filling the stall with an instruction that encodes a secret message, the instruction not altering the functionality of the computer program. In a further embodiment of the present invention includes an article of manufacture for use in a computer system tangibly embodying computer instructions executable by the computer system to perform process steps for transferring information from a first location to a second location the process steps comprising: encoding the information; locating stalls in executable code, the executable code being configured to perform a predetermined function when executed on a pipeline processor; inserting the encoded information into a plurality of instructions; inserting the instructions into the executable code at the stalls, there being no net effect of all of the inserted instructions on the predetermined function of the executable code; transferring the executable code to the second location; identifying the location of the stalls in the transferred executable code; extracting the encoded information from the instructions located at the stalls; and decoding the encoding information to generate the information at the second location. An additional embodiment of the present invention comprises a system for embedding a digital signature in executable code comprising: stall identifying unit for identifying the location of stalls within the executable code; and instruction insertion unit for inserting an instruction in a first of the locations, the instruction containing at least a first portion of a digital signature. Various advantages and features of novelty, which characterize the present invention, are pointed out with particularity in the claims annexed hereto and form a part hereof. However, for a better understanding of the invention and its advantages, reference should be made to the accompanying descriptive matter together with the corresponding drawings which form a further part hereof, in which there is described and illustrated specific examples in accordance with the present invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention is described in conjunction with the appended drawings, where like reference numbers denote the same element throughout the set of drawings: FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a typical computer system wherein the present invention may be practiced; FIG. 2 shows a block diagram of a system for embedding a message in executable code in accordance with an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 3 shows a flow chart of a method of embedding a message in executable code in accordance with an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 4 shows a block diagram of a system for extracting the message embedded in the system shown in FIG. 2 in accordance with an embodiment of the invention; and FIG. 5 shows a flow chart of a method of extracting a message from executable code in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention overcomes the problems associated with the prior art by teaching a system, computer program product, and method for hiding information in an instruction processing pipeline. In the following detailed description, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. Those skilled in the art will recognize, however, that the teachings contained herein may be applied to other embodiments and that the present invention may be practiced apart from these specific details. Accordingly, the present invention should not be limited to the embodiments shown, but is to be accorded the widest scope consistent with the principles and features described and claimed herein. The following description is presented to enable one of ordinary skill in the art to make and use the present invention and is provided in the context of a patent application and its requirements. The various elements and embodiments of invention can take the form of an entirely hardware embodiment, an entirely software embodiment or an embodiment containing both hardware and software elements. In a preferred embodiment, the invention may be implemented in software, which includes but is not limited to firmware, resident software, microcode, etc. Furthermore, the invention can take the form of a computer program product accessible from a computer-usable or computer-readable medium providing program code for use by or in connection with a computer or any instruction execution system. For the purposes of this description, a computer-usable or computer readable medium can be any apparatus that can contain, store, communicate, propagate, or transport the program for use by or in connection with the instruction execution system, apparatus, or device. The medium can be an electronic, magnetic, optical, electromagnetic, infrared, or semiconductor system (or apparatus or device) or a propagation medium. Examples of a computer-readable medium include a semiconductor or solid state memory, magnetic tape, a removable computer diskette, a random access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), a rigid magnetic disk and an optical disk. Current examples of optical disks include compact disk-read only memory (CD-ROM), compact disk-read/write (CD-R/W) and DVD. A data processing system suitable for storing and/or executing program code will include at least one processor coupled directly or indirectly to memory elements through a system bus. The memory elements can include local memory employed during actual execution of the program code, bulk storage, and cache memories which provide temporary storage of at least some program code in order to reduce the number of times code must be retrieved from bulk storage during execution. Input/output or I/O devices (including but not limited to keyboards, displays, pointing devices, etc.) can be coupled to the system either directly or through intervening I/O controllers. Network adapters may also be coupled to the system to enable the data processing system to become coupled to other data processing systems or remote printers or storage devices through intervening private or public networks. Modems, cable modem and Ethernet cards are just a few of the currently available types of network adapters. FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a computer system 100, in which teachings of the present invention may be embodied. The computer system 100 comprises one or more central processing units (CPUs) 102, 103, and 104. The CPUs 102-104 suitably operate together in concert with memory 110 in order to execute a variety of tasks. In accordance with techniques known in the art, numerous other components may be utilized with computer system 100, such a input/output devices comprising keyboards, displays, direct access storage devices (DASDs), printers, tapes, etc. (not shown). Although the present invention is described in a particular hardware embodiment, those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize and appreciate that this is meant to be illustrative and not restrictive of the present invention. Those of ordinary skill in the art will further appreciate that a wide range of computers and computing system configurations can be used to support the methods of the present invention, including, for example, configurations encompassing multiple systems, the internet, and distributed networks. Accordingly, the teachings contained herein should be viewed as highly “scalable”, meaning that they are adaptable to implementation on one, or several thousand, computer systems. The present invention provides a system and method of hiding information in an instruction processing pipeline. In particular, the present invention hides information in arbitrary program binaries. This is done by identifying stalls in the instruction processing pipeline. Instead of filling these stalls with no operation (nop) instructions the stalls are filled with instructions which will not adversely alter the functionality of the program, but which encode a hidden message. The present invention can be used for secret communication or for watermarking/fingerprinting. It can also be used for encoding a digital signature of the executable code. The present invention, in one embodiment, is a code steganographic technique that takes a message and an executable as input, and outputs a semantically equivalent executable which contains the secret message. To accomplish this, the present invention may analyze how the executable's instruction sequence would be processed in the instruction processing pipeline. The present invention takes advantage of the manner in which the executable's instruction sequence is processed. Due to data dependencies between instructions it is not always possible to maintain a completely full instruction pipeline. These dependencies result in instruction stalls, often referred to as bubbles in the pipeline. Until the dependency can be resolved, the processing of a new instruction is stalled for x time units. The stall is generally accomplished by inserting x nops in the instruction sequence. In accordance with the present invention, message encoding occurs by replacing those nop instructions with instructions that will not adversely alter the functionality of the program. Each instruction substitution may then represent a single bit, or some piece, of the secret message. In one embodiment the present invention may be employed on Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipeline Stages (MIPS) Executable and Linking Format (ELF) executables. However, the principles of the present invention may be applicable to any pipeline architecture. The MIPS architecture is a useful example due to the relative simplicity of the instruction pipeline processing and the fixed length instruction set, which makes binary rewriting easier. The embedding process itself is aided by the analysis that is normally performed during compilation. That is, when a program is compiled instruction scheduling analysis is performed, which identifies data dependencies. Depending on the specific level of optimization, when a dependency is found different actions take place. For an application compiled with optimization disabled, identification of a dependency results in the insertion of one or more nops in the instruction sequence. When optimization is enabled the compiler tries to reorder the instructions. Then if reordering fails the fall back is nop insertion. As a result, the embedding process of the present invention may not require data dependency analysis, although it is possible to employ data dependency analysis as part of the embedding process. With nops already inserted as part of the conventional data dependence, in accordance with one embodiment of the invention, the instruction sequence may be scanned for nop instructions. When a nop is found it may be replaced with an instruction corresponding to the current message bit. The inserted instruction may be selected from an instruction codebook which may be constructed and shared with the intended message recipient prior to beginning the secret communication. Alternatively, the method for constructing the instruction codebook may be shared with the recipient prior to the secret communication. FIG. 2 shows a block diagram of a message embedding system 200 for embedding information into an instruction processing pipeline in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. Executable code 202 is received by a message embedder 204. The message embedder 204 uses a stall locater module 206 for finding all the stalls in the code. In cases where dependency analysis has been done, the stall locator simply needs to locate the nops. In situations where the dependency analysis has not been done, the stall locator may do this analysis first before locating the stalls. A secret message 208 is received by a message encoder 210, which converts the message into a form that is suitable for insertion into the executable code 202. For example, the message may be in human readable form, and the message encoder 210 may converts it into an encoded digital representation. In some embodiments, this encoded message may be encrypted using conventional encryption techniques. The encoded message is then received by the message embedder 204 where an insertion module 212 inserts the encoded message into the executable code in the locations where the nops were located. In particular, the nops are removed and an instruction containing the encoded message is inserted in its place. Generally, it will take several nops to represent the entire encoded message, so the insertion module 212 will separate the encoded message into sections that will be inserted into multiple nop locations. The result will be a version of the executable code 214 that performs the same as the original executable code 202, but now contains the hidden message. 208. In should be noted that the insertion module 212 will insert instructions, which include parts of the encoded message, which will take the place of the nop instructions. The inserted instructions will be constructed so that they will have the same effect as a nop; that is, they will occupy one execution cycle without performing any operation. Alternatively, an inserted encoded message may comprise an instruction that actually does perform some operation, but a subsequent instruction will undo that operation so there will be no net effect. This approach may be preferred in some instances because it may make it more difficult for an unauthorized person to detect the locations of the instructions containing the encoded message. FIG. 3 shows a flow chart of a process 300 for embedding a message in executable code in accordance with one embodiment of the invention. In step 302 the secret encoded message and the executable code are received, for example, by the message embedder 204. In step 304 the first and subsequent instructions are selected one at a time. Step 306 determines if a stall exists at this instruction. As discussed above, where dependency analysis has already been performed, this step may simply comprise determining if the selected instruction is a nop instruction. If it is not, the process returns to step 304 and the next instruction is selected. If step 306 determines that the instruction is a stall, the process moves to step 308, which looks at the code book and at the message to determine which instruction to put in that location in the place of the nop. In step 310 the proper instruction message containing the correct portion of the secret message is inserted into the executable code. Step 312 then determines if the entire message has been embedded. If not, the process returns to step 304 and the next instruction is selected. If the entire message has been embedded then step 314 outputs the semantically equivalent, executable code containing the encoded message. In many steganographic techniques it is often common to assume what is called a passive warden. This means that any person serving as an intermediary in the message exchange will read the message and possibly prevent it from being exchanged, but will not attempt to modify it. Because of this assumption, we can use a static embedding technique (one that only uses information statically available). Therefore, one possible method for selecting the nops is simply to replace them in the order that they appear in the executable. However, in some applications, for example, where the present invention is used for watermarking purposes code modification attacks are a concern. Hence, in such applications a dynamic embedding technique may be preferred. One dynamic embedding technique that may be employed is to replace those nop instructions which reside on a particular execution path through the program instead of in the order that they appear in the executable. In this case, the program would be executed using a particular input sequence prior to embedding the secret message. As the program executes, the path through the program is recorded. Then, instead of selecting instruction as they appear in the static executable, we select instructions along the identified path through the program. To extract the watermark, the receiver will use the same input sequence to identify the path through the program. Then the message will be extracted from the instructions along that path. Since the embedded instructions are now linked to program execution it is more difficult to rearrange them. One of the keys to dynamic watermarking is that the input sequence used should remain secret; it basically serves the same purpose as a secret key in cryptography. Only the sender and the receiver should know the secret input sequence. FIG. 4 shows a block diagram of a message extraction system 400 in accordance with one embodiment of the invention. The executable code 402 with the secret encoded message embedded therein is received by a message extractor 402. Executable code 402 may comprise the executable code 214 with the embedded message shown in FIG. 2. Message locator module 406 will determine the location of the instructions containing the secret message. For example, message locator module 406 may do this by using information from a previously provided code book (not shown). The codebook may contain a list of all instructions used to encode part of the secret message and the value the instruction represents. For example, it could be comprised of (1) add eax, 0 represents 0 and (2) mul eax, 1 represents 1. Then each time the receiver saw one of these instructions in the executable he would check to see if it represented a stall, if so then he found a bit of the message. Without the codebook the receiver would not know which instructions could be part of the code or what value the instruction represented. Extraction module 408 will next extract the message elements contained in each instruction found by the message locator module and assemble them into an encoded message. A message decoder 410 will then decode the message and generate the original message 412, which may be, in machine-readable or human-readable form. The message decoder 410 may use a conventional decryption technique that corresponds to the encryption technique used by the encoder 210 shown in FIG. 2. The executable code 414 has not been functionally altered by the message extraction system 400, so it may continue to be used for its original purpose, or may be used again to encode another secret message in accordance with the above-described techniques. It may be noted that with information hiding techniques, it is harder to get the information out then it is to put it in. To extract the message the message locator 406 may simply scan the message looking for instructions which are known to represent bits of the message. This knowledge may come from the previously provided code book. However, it is possible that this technique could result in extraneous bits. To provide a more accurate message recovery, some embodiments of the invention may perform some data dependency analysis. That is, the message locator 406 may check to see if the removal of an identified instruction would result in a pipeline stall. If so, then the message extraction system 400 will decode the instruction to its corresponding bit, otherwise it will ignore the instruction. An important parameter associated with code steganography techniques relates to the potential data rate. The resulting data rate achieved by the present invention will be determined by the number of stalls in the pipeline. Hence, it will be useful to analyze the executable code to determine the number of stalls available to receive parts of the secret message. In some cases this may be done by counting the number of nops and using this information to calculate a potential data rate. FIG. 5 shows a flow chart of a process 500 for extracting a message in executable code in accordance with one embodiment of the invention. In step 502 the executable code containing the embedded secret encoded message is received, for example, by the message extractor 404. In step 504 the first and subsequent instructions are selected one at a time. Step 506 determines if the selected instruction is an instruction that represents bits of the secret message. This may be done for example, by determining if the instruction corresponds to information given in the code book. If it is not, the process returns to step 504 and the next instruction is selected. If step 506 determines that the instruction represents bits of the secret message, the process may optionally moves to step 508, which may perform data dependency analysis. For example this step may involve a check to determine if the removal of an identified instruction would result in a pipeline stall. If removal would result in pipeline stall there is a greater degree of certainty that the instruction contains parts of the secret message. In some embodiments, step 508 may be skipped; however, there is a greater chance of extraneous bits being included with the secret message. In step 510 the instruction is added to the secret message. Step 512 then determines if the last instruction has been analyzed. If not, the process returns to step 504 and the next instruction is selected. Once all the instructions have been processed then step 514 decodes the message using information from the code book. The decided message is then output for reading in step 516. In addition to using the present invention for secret communication or for watermarking/fingerprinting, the present invention can also be used for encoding a digital signature of executable code. This can be done by computing the signature with the nop instruction in place and encoding the signature in the executable. One way to verify the signature is to extract the signature from the code, replace the message contributing instructions with nop instructions, compute the signature for the executable, and verify. For fixed length instruction sets this has the advantage of digital signature protection without an increase in executable size. In accordance with the present invention, we have disclosed systems and methods for encoding information in an instruction processing pipeline. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the teachings contained herein can be implemented in many applications in addition to those discussed above where there is a need for secret communication, watermarking, fingerprinting and digital signatures. References in the claims to an element in the singular is not intended to mean “one and only” unless explicitly so stated, but rather “one or more.” All structural and functional equivalents to the elements of the above-described exemplary embodiment that are currently known or later come to be known to those of ordinary skill in the art are intended to be encompassed by the present claims. No clam element herein is to be construed under the provisions of 35 U.S.C. section 112, sixth paragraph, unless the element is expressly recited using the phrase “means for” or “step for.” While the preferred embodiments of the present invention have been described in detail, it will be understood that modifications and adaptations to the embodiments shown may occur to one of ordinary skill in the art without departing from the scope of the present invention as set forth in the following claims. Thus, the scope of this invention is to be construed according to the appended claims and not limited by the specific details disclosed in the exemplary embodiments.	G	G06	G06F	21	00
11706467	US20070211457A1-20070913	Replacement light fixture and lens assembly for same	ACCEPTED	20070829	20070913		[]	F21V700	["F21V700"]	7635198	20070212	20091222	362	223000	72228.0	LEE	GUNYOUNG	[{"inventor_name_last": "Mayfield", "inventor_name_first": "John", "inventor_city": "Loganville", "inventor_state": "GA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Gould", "inventor_name_first": "Carl", "inventor_city": "Golden", "inventor_state": "CO", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "McIlwraith", "inventor_name_first": "George", "inventor_city": "Fayetteville", "inventor_state": "GA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Sharp", "inventor_name_first": "Christopher", "inventor_city": "Conyers", "inventor_state": "GA", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A replacement light fixture for directing light emitted from a light source toward an area to be illuminated, including a base member upon with the light source is positioned and a reflector assembly detachably secured to a first and second mounting brackets that are mounted to a portion of the preexisting light fixture housing such that a lens portion of the reflector assembly overlies the light source and such that substantially all of the light emitted from the light source passes through the lens portion	1. A retrofit light fixture for a preexisting recessed light fixture housing having opposed end walls, comprising: a. a base assembly comprising a longitudinally extending base member having a proximal edge and an opposed distal edge, the base member further defining at least one slot adjacent the proximal edge of the base member; and b. a first mounting bracket and an opposed second mounting bracket, each mounting bracket configured for mounting to an edge portion of a respective end wall of the light fixture housing, wherein each mounting bracket has an upper shoulder surface, and wherein at least the first mounting bracket has at least one male tab protrusion extending upwardly away from the upper shoulder surface that is configured to selectively cooperate with the at least one slot of the base member, wherein the base assembly is movable between an installation position, in which the base member is suspended from the first mounting bracket by the cooperative engagement of the at least one male tab protrusion of the first mounting bracket and the at least one slot of the base member, and an operating position, in which the base member is selectively secured to the first and second mounting brackets by the cooperative engagement of the at least one male tab protrusion of the first mounting bracket and the at least one slot of the base member and the connection of the upper shoulder surface of the second mounting bracket to a top surface of the base member. 2. The retrofit light fixture of claim 1, wherein the base assembly comprises a plurality of lamp sockets selectively mounted to a bottom surface of the base member. 3. The retrofit light fixture of claim 2, wherein the base assembly further comprises a ballast that is electrically coupled to the lamp sockets. 4. The retrofit light fixture of claim 3, wherein the ballast is mounted to the top surface of the base member. 5. The retrofit light fixture of claim 3, wherein the base member defines a ballast opening, wherein the base member further comprises an access door configured to selectively cover the ballast opening, and wherein the ballast is mounted to the top surface of the access door. 6. The retrofit light fixture of claim 3, wherein the base member defines at least one longitudinally extending trough. 7. The retrofit light fixture of claim 6, wherein the lamp sockets are positioned within the at least one trough. 8. The retrofit light fixture of claim 7, wherein the lamp sockets are positioned adjacent the respective proximal and distal edges of the base member. 9. The retrofit light fixture of claim 1, wherein the at least one slot of the base member comprises a plurality of slots, and wherein at least the first mounting bracket comprises a plurality of male tab protrusions that are configured to selectively cooperate with the plurality of slots of the base member. 10. The retrofit light fixture of claim 1, wherein a mounting slot of the at least one slot of the base member has a top portion positioned adjacent the proximal edge of the base member that has a first dimension substantially transverse to the longitudinal axis of the base member and a bottom portion having a second dimension substantially transverse to the longitudinal axis of the base member, wherein the first dimension is greater than the second dimension. 11. The retrofit light fixture of claim 10, wherein a mounting male tab protrusion of the at least one male tab protrusion has a distal end portion having a width that is greater that the width of a proximal end portion that is connected to the upper shoulder surface of the mounting bracket. 12. The retrofit light fixture of claim 11, wherein the mounting slot has a substantially T shape, and wherein the mounting male tab protrusion has a substantially T shape that is sized and shaped to cooperate with the mounting slot. 13. The retrofit light fixture of claims 11, wherein the mounting male tab protrusion extends upwardly at an acute angle with respect to a plane parallel to the ceiling plane in the range of from about 80° to about 90°. 14. The retrofit light fixture of claim 7, further comprising a longitudinally extending reflector assembly comprising at least one elongated lens, wherein the reflector assembly is constructed and arranged to be detachably secured to a portion of the first and second mounting brackets such that the reflector assembly is positioned at or above the ceiling plane. 15. The retrofit light fixture of claim 14, wherein the reflector assembly has a first longitudinally extending side edge and an opposed second longitudinally extending side edge, and wherein the reflector assembly is positioned within the light housing such that the respective side edges are substantially co-planar with the ceiling plane. 16. The retrofit light fixture of claim 14, further comprising at least one linear light source, each light source being electrically coupled to a pair of light sockets of the plurality of light sockets. 17. The retrofit light fixture of claim 16, wherein each lens is positioned with respect to one trough of the base member such that substantially all of the light emitted by the light fixture passes through the at least one lens. 18. The retrofit light fixture of claim 17, wherein the elongated lens extends between a first end edge and an opposed second end edge, and wherein the lens defines a concave face. 19. The retrofit light fixture of claim 18, wherein the reflector assembly further comprises a diffuser inlay positioned between the linear light source and the concave face of the lens. 20. The retrofit light fixture of claim 19, wherein the diffuser inlay is positioned in substantial overlying registration with the concave face of the lens. 21. The retrofit light fixture of claim 14, wherein the reflector assembly comprises a pair of opposing end faces. 22. The retrofit light fixture of claim 21, wherein each end face is positioned at an obtuse angle with respect to a longitudinal axis of the reflector assembly. 23. The retrofit light fixture of claim 22, wherein each end face is substantially planar. 24. The retrofit light fixture of claim 22, wherein the obtuse angle is in the range of from about 95° to about 160°. 25. The retrofit light fixture of claim 22, wherein the obtuse angle is in the range of from about 100° to about 150°. 26. The retrofit light fixture of claim 21, wherein the reflector assembly defines at least one longitudinally extending hollow that extends between the respective end faces. 27. The retrofit light fixture of claim 26, wherein each hollow extends inwardly toward a central portion in which the lens is connected. 28. The retrofit light fixture of claim 27, wherein each lens is integrally connected to the reflector assembly. 29. The retrofit light fixture of claim 27, wherein the reflector assembly controls high angle glare in the transverse direction by blocking high angle rays from the lens, and wherein the lens controls high angle glare in the longitudinal direction optically. 30. The retrofit light fixture of claim 27, wherein the lens is recessed within the reflector assembly such that a plane bisecting one of the respective longitudinal side edges of the light fixture housing and a tangential portion of the lens is oriented at an acute angle with respect to the ceiling plane. 31. The retrofit light fixture of claim 14, further comprising a means for selectively pivotably securing the reflector assembly to the portion of the first and second mounting brackets. 32. The retrofit light fixture of claim 31, wherein the means for selectively pivotably securing the reflector assembly comprising a plurality of bias members and a plurality of latches. 33. The retrofit light fixture of claim 32, wherein the reflector assembly has a pair of opposing peripheral end edges, wherein a bore is defined in each peripheral end edge, wherein a bias member opening is defined in a lower portion of each mounting bracket, and wherein each bias member is configured to selectively engage the respective bores of the reflector assembly and the bias member opening. 34. The retrofit light fixture of claim 33, wherein one latch is pivotably mounted to each peripheral end edge of the reflector assembly, and wherein each latch is configured to operatively engage a latch slot that is defined in the lower portion of each mounting bracket. 35. A retrofit light fixture for a preexisting recessed light fixture housing mounted in a ceiling plane that has opposed end walls, comprising: a. a longitudinally extending base member; b. a first mounting bracket and an opposed second mounting bracket, each mounting bracket configured for mounting to an edge portion of a respective end wall of the light fixture housing; and c. means for hingeably connecting the base member to the first mounting bracket such that the base member is movable between an installation position, in which the base member is suspended from the first mounting bracket, and an operating position, in which the base member is selectively secured to the first and second mounting brackets. 36. The retrofit light fixture of claim 35, further comprising a longitudinally extending reflector assembly comprising at least one elongated lens, wherein the reflector assembly is constructed and arranged to be detachably secured to a lower portion of the first and second mounting brackets such that the reflector assembly is positioned at or above the ceiling plane. 37. The retrofit light fixture of claim 36, further comprising means for selectively pivotably securing the reflector assembly to the portion of the first and second mounting brackets. 38. The retrofit light fixture of claim 36, wherein the reflector assembly controls high angle glare in the transverse direction by blocking high angle rays from the lens, and wherein the lens controls high angle glare in the longitudinal direction optically. 39. The retrofit light fixture of claim 36, wherein substantially all of the light emitted by the light fixture passes through the at least one lens. 40. The retrofit light fixture of claim 36, wherein the reflector assembly has a first longitudinally extending side edge and an opposed second longitudinally extending side edge, and wherein the reflector assembly is positioned within the light housing such that the respective side edges are substantially co-planar with the ceiling plane. 41. An apparatus for retrofitting a preexisting recessed light fixture housing mounted in a ceiling plane, comprising: a. a base assembly comprising a longitudinally extending base member, a plurality of lamp sockets mounted to a bottom surface of the base member, and a ballast mounted to the top surface of the base member that is electrically coupled to the lamp sockets; b. a first mounting bracket and an opposed second mounting bracket, each mounting bracket configured for mounting to an edge portion of a respective end wall of the light fixture housing; and c. means for hingeably connecting the base assembly to the first mounting bracket such that the base assembly is movable between an installation position, in which the base member is suspended from the first mounting bracket, and an operating position, in which the base member is selectively secured to the first and second mounting brackets. 42. A method of retrofitting an existing recessed light fixture installed above an opening in an inverted T-bar grid ceiling that has a fixture housing, a reflector, at least one light source, a ballast and power supply leads connected to the ballast, the method comprising: a) mounting a first mounting bracket to an edge portion of an end wall of the fixture housing and mounting a second mounting bracket on the edge portion of the opposing end wall of the fixture housing; b) hingeably connecting a base assembly to the first mounting bracket, the base assembly comprising a longitudinally extending base member, a plurality of lamp sockets mounted to a bottom surface of the base member, and a retrofit ballast mounted to the top surface of the base member that is electrically coupled to the lamp sockets; c) attaching the power supply leads from the existing light fixture to the retrofit ballast; and d) swinging the base assembly upward and selectively securing a portion the base member to a portion of the second mounting bracket. 43. The method of claim 42, further comprising removing the at least one light source, the reflector of the existing recessed light fixture and disconnecting the power supply leads from the ballast of the existing recessed light fixture before the respective mounting brackets are mounted to the fixture housing. 44. The method of claim 42, further comprising substantially centering the respective mounting brackets on each respective end wall of the fixture housing. 45. The method of claim 42, further comprising hingedly connecting a longitudinally extending reflector assembly to the opposing first and second mounting brackets. 46. The method of claim 45, further comprising swinging the reflector assembly upward and selectively securing the reflector assembly to the respective mounting brackets connecting a portion the base member to a portion of the second mounting bracket. 47. The method of claim 46, wherein the reflector assembly comprising at least one elongated lens, and wherein the reflector assembly is detachably secured to a lower portion of the first and second mounting brackets such that the reflector assembly is positioned at or above the ceiling plane. 48. The method of claim 47, wherein the reflector assembly controls high angle glare in the transverse direction by blocking high angle rays from the lens, and wherein the lens controls high angle glare in the longitudinal direction optically. 49. The method of claim 47, wherein substantially all of the light emitted by the light fixture passes through the at least one lens. 50. The method of claim 47, wherein the reflector assembly has a first longitudinally extending side edge and an opposed second longitudinally extending side edge, and wherein the reflector assembly is positioned within the light housing such that the respective side edges are substantially co-planar with the ceiling plane. 51. A replacement light fixture for directing light toward an area desired to be illuminated, comprising: a first mounting bracket and an opposed mounting bracket configured to mount therein a preexisting housing mounted in a ceiling above a ceiling plane; an elongated base member configured to mount thereon the first mounting bracket and the second mounting bracket, the base member having a longitudinal axis; at least one linear light source for generating the light, the light source being elongated along a light longitudinal axis and being operatively supported by the base member; and a reflector assembly comprising: at least one curved lens portion that extends generally parallel to the light longitudinal axis and is positioned symmetric about a plane that extends through the light longitudinal axis, and at least one opaque reflector connected and extending therefrom the lens portion, wherein the reflector assembly is mounted thereto a portion of the respective first and second mounting brackets.	<SOH> BACKGROUND ART <EOH>Numerous light fixtures for architectural lighting applications are known. In the case of fixtures that provide direct lighting, the source of illumination may be visible in its entirety through an output aperture of the light fixture or shielded by elements such as parabolic baffles or lenses. A light fixture presently used in a typical office environment comprises a troffer with at least one fluorescent lamp and a lens having prismatic elements for distributing the light. Also known are light fixtures that use parabolic reflectors to provide a desired light distribution. The choice of light fixture will depend on the objectives of the lighting designer for a particular application and the economic resources available. To meet his or her design objectives, the lighting designer, when choosing a light fixture, will normally consider a variety of factors including aesthetic appearance, desired light distribution characteristics, efficiency, lumen package, maintenance and sources of brightness that can detract from visual comfort and productivity. An important factor in the design of light fixtures for a particular application is the light source. The fluorescent lamp has long been the light source of choice among lighting designers in many commercial applications, particularly for indoor office lighting. For many years the most common fluorescent lamps for use in indoor lighting have been the linear T8 (1 inch diameter) and the T12 (1.5 inch diameter). More recently, however, smaller diameter fluorescent lamps have become available, which provide a high lumen output from a comparatively small lamp envelope. An example is the linear T5 (⅝ inch diameter) lamp manufactured by Osram/Sylvania and others. The T5 has a number of advantages over the T8 and T12, including the design of light fixtures that provide a high lumen output with fewer lamps, which reduces lamp disposal requirements and has the potential for reducing overall costs. The smaller-diameter T5 lamps also permit the design of smaller light fixtures. The newer technology lamps allow for the design of light fixtures that produce equivalent illumination with only a fraction of the number of lamps that would have been used in a conventional light fixture using older technology lamps. Some conventional fluorescent lamps, however, have the significant drawback in that the lamp surface is bright when compared to a lamp of larger diameter. For example, a conventional T5 lamp can have a surface brightness in the range of 5,000 to 8,000 footlamberts (FL), whereas the surface brightness of the larger T8 and T12 lamps generally is about 3,000 FL and 2,000 FL, respectively (although there are some versions of linear T8 and T12 lamps with higher brightness). The consequence of such bright surfaces is quite severe in applications where the lamps may be viewed directly. Without adequate shielding, fixtures employing such lamps are very uncomfortable and produce direct and reflected glare that impairs the comfort of the lighting environment. Heretofore, opaque shielding has been devised to cover or substantially surround a fluorescent lamp to mitigate problems associated with light sources of high surface brightness; however, such shielding defeats the advantages of a fluorescent lamp in regions of distribution where the lamp's surfaces are not directly viewed or do not set up reflected glare patterns. Thus, with conventional shielding designs, the distribution efficiencies and high lumen output advantages of the fluorescent lamp can be substantially lost. A further disadvantage to traditional parabolic and prismatic troffers is the presence of distracting dynamic changes in brightness level and pattern as seen by a moving observer in the architectural space. Additionally, traditional parabolic and prismatic troffers allow direct or only slightly obscured views of the lamp source(s)) at certain viewing angles (low angles for both the parabolic and prismatic and most transverse angle for prismatic). This unaesthetic condition is remedied by indirect and direct-indirect fixture designs, but typically with a significant loss of efficiency. Another known solution to the problem of direct glare associated with the use of high brightness fluorescent lamps is the use of biax lamps in direct-indirect light fixtures. This approach uses high brightness lamps only for the uplight component of the light fixture while using T8 lamps with less bright surfaces for the light fixtures down-light component. However, such design approaches have the drawback that the extra lamps impair the designer's ability to achieve a desired light distribution from a given physical envelope and impose added burdens on lamp maintenance providers who must stock and handle two different types of lamps. Conventional parabolic light fixture designs have several negative features. One of these is reduced lighting efficiency. Another is the so-called “cave effect,” where the upper portions of walls in the illuminated area are dark. In addition, the light distribution of these fixtures often creates a defined line on the walls between the higher lit and less lit areas. This creates the perception of a ceiling that is lower than it actually is. Further, when viewed directly at high viewing angles, a conventional parabolic fixture can appear very dim or, even, off. The present invention overcomes the above-described disadvantages of light fixtures using brighter light sources by providing a configuration that appears to a viewer as though it has a source of lower brightness, but which otherwise permits the light fixture to advantageously and efficiently distribute light generated by the selected lamp, such as the exemplified T5 lamp. The light fixture of the present invention reduces distracting direct glare associated with high brightness light sources used in direct or direct-indirect light fixtures. This reduction in glare is accomplished without the addition of lamps and the added costs associated therewith. As discussed above, recent developments in lamp technologies have resulted in higher efficiency, brighter lamps with better color rendering. Particularly, these developments have resulted in the availability of new technology lamps and light fixtures with the performance describe above. Commercial clients desire the ability to more efficiently and effectively illuminate their work or display environments by utilizing the newer technology lamps and light fixtures. However, the newer technology lamps cannot be installed into existing fixtures as they require different lamp holders and ballasts. Replacement of existing fixtures is very costly. This option requires the purchase of completely new fixtures, wiring and construction costs of removing the old fixtures and installing the new fixtures, as well as the additional burden of the inconvenience and cost of closing down sections of the commercial structure as the construction proceeds. The present invention particularly addresses the cost and convenience issued involved with newer technology lamps, sockets, and ballasts. The present invention also allows installation of a newer technology light fixture without disturbing the ceiling or the plenum area above the ceiling, which eliminates potential environmental concerns, such as asbestos contamination and the cost of asbestos removal, that can be associated with disturbing the ceiling or plenum.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a replacement or retrofit light fixture, or troffer, for efficiently distributing light emitted by a light source into an area to be illuminated. The lens and reflector of the present invention increase the light efficiency of the replacement or retrofit light fixture and diffuses the light relatively uniformly, which minimizes the “cave effect” commonly noted in areas using conventional parabolic light fixtures in the ceiling. In one embodiment, suitable for retrofit or replacement applications, the present invention relates to a downlight light fixture for efficiently distributing light emitted by a light source into an area to be illuminated that can be mounted in a preexisting light fixture housing, which can be, in one aspect, conventionally mounted therein a ceiling. In one exemplary embodiment, the retrofit light fixture of the present application can comprise a longitudinally extending base member that is configured to mount therein a preexisting recessed light fixture housing mounted in and above a ceiling plane. The retrofit light fixture can also comprise a first mounting bracket and an opposed second mounting bracket. In one aspect, each mounting bracket can be configured for mounting to an edge portion of a respective end wall of the light fixture housing. In a further aspect, the base member is hingeably connected to the first mounting bracket such that the base member can be move about and between an installation position, in which the base member is suspended from the first mounting bracket, and an operating position, in which the base member is selectively secured to the first and second mounting brackets. In a further aspect, the retrofit light fixture can further comprise a longitudinally extending reflector assembly that comprises at least one elongated lens. In one aspect, the reflector assembly is constructed and arranged to be detachably secured to a lower portion of the first and second mounting brackets such that the reflector assembly is positioned at or above the ceiling plane of the ceiling and underlies the base member of the base assembly. In this aspect, it is contemplated that the reflector assembly and the lens can be, in one example, formed integral to each other. In a further aspect, it is contemplated that the lens is positioned with respect to a portions of the reflector assembly to receive light emitted by the light source and distribute it such that glare is further reduced. In a preferred embodiment, the lens of this exemplary retrofit light fixture receives and distributes substantially all of the light emitted by the light source. In an additional aspect, the base member is configured to receive at least one light source that is releasably mounted to electrical lamp sockets, which are connected to portions of the base member. In one example, a ballast is mounted to a top surface of the base member such that the ballast is hidden from view of an external observer when the base member is mounted to the preexisting housing. In one aspect, a movable access door is provided that can be opened and closed by an operator to access a ballast that is disposed in an interior cavity that is formed between the top surface of the base housing and portions of the preexisting housing. In another aspect, the ballast can be mounted to a portion of the top surface of the movable access door for ready access to the ballast by an operator. Related methods of operation are also provided. Other systems, methods, features, and advantages of the replacement or retrofit light fixture for distributing generated light will be or become apparent to one with skill in the art upon examination of the following figures and detailed description. It is intended that all such additional systems, methods, features, and advantages be included within this description, be within the scope of the replacement or retrofit light fixture for distributing generated light, and be protected by the accompanying claims.	This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Utility patent application Ser. No. 10/970,615, filed on Oct. 21, 2004 and Ser. No. 10/970,625, filed on Oct. 21, 2004, which claim priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/580,996, filed on Jun. 18, 2004, and claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Nos. 60/722,231, filed on Feb. 10, 2006, and 60/860,671, filed on Nov. 22, 2006, all of which are incorporated in their entirety in this document by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention generally relates to light fixtures for illuminating architectural spaces. The invention has particular application in light fixtures using fluorescent lamps, such as the T5 linear fluorescent lamp, as the light source. More particularly, the invention relates to a replacement light fixture and a method of retrofitting preexisting recessed light fixtures. BACKGROUND ART Numerous light fixtures for architectural lighting applications are known. In the case of fixtures that provide direct lighting, the source of illumination may be visible in its entirety through an output aperture of the light fixture or shielded by elements such as parabolic baffles or lenses. A light fixture presently used in a typical office environment comprises a troffer with at least one fluorescent lamp and a lens having prismatic elements for distributing the light. Also known are light fixtures that use parabolic reflectors to provide a desired light distribution. The choice of light fixture will depend on the objectives of the lighting designer for a particular application and the economic resources available. To meet his or her design objectives, the lighting designer, when choosing a light fixture, will normally consider a variety of factors including aesthetic appearance, desired light distribution characteristics, efficiency, lumen package, maintenance and sources of brightness that can detract from visual comfort and productivity. An important factor in the design of light fixtures for a particular application is the light source. The fluorescent lamp has long been the light source of choice among lighting designers in many commercial applications, particularly for indoor office lighting. For many years the most common fluorescent lamps for use in indoor lighting have been the linear T8 (1 inch diameter) and the T12 (1.5 inch diameter). More recently, however, smaller diameter fluorescent lamps have become available, which provide a high lumen output from a comparatively small lamp envelope. An example is the linear T5 (⅝ inch diameter) lamp manufactured by Osram/Sylvania and others. The T5 has a number of advantages over the T8 and T12, including the design of light fixtures that provide a high lumen output with fewer lamps, which reduces lamp disposal requirements and has the potential for reducing overall costs. The smaller-diameter T5 lamps also permit the design of smaller light fixtures. The newer technology lamps allow for the design of light fixtures that produce equivalent illumination with only a fraction of the number of lamps that would have been used in a conventional light fixture using older technology lamps. Some conventional fluorescent lamps, however, have the significant drawback in that the lamp surface is bright when compared to a lamp of larger diameter. For example, a conventional T5 lamp can have a surface brightness in the range of 5,000 to 8,000 footlamberts (FL), whereas the surface brightness of the larger T8 and T12 lamps generally is about 3,000 FL and 2,000 FL, respectively (although there are some versions of linear T8 and T12 lamps with higher brightness). The consequence of such bright surfaces is quite severe in applications where the lamps may be viewed directly. Without adequate shielding, fixtures employing such lamps are very uncomfortable and produce direct and reflected glare that impairs the comfort of the lighting environment. Heretofore, opaque shielding has been devised to cover or substantially surround a fluorescent lamp to mitigate problems associated with light sources of high surface brightness; however, such shielding defeats the advantages of a fluorescent lamp in regions of distribution where the lamp's surfaces are not directly viewed or do not set up reflected glare patterns. Thus, with conventional shielding designs, the distribution efficiencies and high lumen output advantages of the fluorescent lamp can be substantially lost. A further disadvantage to traditional parabolic and prismatic troffers is the presence of distracting dynamic changes in brightness level and pattern as seen by a moving observer in the architectural space. Additionally, traditional parabolic and prismatic troffers allow direct or only slightly obscured views of the lamp source(s)) at certain viewing angles (low angles for both the parabolic and prismatic and most transverse angle for prismatic). This unaesthetic condition is remedied by indirect and direct-indirect fixture designs, but typically with a significant loss of efficiency. Another known solution to the problem of direct glare associated with the use of high brightness fluorescent lamps is the use of biax lamps in direct-indirect light fixtures. This approach uses high brightness lamps only for the uplight component of the light fixture while using T8 lamps with less bright surfaces for the light fixtures down-light component. However, such design approaches have the drawback that the extra lamps impair the designer's ability to achieve a desired light distribution from a given physical envelope and impose added burdens on lamp maintenance providers who must stock and handle two different types of lamps. Conventional parabolic light fixture designs have several negative features. One of these is reduced lighting efficiency. Another is the so-called “cave effect,” where the upper portions of walls in the illuminated area are dark. In addition, the light distribution of these fixtures often creates a defined line on the walls between the higher lit and less lit areas. This creates the perception of a ceiling that is lower than it actually is. Further, when viewed directly at high viewing angles, a conventional parabolic fixture can appear very dim or, even, off. The present invention overcomes the above-described disadvantages of light fixtures using brighter light sources by providing a configuration that appears to a viewer as though it has a source of lower brightness, but which otherwise permits the light fixture to advantageously and efficiently distribute light generated by the selected lamp, such as the exemplified T5 lamp. The light fixture of the present invention reduces distracting direct glare associated with high brightness light sources used in direct or direct-indirect light fixtures. This reduction in glare is accomplished without the addition of lamps and the added costs associated therewith. As discussed above, recent developments in lamp technologies have resulted in higher efficiency, brighter lamps with better color rendering. Particularly, these developments have resulted in the availability of new technology lamps and light fixtures with the performance describe above. Commercial clients desire the ability to more efficiently and effectively illuminate their work or display environments by utilizing the newer technology lamps and light fixtures. However, the newer technology lamps cannot be installed into existing fixtures as they require different lamp holders and ballasts. Replacement of existing fixtures is very costly. This option requires the purchase of completely new fixtures, wiring and construction costs of removing the old fixtures and installing the new fixtures, as well as the additional burden of the inconvenience and cost of closing down sections of the commercial structure as the construction proceeds. The present invention particularly addresses the cost and convenience issued involved with newer technology lamps, sockets, and ballasts. The present invention also allows installation of a newer technology light fixture without disturbing the ceiling or the plenum area above the ceiling, which eliminates potential environmental concerns, such as asbestos contamination and the cost of asbestos removal, that can be associated with disturbing the ceiling or plenum. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a replacement or retrofit light fixture, or troffer, for efficiently distributing light emitted by a light source into an area to be illuminated. The lens and reflector of the present invention increase the light efficiency of the replacement or retrofit light fixture and diffuses the light relatively uniformly, which minimizes the “cave effect” commonly noted in areas using conventional parabolic light fixtures in the ceiling. In one embodiment, suitable for retrofit or replacement applications, the present invention relates to a downlight light fixture for efficiently distributing light emitted by a light source into an area to be illuminated that can be mounted in a preexisting light fixture housing, which can be, in one aspect, conventionally mounted therein a ceiling. In one exemplary embodiment, the retrofit light fixture of the present application can comprise a longitudinally extending base member that is configured to mount therein a preexisting recessed light fixture housing mounted in and above a ceiling plane. The retrofit light fixture can also comprise a first mounting bracket and an opposed second mounting bracket. In one aspect, each mounting bracket can be configured for mounting to an edge portion of a respective end wall of the light fixture housing. In a further aspect, the base member is hingeably connected to the first mounting bracket such that the base member can be move about and between an installation position, in which the base member is suspended from the first mounting bracket, and an operating position, in which the base member is selectively secured to the first and second mounting brackets. In a further aspect, the retrofit light fixture can further comprise a longitudinally extending reflector assembly that comprises at least one elongated lens. In one aspect, the reflector assembly is constructed and arranged to be detachably secured to a lower portion of the first and second mounting brackets such that the reflector assembly is positioned at or above the ceiling plane of the ceiling and underlies the base member of the base assembly. In this aspect, it is contemplated that the reflector assembly and the lens can be, in one example, formed integral to each other. In a further aspect, it is contemplated that the lens is positioned with respect to a portions of the reflector assembly to receive light emitted by the light source and distribute it such that glare is further reduced. In a preferred embodiment, the lens of this exemplary retrofit light fixture receives and distributes substantially all of the light emitted by the light source. In an additional aspect, the base member is configured to receive at least one light source that is releasably mounted to electrical lamp sockets, which are connected to portions of the base member. In one example, a ballast is mounted to a top surface of the base member such that the ballast is hidden from view of an external observer when the base member is mounted to the preexisting housing. In one aspect, a movable access door is provided that can be opened and closed by an operator to access a ballast that is disposed in an interior cavity that is formed between the top surface of the base housing and portions of the preexisting housing. In another aspect, the ballast can be mounted to a portion of the top surface of the movable access door for ready access to the ballast by an operator. Related methods of operation are also provided. Other systems, methods, features, and advantages of the replacement or retrofit light fixture for distributing generated light will be or become apparent to one with skill in the art upon examination of the following figures and detailed description. It is intended that all such additional systems, methods, features, and advantages be included within this description, be within the scope of the replacement or retrofit light fixture for distributing generated light, and be protected by the accompanying claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate certain aspects of the instant invention and together with the description, serve to explain, without limitation, the principles of the invention. Like reference characters used therein indicate like parts throughout the several drawings. FIG. 1 is perspective view of one embodiment of the retrofit light fixture of the present invention mounted therein a preexisting light fixture housing. FIG. 2 is a cross sectional view of one embodiment of the retrofit light fixture of the present invention, showing two exemplary lens/reflector embodiments. On the left is shown an exemplary reflector assembly comprises a vacuum formed reflector and a preformed lens that is connected to a cut out center section of the vacuum formed reflector. On the right is shown a reflector assembly having a lens that is integrally formed with the reflector assembly via a conventional injection molding process. FIG. 3 is a cross sectional view of one embodiment of the retrofit light fixture of the present invention mounted therein a preexisting light fixture housing. FIG. 4 is an enlarged sectional view of an exemplary embodiment of a reflector assembly, showing corner detail of the reflector assembly formed via an injection molding process. FIG. 5 is an enlarged sectional view of an exemplary embodiment of a reflector assembly, showing corner detail of the reflector assembly formed via a vacuum forming process, and showing a secondary metal frame that surrounds the peripheral edge of the reflector assembly. FIGS. 6A-6C are elevational views of an exemplary embodiment of a mounting bracket of the present invention. FIG. 6D is a cross-sectional view of the mounting bracket of FIG. 6B taken along line 6D-6D. FIG. 7A is a bottom elevational view of an embodiment of a base member of a base assembly of the retrofit light fixture of the present invention. FIG. 7B is a cross-sectional view of the base member of FIG. 7A taken along line 7B-7B. FIGS. 8A-8B are elevational views of an exemplary embodiment of a hinge bias member that is configured to be coupled to an edge of a reflector assembly of the present invention. FIG. 9 is an enlarged partial perspective view of the end edge detail of an exemplary reflector assembly, showing a latch and a spring hinge bias member. FIG. 10 is a partial perspective view of one embodiment of a mounting bracket of the present invention coupled to an edge portion of an end wall of the preexisting light fixture housing. FIG. 11 is a partial perspective view of a base member of a base assembly being hung from the male tab protrusions of the mounting bracket, and showing the respective power leads connecting the lamp sockets and the ballast, the power leads connecting the ballast and the existing power leads of the preexisting light fixture and the respective ground leads operatively coupled. A splice box is also shown coupled to the surface of the preexisting light fixture housing. FIG. 12 is a bottom perspective view of the base assembly rotated up and mechanically connected to the mounting bracket that is positioned opposite the hingedly connected mounting bracket. FIG. 13 is a cross-sectional view of one embodiment of a reflector housing of the reflector housing showing a pair of opposing angled end faces. FIG. 14 is a partial exploded view of one exemplary embodiment of the reflector assembly showing two preformed lens being coupled to respective center portions of the hollows of the reflector assembly. FIG. 15 are cross sectional views of one embodiment of the retrofit light fixture of the present invention, showing the reflector assembly being inserted therein a preexisting light fixture without removing the preexisting lamps and ballast. Similar to FIG. 2 above, two exemplary lens/reflector embodiments on illustrated in the same figure for illustration purposes. On the left is shown an exemplary reflector assembly that can comprise a vacuum formed reflector and a preformed lens that is connected to a cut out center section of the vacuum formed reflector. On the right is shown a reflector assembly that has an integrally formed lens, which is exemplarily formed via a conventional injection molding process. FIG. 16 is an exploded top perspective view of one embodiment of a lens assembly of the light fixture of the present invention showing an elongated lens and a diffuser inlay. FIG. 17 is a cross-sectional view of the lens assembly of FIG. 16, taken along line 17-17. FIG. 18 is an enlarged partial cross-sectional view of a lens, showing one embodiment of an array of prismatic elements disposed on a surface of the lens. FIG. 19 is an enlarged partial cross-sectional view of a lens, showing an alternative embodiment of the array of prismatic elements. FIGS. 20 and 21 are enlarged partial cross-sectional views of a lens, showing still further alternative embodiments of the array of prismatic elements. FIG. 22 shows an enlarged partial cross-sectional view of one embodiment of the lens of the present invention with a diffuser inlay in registration with a portion of the prismatic surface of the lens. FIG. 23 is a perspective view of a first embodiment of a replacement light fixture configured to be selectively mounted to a preexisting light fixture housing that is mounted therein the ceiling, showing an integrated assembly of a base housing and reflector/lens that is pivotally mounted to a portion of the preexisting light fixture housing in an open, access position. FIG. 24 is a perspective view of the replacement light fixture of FIG. 23 is the closed, mounted position. FIGS. 25 is a cross-sectional view of the replacement light fixture of FIG. 23, showing a ballast for the replacement light fixture mounted to a portion of preexisting light fixture housing. FIG. 26 is a perspective view of a second embodiment of a replacement light fixture, showing a base housing of the replacement light fixture being connected to a portion of a preexisting light fixture housing, the base housing configured to releasably mount at least one light source and a ballast operably connected to the at least one light source. FIG. 27 is a partial perspective view of the replacement light fixture of FIG. 26, showing a lock member configured to mount to edge portions of a pair of opposed reflector members to secure the reflector members relative to the preexisting light fixture housing. FIG. 28 is a perspective view of the replacement light fixture of FIG. 27, showing the replacement light fixture mounted to the preexisting light fixture housing in the ceiling. FIG. 29 is a perspective view of a third embodiment of a replacement light fixture of the present invention, showing the replacement light fixture mounted to a preexisting light fixture housing in the ceiling. FIG. 30 is a perspective view of the replacement light fixture, showing a base housing of the light fixture being connected to a portion of the preexisting light fixture housing, the base housing configured to releasably mount at least one light source and a ballast operably connected to the at least one light source. FIG. 31 is a perspective view of the replacement light fixture of FIG. 29, showing a selectively movable access door having a ballast mounted to a top side of the access door. FIG. 32 is a perspective view of the replacement light fixture of FIG. 29, showing an integral reflector assembly being releasably connected to the base housing of the replacement light fixture. FIG. 33 is a perspective top view of the base housing of FIG. 32. FIG. 34 is a perspective top view of the integral reflector assembly of FIG. 29. FIG. 35 is a perspective view of a fourth embodiment of a replacement light fixture of the present invention, showing the light fixture mounted to a preexisting housing in the ceiling. FIG. 36 is a perspective view of a base housing of the replacement light fixture, the base housing configured to releasably mount at least one light source and a ballast operably connected to the at least one light source, the base channel further showing a channel, with a selectively removable channel cover, that is configured for mounting the ballast of the light fixture. FIG. 37 is a perspective view of the base housing of FIG. 36 being mounted to the preexisting light fixture housing. FIG. 38 is a perspective view of the base housing of FIG. 37, showing the channel cover removed and the ballast of the fixture mounted thereto portions of the base housing. FIG. 39 is a perspective view of the replacement light fixture of FIG. 37, showing an integral reflector assembly being releasably connected to the base housing of the light fixture. FIG. 40 is an end perspective view of the replacement light fixture of FIG. 35. FIG. 41 is a perspective top view of the integral reflector assembly of FIG. 35. FIG. 42 are exemplary cross-sectional views of the replacement light fixture of FIG. 35, showing exemplary ranges of adjustability of the reflector assembly relative to the overlying base housing. FIG. 43 is a perspective view of a fifth embodiment of a replacement light fixture of the present invention, showing the light fixture mounted to a preexisting light fixture housing in the ceiling. FIG. 44 are perspective and cross-sectional views of a bracket for mounting the replacement light fixture connected to end portions of the preexisting light fixture housing. FIG. 45 are bottom and top perspective views of a light engine of the replacement light fixture that is configured to mount to the brackets of FIG. 44, showing the lamps and the ballast of the light engine. FIG. 46 is a perspective view of a hinged ballast door that allows access to the ballast of the light engine and allows for access to power lines positioned on the top of the light fixture. FIGS. 47 are perspective and cross-sectional views of a hinge plate/light trap that is configured to be mounted to a portion of the bracket of FIG. 44. FIG. 48 is a perspective view of the replacement light fixture of FIG. 44 showing the light sources and the door assembly being installed. FIG. 49 is a partial end cross-sectional view of the replacement light fixture of FIG. 44. FIG. 50 is a top perspective view of an exemplary door assembly. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention can be understood more readily by reference to the following detailed description, examples, drawings, and claims, and their previous and following description. However, before the present devices, systems, and/or methods are disclosed and described, it is to be understood that this invention is not limited to the specific devices, systems, and/or methods disclosed unless otherwise specified, as such can, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular aspects only and is not intended to be limiting. The following description of the invention is provided as an enabling teaching of the invention in its best, currently known embodiment. To this end, those skilled in the relevant art will recognize and appreciate that many changes can be made to the various aspects of the invention described herein, while still obtaining the beneficial results of the present invention. It will also be apparent that some of the desired benefits of the present invention can be obtained by selecting some of the features of the present invention without utilizing other features. Accordingly, those who work in the art will recognize that many modifications and adaptations to the present invention are possible and can even be desirable in certain circumstances and are a part of the present invention. Thus, the following description is provided as illustrative of the principles of the present invention and not in limitation thereof. As used herein, the singular forms “a,” “an” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to a “surface” includes aspects having two or more such surfaces unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. Ranges can be expressed herein as from “about” one particular value, and/or to “about” another particular value. When such a range is expressed, another aspect includes from the one particular value and/or to the other particular value. Similarly, when values are expressed as approximations, by use of the antecedent “about,” it will be understood that the particular value forms another aspect. It will be further understood that the endpoints of each of the ranges are significant both in relation to the other endpoint, and independently of the other endpoint. As used herein, the terms “optional” or “optionally” mean that the subsequently described event or circumstance may or may not occur, and that the description includes instances where said event or circumstance occurs and instances where it does not. The present invention may be understood more readily by reference to the following detailed description of preferred embodiments of the invention and the examples included therein and to the Figures and their previous and following description. Referring to FIGS. 1-14, in one embodiment of the present invention, a retrofit light fixture 10 of the present invention for illuminating an area includes a base assembly 20 for housing a linear light source 12, a first mounting bracket 50, a second mounting bracket 52, and a reflector assembly 90. In one aspect, the light source extends along a light longitudinal axis between a first end 14 and a spaced second end 16. Light emanating from the light source 12 is diffused by the reflector assembly 90 that is positioned between the light source 12 and the area to be illuminated. The light source 12 may be a conventional fluorescent lamp, such as, for example and not meant to be limiting, a conventional T5 lamp. The base assembly 20 of the retrofit light fixture includes an elongated base member 22 that has a proximal edge 24, a spaced distal edge 26, a first longitudinally extending side edge 28 and an opposed second longitudinally extending side edge 29. The base member 22 extends along a base member longitudinal axis and has a top surface 30 and a bottom surface 32. It is contemplated that the base member can be formed from a single piece of material or from a plurality of adjoined pieces. As one will appreciate, the base member can be formed from any code-compliant material. For example, the base member can be formed from steel. In one aspect, the base member defines at least one slot 34 and at least one aperture 40. In one aspect, the at least one slot is defined adjacent the proximal edge 24 of the base member and the at least one aperture 40 is defined adjacent the opposed distal edge 26 of the base member. It is contemplated that the at least one slot can comprise a plurality of slots. Similarly, it is contemplated that the at least one aperture can comprise a plurality of apertures. In one exemplary aspect, the aperture can be substantially circular is shape. Alternatively, the aperture 40 can be elongated in at least one axis. For example, the aperture can have an elongated axis that extends substantially parallel to the longitudinal axis of the base member. In another aspect, at least one of the slots defined in the base member can form a mounting slot 36 that has a top portion 38 and a bottom portion 39. In one aspect, the top portion of the mounting slot can be positioned adjacent the proximal edge of the base member and has a first dimensional width w1 substantially transverse to the longitudinal axis of the base member. The bottom portion 39 of the mounting slot has a second dimensional width w2 substantially transverse to the longitudinal axis of the base member that is less than the first dimensional width. In one exemplary aspect, the mounting slot 36 can have a substantially T shape. It is contemplated that one or more of the slots of the base member 22 can be formed as a mounting slot. In a further aspect, it is also contemplated that two or more of the slots can have a similar size and shape. The base assembly 20 can also comprise a plurality of lamp sockets 41 that are selectively mounted to the base member. As one skilled in the art will appreciate, a pair of opposed lamp sockets can be configured and positioned on the base member for each elongated linear lamp source that is to be used in the retrofit light fixture. In a further aspect, the base assembly 20 can comprise a ballast 42 that is electrically coupled to the lamp sockets. In one example, the ballast 42 is mounted to a top surface 30 of the base member such that the ballast is hidden from view of an external observer when the base member is mounted to the preexisting light fixture housing 2. In another aspect, a ballast opening (not shown) can be defined in the base member and a movable access door cab be provided that is configured to be opened and closed by an operator to selectively cover the ballast opening. This allows the operator to access a ballast that is disposed in an interior cavity that is formed between the top surface of the base housing and portions of the preexisting light fixture housing. In another aspect, the ballast 42 can be mounted to a portion of the top surface of the movable access door for ready access to the ballast by the operator. The base member 22 can also define at least one longitudinally extending trough 44 that extends upwardly away from the respective side edges 28, 29 of the base member. In one aspect, each trough 44 comprises a top surface 45, a first side trough surface 46 and an opposed second side trough surface 47. In another aspect, at least one pair of opposing lamp sockets can be mounted on the top surface 45 of each trough for receiving the elongated light source 12. In one aspect, at the trough 44 extends along an axis parallel to the longitudinal axis of the base member. In one exemplary aspect, and not meant to be limiting, the lamps sockets can be positioned adjacent the respective proximal and distal edges 24, 26 of the base member 22. Each respective first and second side trough surfaces defines a trough surface axis that extends in a vertical plane normal to the base member longitudinal axis of the base member. In one aspect, the trough surface axis of each of the first and second trough surfaces 46, 47 respectively forms an angle θ of about and between about 140° to 90° with respect to the top surface 45 of the trough. More particularly, the angle θ can be about and between about 135° to 95° with respect to the top surface of the trough. Still more particularly, the angle θ can be about and between about 130° to 100° with respect to the top surface 45 of the trough. In another aspect, the angle θ formed between each of the respective first and second trough surfaces and the top surface of the trough can be substantially equal. Referring now to FIGS. 6A-6D, each mounting bracket 50, 52 is configured for mounting to an edge portion 4 of a respective end wall 6 of the preexisting light fixture housing 2. In one aspect, a lower portion 54 of the mounting bracket can define a channel 56 that is configured to be slidably received onto the edge portion 4 of the respective end wall of the preexisting light fixture housing. In one aspect, it is contemplated that the channel is configured for a friction fit with a portion of the respective end wall of the preexisting light fixture housing. Holes 56 can be defined in the lower portion of each mounting bracket so that each mounting bracket can be secured to its respective end wall by use of a conventional mechanical fastener, such as, for example, a self tapping screw, bolt, or the like. In one aspect, it is contemplated that each of the respective first and second mounting brackets can be substantially centered on the respective end walls of the preexisting light fixture housing. In a further aspect, each mounting bracket has an upper shoulder surface 60 and a medial shoulder surface 62 that is configured to receive the reflector assembly. In one aspect, the upper and medial shoulder surfaces extend substantially parallel to the ceiling plane. In another aspect, at least the first mounting bracket 50 can have at least one male tab protrusion 64 that extends upwardly away from the upper shoulder surface 60 that is configured to selectively cooperate with the at least one slot 34 of the base member 22. In one aspect, the at least one male tab can be substantially centered relative to the elongated dimension of the upper shoulder surface of the first mounting bracket. It is contemplated that the at least one male tab protrusion 64 can comprise a plurality of male tab protrusions that are configured to selectively cooperate a complementary plurality of slots 34 of the base member. In another aspect, at least one of the male tab protrusions 64 extending from the upper shoulder surface of the first mounting member can form a mounting male tab protrusion 66 that has a distal end dimensional width wd that is greater than the dimensional width of a proximal end portion wp that is connected to the upper shoulder surface 60. In one exemplary aspect, the mounting male tab protrusion 64 can have a substantially T shape. It is contemplated that one or more of the male tab protrusions of the first mounting bracket can be formed as a mounting male tab protrusion. In a further aspect, it is also contemplated that two or more of the male tab protrusions can have a similar size and shape. As one skilled in the art will appreciate, the interconnection of the complementary mounting slot and mounting male tab protrusion can allow for a secure connection between the base member and the first mounting bracket that also allows for pivotal movement of the base member 22 relative to and above the first mounting bracket 50 and the preexisting light fixture housing 2. In one aspect, when mounted thereto the preexisting light fixture housing 2, each male tab protrusion 64 can extend upwardly at an acute angle α with respect to a plane parallel to the ceiling plane. In one aspect, the acute angle α is about and between about 70° to 90° with respect to the plane parallel to the ceiling plane. More particularly, the angle a can be about and between about 80° to 90° with respect to the plane parallel to the ceiling plane. Still more particularly, the angle α can be about 85° with respect to the plane parallel to the ceiling plane. In one aspect, the base assembly 20 is movable between an installation position, in which the base member 22 is suspended from the first mounting bracket 50 by the cooperative engagement of the at least one male tab protrusion of the first mounting bracket and the at least one slot of the base member, and an operating position, in which the base member 22 is selectively secured to the first and second mounting brackets 50, 52 by the cooperative engagement of the at least one tab of the first mounting bracket and the at least one slot of the base member and the connection of the upper shoulder surface of the second mounting bracket to a top surface of the base member. In a further aspect, holes 70 can be defined in the upper shoulder surface of the mounting bracket. In operation, the apertures 40 defined in the base member 22 are substantially axially aligned with the holes 70 in the upper shoulder surface so that the upper shoulder surface of the second mounting bracket can 20 be secured to the top surface of the base member via use of a conventional mechanical fastener, such as, for example, a self tapping screw, bolt, or the like. It is contemplated that the first and second mounting brackets 50, 52 can have different shapes. However, for ease of installation and for minimizing production costs, it is preferred that the first and second mounting brackets can have substantially similar shapes. Referring now to FIGS. 4, 5, 8A-9, the longitudinally extending reflector assembly 90 is configured to be detachable secured to a portion of the first and second mounting brackets. In one aspect, when it is secured to the respective first and second mounting brackets, the reflector assembly is positioned at or above the ceiling plane. In another aspect, the reflector assembly has a first longitudinally extending side edge 91 and an opposed second longitudinally extending side edge 93. In a further aspect, the reflector assembly can be selectively positioned thereto the first and second mounting brackets such that the respective longitudinal extending side edges of the reflector assembly are substantially parallel to or co-planar with the ceiling plane. The reflector assembly 90 further comprises at least one elongated lens 110. In one aspect, each lens extends longitudinally substantially parallel to or co-axial with the longitudinal axis of the reflector assembly. In a further aspect, each lens can be positioned with respect to a respective trough of the base member such that substantially all of the light generated or emitted by the light fixture passes through the at least one lens 100. In one aspect, the elongated lens can be replaceably connected to the reflector assembly. Optionally, the elongated lens can be formed integrally with the reflector assembly. In another embodiment, the lens can be separately formed and can then be permanently connected to the reflector assembly to form an integral body. In various aspects, and as shown in the figures, it is contemplated that the reflector assembly can be formed by a conventional vacuum forming process, a conventional injection molding process, or other conventional processes as known to one skilled in the art. In one exemplary aspect, the center portion of the hollow can be cut away and configured to accept a preformed lens, which can be removably mounted or fixedly mounted as desired. In one further aspect, it is contemplated that the lenses can be substantially light transmissive and the reflector portions can be opaque. In a further aspect, the co-molded lens can include micro optic patters that negate the need for the use of a diffusing overlay. As outlined above, it is contemplated that the reflector and lens can be, in one example, formed integral to each other or can, in another example, be separate pieces that can be mounted with respect to each other and the base housing. In one aspect, the reflector portion of the reflector assembly is substantially opaque. In another aspect, the reflectors can have, as described below, a corrugated surface. In a further aspect, a reveal can be provided between at least one edge of the replacement light fixture and the preexisting light fixture housing such that airflow is allowed when the replacement light fixture is installed as a replacement for an air handling light fixture. In yet another aspect, the reflector assembly can be configured to overlap the T-grid at the respective ends of the replacement light fixture only. In a further aspect, a portion of the reflector assembly 90 forms at least one longitudinally extending hollow 92 that extends inwardly in the transverse dimension away from the respective first and second longitudinally extending side edges of the 91, 93 reflector assembly. Each hollow 92 has a first hollow edge 94 and a second hollow edge 96. Each hollow extends inwardly to a central portion 98 between the respective first and second hollow edges 94, 96. In one aspect, the lens 110 is positioned in the central portion of the defined hollow. In one respect, at least a portion of each hollow 92 preferably forms a reflective surface 95 extending between central portion 98 and a respective one of the first and second hollow edges 94, 96. In one embodiment, at least a portion of a section of each hollow 92 normal to the base member longitudinal axis has a generally curved shape such that such that portions of the hollow 92 form a generally curved reflective surface 95 for diffusely reflecting light received from the lens into the architectural space in a desired pattern. In one embodiment, the transverse section of the hollow can have a conventional barrel shape. In an alternative embodiment, a portion of each hollow 92 can have at least one planar portion. In one aspect of the invention, the light source 12 can be positioned between the bottom surface of the base member and an inner surface of the lens. In one aspect, at least a portion of the hollow of the base member can be painted or coated with a reflective material or formed from a reflective material. The reflective material may be substantially glossy or substantially flat. In one example, the reflective material is preferably matte white to diffusely reflect incident light. The central portion 98 of the light fixture is preferably symmetrically positioned with respect to the first and second hollow edges 94, 96. The retrofit light fixture 10 of the present invention can include one or more hollows 92 that each houses a light source 12. For example, in a light fixture having a hollow, the first and second hollow edges 94, 96 of the hollow would extend generally to the respective longitudinally extending side edges of the reflector assembly. In an alternative example, in which the light fixture 10 has two hollows, the reflector assembly 90 defines a pair of adjoining, parallel hollows 92. In one aspect, at least a portion of the hollow(s) 92 of the reflector assembly 90 has a plurality of male ridges 37 formed thereon that extend longitudinally between the ends of the base member. In an alternative aspect, at least a portion of the hollow(s) of the base member has a plurality of female grooves 39 formed thereon that extend longitudinally between the ends of the base member. Optionally, the ridges or grooves extend at an angle to the longitudinal axis of the base member. For example, the male ridges or female grooves may extend transverse to the base member longitudinal axis (i.e., extending between the respective first and second longitudinally extending side edges 91, 93 of the reflector assembly). The ridges or grooves formed on the hollow provide a diffusely reflecting surface. As shown in FIG. 13, the reflector assembly 90 can also include a first end face 100 and an opposed second end face 102. Each of the end faces extends upwardly from a respective bottom end edge other reflector assembly to respective ends edges 112, 113 of the lens. Each end face has a face longitudinal axis that forms an obtuse angle with respect to the longitudinal axis of the reflector assembly 90. The angled first and second end faces 100, 102 optically alter the apparent perspective of the light fixture and aesthetically give the light fixture a deeper appearance. In one aspect, the face longitudinal axis of each of the first and second end faces 100, 102 respectively forms an angle Ω of about and between 95° to 160° with respect to the longitudinal axis of the reflector assembly. More particularly, the face longitudinal axis of each of the first and second end faces respectively forms an angle Ω of about and between 100° to 150° with respect to the longitudinal axis of the reflector assembly. Still more particularly, the face longitudinal axis of each of the first and second end faces respectively forms an angle Ω of about and between 100° to 135° with respect to the longitudinal axis of the reflector assembly. In another aspect, the face longitudinal axis of each of the first and second end faces respectively forms an angle Ω of about 120° with respect to the longitudinal axis of the reflector assembly. In yet another aspect, the respective obtuse angles formed between the face longitudinal axis of the first end face 50 and the face longitudinal axis of the second end face 52 and the longitudinal axis of the reflector assembly are substantially equal. Alternative shapes of the first and second end faces 100, 102 are contemplated. Each of the first and second end faces may be substantially planar or non-planar. In the non-planar embodiments, portions of the first and second end faces are curved. The curved portions of the first and second end faces can be substantially concave or substantially convex. Portions of the first and second end faces can also have male ridges or female grooves formed thereon. The male ridges or female grooves can be sized, shaped and oriented to visually complement the male ridges or female grooves 39 on the hollows or the reflector assembly, as described above. The retrofit light fixture 10 of the present invention also can comprise means for selectively pivotably securing the reflector assembly to the first and second mounting brackets. In one aspect, a plurality of bias members 80 and a plurality of latches 84 are provided that allow for the hinging motion of the reflector assembly 90 relative to the first and second mounting brackets 50, 52, and hence the preexisting light fixture housing 2, and the selective securing of the reflector assembly to the first and second mounting brackets. Referring to FIGS. 8-10, an exemplified bias member and a rotatable latch are illustrated. It will be appreciated by one skilled in the art that conventional spring members and latches can be used in the present application. In one exemplary aspect, a bore 82 is defined in each peripheral end edge of the reflector assembly 90 that can be positioned substantially co-axial to complementary openings 83 that are defined in the lower portion of both the first and the second mounting brackets 50, 52. In this aspect, an arm 81 of the bias member 80, which is operatively coupled to an interior portion of the end edge of the reflector assembly, is configured to selectively engage each aligned bore and openings. In another exemplary aspect, each latch 84 is pivotably mounted to each peripheral end edge of the reflector assembly 90 and is configured to selectively, by rotation by the installer, engage a latch slot 85 that is defined in the lower portion of each mounting bracket 50, 52. It will be appreciated that the opening in the mounting brackets can comprise a pair of openings that are positioned adjacent the opposing ends of the mounting brackets 50 that the installer can selectively determine, based on the space and environmental concerns in the work space, from which side of the respective mounting bracket it is desired to have the reflector assembly hinged to. In this aspect, the latch slot can comprise a pair of latch slots that are symmetrically positioned about the center of the respective mounting bracket. In one aspect, in operation, portions of each of the first and second end faces 100, 102 can be positioned in overlying registration with at least a portion of a selected end of the light source 12. The brighter conventional lamps, such as the exemplified T5 lamp, are typically shorter and have an elongated dark portion proximate its ends when compared to other conventional elongated fluorescent lamps, such as, for example, conventional T8 and T12 lamps. Thus, in use, the end faces can prevent the darkened ends of the selected light source from being visible through the lens assembly. The lens 110 of the present invention is constructed and arranged to direct light emitted by the light source 12 onto the area to be illuminated. A basic function of the lens 110 is to diffuse the light from the light source 12 to effectively reduce the brightness of the light source 12 so that it is substantially hidden from view. Thus, one function of the lens assembly is to effectively become the source of light for the light fixture. This is accomplished in the preferred embodiment by providing the lens 110 with a plurality of longitudinally extending prismatic elements with short focal lengths. Because of the short focal lengths of the prismatic elements, the light from the light source is focused to parallel images very close to the surface of the lens at large angles of convergence. Because of the large angles of convergence, the images overlap and the light is essentially diffused. The diffused light is then either directed onto the surface to be illuminated without further reflection or is reflected by the reflective surfaces of the hollow 95. Thus, the lens provides a diffuse source of lowered brightness. In one aspect, the lens can be placed higher in the retrofit light fixture and provides geometric control of high-angle rays emanating from the lens in the transverse direction. Thus, light rays produced at high viewing angles are physically blocked by the bottom longitudinally extending side edges of the reflector assembly, which prevents glare at high angles in that transverse direction. The retrofit light fixture of the invention can, in an optional aspect, control glare in the longitudinal direction optically. As discussed and illustrated in applicants' co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 10/970,615 and 10/970,625, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein in their entireties by this reference, high angle glare is reduced in the retrofit light fixture of the present invention. Thus, in this aspect, the retrofit light fixture of the invention prevents glare at high viewing angles through two mechanisms, geometrically in the transverse direction and optically in the longitudinal direction. In one aspect, the lens 110 comprises a first end edge 112 and an opposed second end edge 113. The lens has a lens longitudinal axis that extends between the first and second end edges. In one example, the lens longitudinal axis is generally parallel to the light longitudinal axis of the light source 12. In use, substantially all of the light emitted by the light source 12 passes through the lens 110 prior to impacting portions of the reflective surfaces 95 of the reflector assembly and/or prior to being dispersed into the surrounding area. The lens 110 can be made from any suitable, code-compliant material such as, for example, a polymer or plastic. For example, the lens 110 can be constructed by extruding pellets of meth-acrylate or polycarbonates into the desired shape of the lens. The lens 110 can be a clear material or translucent material. In another aspect, the lens can be colored or tinted. It is contemplated that the reflector portion 111 of the reflector assembly as well as the lens can be substantially formed from plastic or polymer materials for both significant cost and weight savings. In one aspect, the lens provides structural support for a plastic and/or polymeric reflector portion such that the reflector assembly is self supporting and does not necessarily require the use of metal supports, such as, for example, a peripherally extending metal frame. At least a portion of the lens has a prismatic surface 116 on a face 118 of the lens that is either spaced from and facing toward the light source 12 or, alternatively, spaced from and facing away from the light source 12. In one aspect of the invention, the lens is curved in cross-section such that at least a portion of the face 118 of the lens has a concave or convex shape relative to the light source. In an alternative embodiment, at least a portion of the lens is planar in cross-section. In one aspect, the lens 110 is positioned within the reflector assembly so that it is recessed above a substantially horizontal plane extending between the first and second longitudinally extending side edges of the reflector assembly. In a further aspect, the lens is recessed within the reflector assembly such that a plane bisecting one of the respective first and second longitudinally extending side edges of the preexisting light fixture housing or, optionally, of the reflector assembly, and a tangential portion of the lens is oriented at an acute angle γ to the generally horizontal plane extending between the selected first and second longitudinally extending side edges. In one aspect, the acute angle γ is about and between 3° to 30°. More particularly, the acute angle γ is about and between 05° to 20°. Still more particularly, the acute angle γ is about and between 10° to 15°. The recessed position of the lens within the reflector assembly provides for high angle control of light emitted by the retrofit light fixture in a vertical plane normal to the longitudinal axis of the reflector assembly. In use, an observer approaching the ceiling mounted retrofit light fixture 10 of the present invention from the side (i.e., from a direction transverse to the longitudinal axis of the reflector assembly) would not see the lens until they passed into the lower viewing angles. In effect, portions of the reflector assembly act to block the view of the lens from an observer at the higher viewing angles (i.e., the viewing angles closer to the horizontal ceiling plane). In one aspect, as shown in FIGS. 18-21, the prismatic surface 116 of the lens defines an array of linearly extending prismatic elements 120. In one example, each prismatic element 122 thereof can extend substantially longitudinally between the first and second edge edges 112, 113 of the lens. Alternatively, each prismatic element 122 thereof can extend linearly at an angle relative to the lens longitudinal axis. For example, each prismatic element thereof can extend generally transverse to the lens longitudinal axis. In a further aspect, each prismatic element 122 can have substantially the same shape or, alternatively, can vary in shape to effect differing visual effects on an external observer, lighting of the hollow surface, or light distribution to the room. In one aspect, each prismatic element has a portion that is rounded or has a curved surface. In one aspect, in section normal to the lens longitudinal axis, each prismatic element has a base 124 and a rounded apex 126. Each prismatic element extends toward the apex 126 substantially perpendicular with respect to a tangent plane that extends through the base 124. In one aspect, an arcuate section or curved surface 128, normal to the lens longitudinal axis, of each prismatic element 122 subtends an angle β of about and between 85° to 130° with reference to the center of curvature of the arcuate section. More particularly, the arcuate section 128 of each prismatic element forms an angle β of about and between 90° to 120°. Still more particularly, the arcuate section 128 forms an angle β of about and between 95° to 110°. In another aspect, the arcuate section 128 forms an angle β of about 100°. In one aspect, the arcuate section 128 extends from a first cusp edge 130 of the prismatic element 122 to an opposed second cusp edge 132. In this example, adjoining prismatic elements are integrally connected at a common cusp edge 130, 132, 133. Alternatively, the arcuate section 128 may be formed in a portion of the apex 126 of the prismatic element 122, such that adjoining prismatic element are integrally connected at a common edge 133. In this example, portions of the prismatic element 122 extending between the arcuate section and the common edge 133 can be planar or non-planer, as desired. It should be understood that other configurations and shapes are contemplated where the cross section of the optical elements is not strictly circular, and includes, for example, parabolic, linear, or other shapes. In one aspect, the base 124 of each prismatic element 122 has a width (w) between its respective common edges of about and between 0.5 inches to 0.01 inches. More particularly, the base of each prismatic element has a width between its respective common edges of about and between 0.3 inches to 0.03 inches. Still more particularly, the base of each prismatic element has a width between its respective common edges of about and between 0.15 inches to 0.05 inches. In another aspect, a section of the array of prismatic elements 120 can have a shape of a continuous wave. The section can be normal to the lens longitudinal axis. In one aspect, the shape of the continuous wave is a periodic waveform that has an arcuate section 128 formed in both the positive and negative amplitude portions of the periodic waveform (i.e., two prismatic elements are formed from each periodic waveform). The period of the periodic waveform can be substantially constant or may vary along the array of prismatic elements. In one aspect, the periodic waveform is a substantially sinusoidal waveform. In this example, the common cusp “edge” 130,132 between the two prismatic elements 122 forming from each periodic waveform occurs at the transition from positive/negative amplitude to negative/positive amplitude. In one aspect, the arcuate section 128 of each prismatic element 122 within each of the positive and negative amplitude portions of the periodic waveform subtends an angle λ of about and between 85° to 130° with reference to a center of curvature of the arcuate section. More particularly, the arcuate section 128 of each prismatic element within each of the positive and negative amplitude portions of the periodic waveform forms an angle λ of about and between 90° to 120°. Still more particularly, the arcuate section 128 of each prismatic element within each of the positive and negative amplitude portions of the periodic waveform forms an angle λ of about and between 95° to 110° with respect to the base member longitudinal axis. In another aspect, the arcuate sections 128 within each of the positive and negative amplitude portions of the periodic waveform form an angle λ of about 100°. In one aspect, the period P of each prismatic element is about and between 1.0 inches to 0.02 inches. More particularly, the period P of each prismatic element is about and between 0.6 inches to 0.06 inches. Still more particularly, the period P of each prismatic element is about and between 0.30 inches to 0.10 inches. It is contemplated that the lens 110 of the reflector assembly 100 can be constructed and arranged for detachable connection to the reflector assembly of the light fixture 10. Optionally, the lens of the reflector assembly can be integrally formed with the reflector assembly. In one aspect, when positioned relative to the base member 22, the lens of the reflector assembly can extend generally parallel to the light longitudinal axis and generally symmetric about a plane that extends through the light longitudinal axis. In one other aspect, the plane of symmetry extends through the area desired to be illuminated. In a further aspect, the reflector assembly can further comprise a conventional diffuser inlay 150, such as, for example, a OptiGrafix™ film product, which is a diffuser film that can be purchased from Grafix® Plastics. The diffuser inlay 150 can be pliable or fixed in shape, transparent, semi-translucent, translucent, and/or colored or tinted. In one example, the diffuser inlay 150 has relatively high transmission efficiency while also scattering a relatively high amount of incident light to angles that are nearly parallel to its surface. In one aspect, the diffuser inlay is positioned between a portion of the face 118 of the lens and the light source 12. In another aspect, the diffuser inlay is configured for positioning in substantial overlying registration with the portion of the face 118 of the lens that is oriented toward the light source 12. In a further aspect, the diffuser inlay 150 may be positioned in substantial overlying registration with a portion of the prismatic surface 116 of the lens. In one aspect of the present invention, there is a gap 152 formed between portions of the two adjoining rounded prismatic elements 120 extending between the respective apexes of the two adjoined prismatic elements and the bottom face 151 of the diffuser inlay 150. The formed gap can enhance the total internal refection capabilities of the lens 110. The lens 110 and reflector assembly 20 of the present invention increases the light efficiency of the light fixture 10 and diffuses the light relatively uniformly so that the “cave effect” commonly noted in areas using conventional parabolic light fixtures in the ceiling are minimized. In one embodiment, the light fixture 10 or troffer of the present invention results in a luminare efficiency that is greater than about 80%, preferably greater than about 85%. The efficiency of the light fixture 10 measured by using a goniophotometer to compare the light energy from the light fixture at a given angle with the light from an unshielded light source, as specified in the application testing standard. The retrofit light fixture 10 of the present invention has reduced light control relative to conventional parabolic fixtures to provide a lit space (particularly the walls) with a bright appearance while still maintaining adequate control and comfortable viewing for today's office environment. In one embodiment, the lens 110 has a concave face 118 oriented toward the light source 12 when the lens 110 is secured to and within a portion of the reflector assembly 20. In one aspect, the array of male rounded prismatic elements 120 can be extruded along the length of the lens 110. In use, the lens of the present invention design has a striped visual characteristic to an external observer when back lit. These “stripes” provide for visual interest in the lens 110 and may be sized and shaped to mirror any ridges or grooves disposed therein portions of the reflective surfaces 33 of the hollow 32 of the reflector assembly 20. The “stripes” also help to mitigate the appearance of the image of the lamp (the light source) by providing strong linear boundaries that breakup and distract from the edges of the lamp against the less luminous trough 40 of the reflector assembly 20. In addition, the “stripes” allow for the retrofit light fixture 10 of the present invention to provide high angle light control in vertical planes that are substantially parallel to the longitudinal axis of the light fixture. In a preferred embodiment, a primary function of the lens is to optically reduce the brightness of the light source. In addition, the lens reduces the brightness of the light source even further at higher viewing angles in the longitudinal direction by the optical phenomenon of total internal reflection. This allows the efficient use of light sources of higher brightness while nevertheless reducing glare at high viewing angles. It will be appreciated that the retrofit light fixture of the invention utilizes a unique combination of features to reduce high-angle glare in the transverse and longitudinal directions. In the transverse direction, high angle glare is controlled primarily by the geometric relationship between the lamp and the reflector assembly of the retrofit light fixture, while in the longitudinal direction, high angle glare is controlled primarily by the lens optically. In the preferred embodiment, the lens itself essentially becomes the light source, which effectively reduces lamp brightness in both the transverse and longitudinal directions optically, to further reduce glare associated with lamps of high brightness. One skilled in the art will appreciate that a “reverse ray,” “backward ray” or “vision ray” is a light ray that originates from a hypothetical external viewer's eye and is then traced through the optical system of the light fixture. Although there is no physical equivalent, it is a useful construct in predicting how a particular optical element will look to an observer. In the present invention, on at least one side at the respective common cusp edges of adjoining rounded prismatic elements, there exists a sufficiently large angle of incidence w relative to the normal extending from the point of incidence of the reverse ray at the lens to air interface that a reverse ray will undergo total internal reflection. In one aspect, the angle of incidence ω is at least about 40°. More particularly, the angle of incidence ω is at least about 45°. Still more particularly, the angle of incidence ω is at least about 50°. In effect, the array of prismatic elements acts as an array of partial light pipes. Each rounded prismatic element has a sufficiently large angular extent such that some total internal reflection at each common cusp edge is assured regardless of viewing angle. In one aspect, since each arcuate section of each rounded prismatic element is substantially circular, if a reverse ray undergoes total internal reflection at one portion of the arcuate section and is subsequently reflected to another portion of the arcuate section, then total internal reflection will also occur at the second point of incidence because the arcuate section's geometry causes both interactions to have substantially the same angle of incidence. Generally then, a reverse ray that undergoes total internal reflection proximate a common cusp edge will eventually exit the lens out the same outer surface through which it entered the lens and will terminate on a surface or object in the room (as opposed to passing through the lens and terminating on the light source or the trough of the reflector assembly behind the lens). The reverse ray is said to be “rejected” by the lens. This means that the brightness an external viewer will perceive at the common cusp edge of adjoining rounded prismatic elements is the brightness associated with a room surface because any real/forward light ray impinging on the viewer's eyes from this part of the lens must have originated from the room or space. Generally, the brightness of an object or surface in the room is much lower than that of the light source or trough that is viewed through the central portions of the arcuate sections of each prismatic element. This high contrast in brightness between the common cusp edge between adjoining rounded prismatic elements and the central portion of the arcuate sections of each prismatic element is so high that it is perceived, to the external viewer, as dark stripes on a luminous background. In another aspect, the linear array of prismatic elements of the lens assembly optically acts in the longitudinal direction to reduce high angle glare. This may be explained by considering a reverse ray that is incident on a portion of the prismatic surface of the lens proximate the common cusp edge at the critical angle (the minimum angle of incidence ω) for total internal reflection of the reverse ray. An observer viewing that portion of the lens (i.e., the portion of the area about the common cusp edge) would perceive it as being “dark” relative to that adjacent “bright” portion of the arcuate section proximate the rounded apex of each individual prismatic element. The array of linear elements thus optically controls the light emitted from the lamp in the longitudinal direction. In one example, as the lens is viewed at higher and higher viewing angles (as when the observer is further from the light fixture) in a vertical plane parallel or near parallel to the base member longitudinal axis of the base member, the striping effect become more pronounced. This is a result of the increase in that portion of the prismatic surface of the lens that undergoes total internal reflection and creates the dark strips. This results from viewing the lens at angles greater than the critical angle for total internal reflection of a “reverse ray.” Thus, the effective width of each stripe grows as the lens is viewed at higher viewing angles, which is observed as the lens becoming dimmer at higher viewing angles. In the vertical planes extending between the base member longitudinal axis of the reflector assembly and an axis transverse to the base member longitudinal axis, higher view angle control is achieved through a combination of the high angle control proffered by the linearly extending array of prismatic elements of the lens, as discussed immediately above, and the lens assembly being recessed within the reflector assembly. In the vertical plane substantially parallel to the base member longitudinal axis of the reflector assembly, the optical elements of the lens assembly, i.e., the array of prismatic elements, exert primary glare control of the higher viewing angles. In the vertical plane substantially transverse to the base member longitudinal axis of the reflector assembly, the recessed position of the lens assembly within the reflector assembly exerts primary glare control of the higher viewing angles. In one aspect, if the prismatic shapes are regularly spaced apart, the striping effect would also be regularly spaced. In another aspect, the prismatic elements of the present invention can be configured as desired to ensure some total internal reflection at all viewing angles so that the “striping” is perceptible at all viewing angles. In use, normal movement of a viewer in the room does not change the viewer's vertical angle of view relative to the light fixture very rapidly and at far distances the stripes become less distinct. Therefore, the change is stripe width is not perceived as a dynamic motion but rather as a subtle changing of the overall lens brightness (i.e., brighter at low vertical angles and dimmer when viewed at high vertical angles). The rounded or curved surfaced portions of each prismatic element can provide wide spreading or diffusion of any incident light. The high degree of diffusion helps to obscure the image of the light source as seen through the lens even when the light source is in relatively close proximity to the face of the lens that is oriented toward the light source. This becomes increasingly apparent as the lens is viewed at higher vertical angles in the vertical plane substantially parallel to the light source. In a further aspect, the rounded or curved surface portions of the prismatic elements provides for a gradual change in the perceived brightness as a result of a change in the angle of view. In yet another aspect, in an embodiment of the invention in which each prismatic element has substantially the same shape, the dark striping and the brighter areas of the lens appear to change uniformly and smoothly from one prismatic element to the next, adjoining prismatic element. As described above, the present invention relates to a replacement or retrofit light fixture 10, or troffer, for efficiently distributing light emitted by a light source into an area to be illuminated. As described above, the lens 110 and reflector assembly 90 of the retrofit light fixture increases the light efficiency of the replacement or retrofit light fixture and diffuses the light relatively uniformly, which minimizes the “cave effect” commonly noted in areas using conventional parabolic light fixtures in the ceiling. For example, it is estimated that the replacement of a conventional 3 lamp parabolic troffer with a retrofit light fixture 10 of the present invention would result in an annual energy savings of about 170 kWh. For the replacement of a conventional 4 lamp parabolic troffer, the annual energy savings of about 526 kWh is estimated. In one aspect of the present invention, and as one skilled in the art will appreciate, the design of the base assembly enables attachment of the retrofit ballast and lamp sockets to the base member and the electrical wiring connection between the retrofit ballast and lamp sockets to be performed during a manufacturing process at a factory. Thus, the installer does not have to devote time or labor to these tasks. As further shown in FIG. 11, the retrofit light fixture can also comprise power leads that are configured for connection to the preexisting power leads extending from the preexisting light fixture housing. Further, and as shown in FIG. 11, in compliance with electrical code requirements, the retrofit light fixture can also comprise a ground lead configured to electrically couple the base member to the preexisting light fixture housing and a splice box that is configured to mount to the bottom surface of the preexisting light fixture housing and can operatively accept the power leads extending from the retrofit ballast. Installation of the exemplary embodiment of the retrofit into the existing fixture is illustrated in FIGS. 10 through 16. One skilled in the art will appreciate that the following steps can be accomplished by a one-man installation crew, which allows for additional cost savings. Exemplary steps are as follows. First, power must be disconnected to the existing fixture. Then the existing lamps, reflector, ballast of the existing light fixture can be removed, which leaves the existing power leads extending therein the internal cavity of the preexisting light fixture housing exposed. As one will appreciate, these existing power leads are electrically coupled to a conventional remote power source. The next step is to mount the respective first and second mounting brackets to the edge portions of the respective opposing end walls of the preexisting light fixture housing. The mounting brackets can then be mechanically secured to the preexisting light fixture. In one aspect, the mounting brackets are substantially centered on the respective end walls. The next installation step is to hang the base member from first mounting bracket by it's at least one male tab protrusion. This can be accomplished by inserting the at least one male tab protrusion within it's complementary at one slot of the base member. In one aspect, the mounting male tab protrusion is inserted into the mounting slot of the base member. The base member can be released so that it is supported in the installation position by the first mounting bracket. The power lines for the ballast of the base assembly can then be coupled to the existing power leads. Optionally, the grounds from the base member to the preexisting light housing can be attached. In a further aspect, a splice box can be mounted to a surface of the preexisting light housing such that a portion of the coupled power leads pass therethough the splice box. After the wiring connections are complete, the installer may then swing the base member up into place so that the at least one aperture of the base member is positioned in substantially overlying registration with the holes 70 that are defined in the upper shoulder surface of the second mounting bracket 52. Subsequently, a portion of the top surface of the base member is mechanically connected to the upper shoulder surface of the second mounting bracket. In a further aspect, if not previously installed, the light source(s) 12 can be mounted to the light sockets that are mounted on the base member. It will be appreciated, that if the first and second mounting brackets are similarly shaped, the base member would be initially hingeably hung from the respective mounting member that is closest to the existing power lead opening in the preexisting light fixture housing. Next, the reflector assembly is coupled to the mounting brackets. In one aspect, the installer makes initial decision as to the desired direction for hingeable opening of the reflector assembly. Subsequently, the installer inserts the bias members 80 of the reflector assembly thereto the respective openings 83 that are defined in the lower portion of both the first and second mounting brackets. In one exemplary aspect, and as shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B, the arm 81 of the bias member has a substantially cross-sectional rectangular shape and the respective opening has a substantially circular shape so that the arm will tend to self-center its self when it is inserted into the opening 83. The reflector assembly is then rotated about the formed hinge to seat against the medial shoulder surface of the mounting brackets and the latch of the reflector assembly is rotated to engage the latch slot 85 in the lower portion of each mounting bracket 50, 52 to selectively secure the reflector assembly relative to the mounting brackets and the preexisting light fixture housing. Referring now to 23-50, exemplary alternative embodiments of the present invention suitable for retrofit or replacement of preexisting ceiling light fixtures are described. In one embodiment, suitable for retrofit or replacement applications, the present invention relates to a downlight replacement light fixture 200 for efficiently distributing light emitted by a light source into an area to be illuminated that can be mounted in a preexisting light fixture housing 202, which can be, in one aspect, conventionally mounted therein a ceiling. In one exemplary embodiment, the replacement light fixture 200 of the present invention can comprise a base housing 210 that is configured to mount to the preexisting light fixture housing. In one aspect, the base housing is configured to receive at least one light source 12 that is releasably mounted to lamp sockets 41, which are connected to portions of the base housing. In yet another aspect, the replacement light fixture can comprise a reflector assembly that is mounted to and underlies the base housing of the replacement light fixture. In another aspect, a ballast 42 is provided that is, in at least one embodiment, connected to the base housing 210 and is in operable connection with the lamp sockets 41 to selectively energize the at least one light source 12. In this aspect, it is contemplated that the lens of the replacement light fixture is positioned with respect to a portion of the reflector to receive light emitted by the light source 12 and distribute it such that glare is further reduced. In a preferred embodiment, the lens 110 of the exemplary retrofit light reflectors receives and distributes substantially all of the light emitted by the light source. In at least one aspect, the lens 110 of the replacement fixture has the characteristics of the lens 110 described above. Turning to FIGS. 23 and 25, a first embodiment of an exemplary replacement light fixture 200 is illustrated. In this embodiment, the base housing 210 is coupled to the reflector assembly. After the louver, lamps, ballast and ballast cover of the preexisting light fixture are removed, the original, the preexisting lamp fixture housing 2 of the preexisting fixture remains mounted therein the ceiling. In this application, an edge of the base housing of the replacement light fixture is pivotally connected to an edge of the preexisting light fixture housing. In one example, one longitudinal edge of the base housing is pivotally connected, via a hinge, to a longitudinal edge of the preexisting light fixture housing. Alternatively, the respective end edges of the base housing and the preexisting light fixture housing are pivotally connected together. A means of selectively securing the base housing 210 of the replacement light fixture relative to the preexisting light fixture housing 2 is also provided so that the face of the replacement light fixture lies in a desired plane relative to the ceiling. In this aspect, for example, the base housing can be configured to be generally fit the peripheral size and shape of the preexisting light fixture housing. In another aspect, the base housing and reflector assembly are provided as an integral unit to be pivotally mounted therein the preexisting light fixture housing. In one aspect of this embodiment, the replacement light fixture 200 is electrically coupled to the preexisting ballast of the preexisting light fixture. In an alternative aspect, the ballast 42 of the fixture can be mounted in an internal cavity of the fixture and is electrically coupled to the preexisting exterior power source. In yet another aspect, as shown in FIG. 25, the ballast 42 can be mounted to a portion of the exposed bottom surface of the preexisting light fixture housing. In yet another aspect, the ballast 42 can be mounted to the top surface of the housing. As one will appreciate, in the latter two aspects, the ballast 42 is readily accessible for repair by simply opening and pivoting the replacement light fixture 200 relative to the preexisting light fixture housing 202. Further, in the latter two aspects, the replacement light fixture 200 is configured to be spaced from the bottom surface of the preexisting light fixture housing a distance such that an adequate internal cavity is formed for receipt of the ballast. Referring now to FIGS. 26-28, a second embodiment of a replacement light fixture is illustrated. In this exemplary embodiment, the base housing 210 of the replacement light fixture is connected to a portion of a preexisting light fixture housing. In one aspect, the base housing 210 of this embodiment has a first reflector piece 213 that overlies and partially surrounds the light source. The base housing further has a pair of opposing downwardly extending longitudinal side walls 214 that are symmetrically spaced from the longitudinal axis of the base housing. In one aspect, the ballast 42 is mounted to a portion of one of the downwardly extending side walls. In a further aspect, the base housing 210 is mounted to the preexisting light fixture housing such that the base housing extends substantially along the longitudinal axis of the preexisting light fixture housing 2. The reflector assembly of the replacement light fixture 200 of this embodiment comprises a pair of opposing, complementary reflector members 262, a pair of lock members 264, and a lens 110. In one aspect, the reflector members are mounted to respective portions of the longitudinal side walls 213 of the base housing 210 and the walls of the preexisting light fixture housing such that the reflector members 262 are positioned symmetrically with respect to the mounted base housing 210 and underlie portions of the preexisting light fixture housing. Thus, in one aspect, the reflector members 262 are installed between the top of the T-grid and the bottom of the preexisting light fixture housing. Of course, it is contemplated that the reflector members can have any desired shaped. In one example, as illustrated, the longitudinally extending walls of the reflector members are curved, at least in portion, and the “end faces” of the respective reflector members are angled with respect to the longitudinal axis of the replacement fixture. In one aspect, at least a portion of the reflector members 262 can be painted or coated with a reflective material or formed from a reflective material. The reflective material may be substantially glossy or substantially flat. In one example, the reflective material is preferably matte white to diffusely reflect incident light. To secure the reflector members relative to the base housing 210 and the preexisting light fixture housing, each lock member 264, configured for a friction fit, is mounted to the respective opposing edges of the end faces of the reflector members, the base housing, and the preexisting light fixture housing. Finally the curved lens is mounted to the base housing 210 such that substantially all of the light generated by the light source 12 passes through the lens of the replacement fixture. Referring now to FIGS. 29-34, a third embodiment of the replacement light fixture of the present invention is disclosed. In this embodiment, the base housing 210 defines a pair of longitudinally extending and downwardly facing troughs 215. Each trough is configured to accept a longitudinally extending light source 12. In another aspect, the pair of troughs 215 is substantially parallel to each other. In another aspect, the base housing 210 further comprises a generally planar member 216 that extends between portions of the pair of longitudinally extending troughs 215 so that the longitudinal axis of the troughs are spaced a predetermined distance apart. The base housing 210 is configured to mount to a bottom surface of the preexisting light fixture housing so that the base housing is symmetrically positioned with respect to the preexisting light fixture housing. In one aspect, the generally planer member 216 and portions of the opposing troughs 215 define a channel 217 forming an interior cavity 218. In one example, the conventional ballast 42 is mounted to a top surface 211 of the base housing 210 such that the ballast is hidden from view of an external observer when the base housing is mounted to the preexisting light fixture housing. In one aspect, a movable cover 219 is provided on the planar member that is adapted to be opened and closed by an operator to access a ballast 42 that is disposed in the interior cavity 218 formed between the top surface 211 of the base housing 210 and portions of the preexisting light fixture housing. In another aspect, the ballast 42 can be mounted to a portion of the top side of the movable cover 219 for ready access to the ballast by an operator. In this aspect, after the base housing is mounted to the preexisting light fixture housing and the ballast is accessed and connected to the preexisting power leads, the reflector assembly is mounted to the base housing 210 such that it substantially underlies the base housing and fully encloses the fixture. In this aspect, it is contemplated that the reflector portion 111 and lens 110 can be, in one example, formed integral to each other or can, in another example, be separate pieces that can be mounted with respect to each other and the base housing 210. In one aspect, the reflector portion 111 of the reflector assembly is substantially opaque. In one aspect, the longitudinally extending sides 220 of the troughs 215 are mounted to the base housing by means that allow the sides 220 of the trough to be self-adjusting in height. In one exemplary aspect, the each side can have a plurality of vertically oriented slots defined therein. These slots are in operable communication with complementary bias members that extend from respective portions of the base housing 210. Thus, the replacement fixture 200 of the present invention can be used in preexisting light fixture housing of varying depth as the adjustable sides of the troughs of the base housing articulate so that they are in contact with or are adjacent to top portions of the reflector assembly. Referring now to FIGS. 35-42, a fourth embodiment of a replacement light fixture of the present invention is illustrated. In this embodiment, the base housing 210 has a pair of longitudinally extending and downwardly facing side edges 224. In one aspect, the conventional ballast 42 is mounted to a bottom surface 212 of the base housing. A formed channel cover 225 is provided that is configured to mount between the light sources 12 such that the ballast is hidden from view of an external observer when the channel cover 225 is attached to the base housing 210. In another aspect, the respecting side edges and the sides of the formed channel cover defines a pair of longitudinally extending and downwardly facing troughs 227. As one will appreciate, each trough is configured to accept one longitudinally extending light source 12. In another aspect, the pair of troughs is substantially parallel to each other. In another aspect, the longitudinal axes of the troughs 227 are spaced a predetermined distance apart. The base housing 210 is configured to mount to a bottom surface of the preexisting light fixture housing so that the base housing is symmetrically positioned with respect to the preexisting light fixture housing. In this aspect, after the base housing 210 is mounted to the preexisting light fixture housing and the ballast is accessed and connected to the preexisting power leads, the reflector assembly is mounted to the base housing such that it substantially underlies the base housing 210 and fully encloses the fixture. In this aspect, it is contemplated that the reflector portion and lens of the reflector assembly can be, in one example, formed integral to each other or can, in another example, be separate pieces that can be mounted with respect to each other and the base housing. In one aspect, the reflector portion of the reflector assembly is substantially opaque. Referring to FIG. 41, the reflector assembly can further comprise at least one longitudinally extending and upwardly extending light bar members 265 that cooperate with portions of the base housing 210 to direct the light generated by the light sources. Thus, as shown in FIG. 42, in one aspect, the light bar members 265 allow for the use of the replacement fixture of the present invention in preexisting light fixture housing of varying depth as the light bar helps to direct the generated light through the lens 250 of the reflector assembly. In a further aspect, a reveal 270 can be provided between at least one edge of the replacement light fixture 200 and the preexisting light fixture housing 202 such that airflow is allowed when the replacement light fixture is installed as a replacement for an air handling light fixture. In yet another aspect, the reflector assembly can be configured to overlap the T-grid at the respective ends of the replacement light fixture 200 only. Referring now to FIGS. 43-50, a fifth embodiment of a replacement light fixture of the present invention is illustrated. In this embodiment, the base housing 210 comprises a light engine that defines a pair of longitudinally extending and downwardly facing troughs. As one will appreciate, each trough is configured to accept one longitudinally extending light source 12. In another aspect, the pair of troughs is substantially parallel to each other. In another aspect, the longitudinal axes of the troughs 227 are spaced a predetermined distance apart. In another aspect, the troughs are positioned on the opposing edge portions of the longitudinal edges of the housing. In a further aspect, the light engine defines a channel therebetween the troughs on the top side of the base housing. In one aspect, a ballast door is configured to allow for hinged access to the channel from the bottom side of the housing. That is, the ballast door can be readily and selectively opened from the bottom side of the housing. In this aspect, the ballast/inverter of the light engine can be mounted onto the top surface of the channel and access via the opening of the ballast door. It is also contemplated that the ballast/inverter could be mounted to the top surface of the ballast door to further simplify access to the ballast of the light engine and the power source/lines that are positioned above the housing when it is positioned therein the preexisting light fixture housing. It is contemplated that a ground strap can be electrically bonded to the swing down ballast tray. One will appreciate that the design of the light engine precludes having to individually install socket brackets for new lamps. Further, the light engine design promotes high density stacking. It is contemplated that a narrow light engine design can be used to allow the use of T8 lamps with the exemplified replacement light fixture. It is contemplated that the replacement light fixture can be installed onto a preexisting SP8 door frame. This embodiment of the replacement light fixture further comprises a pair of brackets and a pair of hinge plates. In one aspect, each bracket is configured to be mounted to a portion of the longitudinal end walls of the preexisting light fixture housing. Each bracket defines a mounting flange that is positioned within the interior of the preexisting light fixture housing when the bracket is mounted. Further, the bracket is configured to support or hold itself in place until it can be secured into position. In operation, the bottom surfaces of the longitudinal ends of the base housing of the light engine are configured to sit on the opposed mounting flanges. Thus, the brackets act to support the light housing until it can be securely fastened. In one exemplary aspect, the ends of the base housing are connected to the mounting flanges of the bracket by mechanical means, such as, without limitation, screws, bolts, self-drilling screws, and the like. In another aspect, each hinge plate is configured to be mounted to a face portion of a bracket. Each hinge plate has a male ridge that extends the width of the plate such that, when installed onto the bracket, the male ridge extends inwardly into the interior of the fixture. This subsequently acts as a light trap for the door assembly of the replacement light fixture. In one exemplary aspect, the hinge plate is connected to the bracket by mechanical means, such as, without limitation, screws, bolts, self-drilling screws, and the like. One skilled in the art would appreciate that the metallic mechanical means act to electrically couple the components of the light fixture. In a further aspect, each hinge plate defines at least one opening that is configured to complementarily accept a hinge and latching means of the door assembly of the replacement light fixture. The door assembly comprises a metal, such as steel for example, perimeter frame. Portions of the door assembly form hinge and latching means, such as, for example hinge bias members, that complementarily and selectively couple with the hinge and latching means, such as, for example cam latches. In one aspect, the door assembly comprises a metallic reflector assembly with snap in polymeric lenses that can be formed from acrylic for example. In another aspect, the door assemblies comprising an integrated metallic reflector/light engine with snap in polymeric lenses. Optionally, a one piece polymeric reflector with co-molded lenses can be used. In this aspect, it is contemplated that the lenses can be substantially light transmissive and the reflector portions can be opaque. In a further aspect, the co-molded lens can include micro optic patters that negate the need for the use of a diffusing overlay. As outlined above, it is contemplated that the reflector and lens can be, in one example, formed integral to each other or can, in another example, be separate pieces that can be mounted with respect to each other and the base housing. In one aspect, the reflector portion of the reflector assembly is substantially opaque. In another aspect, the reflectors can have, if desired, a corrugated surface. In a further aspect, a reveal can be provided between at least one edge of the replacement light fixture and the preexisting light fixture housing such that airflow is allowed when the replacement light fixture is installed as a replacement for an air handling light fixture. In yet another aspect, the reflector assembly can be configured to overlap the T-grid at the respective ends of the replacement light fixture only. The preceding description of the invention is provided as an enabling teaching of the invention in its best, currently known embodiment. To this end, those skilled in the relevant art will recognize and appreciate that many changes can be made to the various aspects of the invention described herein, while still obtaining the beneficial results of the present invention. It will also be apparent that some of the desired benefits of the present invention can be obtained by selecting some of the features of the present invention without utilizing other features. The corresponding structures, materials, acts, and equivalents of all means or step plus function elements in the claims below are intended to include any structure, material, or acts for performing the functions in combination with other claimed elements as specifically claimed. Accordingly, those who work in the art will recognize that many modifications and adaptations to the present invention are possible and can even be desirable in certain circumstances and are a part of the present invention. Other embodiments of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from consideration of the specification and practice of the invention disclosed herein. Thus, the preceding description is provided as illustrative of the principles of the present invention and not in limitation thereof. It is intended that the specification and examples be considered as exemplary only, with a true scope and spirit of the invention being indicated by the following claims.	F	F21	F21V	7	00
11926240	US20090111421A1-20090430	DETECTING METHOD AND DEVICE FOR SAVING ELECTRICAL POWER CONSUMPTION OF COMMUNICATION DEVICE	ACCEPTED	20090416	20090430		[]	H04B116	["H04B116", "H04B138"]	7860537	20071029	20101228	455	574000	96334.0	TRINH	SONNY	[{"inventor_name_last": "LIN", "inventor_name_first": "Ying-Tsang", "inventor_city": "Chiayi City", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "TW"}]	A detecting method and a detecting device for saving electrical power consumption of a communication device are introduced. During each operation cycle, a receiving end is switched between a hibernation mode and an operation mode alternately. The receiving end in the hibernation mode is supplied with a first electric power, the receiving end in the operation mode is supplied with a second electric power, and the first electric power is smaller than the second electric power. The receiving end in the operation mode detects whether there is a first signal from a sending end. If receiving the first signal, the receiving end is kept in the operation mode, and continued to be supplied with the second electric power. If the receiving end in the operation mode does not receive the first signal, the receiving end enters the hibernation mode and is supplied with the first electric power.	1. A detecting method for saving electrical power consumption of a communication device, comprising: providing a receiving end, wherein an operation cycle of the receiving end comprises a hibernation mode and an operation mode; after a first time period, switching the receiving end from the hibernation mode to the operation mode, wherein the receiving end in the hibernation mode is supplied with a first electric power, and the receiving end in the operation mode is supplied with a second electric power; switching to the operation mode, wherein the receiving end detects a signal for communication sent from a sending end in a second time period; keeping the receiving end in the operation mode when receiving a plurality of first signals from the sending end; and switching the receiving end from the operation mode to the hibernation mode if the receiving end does not detect the first signals after the second time period. 2. The detecting method for saving electrical power consumption of a communication device as claimed in claim 1, wherein the second time period is determined by a sending time parameter period, a buffer time parameter buf, and a transmission time parameter τ, and the second time period is (period+buf+τ). 3. The detecting method for saving electrical power consumption of a communication device as claimed in claim 2, wherein the sending time parameter is determined by times of transmitting the first signals in the operation cycle. 4. The detecting method for saving electrical power consumption of a communication device as claimed in claim 2, wherein the buffer time parameter is determined by a transmission time span of a second signal from the sending end. 5. The detecting method for saving electrical power consumption of a communication device as claimed in claim 2, wherein the transmission time parameter is determined by a time required by transmitting the first signal from the sending end to the receiving end and then back to the sending end. 6. A communication device, applied in a radio communication system, comprising: a sending end, for providing a plurality of first signals; and a receiving end, for receiving the first signals, wherein an operation cycle of the receiving end comprises an operation mode and a hibernation mode, wherein the receiving end further comprises: a transmitting/receiving antenna; an audio modulation unit, coupled to the transmitting/receiving antenna, for processing the first signals; an electric power unit, for providing electric power required by the operation of the receiving end; and a processing unit, coupled to the audio modulation unit, wherein the processing unit is used to count time for switching the receiving end from the hibernation mode to the operation mode after a first time period, when the processing unit is in the hibernation mode, the processing unit determines to supply a first electric power to the communication device, when the processing unit is in the operation mode, the processing unit determines to supply a second electric power to the communication device and detects whether the sending end sends the first signals in the period, if receiving the first signals in the period, the receiving end is kept in the operation mode, and if the receiving end does not receive the first signals in the period, the receiving end is switched from the operation mode to the hibernation mode after a second time period. 7. The communication device as claimed in claim 6, wherein the electric power unit supplies corresponding electric power according to the hibernation mode and the operation mode. 8. The communication device as claimed in claim 6, wherein the sending end is further used to send second signals which are audio signals. 9. The communication device as claimed in claim 6, wherein the second time period is determined by a sending time parameter period, a buffer time parameter buf, and a transmission time parameter τ, and the second time period is (period+buf+τ). 10. The communication device as claimed in claim 9, wherein the sending time parameter is determined by times of transmitting the first signals in the operation cycle. 11. The communication device as claimed in claim 9, wherein the buffer time parameter is determined by a transmission time span of a second signal from the sending end. 12. The communication device as claimed in claim 9, wherein the transmission time parameter is determined by a time required by transmitting the first signal from the sending end to the receiving end and then back to the sending end.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of Invention The present invention relates to a detecting method for saving electrical power consumption of a communication device, and more particularly, to a method of detecting the electrical power consumption of a standby receiving end of a radio walkie talkie. 2. Related Art A radio walkie talkie utilizes a continuous tone-coded squelch system (CTCSS) to achieve multi-party communication. Another feature of the radio walkie talkie is direct point-to-point communication without setting any other auxiliary transmitting device. The two parties in the communication may start the point-to-point communication as long as they modulate the respective radio walkie talkie to the same frequency. FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a radio circuit. The work flow of the radio walkie talkie is mainly divided into two parts, i.e., the receiving part and the sending part. The operation flow of the receiving part is (referring to the marks in the figure): (1)→(2)→(3)→(4)→(5) Firstly, in Step (1), when a signal appears, it is received by an antenna 111 and then sequentially passes through a low pass filter 112 and an antenna switch 113 . In Step (2), the signal is amplified by a radio frequency amplifier 114 and then processed in a band pass filter 115 . In Step (3), the signal is processed in a mixer 116 , mainly for lowering a high frequency. Subsequently, the frequency of the signal is changed to an intermediate frequency, and then the signal is sent into an IF AMP 117 to be amplified. In Step (4), the signal is demodulated at the intermediate frequency. Finally, in Step (5), the processed signal is processed in an audio frequency amplifier 119 , and then, the audio frequency amplifier 119 enables a speaker 120 to send sounds that can be heard by using a signal at about 1 KHz. Compared with the receiving steps, the sending flow of the radio is: (6)→(7)→(8)→(9)→(1). In step (6), a microphone 130 receives an external audio signal. Generally speaking, the microphone 130 only has a voltage of several millivolts, so the signal must be amplified by a microphone amplifier 141 . In Step (7), a phase lock loop (PLL) 142 is used to provide a high purity basic frequency signal to modulate an audio frequency. In addition, the PLL 142 also provides a local oscillation signal to the mixer 116 when receiving the signal. In Step (8), the signal is introduced into a TX AMP 143 , so as to increase the transmitting power to be hundreds of microwatts. As such, in Step 9, a power module 144 is driven to transmit the signal through the antenna. The radio walkie talkie has an operation method of simplex communication. The so-called simplex communication is that only one sending end is allowed to send an audio signal at the same time. It should be especially noted that, no matter whether the sending end sends a signal or not, the receiving end must be always in a receiving state. The long-time receiving action of the receiving end consumes a lot of power, and especially for outside users of radio, to save power is a quite important topic.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The object of the present invention is to provide a detecting method for saving electrical power consumption of a communication device, which is applied in a receiving end of a radio communication device, so as to save electrical power consumption when the receiving end is in a standby state. In each operation cycle, the receiving end is switched between a hibernation mode and an operation mode according to a first signal sent from a sending end. In order to achieve the aforementioned object, in each operation cycle, the receiving end is switched between the hibernation mode and the operation mode alternately. The receiving end in the hibernation mode is supplied with a first electric power, the receiving end in the operation mode is supplied with a second electric power, and the first electric power is smaller than the second electric power. In the operation mode, the receiving end detects whether there is a first signal from another sending end. After receiving the first signal, the receiving end is kept in the operation mode and continued to be supplied with the second electric power. If the receiving end in the operation mode does not receive the first signal, the receiving end enters the hibernation mode and is supplied with the first electric power. Another object of the present invention is to provide a communication device which is used in a radio communication system. The communication device includes a receiving end and a sending end. The receiving end is used to receive a first signal, and further includes a transmitting/receiving antenna, an audio modulation unit, a processing unit, and an electric power unit. The transmitting/receiving antenna is used to receive and transmit the first signal. The audio modulation unit is coupled to the transmitting/receiving antenna, so as to process the first signal. The processing unit is coupled to the audio modulation unit. The processing unit is coupled to the audio modulation unit, so as to be switched from the hibernation mode to the operation mode after a predetermined time cycle. When the processing unit is in the hibernation mode, the processing unit determines to supply a first electric power to the receiving end. When the processing unit is in the operation mode, the processing unit determines to supply a second electric power to the receiving end and detects whether the sending end sends the first signal in the operation mode. If the receiving end does not receive the first signal in the operation mode, the receiving end will be switched from the operation mode to the hibernation mode after a first time period. If the receiving end receives the first signal in the operation mode, the receiving end is kept in the operation mode. The present invention provides a detecting method for saving electrical power consumption of a communication device, for detecting the communication state of a receiving end, so that the receiving end may consume less power. A receiving end is provided, and the operation cycle of the receiving end includes a hibernation mode and an operation mode. After a first time period, the receiving end is switched from the hibernation mode to the operation mode, the receiving end in the hibernation mode is supplied with a first electric power, and the receiving end in the operation mode is supplied with a second electric power. Being switched to the operation mode, the receiving end detects a signal for communication sent from a sending end in a second time period. The receiving end is kept in the operation mode after receiving a plurality of first signals from the sending end. After the second time period, if the receiving end does not detect the first signal, the receiving end is switched from the operation mode to the hibernation mode. In the present invention, the operation state of the receiving end of the communication device includes the hibernation mode and the operation mode, and the operation state of the receiving end is switched according to the fact whether a signal sent from the sending end is detected. In this manner, in the standby state of the receiving end, the electrical power consumption of the receiving end may be reduced, thereby prolonging the standby time of the receiving end. The features and practice of the preferred embodiments of the present invention will be illustrated below in detail with reference to the drawings. Further scope of applicability of the present invention will become apparent from the detailed description given hereinafter. However, it should be understood that the detailed description and specific examples, while indicating preferred embodiments of the invention, are given by way of illustration only, since various changes and modifications within the spirit and scope of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from this detailed description.	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of Invention The present invention relates to a detecting method for saving electrical power consumption of a communication device, and more particularly, to a method of detecting the electrical power consumption of a standby receiving end of a radio walkie talkie. 2. Related Art A radio walkie talkie utilizes a continuous tone-coded squelch system (CTCSS) to achieve multi-party communication. Another feature of the radio walkie talkie is direct point-to-point communication without setting any other auxiliary transmitting device. The two parties in the communication may start the point-to-point communication as long as they modulate the respective radio walkie talkie to the same frequency. FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a radio circuit. The work flow of the radio walkie talkie is mainly divided into two parts, i.e., the receiving part and the sending part. The operation flow of the receiving part is (referring to the marks in the figure): (1)→(2)→(3)→(4)→(5) Firstly, in Step (1), when a signal appears, it is received by an antenna 111 and then sequentially passes through a low pass filter 112 and an antenna switch 113. In Step (2), the signal is amplified by a radio frequency amplifier 114 and then processed in a band pass filter 115. In Step (3), the signal is processed in a mixer 116, mainly for lowering a high frequency. Subsequently, the frequency of the signal is changed to an intermediate frequency, and then the signal is sent into an IF AMP 117 to be amplified. In Step (4), the signal is demodulated at the intermediate frequency. Finally, in Step (5), the processed signal is processed in an audio frequency amplifier 119, and then, the audio frequency amplifier 119 enables a speaker 120 to send sounds that can be heard by using a signal at about 1 KHz. Compared with the receiving steps, the sending flow of the radio is: (6)→(7)→(8)→(9)→(1). In step (6), a microphone 130 receives an external audio signal. Generally speaking, the microphone 130 only has a voltage of several millivolts, so the signal must be amplified by a microphone amplifier 141. In Step (7), a phase lock loop (PLL) 142 is used to provide a high purity basic frequency signal to modulate an audio frequency. In addition, the PLL 142 also provides a local oscillation signal to the mixer 116 when receiving the signal. In Step (8), the signal is introduced into a TX AMP 143, so as to increase the transmitting power to be hundreds of microwatts. As such, in Step 9, a power module 144 is driven to transmit the signal through the antenna. The radio walkie talkie has an operation method of simplex communication. The so-called simplex communication is that only one sending end is allowed to send an audio signal at the same time. It should be especially noted that, no matter whether the sending end sends a signal or not, the receiving end must be always in a receiving state. The long-time receiving action of the receiving end consumes a lot of power, and especially for outside users of radio, to save power is a quite important topic. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The object of the present invention is to provide a detecting method for saving electrical power consumption of a communication device, which is applied in a receiving end of a radio communication device, so as to save electrical power consumption when the receiving end is in a standby state. In each operation cycle, the receiving end is switched between a hibernation mode and an operation mode according to a first signal sent from a sending end. In order to achieve the aforementioned object, in each operation cycle, the receiving end is switched between the hibernation mode and the operation mode alternately. The receiving end in the hibernation mode is supplied with a first electric power, the receiving end in the operation mode is supplied with a second electric power, and the first electric power is smaller than the second electric power. In the operation mode, the receiving end detects whether there is a first signal from another sending end. After receiving the first signal, the receiving end is kept in the operation mode and continued to be supplied with the second electric power. If the receiving end in the operation mode does not receive the first signal, the receiving end enters the hibernation mode and is supplied with the first electric power. Another object of the present invention is to provide a communication device which is used in a radio communication system. The communication device includes a receiving end and a sending end. The receiving end is used to receive a first signal, and further includes a transmitting/receiving antenna, an audio modulation unit, a processing unit, and an electric power unit. The transmitting/receiving antenna is used to receive and transmit the first signal. The audio modulation unit is coupled to the transmitting/receiving antenna, so as to process the first signal. The processing unit is coupled to the audio modulation unit. The processing unit is coupled to the audio modulation unit, so as to be switched from the hibernation mode to the operation mode after a predetermined time cycle. When the processing unit is in the hibernation mode, the processing unit determines to supply a first electric power to the receiving end. When the processing unit is in the operation mode, the processing unit determines to supply a second electric power to the receiving end and detects whether the sending end sends the first signal in the operation mode. If the receiving end does not receive the first signal in the operation mode, the receiving end will be switched from the operation mode to the hibernation mode after a first time period. If the receiving end receives the first signal in the operation mode, the receiving end is kept in the operation mode. The present invention provides a detecting method for saving electrical power consumption of a communication device, for detecting the communication state of a receiving end, so that the receiving end may consume less power. A receiving end is provided, and the operation cycle of the receiving end includes a hibernation mode and an operation mode. After a first time period, the receiving end is switched from the hibernation mode to the operation mode, the receiving end in the hibernation mode is supplied with a first electric power, and the receiving end in the operation mode is supplied with a second electric power. Being switched to the operation mode, the receiving end detects a signal for communication sent from a sending end in a second time period. The receiving end is kept in the operation mode after receiving a plurality of first signals from the sending end. After the second time period, if the receiving end does not detect the first signal, the receiving end is switched from the operation mode to the hibernation mode. In the present invention, the operation state of the receiving end of the communication device includes the hibernation mode and the operation mode, and the operation state of the receiving end is switched according to the fact whether a signal sent from the sending end is detected. In this manner, in the standby state of the receiving end, the electrical power consumption of the receiving end may be reduced, thereby prolonging the standby time of the receiving end. The features and practice of the preferred embodiments of the present invention will be illustrated below in detail with reference to the drawings. Further scope of applicability of the present invention will become apparent from the detailed description given hereinafter. However, it should be understood that the detailed description and specific examples, while indicating preferred embodiments of the invention, are given by way of illustration only, since various changes and modifications within the spirit and scope of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from this detailed description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention will become more fully understood from the detailed description given herein below for illustration only, and thus are not limitative of the present invention, and wherein: FIG. 1 is a schematic view of the linking of the Internet. FIG. 2 is a block diagram of the architecture of the receiving end in the present invention. FIG. 3 is a schematic view of the state switching of the receiving end. FIG. 4 is a flow chart of the operation of the receiving end. FIG. 5 is a schematic view of the transmission of the sending end and the receiving end of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION A receiving end must be always kept in the operation state in a communication period, which consumes a lot of electric power. Therefore, the present invention provides a method of detecting a state of radio communication, so that the receiving end may be kept in a receiving state, thereby consuming less electric power. FIG. 2 is a block diagram of the architecture of the receiving end in the present invention. The communication device provided by the present invention includes a sending end (not shown) and a receiving end 200. The sending end is used to send a first signal and a second signal. The receiving end 200 receives the first signal and the second signal, and the operation cycle of the receiving end includes a hibernation mode and an operation mode. The time required by the hibernation mode is a first time period, and the time required by the operation mode is a second time period. As for a radio communication device, the sending end and the receiving end 200 have the same structure, and herein, only the receiving end 200 is described. In this embodiment, the first signal is a call setup message of the receiving end 200; and the second signal is an audio signal to be transmitted by the sending end. The receiving end 200 includes a transmitting/receiving antenna 210, an audio modulation unit 220, a processing unit 230, and an electric power unit 240. The transmitting/receiving antenna 210 is used to receive the signal sent by the sending end. The audio modulation unit 220 is coupled to the transmitting/receiving antenna 210, so as to process the audio signal. The processing unit 230 is coupled to the audio modulation unit 220. The electric power unit 240 is coupled to the audio modulation unit 220 and the processing unit 230, and is used to provide electric power required by the operation of each unit. When the processing unit 230 is in the hibernation mode, the processing unit 230 determines to supply a first electric power to the receiving end 200. When the processing unit 230 is in the operation mode, the processing unit 230 determines to supply a second electric power to the receiving end 200 and detects whether the sending end sends a first signal in the operation mode. If the receiving end 200 does not receive the first signal in the operation mode, the receiving end 200 will be switched from the operation mode to the hibernation mode after the second time period. If receiving the first signal in the operation mode, the receiving end 200 is kept in the operation mode. The second time period is determined by a sending time parameter period, a buffer time parameter buf, and a transmission time parameter τ, and the second time period is (period+buf+τ). The sending time parameter is determined by times of transmitting the first signals in the operation cycle. The transmission time parameter is determined by a time required by transmitting the first signals from the sending end to the receiving end 200 and then back to the sending end. FIG. 3 is a schematic view of the state switching of the receiving end. As shown in FIG. 3, the operation state of the receiving end 200 includes the hibernation mode and the operation mode. FIG. 4 is a flow chart of the operation of the receiving end. Referring to FIG. 3 and FIG. 4, the operation flow of the communication device is described. Firstly, a receiving end is provided (Step S410), and the operation cycle of the receiving end 200 includes the hibernation mode and the operation mode. Then, after a time period, the receiving end is switched from the hibernation mode to the operation mode (Step S420), the receiving end in the hibernation mode is supplied with the first electric power, and the receiving end in the operation mode is supplied with the second electric power. The receiving end is switched to the operation mode, and detects whether a signal for communication is sent from the sending end (Step S430) in a second time period. If the receiving end does not detect the first signal after the second time period, the receiving end is switched from the operation mode to the hibernation mode (Step S440). If receiving the first signal, the receiving end is kept in the operation mode, and receives the second signal (Step S450), and the receiving end begins to receive the second signal. After the receiving end 200 receives the second signal, repeat Step S430. FIG. 5 is a schematic view of the transmission of the sending end and the receiving end of the present invention. FIGS. 4 and 5 may be referred for the clear illustration of the flow of switching the operation modes of the receiving end 200. In FIG. 5, the horizontal axis represents the time, and the upper portion and the lower portion of the longitudinal axis represent the operation states of the sending end and the receiving end 200, respectively. Herein, in order to illustrate the operation method of this embodiment more conveniently, it is assumed that the first signal has been transmitted in the operation cycle for “three” times, i.e., the sending end has sent the first signal for three times in the time period of each cycle. Therefore, the sending time parameter is “period/3.” Firstly, the receiving end 200 is started up and enters the hibernation mode. Subsequently, the sending end has sent the first signal for three times in the first time period. When the sending end sends the first signal for the first time and the second time, the receiving end 200 fails to receive the first signal for it is in the hibernation mode and therefore, the receiving end 200 is still kept in the hibernation mode. After the first time period, the receiving end 200 will be switched from the hibernation mode to the operation mode. At this point, the receiving end 200 is in the operation mode and then receives the first signal. Then, after the receiving end 200 receives the second signal, the receiving end 200 begins counting time, and detects whether the first signal is still sent in the second time period. If detecting the first signal, the receiving end 200 is in the hibernation mode. The receiving end 200 in the present invention is switched from the operation mode to the hibernation mode alternately, so that the receiving end 200 may begin to receive the second signal as long as it may often receive the first signal in the operation mode, thereby efficiently reducing the electrical consumption and prolonging the standby time of the receiving end 200. The invention being thus described, it will be obvious that the same may be varied in many ways. Such variations are not to be regarded as a departure from the spirit and scope of the invention, and all such modifications as would be obvious to one skilled in the art are intended to be included within the scope of the following claims.	H	H04	H04B	1	16
11751371	US20070215260A1-20070920	METHOD FOR MOUNTING A TAG IN A TIRE SIDEWALL	ACCEPTED	20070905	20070920		[]	B60C500	["B60C500"]	8142600	20070521	20120327	156	293000	99181.0	MAKI	STEVEN	[{"inventor_name_last": "Kleckner", "inventor_name_first": "James", "inventor_city": "Akron", "inventor_state": "OH", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A pneumatic tire includes a tire body having a crown portion and a pair of sidewalls. At least one reinforcing belt is disposed in the crown portion of the tire. A tag is carried by the reinforcing belt. In one embodiment, the tag is disposed in the location of one of the reinforcing cords that is disposed in the reinforcing belt. In another embodiment, the tag is disposed at the splice of the reinforcing belt. An alternative version of the tire has the tag carried in a depression formed in the outer surface of the tire sidewall. The tag may be encapsulated with an encapsulation material that is also disposed in the depression.	1. A method for mounting a tag in the sidewall of a pneumatic tire; the method comprising the steps of: (a) providing a pneumatic tire that includes a vulcanized tire body having a crown portion and a pair of sidewalls; each of the sidewalls having a bead portion that is adapted to be seated in the tire rim when the tire is mounted to the tire rim; each of the sidewalls having an inner surface and an outer surface; the inner surfaces of the sidewalls adapted to face the pressurizable chamber of the tire; one of the sidewalls defining a cavity that has an opening at the outer surface of the sidewall; (b) positioning a tag in the cavity; and (c) encapsulating the tag with an encapsulation material that adheres the tag to the sidewall of the tire body. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein step (c) includes the step of entirely surrounding the tag with the encapsulation material. 3. The method of claim 2, further comprising the step of using a rigid encapsulation material in step (c). 4. The method of claim 3, further comprising the step of using a rigid epoxy in step (c). 5. The tire of claim 1, further comprising the step of using a flexible encapsulation material in step (c). 6. A method of connecting a tag to a tire; the method comprising the steps of: (a) providing a tire that having a vulcanized tire body having an outer surface; the tire body defining a cavity having an opening at the outer surface of the tire body; and (b) encapsulating a tag in the cavity of with an encapsulation material that secures the tag to the vulcanized tire body. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein step (b) includes the step of entirely surrounding the tag with the encapsulation material. 8. The method of claim 7, further comprising the step of using a rigid encapsulation material in step (b). 9. The method of claim 8, further comprising the step of using a rigid epoxy in step (b). 10. The tire of claim 6, further comprising the step of using a flexible encapsulation material in step (b). 11. A method of connecting a tag to a vulcanized body; the method comprising the steps of: (a) providing a vulcanized body having an outer surface; the tire body defining a cavity having an opening at the outer surface of the tire body; and (b) encapsulating a tag in the cavity of with an encapsulation material that secures the tag to the vulcanized tire body. 12. The method of claim 11, wherein step (b) includes the step of entirely surrounding the tag with the encapsulation material. 13. The method of claim 12, further comprising the step of using a rigid encapsulation material in step (b). 14. The method of claim 13, further comprising the step of using a rigid epoxy in step (b). 15. The tire of claim 11, further comprising the step of using a flexible encapsulation material in step (b).	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Technical Field The present invention generally relates to pneumatic tires and, more particularly, to a pneumatic tire in combination with a tire tag. Specifically, the present invention is related to how the tire tag is mounted to the pneumatic tire and the location of the mounting. 2. Background Information Various types of tire tags in the nature of tire monitoring devices and tire identification devices are known in the art. Tire monitoring devices may be configured to read temperature or pressure and store the information for later retrieval. These devices may also be configured to transmit the information from the tire to an outside reader. Tire monitoring devices may use the information to trigger an alarm when the temperature or pressure of the tire reaches a limit. Tire identification devices allow a tire to be identified through its manufacturing process and after the tire is placed into service. Tire monitoring and identification devices may be passive or active depending on design and desired functions. One type of tire identification device known in the art is a tire identification chip (tire ID chip). A tire ID chip stores a unique identification number that may be read by an interrogation signal sent by a device that obtains the information from the tire ID chip. Tire manufacturers wish to mount one tire ID chip into each tire manufactured so that the tire may be tracked during the manufacturing process and during use on vehicles. Given the wide variety of monitoring and identification devices, a wide variety of mounting configurations also exist for these devices. Exemplary known mounting configurations include building the monitoring device into a tire sidewall, building the monitoring device into the bead filler, attaching the device with a patch to the tire sidewall, attaching the device directly to the innerliner with an adhesive, connecting the device to the rim that supports the tire, and mounting the device to the valve stem of the wheel.	<SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The invention provides a first configuration that mounts the tire identification or tire monitoring device in one of the belts of reinforcing cords positioned in the crown of the tire. The identification or monitoring device may take the place of one of the reinforcing cords, may be positioned between reinforcing cords, or may be positioned at the splice that is used to form a loop out of the reinforcing cord ply. The invention also provides an embodiment wherein the tire identification or tire monitoring device is mounted in a depression formed in the outer surface of the sidewall. The tire identification or tire monitoring device may be encapsulated with an encapsulation material in the depression.	CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation application of pending U.S. application Ser. No. 10/743,694 filed Dec. 22, 2003, which claims priority from U.S. Provisional Patent application Ser. No. 60/436,057 filed Dec. 23, 2002; the disclosures of both are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Technical Field The present invention generally relates to pneumatic tires and, more particularly, to a pneumatic tire in combination with a tire tag. Specifically, the present invention is related to how the tire tag is mounted to the pneumatic tire and the location of the mounting. 2. Background Information Various types of tire tags in the nature of tire monitoring devices and tire identification devices are known in the art. Tire monitoring devices may be configured to read temperature or pressure and store the information for later retrieval. These devices may also be configured to transmit the information from the tire to an outside reader. Tire monitoring devices may use the information to trigger an alarm when the temperature or pressure of the tire reaches a limit. Tire identification devices allow a tire to be identified through its manufacturing process and after the tire is placed into service. Tire monitoring and identification devices may be passive or active depending on design and desired functions. One type of tire identification device known in the art is a tire identification chip (tire ID chip). A tire ID chip stores a unique identification number that may be read by an interrogation signal sent by a device that obtains the information from the tire ID chip. Tire manufacturers wish to mount one tire ID chip into each tire manufactured so that the tire may be tracked during the manufacturing process and during use on vehicles. Given the wide variety of monitoring and identification devices, a wide variety of mounting configurations also exist for these devices. Exemplary known mounting configurations include building the monitoring device into a tire sidewall, building the monitoring device into the bead filler, attaching the device with a patch to the tire sidewall, attaching the device directly to the innerliner with an adhesive, connecting the device to the rim that supports the tire, and mounting the device to the valve stem of the wheel. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention provides a first configuration that mounts the tire identification or tire monitoring device in one of the belts of reinforcing cords positioned in the crown of the tire. The identification or monitoring device may take the place of one of the reinforcing cords, may be positioned between reinforcing cords, or may be positioned at the splice that is used to form a loop out of the reinforcing cord ply. The invention also provides an embodiment wherein the tire identification or tire monitoring device is mounted in a depression formed in the outer surface of the sidewall. The tire identification or tire monitoring device may be encapsulated with an encapsulation material in the depression. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a section view of a pneumatic tire showing the first mounting configuration for the tire monitoring or tire identification device. FIG. 2 is a top plan view, partially in section, of the tire crown showing the tire tag mounted at the splice in the belt. FIG. 3 is a section view taken along line 3-3 of FIG. 2. FIG. 3A is a section view similar to FIG. 3 showing an alternate mounting configuration wherein the tire tag replaces one of the reinforcing cords of the belt. FIG. 3B is a section view similar to FIG. 3 showing an alternative embodiment wherein the tire tag is positioned between adjacent reinforcing cords in the belt. FIG. 4 is a section view of a pneumatic tire showing the tire tag mounted in a second configuration. FIG. 4A is an enlarged section view of the encircled portion of FIG. 4. FIG. 5 is an elevation view of the tire showing the mounted tire tag. Similar numbers refer to similar parts throughout the specification. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION A first embodiment of a tire and tire tag combination is indicated generally by the numeral 100 in FIGS. 1-3. Combination 100 generally includes a tire 102 and a tag 104 that is mounted to tire 102. Tag 104 may be an identification device or a monitoring device. In the embodiment of tag 104 shown in the drawings, tag 104 has a central body 106 with wires 108 extending from opposed sides of body 106. Body 106 may include any of a variety of elements that are used to store and present information about tire 102 to a reader (not shown) that requests the information. In the first mounting configuration, tag 104 is built into one of the reinforcing belts 110 disposed in the crown of tire 102. Each reinforcing belt 110 includes a plurality of reinforcing cords 112 disposed adjacent each other. Each reinforcing cord 112 is encased in a rubber material 114 or other suitable materials. Each belt 110 is wrapped circumferentially around tire 102 with the ends of belt 110 being joined at a splice 116. Splice 116 is generally parallel to wires 112. In the first mounting configuration, tag 104 is located at splice 116 in order to create a built-in mounting location for tag 104. Tag 104 may be embedded in the adhesive of splice 116. Tag 104 may be built into the outermost belt 110 in order to improve readability and to decrease its exposure to the curing heat used to attach belt 110 to the body of tire 102. The location also protects tag 104 from tire bending forces during tire shaping. Tag 104 may be built into splice 116 when splice 116 is formed. In the alternative, tag 104 may be prebuilt into ply 110 at splice 116 or at another suitable location. For instance, in another embodiment of the invention, tag 104 replaces one of reinforcing cords 112 as shown in FIG. 3A. In FIG. 3B, tag 104 is positioned between adjacent reinforcing cords 112. These locations have the benefit of protecting tag 104 from curing heat, protecting tag 104 during tire shaping, and placing tire tag 104 in a location where there is less interference with other tire structures. This location also places tag 104 in a location where it does not protrude from an internal or external surface of tire 102. The location also does not rely on adhesive for durability of the connection between tag 104 and tire 102. Adjacent belts may use suitable mechanisms in opposed locations to tag 104 for tire uniformity. The second embodiment of the tire and tag combination is indicated generally by the numeral 200 in FIGS. 4-5. Combination 200 generally includes a pneumatic tire 202 and a tag 104 that is mounted to one of the sidewalls 206 of tire 202. Tag 104 is mounted to sidewall 206 in a location that is adapted to be above the rim 208 when tire 202 is mounted to rim 208. In one embodiment, tag 104 may be mounted immediately above rim 208 where the sidewall is thicker and flexes less. This area is identified by numeral 209 in FIG. 4. Tag 104 is disposed in a cavity 210 defined by sidewall 206. Cavity 210 has sufficient dimensions to receive the entire body of tag 104 with additional room for an encapsulation material 212. In this specification, encapsulation material 212 may be any of a wide variety of materials that will adhere to tire 202 in order to help secure tag 104 to tire sidewall 206. A variety of known adhesives or repair compounds/materials may be used as encapsulation material 212. Encapsulation material 212 may be a rigid material or a relatively flexible material. One exemplary rigid encapsulation material is an epoxy that prevents the elements of tag 104 from flexing with respect to each other during tire use. This embodiment allows tag 104 to be installed after tire 202 is fabricated and cured. The embodiment also allows tag 104 to be selectively placed in tire 202. This mounting position does not expose tag 104 to curing heat and prevents tag 104 from extending above the profile of sidewall 206. The embodiment also allows for removal and replacement of tag 104 depending on the type of encapsulation material 212 used. In the foregoing description, certain terms have been used for brevity, clearness, and understanding. No unnecessary limitations are to be implied therefrom beyond the requirement of the prior art because such terms are used for descriptive purposes and are intended to be broadly construed. Moreover, the description and illustration of the invention is an example and the invention is not limited to the exact details shown or described.	B	B60	B60C	5	00
11857052	US20090071657A1-20090319	Annular Pressure Monitoring During Hydraulic Fracturing	ACCEPTED	20090304	20090319		[]	E21B3408	["E21B3408"]	7748459	20070918	20100706	166	308100	84218.0	LOIKITH	CATHERINE	[{"inventor_name_last": "Johnson", "inventor_name_first": "Michael H.", "inventor_city": "Katy", "inventor_state": "TX", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A pressure or flow responsive valve is provided in a hydraulic fracturing assembly so that if the formation sands out during proppant pumping and pressure in the bypass to the annulus around the work string rises, the bypass is closed by the valve to prevent overpressure of lower pressure rated components further uphole from the formation being treated. These components could be large casing or the blowout preventer assembly.	1. A method for treating a formation downhole, comprising: isolating the formation around a workstring; providing a return path from the formation to an annular space surrounding the workstring; selectively closing the return path responsive to pressure buildup at the formation. 2. The method of claim 1, comprising: fracturing the formation through the workstring. 3. The method of claim 1, comprising: running the workstring through a seal point in a surrounding tubular. 4. The method of claim 3, comprising: providing a valve in said return path. 5. The method of claim 4, comprising: making said valve responsive to pressure buildup. 6. The method of claim 5, comprising: creating pressure buildup by fracturing the formation. 7. The method of claim 5, comprising: making said valve respond automatically to pressure buildup. 8. The method of claim 1, comprising: protecting equipment uphole from the formation and in communication with said annular space by said closing. 9. The method of claim 7, comprising: providing a pressure differential responsive sleeve to selectively close said return path. 10. The method of claim 1, comprising: running said work string through a seal bore in a surrounding tubular; sealing said workstring in said seal bore. 11. The method of claim 10, comprising: running said return path through said seal bore and outside said work string. 12. The method of claim 4, comprising: operating said valve from the surface. 13. The method of claim 4, comprising: using a signal from the surface to operate said valve; using at least one of pressure, electricity, light or sound as said signal. 14. The method of claim 3, comprising: making said seal point a packer or a seal bore.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Hydraulic fracturing is performed through a work string that leads from the surface to the desired formation. At some point the work string goes through a seal point and could contain a bypass through that point so that the pressure at the formation can be determined by surface measurements of the annulus pressure that is communicated to the surface through the bypass of the work string that extends through the seal point. The seal point may be a packer or a seal bore. Hydraulic fracturing involves pumping proppant slurry into the wellbore through the work string to the desired formation. The work string terminates above or uphole from the formation being treated. The fluid is forced into the formation to fracture it. The proppant enters the formation to hold open the fissures created from pumping fluid under pressure into the formation to deposit the proppant. The problem that arises occurs when the formation has what's called a sand out where flow into the formation declines dramatically because the proppant creates a barrier to further fluid progress into the formation. The conditions at the formation during fracturing are normally monitored by checking the annulus pressure at the surface. When the formation sands out the pressure at the formation increases generally because the pumping from the surface is with an engine driven multi-cylinder positive displacement pump. The problem with rising pressure at the formation is that the pressure also rises in the annulus going back to the surface. Going up the annulus there could be larger casing than at the formation that has a lower pressure rating. Alternatively the blowout preventer equipment can also have a lower pressure rating than casing that is closer to the formation being fractured. In those situations, the present invention provides a protection feature to prevent overpressure of these lower pressure rated components. These features and others will be better understood by those skilled in the art from a review of the detailed description and associated drawing that appear below while understanding that the full measure of the invention is found in the appended claims.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A pressure or flow responsive valve is provided in a hydraulic fracturing assembly so that if the formation sands out during proppant pumping and pressure in the bypass to the annulus around the work string rises, the bypass is closed by the valve to prevent overpressure of lower pressure rated components further uphole from the formation being treated. These components could be large casing or the blowout preventer assembly.	FIELD OF THE INVENTION The field of the invention is a technique for protecting an annulus leading to the surface from overpressure beyond the limits of tubulars or blowout preventers particularly during a hydraulic fracturing operation. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Hydraulic fracturing is performed through a work string that leads from the surface to the desired formation. At some point the work string goes through a seal point and could contain a bypass through that point so that the pressure at the formation can be determined by surface measurements of the annulus pressure that is communicated to the surface through the bypass of the work string that extends through the seal point. The seal point may be a packer or a seal bore. Hydraulic fracturing involves pumping proppant slurry into the wellbore through the work string to the desired formation. The work string terminates above or uphole from the formation being treated. The fluid is forced into the formation to fracture it. The proppant enters the formation to hold open the fissures created from pumping fluid under pressure into the formation to deposit the proppant. The problem that arises occurs when the formation has what's called a sand out where flow into the formation declines dramatically because the proppant creates a barrier to further fluid progress into the formation. The conditions at the formation during fracturing are normally monitored by checking the annulus pressure at the surface. When the formation sands out the pressure at the formation increases generally because the pumping from the surface is with an engine driven multi-cylinder positive displacement pump. The problem with rising pressure at the formation is that the pressure also rises in the annulus going back to the surface. Going up the annulus there could be larger casing than at the formation that has a lower pressure rating. Alternatively the blowout preventer equipment can also have a lower pressure rating than casing that is closer to the formation being fractured. In those situations, the present invention provides a protection feature to prevent overpressure of these lower pressure rated components. These features and others will be better understood by those skilled in the art from a review of the detailed description and associated drawing that appear below while understanding that the full measure of the invention is found in the appended claims. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A pressure or flow responsive valve is provided in a hydraulic fracturing assembly so that if the formation sands out during proppant pumping and pressure in the bypass to the annulus around the work string rises, the bypass is closed by the valve to prevent overpressure of lower pressure rated components further uphole from the formation being treated. These components could be large casing or the blowout preventer assembly. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING FIG. 1 is a section view of a hydraulic fracturing assembly with the bypass closure feature of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT FIG. 1 shows a workstring 10 that extends from the surface 12 to the formation 14 being treated. The wellbore preferably is cased with casing 16 such that comprises at least one seal point such as a packer or a seal bore 18. The workstring 10 has an external bypass 20 that further features one or more exterior seals 22 designed to fit in the seal bore 18. During normal operations, pressure at surface 12 causes flow 24 down to the formation 14. Generally, proppant slurry is used but the formulation being pumped can vary with the makeup of the formation and the compositions being pumped are well known in the art. As the pumping continues fracturing of the formation 14 can occur with some of the solids in the slurry working their way into newly created fissures from the pressures used in delivering the slurry downhole. As a way of monitoring the pressure at the fracture location from the surface, return flow 26 goes through the bypass 22 and up the annular space 28 to the surface 14. The problem arises when the formation “sands out” or stops taking fluid because the proppant has formed a bridge or has simply filled the newly created fissures which has the effect of blocking flow to the formation 14. When this happens, the pressure at the formation will increase as will the pressure in the bypass 22 and the annular space 28 all the way to the surface 12. The problem can be that the pressure ratings of some of the larger casing going uphole or the blowout preventer assembly can be significantly less than the workstring pressure rating below the seal bore 18. The present invention protects such lower pressure rated equipment automatically when a sand out occurs. This protection feature is shown in split view in FIG. 1. Bypass 22 has an inlet 30 and a pressure or flow sensitive valve shown open as 32 and closed as 32′. The valve 32 can work on a variety of principles one of which is to use passages 34 to put a net uphole force on the valve member 32 to close inlet 30. Valve 32 can also work off a localized pressure sensor that operates a motor to close the valve 32 when needed. Alternatively, the valve can be operated by a control line, hydraulic or electric that runs to it from the surface 12. Other modes of sending a signal from the surface 12 to the valve 32 to close when needed are also contemplated, such as acoustic or light signals on a fiber optic cable, for example. In the preferred embodiment, the operation of valve 32 is automatic to prevent overpressure of lower rated equipment uphole without having to have surface personnel observe the condition and then react, when it might be too late. Valve 32 can have a restricted flow path so that fluid velocity at a certain speed can result in a net force on the sleeve that surrounds the orifice to create a net force on the valve member 32. Surface personnel will see a drop in annulus pressure as well as a rapid rise in workstring 10 pressure to know that a san out has occurred and that pumping should cease before any damage to the uphole equipment from overpressure. The above description is illustrative of the preferred embodiment and many modifications may be made by those skilled in the art without departing from the invention whose scope is to be determined from the literal and equivalent scope of the claims below.	E	E21	E21B	34	08
11841611	US20090055583A1-20090226	STORING REDUNDANT SEGMENTS AND PARITY INFORMATION FOR SEGMENTED LOGICAL VOLUMES	ACCEPTED	20090212	20090226		[]	G06F1216	["G06F1216", "G06F1200", "G06F1300"]	7877544	20070820	20110125	711	114000	68066.0	DAVIDSON	CHAD	[{"inventor_name_last": "Kishi", "inventor_name_first": "Gregory Tad", "inventor_city": "Oro Valley", "inventor_state": "AZ", "inventor_country": "US"}]	Provided are a method, system, and article of manufacture, wherein a storage manager application implemented in a first computational device maintains a virtual logical volume that has a plurality of segments created by the storage manager application. At least one additional copy of at least one of the plurality of segments is maintained in at least one linear storage medium of a secondary storage. A request for data is received, at the first computational device, from a second computational device. At least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy are used to respond to the received request for data.	1. A method, comprising: maintaining, by a storage manager application implemented in a first computational device a virtual logical volume having a plurality of segments created by the storage manager application; maintaining at least one additional copy of at least one of the plurality of segments in at least one linear storage medium of a secondary storage; receiving a request for data, at the first computational device, from a second computational device; and using at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy to respond to the received request for data. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising: maintaining parity information in association with the plurality of segments; using the parity information, in addition to the at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy, to respond to the request for data. 3. The method of claim 2, further comprising: storing the parity information of a group of segments of the plurality of segments in a separate segment. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein recall efficiency for the data is increased by maintaining the at least one additional copy of the at least one of the plurality of segments in the at least one linear storage medium of the secondary storage. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the first computational device is a virtual tape server; wherein the second computational device is a host; wherein a cache storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a disk device; wherein a secondary storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a tape device; and wherein the linear storage medium is a tape in the tape device. 6. A system, comprising: a memory; and a processor coupled to the memory, wherein the processor performs operations, the operations comprising: (i) maintaining, by a storage manager application implemented in a first computational device a virtual logical volume having a plurality of segments created by the storage manager application; (ii) maintaining at least one additional copy of at least one of the plurality of segments in at least one linear storage medium of a secondary storage; (iii) receiving a request for data, at the first computational device, from a second computational device; and (iv) using at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy to respond to the received request for data. 7. The system of claim 6, the operations further comprising: maintaining parity information in association with the plurality of segments; using the parity information, in addition to the at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy, to respond to the request for data. 8. The system of claim 7, the operations further comprising: storing the parity information of a group of segments of the plurality of segments in a separate segment. 9. The system of claim 6, wherein recall efficiency for the data is increased by maintaining the at least one additional copy of the at least one of the plurality of segments in the at least one linear storage medium of the secondary storage. 10. The system of claim 6, wherein the first computational device is a virtual tape server; wherein the second computational device is a host; wherein a cache storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a disk device; wherein a secondary storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a tape device; and wherein the linear storage medium is a tape in the tape device. 11. An article of manufacture including code, wherein the code when executed by a machine causes operations to be performed, the operations comprising: maintaining, by a storage manager application implemented in a first computational device a virtual logical volume having a plurality of segments created by the storage manager application; maintaining at least one additional copy of at least one of the plurality of segments in at least one linear storage medium of a secondary storage; receiving a request for data, at the first computational device, from a second computational device; and using at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy to respond to the received request for data. 12. The article of manufacture of claim 11, the operations further comprising: maintaining parity information in association with the plurality of segments; using the parity information, in addition to the at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy, to respond to the request for data. 13. The article of manufacture of claim 12, the operations further comprising: storing the parity information of a group of segments of the plurality of segments in a separate segment. 14. The article of manufacture of claim 11, wherein recall efficiency for the data is increased by maintaining the at least one additional copy of the at least one of the plurality of segments in the at least one linear storage medium of the secondary storage. 15. The article of manufacture of claim 11, wherein the first computational device is a virtual tape server; wherein the second computational device is a host; wherein a cache storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a disk device; wherein a secondary storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a tape device; and wherein the linear storage medium is a tape in the tape device. 16. A method for deploying computing infrastructure, comprising integrating computer-readable code into a first computational device, wherein the code in combination with the first computational device is capable of performing: maintaining, by a storage manager application implemented in the first computational device a virtual logical volume having a plurality of segments created by the storage manager application; maintaining at least one additional copy of at least one of the plurality of segments in at least one linear storage medium of a secondary storage; receiving a request for data, at the first computational device, from a second computational device; and using at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy to respond to the received request for data. 17. The method for deploying computing infrastructure of claim 16, wherein the code in combination with the first computational device is further capable of performing: maintaining parity information in association with the plurality of segments; using the parity information, in addition to the at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy, to respond to the request for data. 18. The method for deploying computing infrastructure of claim 17, wherein the code in combination with the first computational device is further capable of performing: storing the parity information of a group of segments of the plurality of segments in a separate segment. 19. The method for deploying computing infrastructure of claim 16, wherein recall efficiency for the data is increased by maintaining the at least one additional copy of the at least one of the plurality of segments in the at least one linear storage medium of the secondary storage. 20. The method for deploying computing infrastructure of claim 16, wherein the first computational device is a virtual tape server; wherein the second computational device is a host; wherein a cache storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a disk device; wherein a secondary storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a tape device; and wherein the linear storage medium is a tape in the tape device.	<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>1. Field The disclosure relates to a method, system, and article of manufacture for storing redundant segments and parity information for segmented logical volumes. 2. Background In certain virtual tape storage systems, hard disk drive storage may be used to emulate tape drives and tape cartridges. For instance, host systems may perform input/output (I/O) operations with respect to a tape library by performing I/O operations with respect to a set of hard disk drives that emulate the tape library. In certain virtual tape storage systems at least one virtual tape server (VTS) is coupled to a tape library comprising numerous tape drives and tape cartridges. The VTS is also coupled to a direct access storage device (DASD), comprised of numerous interconnected hard disk drives. The DASD functions as a cache to volumes in the tape library. In VTS operations, the VTS processes the host's requests to access a volume in the tape library and returns data for such requests, if possible, from the cache. If the volume is not in the cache, then the VTS recalls the volume from the tape library to the cache, i.e., the VTS transfers data from the tape library to the cache. The VTS can respond to host requests for volumes that are present in the cache substantially faster than requests for volumes that have to be recalled from the tape library to the cache. However, since the capacity of the cache is relatively small when compared to the capacity of the tape library, not all volumes can be kept in the cache. Hence, the VTS may migrate volumes from the cache to the tape library, i.e., the VTS may transfer data from the cache to the tape cartridges in the tape library.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS <EOH>Provided are a method, system, and article of manufacture, wherein a storage manager application implemented in a first computational device maintains a virtual logical volume that has a plurality of segments created by the storage manager application. At least one additional copy of at least one of the plurality of segments is maintained in at least one linear storage medium of a secondary storage. A request for data is received, at the first computational device, from a second computational device. At least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy are used to respond to the received request for data. In further embodiments, parity information is maintained in association with the plurality of segments. The parity information is used, in addition to the at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy, to respond to the request for data. In yet further embodiments, the parity information of a group of segments of the plurality of segments is stored in a separate segment. In additional embodiments, recall efficiency for the data is increased by maintaining the at least one additional copy of the at least one of the plurality of segments in the at least one linear storage medium of the secondary storage. In yet additional embodiments, the first computational device is a virtual tape server and the second computational device is a host, wherein a cache storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a disk device, wherein a secondary storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a tape device, and wherein the linear storage medium is a tape in the tape device.	BACKGROUND 1. Field The disclosure relates to a method, system, and article of manufacture for storing redundant segments and parity information for segmented logical volumes. 2. Background In certain virtual tape storage systems, hard disk drive storage may be used to emulate tape drives and tape cartridges. For instance, host systems may perform input/output (I/O) operations with respect to a tape library by performing I/O operations with respect to a set of hard disk drives that emulate the tape library. In certain virtual tape storage systems at least one virtual tape server (VTS) is coupled to a tape library comprising numerous tape drives and tape cartridges. The VTS is also coupled to a direct access storage device (DASD), comprised of numerous interconnected hard disk drives. The DASD functions as a cache to volumes in the tape library. In VTS operations, the VTS processes the host's requests to access a volume in the tape library and returns data for such requests, if possible, from the cache. If the volume is not in the cache, then the VTS recalls the volume from the tape library to the cache, i.e., the VTS transfers data from the tape library to the cache. The VTS can respond to host requests for volumes that are present in the cache substantially faster than requests for volumes that have to be recalled from the tape library to the cache. However, since the capacity of the cache is relatively small when compared to the capacity of the tape library, not all volumes can be kept in the cache. Hence, the VTS may migrate volumes from the cache to the tape library, i.e., the VTS may transfer data from the cache to the tape cartridges in the tape library. SUMMARY OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Provided are a method, system, and article of manufacture, wherein a storage manager application implemented in a first computational device maintains a virtual logical volume that has a plurality of segments created by the storage manager application. At least one additional copy of at least one of the plurality of segments is maintained in at least one linear storage medium of a secondary storage. A request for data is received, at the first computational device, from a second computational device. At least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy are used to respond to the received request for data. In further embodiments, parity information is maintained in association with the plurality of segments. The parity information is used, in addition to the at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy, to respond to the request for data. In yet further embodiments, the parity information of a group of segments of the plurality of segments is stored in a separate segment. In additional embodiments, recall efficiency for the data is increased by maintaining the at least one additional copy of the at least one of the plurality of segments in the at least one linear storage medium of the secondary storage. In yet additional embodiments, the first computational device is a virtual tape server and the second computational device is a host, wherein a cache storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a disk device, wherein a secondary storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a tape device, and wherein the linear storage medium is a tape in the tape device. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Referring now to the drawings in which like reference numbers represent corresponding parts throughout: FIG. 1 illustrates a block diagram of a computing environment, in accordance with certain embodiments; FIG. 2 illustrates a block diagram of representations of a virtual logical volume in accordance with certain embodiments; FIG. 3 illustrates a block diagram that shows a first exemplary mapping of the segments of an exemplary virtual logical volume to exemplary tapes of a secondary storage, in accordance with certain embodiments; FIG. 4 illustrates a block diagram that shows a second exemplary mapping of the segments of an exemplary virtual logical volume to exemplary tapes of a secondary storage, in accordance with certain embodiments; FIG. 5 illustrates a block diagram that shows a third exemplary mapping of the segments of an exemplary virtual logical volume to exemplary tapes of a secondary storage, in accordance with certain embodiments; FIG. 6 illustrates operations implemented in the computing environment, in accordance with certain embodiments; and FIG. 7 illustrates a block diagram of a computer architecture in which certain described aspects of the embodiments are implemented. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings which form a part hereof and which illustrate several embodiments. It is understood that other embodiments may be utilized and structural and operational changes may be made. Handling Logical Volumes a Single Entity In certain VTS systems, logical volumes are handled as a single entity. However, when the size of physical volumes corresponding to logical volumes becomes very large, such as in Linear Tape Open (LTO) drives, all data included in logical volumes may not be accommodated at the same time in the cache storage. Additionally, transfer operations of large logical volumes from the secondary storage to the cache storage may take a significantly greater amount of time in comparison to small logical volumes. The recall times for data may become excessively large in situations where logical volumes are handled as a single entity for transfer to the cache storage from the secondary storage in a VTS environment. Exemplary Embodiments Certain embodiments provide for the segmentation of virtual logical volumes in a VTS environment comprising a VTS that is coupled to a cache storage and a secondary storage, wherein the segmented virtual logical volumes are used to respond to data requests from a host. In certain embodiments the segments corresponding to the virtual logical volume are distributed among a plurality of tapes, wherein redundant segments are also stored in at least one or more of the plurality of tapes for recall efficiency, and wherein parity segments may also be stored in at least one or more of the plurality of tapes for further data redundancy. If a recall of a segmented virtual logical volume fails because of bad data on a certain tape, then the redundant and/or parity segments stored in one or more other tapes may be used for data recovery. It should be noted that by distributing segments corresponding to the virtual logical volume in a plurality of tapes, by storing additional copies of segments, and by storing parity data, both recall efficiency and data redundancy may be achieved. In certain embodiments fully redundant write of data segments onto tape is not performed. In such embodiments, parity provides the data protection redundancy, whereas the redundant segments provide recall efficiency by permitting fewer tapes to be mounted for responding to a request for data. FIG. 1 illustrates a block diagram of a computing environment 100, in accordance with certain embodiments. The computing environment 100 includes a VTS 102. Additional VTSs can be deployed, but for purposes of illustration, a single VTS 102 is shown. In certain exemplary embodiments the VTS 102 may comprise a server computational device and may include any operating system known in the art. However, in alternative embodiments the VTS 102 may comprise any suitable computational device, such as a personal computer, a workstation, mainframe, a hand held computer, a palm top computer, a telephony device, network appliance, etc. The VTS 102 may be referred to as a first computational device 102. The computing environment 100 also includes a host 104 that is coupled to the VTS 102. Additional hosts may be deployed, but for purposes of illustration, a single host 104 is shown. The host 104 may be may coupled to the VTS 102 through a host data interface channel or any other direct connection or switching mechanism, known in the art (e.g., fibre channel, Storage Area Network (SAN) interconnections, etc.). The host 104 may be any suitable computational device known in the art, such as a personal computer, a workstation, a server, a mainframe, a hand held computer, a palm top computer, a telephony device, network appliance, etc. The VTS 102 includes at least one application, such as a storage manager application 106 that manages storage. The storage manager application 106 may be implemented either as a standalone application or as a part of one or more other applications. The storage manager application 106 manages a cache storage 108, such as a disk based storage system, and a secondary storage 110 comprising a plurality of linear storage media 112a, 112b, . . . , 112n, wherein in certain embodiments the linear storage media may comprise tapes. The cache storage 108 and the secondary storage 110 are coupled to the VTS 102 via a direct connection or via a network connection. The cache storage 108 improves performance by allowing host I/O requests from the hosts 104 to the secondary storage 110 to be serviced from the faster access cache storage 108 as opposed to the slower access secondary storage 110. The disks in the cache storage 108 may be arranged as a Direct Access Storage Device (DASD), Just a Bunch of Disks (JBOD), Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks (RAID), etc. The storage manager application 106 may perform or manage the data movement operations between the host 104, the cache storage 108, and the secondary storage 110. The storage manager application 106 generates virtual logical volumes 114, wherein virtual logical volumes 114 are logical representations of data stored in cache storage 108 and the secondary storage 110. The storage manager application 106 maps the data stored in the cache storage 108 and secondary storage 110 to a plurality of virtual logical volumes 114. The hosts 104 perform I/O operations by using the virtual logical volumes 114 via the VTS 102. The storage manager application 106 maps the virtual logical volumes 114 to the linear storage media 112a . . . 112n of the secondary storage 110. In certain embodiments, the storage manager application 106 maps segments of an exemplary virtual logical volume to corresponding segments 116a, 116b, . . . 116n in the linear storage media 112a . . . 112n, and also creates additional segments 118a, 118b, . . . 118n and parity segments 120a,120b, . . . 120n in the linear storage media 112a . . . 112n. An additional segment stored on a linear storage medium may comprise a copy of a segment stored on another linear storage medium. For example, an additional segment 118a stored on linear storage medium 112a may in certain embodiments comprise a copy of one of the segments 116b stored in the linear storage medium 112b. A parity segment stores the parity corresponding to a plurality of segments. For example, in certain embodiments the parity segment 120a may store the parity data generated from segment 116b and 116n. While FIG. 1 shows additional segments and parity segments on each of the linear storage media 112a, 112b, 112n, in alternative embodiments one or more of the linear storage media may lack additional segments or parity segments. In certain embodiments the storage manager application 106 implemented in the first computational device 102 maintains a virtual logical volume 114 that has a plurality of segments created by the storage manager application 106. At least one additional copy 118a of at least one of the plurality of segments is maintained in at least one linear storage medium 112a of a secondary storage 110. A request for data is received, at the first computational device 102, from a second computational device 104. At least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy 11 8a are used to respond to the received request for data. In further embodiments, parity information is maintained in parity segments associated with the plurality of segments in the secondary storage 110. The parity information stored in a parity segment, such as parity segment 120b, may be used, in addition to the at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy 118a, to respond to the request for data. FIG. 2 illustrates a block diagram of an exemplary representation of a virtual logical volume in accordance with certain embodiments that may be implemented in the computing environment 100. One representation 200 of the virtual logical volume 114 of FIG. 1 may comprise a plurality of segments 202a, 202b, 202c, . . . 202n, wherein a segment is a unit of data storage. A greater or a fewer number of segments than shown in FIG. 2 may be implemented in certain embodiments. In certain embodiments, the segments 202a, 202b, 202c, . . . , 202n of the virtual logical volumes 114 are stored in the linear storage media 112a . . . 112n of the secondary storage 110, along with the additional segments 118a . . . 118n and the parity segments 120a . . . 120n. FIG. 3 illustrates a block diagram that shows a first exemplary mapping 300 of the segments of an exemplary virtual logical volume 302 to exemplary tapes of an exemplary secondary storage 304, in accordance with certain embodiments. The first exemplary mapping 300 is shown for illustrative purposes only and other exemplary mappings including those that are described elsewhere in this disclosure may be used in alternative embodiments. In FIG. 3, the exemplary virtual logical volume 302 is comprised of three segments referred to as segment A 306, segment B 308, and segment C 310. In an exemplary embodiment, the three segments 306, 308, 310 are stored by the storage manager application 106 in an exemplary first tape 312, an exemplary second tape 314 and an exemplary third tape 316 as shown. The storage manager application 106 stores in the exemplary first tape 312 the segment A 306, a copy 318 of segment B 308, and a parity segment 320 that may comprise parity data computed from some or all of the plurality of segments 306, 308, 310. The storage manager application 106 further stores in the exemplary second tape 314 the segment B 308, a copy 322 of segment C 310, and a parity segment 324 that may comprise parity data computed from some or all of the plurality of segments 306, 308, 310. The storage manager application 106 also stores in the exemplary third tape 316 the segment C 310, a copy 326 of segment A 306, and a parity segment 328 that may comprise parity data computed from some or all of the plurality of segments 306, 308, 310. In certain embodiments one or more the exemplary tapes 312, 314, 316 may be mounted for recalling data stored in the segments 306, 308, 310 of the virtual logical volume 302. By storing additional copies 318, 322, 326 recall efficiency is increased in comparison to embodiments where additional copies are not stored in the tapes. For example, in FIG. 3, mounting any two of the three tapes 312, 314, 316 is adequate for recalling all segments 306, 308, 310 of the virtual logical volume 302 even when no parity segments are stored. Also, all segments 306, 308, 310 may be recalled by mounting the exemplary first tape 312 and the exemplary third tape 316 even when no parity segments are stored. In certain embodiments where a tape is defective, the parity segments stored in the tapes that are not defective may be used to recover data. In FIG. 2, recall efficiency of the virtual logical volume 302 is increased by storing the copies 318, 322, 324. As a result of storing the copies 318, 322, 324, two tapes (instead of three) are adequate to recall all the segments 306, 308, 310. Additionally, even if a tape is defective, the data corresponding to the virtual logical volume 302 can be recalled from the other two tapes. The parity data provides further data protection in case of loss of a tape. FIG. 4 illustrates a block diagram that shows a second exemplary mapping 400 of the segments “ABCDEF” 402a of an exemplary virtual logical volume 402 to exemplary tapes 404a, 404b, 404c, 404d of an exemplary secondary storage 404, in accordance with certain embodiments. In the second exemplary mapping 400, duplicative segments (i.e. copies of segments) are not present in the tapes. The storage manager application 106 stores segments and parity on the tapes 404a, 404b, 404c, 404d as follows: (1) First Tape (reference numeral 404a) stores segment A (reference numeral 406) and segment D (reference numeral 408); (2) Second tape (reference numeral 404b) stores segment B (reference numeral 410) and segment E (reference numeral 412); (3) Third tape (reference numeral 404c) stores segment C (reference numeral 414) and segment F (reference numeral 416); and (4) Fourth tape (reference numeral 404d) stores parity segment P(ABC) (reference numeral 418) and parity segment P(DEF) (reference numeral 420), wherein P(ABC) (reference numeral 418) is a parity segment that stores the parity data corresponding to segments A, B,C, and P(DEF) is a parity segment that stores the parity data corresponding to segments D, E, F. The storage manager application 106 may need to mount the first tape 404a, second tape 404b, and third tape 404c to recall data corresponding to the virtual logical volume 404. The fourth tape 404d may be mounted if one of the first, second, and third tape 404a, 404b, 404c is defective. FIG. 5 illustrates a block diagram that shows a third exemplary mapping 500 of the segments “ABCDEF” 502a of an exemplary virtual logical volume 502 to exemplary tapes 504a, 504b, 504c, 504d of an exemplary secondary storage 504, in accordance with certain embodiments. In the second exemplary mapping 500, duplicative segments (i.e. copies of segments) are present in the tapes. The storage manager application 106 stores segments and parity information on the tapes 504a, 504b, 504c, 504d as follows: (1) First Tape (reference numeral 504a) stores segment A (reference numeral 506), segment D (reference numeral 508), and segment C (reference numeral 510); (2) Second tape (reference numeral 504b) stores segment B (reference numeral 512), segment E (reference numeral 514), and segment F (reference numeral 516); (3) Third tape (reference numeral 504c) stores segment C (reference numeral 518) and segment F (reference numeral 520); and (4) Fourth tape (reference numeral 504d) stores parity segment P(ABC) (reference numeral 522) and parity segment P(DEF) (reference numeral 524), wherein P(ABC) (reference numeral 522) is a parity segment that stores the parity data corresponding to segments A, B, C, and P(DEF) (reference numeral 524) is a parity segment that stores the parity data corresponding to segments D, E, F. In FIG. 5, the storage manager application 106 may need to mount the first tape 504a and the second tape 504b to recall data corresponding to the virtual logical volume 404. One or more of the other tapes 504c, 504d may have to be mounted if either the first tape 504a or the second tape 504b is defective. In the embodiment described in FIG. 5, by storing the segments of the virtual logical volume redundantly, e.g., by storing segment C is both the first tape 504a and the third tape 504c, recall efficiency is increased in comparison to the embodiment described in FIG. 4 where the segments of the virtual logical volume are not stored redundantly. FIG. 6 illustrates operations implemented in the computing environment 100, in accordance with certain embodiments. In certain embodiments, the operations may be performed by the storage manager application 106 implemented in the first computational device 102. Control starts at block 600, where the storage manager application 106, implemented in the first computational device 102 maintains a virtual logical volume 114 having a plurality of segments created by the storage manager application 106. The storage manager application 106 maintains (at block 602) at least one additional copy 118a of at least one of the plurality of segments in at least one linear storage medium 112a of a secondary storage 110. In certain embodiments, the storage manager application 106 also maintains (at block 604) parity information in association with the plurality of segments, and in certain additional embodiments the storage manager application 106 stores the parity information of a group of segments of the plurality of segments in a separate segment. Control proceeds to block 606, where the storage manager application 106 receives a request for data corresponding to a virtual logical volume 114, at the first computational device 102. The request may have arrived at the first computational device 102 from a second computational device 104. The storage manager application 106 uses (at block 608) at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy 11 8a and optionally the parity information to respond to the received request for data. Therefore, FIG. 6 illustrates certain embodiments wherein segments corresponding to a virtual logical volume are redundantly distributed among a plurality of linear storage media. Parity information corresponding to the segments may also be stored on one or more of linear storage media. The redundantly distributed segments provide recall efficiency because fewer linear storage media may have to be mounted to recall data. The distribution of the segments among a plurality of linear storage media and the storage of the parity information may also provide protection against loss of data on one or more linear storage media. In certain embodiments the distribution of segments may provide partial redundancy whereas in other embodiments the distribution of segments may provide complete redundancy. The parity information provides additional redundancy protection beyond that provided by the redundant distribution of segments in the plurality of linear storage media. Additional Embodiment Details The described techniques may be implemented as a method, apparatus or article of manufacture involving software, firmware, micro-code, hardware and/or any combination thereof. The term “article of manufacture” as used herein refers to code or logic implemented in a medium, where such medium may comprise hardware logic [e.g., an integrated circuit chip, Programmable Gate Array (PGA), Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC), etc.] or a computer readable storage medium, such as magnetic storage medium (e.g., hard disk drives, floppy disks, tape, etc.), optical storage (CD-ROMs, optical disks, etc.), volatile and non-volatile memory devices [e.g., Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM), Read Only Memory (ROM), Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM), Random Access Memory (RAM), Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM), Static Random Access Memory (SRAM), flash, firmware, programmable logic, etc.]. Code in the computer readable storage medium is accessed and executed by a processor. The medium in which the code or logic is encoded may also comprise transmission signals propagating through space or a transmission media, such as an optical fiber, copper wire, etc. The transmission signal in which the code or logic is encoded may further comprise a wireless signal, satellite transmission, radio waves, infrared signals, Bluetooth, etc. The transmission signal in which the code or logic is encoded is capable of being transmitted by a transmitting station and received by a receiving station, where the code or logic encoded in the transmission signal may be decoded and stored in hardware or a computer readable medium at the receiving and transmitting stations or devices. Additionally, the “article of manufacture” may comprise a combination of hardware and software components in which the code is embodied, processed, and executed. Of course, those skilled in the art will recognize that many modifications may be made without departing from the scope of embodiments, and that the article of manufacture may comprise any information bearing medium. For example, the article of manufacture comprises a storage medium having stored therein instructions that when executed by a machine results in operations being performed. Certain embodiments can take the form of an entirely hardware embodiment, an entirely software embodiment or an embodiment containing both hardware and software elements. In a preferred embodiment, the invention is implemented in software, which includes but is not limited to firmware, resident software, microcode, etc. Furthermore, certain embodiments can take the form of a computer program product accessible from a computer usable or computer readable medium providing program code for use by or in connection with a computer or any instruction execution system. For the purposes of this description, a computer usable or computer readable medium can be any apparatus that can contain, store, communicate, propagate, or transport the program for use by or in connection with the instruction execution system, apparatus, or device. The medium can be an electronic, magnetic, optical, electromagnetic, infrared, or semiconductor system (or apparatus or device) or a propagation medium. Examples of a computer-readable medium include a semiconductor or solid state memory, magnetic tape, a removable computer diskette, a random access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), a rigid magnetic disk and an optical disk. Current examples of optical disks include compact disk - read only memory (CD-ROM), compact disk—read/write (CD-R/W) and DVD. The terms “certain embodiments”, “an embodiment”, “embodiment”, “embodiments”, “the embodiment”, “the embodiments”, “one or more embodiments”, “some embodiments”, and “one embodiment” mean one or more (but not all) embodiments unless expressly specified otherwise. The terms “including”, “comprising”, “having” and variations thereof mean “including but not limited to”, unless expressly specified otherwise. The enumerated listing of items does not imply that any or all of the items are mutually exclusive, unless expressly specified otherwise. The terms “a”, “an” and “the” mean “one or more”, unless expressly specified otherwise. [0047] Devices that are in communication with each other need not be in continuous communication with each other, unless expressly specified otherwise. In addition, devices that are in communication with each other may communicate directly or indirectly through one or more intermediaries. Additionally, a description of an embodiment with several components in communication with each other does not imply that all such components are required. On the contrary a variety of optional components are described to illustrate the wide variety of possible embodiments. Further, although process steps, method steps, algorithms or the like may be described in a sequential order, such processes, methods and algorithms may be configured to work in alternate orders. In other words, any sequence or order of steps that may be described does not necessarily indicate a requirement that the steps be performed in that order. The steps of processes described herein may be performed in any order practical. Further, some steps may be performed simultaneously, in parallel, or concurrently. When a single device or article is described herein, it will be apparent that more than one device/article (whether or not they cooperate) may be used in place of a single device/article. Similarly, where more than one device or article is described herein (whether or not they cooperate), it will be apparent that a single device/article may be used in place of the more than one device or article. The functionality and/or the features of a device may be alternatively embodied by one or more other devices which are not explicitly described as having such functionality/features. Thus, other embodiments need not include the device itself. FIG. 7 illustrates the architecture of computing system 700, wherein in certain embodiments the VTS 102 and the hosts 104 of the computing environments 100 of FIG. 1 may be implemented in accordance with the architecture of the computing system 700. The computing system 700 may also be referred to as a system, and may include a circuitry 702 that may in certain embodiments include a processor 704. The system 700 may also include a memory 706 (e.g., a volatile memory device), and storage 708. The storage 708 may include a non-volatile memory device (e.g., EEPROM, ROM, PROM, RAM, DRAM, SRAM, flash, firmware, programmable logic, etc.), magnetic disk drive, optical disk drive, tape drive, etc. The storage 708 may comprise an internal storage device, an attached storage device and/or a network accessible storage device. The system 700 may include a program logic 710 including code 712 that may be loaded into the memory 706 and executed by the processor 704 or circuitry 702. In certain embodiments, the program logic 710 including code 712 may be stored in the storage 708. In certain other embodiments, the program logic 710 may be implemented in the circuitry 702. Therefore, while FIG. 7 shows the program logic 710 separately from the other elements, the program logic 710 may be implemented in the memory 706 and/or the circuitry 702. Certain embodiments may be directed to a method for deploying computing instruction by a person or automated processing integrating computer-readable code into a computing system, wherein the code in combination with the computing system is enabled to perform the operations of the described embodiments. At least certain of the operations illustrated in FIGS. 1-7 may be performed in parallel as well as sequentially. In alternative embodiments, certain of the operations may be performed in a different order, modified or removed. Furthermore, many of the software and hardware components have been described in separate modules for purposes of illustration. Such components may be integrated into a fewer number of components or divided into a larger number of components. Additionally, certain operations described as performed by a specific component may be performed by other components. The data structures and components shown or referred to in FIGS. 1-7 are described as having specific types of information. In alternative embodiments, the data structures and components may be structured differently and have fewer, more or different fields or different functions than those shown or referred to in the figures. Therefore, the foregoing description of the embodiments has been presented for the purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the embodiments to the precise form disclosed. Many modifications and variations are possible in light of the above teaching.	G	G06	G06F	12	16
10582017	US20070140599A1-20070621	Bulk packaging multi-wall sack and apparatus for manufacturing the sack	ACCEPTED	20070608	20070621		[]	B65D3008	["B65D3008", "B65D3316", "B65D3301", "B65D3300"]	8646974	20070124	20140211	383	125000	69547.0	HELVEY	PETER	[{"inventor_name_last": "Dalgleish", "inventor_name_first": "Adrian", "inventor_city": "Victoria", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "AU"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Challis", "inventor_name_first": "Larry", "inventor_city": "Victoria", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "AU"}]	An as-manufactured multi-wall sack that comprises an inner pouch 5 and an outer bag 7 is disclosed. The sack has a top end that (a) is open in the as-manufactured form of the sack so that the sack can be filled with product via the open end and (b) is formed so that it can be closed to form a top block end. The as-manufactured form of the sack comprises pressure adhesive that connects together the inner pouch and the outer bag at the open top end of the sack. The as-manufactured form of the sack also comprises heat-activated adhesive on sections of the outer bag that adhere to other sections of the outer bag as part of the sequence of steps to close the outer bag. An apparatus and a method for closing the as-manufactured sack are also disclosed.	1-12. (canceled) 13. An as-manufactured multi-wall sack that comprises an inner pouch, typically made from a polymeric material, and an outer bag, typically made from a paper-based material, with the sack having a top end that (a) is open in the as-manufactured form of the sack so that the sack can be filled with product via the open end and (b) is formed so that it can be closed to form a top block end, and wherein, in the as-manufactured form of the sack, the sack comprises pressure adhesive that connects together the inner pouch and the outer bag at the open top end of the sack. 14. The sack defined in claim 13 wherein the amount and/or the type of adhesive is selected so that the adhesion of the inner pouch to the outer bag is greater on one of a front or a rear side of the sack than on the opposite side of the sack so that, as part of a sequence of steps to close the outer bag after a step of heat sealing the inner pouch closed, the front and rear sides of the outer bag can be folded outwardly with the sealed inner pouch being selectively detached from one of the sides of the outer bag and being retained by the other side. 15. The sack defined in claim 13 or 14 wherein, in the as-manufactured form of the sack, the sack comprises heat-activated adhesive on sections of the outer bag that adhere to other sections of the outer bag as part of the sequence of steps to close the outer bag. 16. The sack defined in claim 15 wherein, in the as-manufactured form of the sack, the positions of the sections of the outer bag that carry heat-activated adhesive are selected so that the sequence of steps to close the outer bag where possible positions the heat-activated adhesive sections so that the sections do not overlie the inner pouch. 17. The sack defined in claim 13, wherein said sack further comprises an “easy” open feature on the outer bag that facilitates opening the outer bag after it has been closed. 18. An as-manufactured multi-wall sack that comprises an inner pouch, typically made from a polymeric material, and an outer bag, typically made from a paper-based material, with the sack having a top end that (a) is open in the as-manufactured form of the sack so that the sack can be filled with product via the open end and (b) is formed so that it can be closed to form a top block end, and wherein, in the as-manufactured form of the sack, the sack comprises heat-activated adhesive on sections of the outer bag that adhere to other sections of the outer bag as part of the sequence of steps to close the outer bag. 19. The sack defined in claim 18 wherein, in the as-manufactured form of the sack, the positions of the sections of the outer bag that carry heat-activated adhesive are selected so that the sequence of steps to close the outer bag where possible positions the heat-activated adhesive sections so that the sections do not overlie the inner pouch. 20. The sack defined in claim 18 or 19, wherein said sack further comprises an “easy” open feature on the outer bag that facilitates opening the outer bag after it has been closed. 21. A filled and sealed bulk packaging sack formed by filling and closing the as-manufactured multi-wall sack defined in claim 13 or 18. 22. The bulk packaging sack defined in claim 21, wherein said bulk packaging sack further comprises a vent seal to allow air to escape from the inner pouch after the inner pouch has been closed. 23. The bulk packaging sack defined in claim 22, wherein the vent seal defines a tortuous flow path for air to escape from the closed inner pouch. 24. The bulk packaging sack defined in claim 21, wherein said bulk packaging sack further comprises product identification coding applied to the inner pouch after filling the as-manufactured multi-wall sack with product and prior to closing the outer bag. 25. The bulk packaging sack defined in claim 24, wherein said bulk packaging sack further comprises product identification coding on the outer bag. 26. An apparatus for forming a top block end on the as-manufactured multi-wall sack defined in claim 13 or 18 after the sack has been filled with product, which apparatus comprises: (a) a means for supporting opposed front and rear sides of a filled sack having an open top end as the sack is moved between and operated on at the following stations (b) to (e); (b) a first sealing station for bringing opposed sides of the open top end of the inner pouch into contact and heat sealing the opposed sides together and thereby closing the inner pouch; (c) a first folding station for folding the opposed sides of the outer bag outwardly and forming out-turned sides and in-turned triangular wings, with the heat sealed inner pouch being retained by pressure adhesive to one side of the outer bag; (d) a second sealing station for activating heat-activated adhesive along a section of an inner surface of one of the out-turned sides of the outer bag and thereafter folding the out-turned sides of the outer bag inwardly so that the adhesive-carrying inner side of the outer bag overlies and contacts an outer surface of the other side and the activated heat-sensitive adhesive adheres the folded sides together, with the inward folding of the out-turned sides causing sections of each in-turned wing to fold inwardly to overlie other sections of the wings; and (e) a third sealing station for activating heat-sensitive adhesive along sections of surfaces of the in-turned wings of the outer bag and thereafter adhering the overlying sections of the wings together to complete the sequence of steps to close the open top end of the sack.			The present invention relates to sacks that are often used for bulk packaging of products and to an apparatus for forming a top block end on the sacks after the sacks have been filled with product. Typically, bulk packaging sacks are understood herein to mean sacks that are used to package 20 kg plus amounts of products. The present invention relates particularly, although by no means exclusively, to bulk packaging sacks that are in the form of multi-wall sacks of the type which comprise an outer bag, typically made from paper-based products, and an inner pouch, typically made from a polymeric material. The present invention relates more particularly, although by no means exclusively, to bulk packaging sacks that are in the form of multi-wall sacks of the type described in the preceding paragraph which are suitable for bulk packaging of dried food products, such as powdered milk products. The inner pouch of the above-described multi-wall sacks is provided for storing powdered milk products (and other dried food products) under sterile conditions. The outer bag shields the inner pouch from direct contact with potential sources of contamination while the multi-wall sacks are stored at an initial production and packaging site, transported to downstream processing sites, and stored at the processing sites prior to the packaged products being processed at the sites. Australian patent 729303 in the name of the applicant discloses multi-wall sacks of the type described above and a method of forming a top block end on the sacks after the sacks have been filled with product. The sacks comprise an outer bag, typically made from paper-based products, and an inner pouch, typically made from a polymeric material. The sacks are characterized in that the sacks, when filled and closed, comprise a bottom block end and a top block end. The method comprises filling the inner pouch with product, such as dried powdered products, via an open top end of the sack, closing the inner pouch, and folding and gluing the outer bag at the open top end in a particular sequence of steps into a closed top block end. Australian patent 760523 in the name of the applicant also discloses multi-wall sacks of the type described above that comprise an inner polymeric material pouch and an outer paper bag that are manufactured with an open top end through which product can be filled into the inner pouch and thereafter closed. The sacks are characterised in that the top end of the sacks is formed as an “easy” open end to facilitate access to the sealed inner pouch. The disclosure in the above-described Australian patents is incorporated herein by cross reference. The applicant has made improvements to the multi-wall sacks described in the Australian patents. The applicant has also developed an apparatus for sealing the sacks after the sacks have been filled with product and then folding the outer bag at the top end of the sack to form a top block end. The applicant has also realized that the apparatus, in a modified method of operation, can be used to form a top block end on other bulk packaging sacks, such as sacks that comprise outer bags but do not comprise inner pouches. The subject patent specification relates to the improvements. Specifically, the applicant has developed a particular form of an as-manufactured multi-wall sack that has a closed bottom block end and can be filled and closed so that it has a closed top block end of the sacks of Australian patent 729303. In addition, the applicant has developed a particular form of an as-manufactured multi-wall sack that has a closed bottom block end and can be filled and closed so that it has a closed top block end of the sacks of Australian patent 729303 and the “easy” open top end of the sacks of Australian patent 760523. The applicant has also developed an apparatus and a method for forming a top block end on the above-described sacks after the sacks have been filled with product. In general terms, the present invention provides an as-manufactured multi-wall sack that comprises an inner pouch, typically made from a polymeric material, and an outer bag, typically made from a paper-based material, with the sack having a top end that (a) is open in the as-manufactured form of the sack so that the sack can be filled with product via the open end and (b) is formed so that it can be closed to form a top block end. Preferably the sack of the present invention has the following features, either separately or in combination. 1. In the as-manufactured form of the sack, the sack comprises pressure adhesive that connects together the inner pouch and the outer bag at the open top end of the sack. The amount and/or the type of adhesive is selected so that the adhesion of the inner pouch to the outer bag is greater on one of a front or a rear side of the sack than on the opposite side of the sack so that, as part of a sequence of steps to close the outer bag after a step of heat sealing the inner pouch closed, the front and rear sides of the outer bag can be folded outwardly with the sealed inner pouch being selectively detached from one of the sides of the outer bag and being retained by the other side. Retaining the sealed inner pouch on a selected one of the sides is important to the subsequent sequence of steps to close the outer bag. The decision to fold the front and rear sides outwardly as part of the sequence of steps to close the sack is advantageous in terms of downstream processing because it means that the sealed inner pouch is positioned on one of the sides and this frees up the other side and makes it possible for the other side to be a contact surface for adhering the outer bag in a closed position using heat-activated adhesive without having to be concerned about the impact of heat required to activate the adhesive on the polymeric material of the inner pouch. Other closing sequences would not have this advantage. 2. In the as-manufactured form of the sack, the sack comprises heat-activated adhesive on sections of the outer bag that adhere to other sections of the outer bag as part of the sequence of steps to close the outer bag. The heat activative adhesive may be the same adhesive on each section of the outer bag. The heat activated adhesive may be different adhesives on different sections of the outer bag. For example, in some situations it is preferable that the heat activated adhesive be different adhesives in terms of heat activation temperatures in different sections of the outer bag to minimize possible reactivation of adhesive during the steps to close the outer bag where these steps involve multiple applications of heat to the bag. 3. In the as-manufactured form of the sack, the positions of the sections of the outer bag that carry heat-activated adhesive are selected so that the sequence of steps to close the outer bag where possible positions the heat-activated adhesive sections so that the sections do not overlie the inner pouch. This ensures that the application of heat to activate the heat-activated adhesive does not damage the inner pouch. The construction of the as-manufactured sack is determined by taking into account a number of factors that are relevant to forming a top block end on the sack after the sack has been filled with product. Preferably, the factors include one or more of the following factors: (a) relative positions of the pressure and heat-activated adhesives on the outer bag in the as-manufactured form of the sack; (b) the height of the upper end of the inner pouch in relation to the open top end of the sack and the positions of the pressure and heat activated adhesives; and (c) the requirements to form a block end on the filled and closed sack. In relation to item c above, it is preferable that the sealed inner pouch be the same size or larger than the closed outer bag in order to facilitate proper formation of the block end. The sack comprises an “easy” open feature on the outer bag that facilitates opening the outer bag after it has been closed. According to the present invention there is also provided a filled and sealed bulk packaging sack formed by filling and closing the above-described as-manufactured multi-wall sack. Preferably the bulk packaging sack also comprises a vent seal to allow air to escape from the inner pouch after the inner pouch has been closed. Preferably the vent seal defines a tortuous flow path for air to escape from the closed inner pouch. Preferably the bulk packaging sack also comprises product identification coding applied to the inner pouch after filling the as-manufactured multi-wall sack with product and prior to closing the outer bag. Preferably the bulk packaging sack also comprises product identification coding on the outer bag. According to the present invention there is also provided an apparatus for forming a top block end on the above-described as-manufactured multi-wall sack after the sack has been filled with product, which apparatus comprises: (a) a means for supporting opposed front and rear sides of a filled sack having an open top end as the sack is moved between and operated on at the following stations; (b) a first sealing station for bringing opposed sides of the open top end of the inner pouch into contact and heat sealing the opposed sides together and thereby closing the inner pouch; (c) a first folding station for folding the opposed sides of the outer bag outwardly and forming out-turned sides and in-turned triangular wings, with the heat sealed inner pouch being retained by pressure adhesive to one side of the outer bag; and (d) a second sealing station for activating heat-activated adhesive along a section of an inner surface of one of the out-turned sides of the outer bag and thereafter folding the out-turned sides of the outer bag inwardly so that the adhesive-carrying inner side of the outer bag overlies and contacts an outer surface of the other side and the activated heat-sensitive adhesive adheres the folded sides together, with the inward folding of the out-turned sides causing sections of each in-turned wing to fold inwardly to overlie other sections of the wings; (e) a third sealing station for activating heat-sensitive adhesive along sections of surfaces of the in-turned wings of the outer bag and thereafter adhering the overlying sections of the wings together to complete the sequence of steps to close the open top end of the sack. Preferably the second sealing station includes two horizontally disposed plates on opposite sides of the sack, spaced away from the sack, that are adapted to move inwardly and outwardly to effect folding of the sides of the outer bag. As is indicated above, the above-described apparatus, in a modified method of operation, can be used to form a top block end on other bulk packaging sacks, particularly as sacks that comprise outer bags but do not comprise inner pouches. Specifically, in this application, the modified method of operation is confined to carrying out the steps to fold and close the outer bag. According to the present invention there is also provided a method for forming a top block end on the above-described as-manufactured multi-wall sack after the sack has been filled with product, which method comprises supporting and moving a field sack having an open top end through each of the above-described apparatus stations and operating the apparatus to seal the inner pouch and thereafter form a closed top end of the outer bag. The present invention is described further with reference to the accompanying drawings, of which: FIG. 1 illustrates an upper end of an as-manufactured sack in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 illustrates the sack shown in FIG. 1 with the top end in an open position during a product filling operation; FIG. 3 illustrates the sack shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 in a partially folded position at one station of one embodiment of an apparatus for forming a top block end on the sack after the sack has been filled with product; FIGS. 4 to 8 illustrate a number of subsequent folding operations at downstream stations of the apparatus for forming the top block end. The sack shown in the Figures comprises an inner pouch 5, typically made from a polymeric material, and an outer bag generally identified by the numeral 7, typically made from a paper-based material. The sack is manufactured with a top end that (a) is open in the as-manufactured form of the sack so that the sack can be filled with product via the open end (see FIG. 2), (b) has an “easy” open feature on the outer bag that facilitates opening the outer bag after it has been closed, and (c) and is formed so that it can be closed to form a block top end. In the as-manufactured form shown in FIG. 1 the sack comprises a bottom block end (not shown) and opposed sides 11. In addition, the sack includes lines of dabs 21 of pressure sensitive adhesive that adhere together the upper sections of the outer bag 7 and the inner pouch 5 on each side of the sack. As is described in more detail hereinafter, preferably the amount and/or the type of adhesive is selected so that the adhesion of the inner pouch 5 to the outer bag 7 is greater on one side of the sack than on the other side of the sack. The easy-open end is of the type disclosed in Australian patent 760523 and comprises a cover sheet generally identified by the numeral 9 that is attached to the side 11 of the outer bag 7 that is shown in FIG. 1. The cover sheet 9 comprises a tear strip 13 and a first cover sheet section 9a and a second cover sheet section 9b that are separated by the tear strip 13. The first cover sheet section 9a is adhered to the side 11 of the outer bag 7. The other side of the outer bag 11 of the as-manufactured sack comprises an upstanding top flap 15 and a strip 17 of hot melt adhesive on an inner surface of the flap 15. As is described hereinafter, when the open end of the sack is folded to form a closed top block end, the top flap 15 overlies and is adhered to the second cover sheet 9b. In this position, the closed top block end can be opened by tearing the tear strip 13 to separate the first and second cover sections 9a, 9b. The as-manufactured sack also comprises two other hot melt adhesive strips 19 positioned on each side 11 of the outer bag 11 shown in FIG. 1. Ultimately, as is described hereinafter, the strips contribute to adhering the folded sides of the sack in a top block end configuration. The hot melt adhesive of the strips 19 is selected to have a lower activation temperature than that of the hot melt adhesive of the strip 17. The reason for the selection of different activation temperatures is to avoid reactivating already activated adhesives. Specifically, the folding steps position the strip 17 after it has been activated in relation to unactivated strips 19. The strips 19 are activated in a subsequent folding step to continue the process of forming the closed block end. It is important that this step of activating the strips 19 does not reactivate the strip 17 and thereby compromise the already-formed bond involving the strip 17. The embodiment the apparatus for forming a top block end of a filled sack described above includes a plurality of stations in a line, as summarized below, a conveyer belt that extends along the line and is positioned so that sacks that have been filled with product at a filling station (not shown) can be moved along the line, and an upper guide that supports an upper section of each sack as the sack is moved along an upstream section of the line. FIG. 2 illustrates the sack in an open position at the filling station. The stations are summarized below. 1. Initial contact station. Assemblies contact opposite sides of an open sack and press the sides together along a line of contact and support the sides in this position along the remainder of the line. FIG. 1 illustrates the sack at this point on the line. The assemblies may include a means to adjust the vertical position of the sack. The vertical adjustment operation is illustrated in FIG. 4. In the arrangement shown in FIG. 4 the adjustment means includes rollers 61 that contact the sides 11 and drive the sack up or down, as required. The sack is moved forward from this station so that the upper section of the sack engages the upper guide. 2. First seal station. One or two heat seal bars press opposite sides of the sack together and heat seal the inner pouch 5. This is illustrated in FIG. 5. This station may be constructed to form a vent seal in the inner pouch 5. 3. First folding station. (a) Assemblies, for example in the form of suction cups, gripper bars or other means engage the pressed-together sides of the sack. The assemblies move the sides outwardly in opposite directions, with one “side” comprising one side 11 of the outer bag 7 and the other “side” comprising the sealed inner pouch 5 and the other side 11 of the outer bag 7, preferably adhered together (due to different glue properties and/or different amounts of the same glue). The assemblies move the sack sides 11 outwardly and downwardly away from a primary fold line 77 (FIG. 3) of the sack onto a horizontal support member (not shown). This movement causes inward folding of the “ends” of the sack that forms triangular wings 25 (FIGS. 3, 7 and 8) at the opposite ends of the sack. One example of a suitable assembly comprises suction cups (not shown) that swing inwardly from opposite sides 11 and engage the sides and swing outwardly a short distance to partially open the pressed-together sides, a pair of plates (not shown) that are hinged together at upper ends of the plates that moves downwardly into the open end and then swing outwardly and downwardly in opposite directions to fold the sides 11 onto the horizontal support member. With reference to FIG. 6, another example of a suitable assembly comprises two pairs of oppositely acting gripper bars 71, with each pair being arranged to grip one of the sides and move the sides outwardly and downwardly onto a horizontal support member. FIG. 6 also illustrates that the sack may be formed with an outwardly folding flap on the side of the outer bag that does not retain the inner pouch in order to facilitate the operation of the gripper bars. (b) Assemblies, for example in the form of a flat plate (not shown), move downwardly and contact the triangular wings 25 and press the triangular wings against the horizontal support member and thereby form fold lines 81 that define the wings 25 (FIGS. 3 and 7). FIG. 3 illustrates the upper end of the sack at this point in the line. 4. Second seal station: (a) A heated bar (not shown) activates heat-activated adhesive strip 17 on the top flap 15 of the side 11 of the outer bag 7. (b) Assemblies fold each out-folded side of the sack, including the sections of wings 25 on each side, inwardly in turn about selected fold lines 53, 55 so that one side overlaps the other side and so that the adhesive strip 17 on the top flap 15 is in the overlap region. Suitable assemblies are in the form of horizontally-disposed plates 57, 67 that move inwardly and outwardly to effect the sequential folding operation. FIG. 7a illustrates one folding plate 57. FIG. 7b illustrates the final position of the folded sides 11, as viewed in the direction of the arrow A in FIG. 7a when the folding steps have been completed. FIG. 7c illustrates the folding plates 57, 67 in top plan view in relation to the sack. FIG. 7b illustrates that in the final folded arrangement, the sides 11 are selectively folded so that the inner pouch 5 with its heat sealed end 59 is laterally displaced from the overlapping regions of the sides 11. This ensures that the heat required to activate the adhesive that adheres the sides 11 together does not affect the polymeric material of the inner pouch. The circled region 27 identifies the region of overlap in the Figure. It is evident from the circled region that the adhesive strip 17 adheres the top flap 15 and that side 11 of the sack to the cover sheet 9, and thereby to the other side 11 of the sack. FIG. 7c is a top plan view (in very schematic form as is the case with the other drawings) that illustrates the horizontally disposed plates 57, 67 on opposite sides of the sack, spaced away from the sack. The folding sequence includes a first step of moving the plate 67 inwardly from the position shown in the Figure so that the side edge 93 is on the fold line 55. While the plate 67 remains in this position, the plate 57 is moved horizontally inwardly and lifts and folds the side 11 of the sack that carries the cover sheet 9 inwardly about the fold line 55. At the end of its inward stroke the plate 57 overlies the plate 67, with the folded side 11 between the plates, and with the side edge 91 of the plate 57 on the fold line 53. Thereafter, the plate 67 is withdrawn to its side of the sack and is then moved back horizontally inwardly and picks up and folds the side 11 of the sack which carries top flap 15 and sensitive adhesive strip 17 about the fold line 53 onto the folded side 11 of the sack. The plate 57 is then withdrawn to its side of the sack. (c) A sealing bar (not shown) presses down on the folded sides in the region of the overlap and further activates the adhesive of the adhesive strip 17 so that the sides are adhered together. A cooling bar (not shown) then cools the activated adhesive to complete the seal. 5. Third seal station. (a) Hot air blowers are inserted into the partially opened ends of the adhered together, overlapping sides of the sack and hot air activates heat-activated adhesive strips 19 that now are positioned in the folded state of the sack as part of the folded wings 25. FIG. 8 illustrates the adhesive strips 19 and the partially opened ends. It is noted that forming and folding the sack so that the side 11 of the sack that includes the top flap 15 and adhesive strip 17 is positioned on and adhered to the cover sheet 9 rather than to the folded wings 25 means that the blower can be inserted into open ends of the sack. (b) Sealing plates contact and press the partially opened ends downwardly and adhere the folded wings 25 together, thereby completing the formation of the top block end. The above-described apparatus is a particularly effective apparatus for forming a top block end of a filled sack of the type shown in FIGS. 1 to 3. The as-manufactured sack is suitable to be marked with a product identification code on the inner pouch 5 after the sack has been filled with product. This is an important feature in terms of product tracking, particularly in situations in which the outer bag is also marked with a suitable product identification code. It is not possible to gain access to inner pouches of current known sacks and apparatus for closing filled sacks. Many modifications may be made to the invention as described above without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. By way of example, whilst the embodiment of the as-manufactured sack described above includes an easy-open end, the present invention is not so limited and extends to sacks that do not include easy-open ends. In the claims which follow and in the preceding description of the invention, except where the context requires otherwise due to express language or necessary implication, the word “comprise” or variations such as “comprises” or “comprising” is used in an inclusive sense, i.e. to specify the presence of the stated features but not to preclude the presence or addition of further features in various embodiments of the invention.	B	B65	B65D	30	08
11755814	US20080157368A1-20080703	MULTI-LAYERED METAL LINE OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE HAVING EXCELLENT DIFFUSION BARRIER AND METHOD FOR FORMING THE SAME	ACCEPTED	20080619	20080703		[]	H01L21768	["H01L21768", "H01L23538"]	7531902	20070531	20090512	257	751000	83468.0	QUACH	TUAN	[{"inventor_name_last": "KIM", "inventor_name_first": "Jeong Tae", "inventor_city": "Kyoungki-do", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "KIM", "inventor_name_first": "Baek Mann", "inventor_city": "Kyoungki-do", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "KIM", "inventor_name_first": "Soo Hyun", "inventor_city": "Seoul", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "LEE", "inventor_name_first": "Young Jin", "inventor_city": "Kyoungki-do", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "JUNG", "inventor_name_first": "Dong Ha", "inventor_city": "Kyoungki-do", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}]	A multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device has a lower metal line and an upper metal line. The upper metal line includes a diffusion barrier, which is made of a stack of a first WNx layer, a WCyNx layer and a second WNx layer.	1. A multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device comprising: a lower metal line; an upper metal line; and a diffusion barrier formed between the lower and upper metal lines, wherein the diffusion barrier comprises a stack of a first WNx layer, a WCyNx layer, and a second WNx layer. 2. The multi-layered metal line according to claim 1, wherein the first WNx layer has a thickness of 10˜200 Å. 3. The multi-layered metal line according to claim 1, wherein the composition ratio x in the first WNx layer is in the range of 0.1˜10. 4. The multi-layered metal line according to claim 1, wherein the WCyNx layer has a thickness of 5˜50 Å. 5. The multi-layered metal line according to claim 1, wherein the second WNx layer has a thickness of 10˜200 Å. 6. A method for forming a diffusion barrier layer to prevent diffusion of a metal line in a semiconductor device formed with a multi-layered metal line structure, the method for forming a diffusion barrier comprising the steps of: depositing a first WNx layer; surface-treating the first WNx layer; and depositing a second WNx layer on the surface-treated first WNx layer. 7. The method according to claim 6, wherein the first WNx layer is formed in a CVD or ALD process. 8. The method according to claim 6, wherein the first WNx layer is formed to a thickness of 10-200 Å. 9. The method according to claim 6, wherein the composition ratio x in the first WNx layer is 0.1˜10. 10. The method according to claim 6, wherein the step of surface-treating the first WNx layer comprises the step of: forming a WCyNx layer on a surface of the first WNx layer through an heat treatment or plasma treatment under high temperature using a hydrocarbon-based source gas. 11. The method according to claim 10, wherein the hydrocarbon-based gas is CH3 or C2H5 gas. 12. The method according to claim 10, wherein the plasma treatment is implemented under an atmosphere of CH3 or C2H5 at a temperature of 200˜500 ° C., a pressure of 1˜100 torr, and an RF power of 0.1˜1 kW. 13. The method according to claim 10, wherein the WCyNx layer is formed to a thickness of 5˜50 Å. 14. The method according to claim 6, wherein the second WNx layer is formed in a CVD or ALD process. 15. The method according to claim 6, wherein the second WNx layer is formed to a thickness of 10˜200 Å. 16. A method for forming a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device, comprising the steps of: forming an interlayer dielectric layer on a semiconductor substrate, the interlayer dielectric layer having a damascene pattern for defining a metal line forming region; depositing a first WNx layer on the interlayer dielectric layer including the damascene pattern; surface-treating the first WNx layer; depositing a second WNx layer on the surface-treated first WNx layer so as to form a diffusion barrier comprising the surface-treated first WNx layer and the second WNx layer; and forming a wiring metal layer on the diffusion barrier to fill the damascene pattern. 17. The method according to claim 16, wherein the damascene pattern is a single type or a dual type. 18. The method according to claim 17, wherein the single type damascene pattern has a trench. 19. The method according to claim 17, wherein the dual type damascene pattern has a via hole and a trench. 20. The method according to claim 16, wherein the first WNx layer is formed in a CVD or ALD process. 21. The method according to claim 16, wherein the first WNx layer is formed to a thickness of 10˜200 Å. 22. The method according to claim 16, wherein the composition ratio x in the first WNx layer is 0.1˜10. 23. The method according to claim 16, wherein the step of surface-treating the first WNx layer comprises the step of: forming a WCyNx layer on a surface of the first WNx layer through an heat treatment or plasma treatment under high temperature using a hydrocarbon-based source gas. 24. The method according to claim 23, wherein the hydrocarbon-based gas is CH3 or C2H5 gas. 25. The method according to claim 23, wherein the plasma treatment is implemented under an atmosphere of CH3 or C2H5 at a temperature of 200˜500° C., a pressure of 1˜100 torr, and an RF power of 0.1˜1 kW. 26. The method according to claim 23, wherein the WCyNx layer is formed to a thickness of 5˜50 Å. 27. The method according to claim 16, wherein the second WNx layer is formed in a CVD or ALD process. 28. The method according to claim 16, wherein the second WNx layer is formed to a thickness of 10˜200 Å. 29. The method according to claim 16, wherein the wiring metal layer is made of a copper layer.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device and a method for forming the same, and more particularly to a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device, which has an excellent diffusion barrier and a method for forming the same. Memory cells in a highly integrated semiconductor device are formed in a stacked structure in order to meet the high operational speed requirements. Further, a metal line for carrying the electric signals to the memory cells are formed in a multi-layered structure. The multi-layered metal lines provides advantageous design flexibility and allows more leeway in setting the margins for the wiring resistance, the current capacity, etc. Aluminum has been the choice material for a metal line for its superior electric conductivity and the ease of being applied in a fabrication process. However, it is not the case when the design rule is so decreased for higher integration of a semiconductor device, because the resistance of the metal line made of aluminum increases to a undesirable level. To cope with this problem, copper is used as the material for a metal line instead of aluminum as the resistance of copper is relatively lower. In a process for forming a metal line using copper, the copper, unlike aluminum, diffuses through an interlayer dielectric. The copper diffused to a semiconductor substrate acts as deep-level impurities in the semiconductor substrate and induces a leakage current. Therefore, in the case of a metal line formed using copper, a diffusion barrier must be necessarily formed not only where the copper comes into contact with hetero-metal but also on a portion of an interlayer dielectric on which the copper is formed in order to decrease the leakage current due to diffusion of copper. In general, as a diffusion barrier for a metal line formed using copper, a Ti/TiN layer or a Ta/TaN layer is mainly used. Nevertheless, the Ti/TiN layer or Ta/TaN layer, which is used as a diffusion barrier in the metal line formed using copper, is significantly decreased in suppressing the diffusion of copper in an ultra-highly integrated device below 40 nm and cannot properly perform its function as a copper diffusion barrier.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An embodiment of the present invention is directed to a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device which has a diffusion barrier having superior capability for preventing diffusion of copper and a method for forming the same. In one embodiment, there is provided a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device having a lower metal line and an upper metal line, wherein the upper metal line includes a diffusion barrier which is made of a stack of a first WN x layer, a WC y N x layer and a second WN x layer. The first WN x layer has a thickness of 10˜200 Å. The composition ratio x in the first WN x layer is 0.1˜10. The WC y N x layer has a thickness of 5˜50 Å. The second WN x layer has a thickness of 10˜200 Å. In another embodiment, there is provided a method for forming a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device, including a process for forming a diffusion barrier to prevent diffusion of a metal line, the process for forming a diffusion barrier comprising the steps of depositing a first WN x layer; surface-treating the first WN x layer; and depositing a second WN x layer on the first WN x layer which is surface-treated. The first WN x layer is formed through CVD or ALD. The first WN x layer is formed to have a thickness of 10˜200 Å. The composition ratio x in the first WN x layer is 0.1˜10. The step of surface-treating the first WN x layer comprises the step of forming a WC y N x layer on a surface of the first WN x layer through heat treatment or plasma treatment under a high temperature using a hydrocarbon-based source gas. The hydrocarbon-based gas is CH 3 or C 2 H 5 gas. The plasma treatment is implemented under an atmosphere of CH 3 or C 2 H 5 at conditions including a temperature of 200˜500° C., a pressure of 1˜100 torr and an RF power of 0.1˜1 kW. The WC y N x layer is formed to have a thickness of 5˜50 Å. The second WN x layer is formed through CVD or ALD. The second WN x layer is formed to have a thickness of 10˜200 Å. In still another embodiment, there is provided a method for forming a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device, comprising the steps of forming an interlayer dielectric having a damascene pattern for delimiting a metal line forming region, on a semiconductor substrate; depositing a first WN x layer on the interlayer dielectric including the damascene pattern; surface-treating the first WN x layer; depositing a second WN x layer on the surface-treated first WN x layer and thereby forming a diffusion barrier composed of the surface-treated first WN x layer and the second WN x layer; and forming a wiring metal layer on the diffusion barrier to fill the damascene pattern. The damascene pattern is a single type or a dual type. The single type damascene pattern has a trench. The dual type damascene pattern has a via hole and a trench. The first WN x layer is formed through CVD or ALD. The first WN x layer is formed to have a thickness of 10˜200 Å. The composition ratio x in the first WN x layer is 0.1˜10. The step of surface-treating the first WN x layer comprises the step of forming a WC y N x layer on a surface of the first WN x layer through heat treatment or plasma treatment under a high temperature using a hydrocarbon-based source gas. The hydrocarbon-based gas is CH 3 or C 2 H 5 gas. The plasma treatment is implemented under an atmosphere of CH 3 or C 2 H 5 at conditions including a temperature of 200˜500° C., a pressure of 1˜100 torr and an RF power of 0.1˜1 kW. The WC y N x layer is formed to have a thickness of 5˜50 Å. The second WN x layer is formed through CVD or ALD. The second WN x layer is formed to have a thickness of 10˜200 Å. The wiring metal layer is made of a copper layer.	CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION The present application claims priority to Korean patent application number 10-2006-0137251 filed on Dec. 28, 2006, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device and a method for forming the same, and more particularly to a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device, which has an excellent diffusion barrier and a method for forming the same. Memory cells in a highly integrated semiconductor device are formed in a stacked structure in order to meet the high operational speed requirements. Further, a metal line for carrying the electric signals to the memory cells are formed in a multi-layered structure. The multi-layered metal lines provides advantageous design flexibility and allows more leeway in setting the margins for the wiring resistance, the current capacity, etc. Aluminum has been the choice material for a metal line for its superior electric conductivity and the ease of being applied in a fabrication process. However, it is not the case when the design rule is so decreased for higher integration of a semiconductor device, because the resistance of the metal line made of aluminum increases to a undesirable level. To cope with this problem, copper is used as the material for a metal line instead of aluminum as the resistance of copper is relatively lower. In a process for forming a metal line using copper, the copper, unlike aluminum, diffuses through an interlayer dielectric. The copper diffused to a semiconductor substrate acts as deep-level impurities in the semiconductor substrate and induces a leakage current. Therefore, in the case of a metal line formed using copper, a diffusion barrier must be necessarily formed not only where the copper comes into contact with hetero-metal but also on a portion of an interlayer dielectric on which the copper is formed in order to decrease the leakage current due to diffusion of copper. In general, as a diffusion barrier for a metal line formed using copper, a Ti/TiN layer or a Ta/TaN layer is mainly used. Nevertheless, the Ti/TiN layer or Ta/TaN layer, which is used as a diffusion barrier in the metal line formed using copper, is significantly decreased in suppressing the diffusion of copper in an ultra-highly integrated device below 40 nm and cannot properly perform its function as a copper diffusion barrier. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An embodiment of the present invention is directed to a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device which has a diffusion barrier having superior capability for preventing diffusion of copper and a method for forming the same. In one embodiment, there is provided a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device having a lower metal line and an upper metal line, wherein the upper metal line includes a diffusion barrier which is made of a stack of a first WNx layer, a WCyNx layer and a second WNx layer. The first WNx layer has a thickness of 10˜200 Å. The composition ratio x in the first WNx layer is 0.1˜10. The WCyNx layer has a thickness of 5˜50 Å. The second WNx layer has a thickness of 10˜200 Å. In another embodiment, there is provided a method for forming a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device, including a process for forming a diffusion barrier to prevent diffusion of a metal line, the process for forming a diffusion barrier comprising the steps of depositing a first WNx layer; surface-treating the first WNx layer; and depositing a second WNx layer on the first WNx layer which is surface-treated. The first WNx layer is formed through CVD or ALD. The first WNx layer is formed to have a thickness of 10˜200 Å. The composition ratio x in the first WNx layer is 0.1˜10. The step of surface-treating the first WNx layer comprises the step of forming a WCyNx layer on a surface of the first WNx layer through heat treatment or plasma treatment under a high temperature using a hydrocarbon-based source gas. The hydrocarbon-based gas is CH3 or C2H5 gas. The plasma treatment is implemented under an atmosphere of CH3 or C2H5 at conditions including a temperature of 200˜500° C., a pressure of 1˜100 torr and an RF power of 0.1˜1 kW. The WCyNx layer is formed to have a thickness of 5˜50 Å. The second WNx layer is formed through CVD or ALD. The second WNx layer is formed to have a thickness of 10˜200 Å. In still another embodiment, there is provided a method for forming a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device, comprising the steps of forming an interlayer dielectric having a damascene pattern for delimiting a metal line forming region, on a semiconductor substrate; depositing a first WNx layer on the interlayer dielectric including the damascene pattern; surface-treating the first WNx layer; depositing a second WNx layer on the surface-treated first WNx layer and thereby forming a diffusion barrier composed of the surface-treated first WNx layer and the second WNx layer; and forming a wiring metal layer on the diffusion barrier to fill the damascene pattern. The damascene pattern is a single type or a dual type. The single type damascene pattern has a trench. The dual type damascene pattern has a via hole and a trench. The first WNx layer is formed through CVD or ALD. The first WNx layer is formed to have a thickness of 10˜200 Å. The composition ratio x in the first WNx layer is 0.1˜10. The step of surface-treating the first WNx layer comprises the step of forming a WCyNx layer on a surface of the first WNx layer through heat treatment or plasma treatment under a high temperature using a hydrocarbon-based source gas. The hydrocarbon-based gas is CH3 or C2H5 gas. The plasma treatment is implemented under an atmosphere of CH3 or C2H5 at conditions including a temperature of 200˜500° C., a pressure of 1˜100 torr and an RF power of 0.1˜1 kW. The WCyNx layer is formed to have a thickness of 5˜50 Å. The second WNx layer is formed through CVD or ALD. The second WNx layer is formed to have a thickness of 10˜200 Å. The wiring metal layer is made of a copper layer. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS. 1 through 5 are cross-sectional views illustrating the process steps of a method for forming a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS In the present invention, as a diffusion barrier comprising a stack of a first WNx layer, a WCyNx layer and a second WNx layer is used to prevent diffusion of the metal line formed using copper. Since the WCyNx layer has excellent diffusion prevention characteristics, the diffusion barrier made of the stack of the first WNx layer, the WCyNx layer and the second WNx layer retains excellent capability for preventing diffusion of copper even in an ultra-highly integrated semiconductor device below 40 nm. Accordingly, in the present invention, in a process for forming a metal line using copper in conformity with the ultra-high integration of a semiconductor device, it is possible to form a metal line having an excellent diffusion barrier, whereby the characteristics of a semiconductor device can be improved. Hereafter, a method for forming a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention will be described in detail with reference to FIGS. 1 through 5. Referring to FIG. 1, an interlayer dielectric 110 and a lower metal line 120 made of an aluminum layer are formed on a semiconductor substrate 100. A passivation layer 130 is formed on the interlayer dielectric 110 to prevent the lower metal line 120 from being damaged in a subsequent etching process. The passivation layer 130 is made of a nitride-based layer. A first insulation layer 140 and an etch barrier 150 for preventing the first insulation layer 140 from being etched in a subsequent process for etching a second insulation layer 160 are sequentially formed on the passivation layer 130. The second insulation layer 160 is then formed on the etch barrier 150. Each of the first and second insulation layers 140 and 160 is made of an oxide-based layer, and the etch barrier 150 is made of a nitride-based layer. By etching the second insulation layer 160, the etch barrier 150, the first insulation layer 140, and the passivation layer 130, a via hole 171 is defined to expose the lower metal line 120. By additionally etching the second insulation layer 160 over the via hole 171 using the etch barrier 150 as an etch stop layer until the etch barrier 150 is exposed, a trench 172 is formed to delimit (or define) a metal line forming region. In this way, a dual type damascene pattern 170 comprised of the via hole 171 and the trench 172 is formed. Here, while the dual type damascene pattern 170 is formed by defining the trench 172 after defining the via hole 171, the sequence of forming the dual type damascene pattern 170 can be reversed. Referring to FIG. 2, a first WNx layer 210 is deposited on the second insulation layer 160 including the damascene pattern 170 comprised of the via hole 171 and the trench 172 to a thickness of 10˜200 Å. The first WNx layer 210 is formed through a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or atomic layer deposition (ALD) process. The composition ratio x in the first WNx layer 210 is in the range of 0.1˜10. Referring to FIG. 3, by surface-treating the first WNx layer 210, a WCyNx layer 220 is formed on the surface of the first WNx layer 210 to a thickness of 5˜50 Å. The surface treatment of the first WNx layer 210 is implemented through an heat treatment or plasma treatment under high temperature using a hydrocarbon-based gas such as CH3 or C2H5 gas containing “C—H—”. In the case where the surface treatment of the first WNx layer 210 is implemented through a plasma treatment, the plasma treatment is conducted under an atmosphere of CH3 or C2H5 at a temperature of 200˜500° C., a pressure of 1˜100 torr, and an RF power of 0.1˜1 kW. Referring to FIG. 4, a second WNx layer 230 is deposited on the WCyNx layer 220 (which was formed through a surface treatment of the first WNx layer 210) to a thickness of 10˜200 Å. In this way, a diffusion barrier 240 made of a stack of the first WNx layer 210, the WCyNx layer 220, and the second WNx layer 230 is formed. The second WNx layer 230 is formed through a CVD or ALD process to improve the adhesion characteristics between a copper layer (to be subsequently formed) and the diffusion barrier 240. Referring to FIG. 5, a copper layer is deposited on the second WNx layer 230 to fill the trench 172 including the via hole 171 in which the diffusion barrier 240 made of the stack of the first WNx layer 210, the WCyNx layer 220, and the second WNx layer 230 is formed. Then, by performing a chemical mechanical polishing process (“CMPing”) on the copper layer until the second insulation layer 160 is exposed, a via contact 250 is formed in the via hole 171, and an upper metal line 260 made of copper is formed in the trench 172. As is apparent from the above description, because the diffusion barrier of the present invention for preventing the diffusion of a copper metal line is formed in a stack structure of a first WNx layer, a WCyNx layer formed through surface treatment of the first WNx layer, and a second WNx layer, it is possible to form a diffusion barrier having superior diffusion prevention characteristics. As a consequence, it is possible to form a metal line having an excellent diffusion barrier in an ultra-highly integrated semiconductor device. As a result, in the present invention, a metal line having an excellent diffusion barrier for copper can be formed in an ultra-highly integrated semiconductor device, whereby the characteristics of the semiconductor device can be improved. In the above embodiment, a multi-layered metal line was illustrated and explained, which is formed through a dual damascene process wherein a copper layer is deposited in the first insulation layer 140 and the second insulation layer 160 having the dual type damascene pattern 170 including the via hole 171 and the trench 172 and the copper layer is then CMPed to form the via contact 240 in the via hole 171 and the upper metal line 250 in the trench 172. However, it is to be noted that the present invention is not limited to this exemplary embodiment such that the present invention can be applied to a multi-layered metal line which is formed through a single damascene process wherein a copper layer is deposited in an insulation layer having a trench for delimiting (or defining) a metal line forming region and the copper layer is then CMPed to form an upper metal line in the trench. Although specific embodiments of the present invention have been described for illustrative purposes, those skilled in the art will appreciate that various modifications, additions and substitutions are possible, without departing from the scope and the spirit of the invention as disclosed in the accompanying claims.	H	H01	H01L	217	68
11931801	US20090107105A1-20090430	METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR COMBUSTING SYNGAS WITHIN A COMBUSTOR	ACCEPTED	20090415	20090430		[]	F02C320	["F02C320"]	9080513	20071031	20150714	60	776000	65852.0	SUNG	GERALD	[{"inventor_name_last": "Ziminsky", "inventor_name_first": "Willy Steve", "inventor_city": "Simpsonville", "inventor_state": "SC", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Kraemer", "inventor_name_first": "Gilbert Otto", "inventor_city": "Greer", "inventor_state": "SC", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Yilmaz", "inventor_name_first": "Ertan", "inventor_city": "Albany", "inventor_state": "NY", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A method for operating a combustor is provided. The method includes supplying a predetermined amount of a first gaseous fuel to the combustor, wherein the first gaseous fuel has a first Modified Wobbe Index (MWI) and a first fuel reactivity, and supplying a predetermined amount of a second gaseous fuel to the combustor, wherein the second gaseous fuel has a second MWI that is lower than the first MWI and a second fuel reactivity that is higher than the first fuel reactivity. The method also includes mixing the first and second gaseous fuels together to form a blended gaseous fuel, and injecting the blended gaseous fuel into the combustor.	1. A method for operating a combustor, said method comprising: supplying a predetermined amount of a first gaseous fuel to the combustor, wherein the first gaseous fuel has a first Modified Wobbe Index (MWI) and a first fuel reactivity; supplying a predetermined amount of a second gaseous fuel to the combustor, wherein the second gaseous fuel has a second MWI that is lower than the first MWI and a second fuel reactivity that is higher than the first fuel reactivity; mixing the first and second gaseous fuels together to form a blended gaseous fuel; and injecting the blended gaseous fuel into the combustor. 2. A method in accordance with claim 1 wherein mixing the first and second gaseous fuels to form a blended gaseous fuel further comprises mixing the first and second gaseous fuels together, wherein the first MWI is between approximately 42 and approximately 54, the second MWI is below approximately 20, and a characteristic chemical time corresponding to the first fuel reactivity is between approximately 5 times and approximately 10 times slower than a characteristic chemical time corresponding to the second fuel reactivity. 3. A method in accordance with claim 1 wherein mixing the first and second gaseous fuels to form a blended gaseous fuel further comprises mixing the first and second gaseous fuels together to form a blended gaseous fuel having a third MWI between approximately 15 and approximately 54 and having a third fuel reactivity that is at least approximately two times that of at least one of the first fuel reactivity and the second fuel reactivity. 4. A method in accordance with claim 1 wherein injecting the blended gaseous fuel into the combustor further comprises injecting the blended gaseous fuel into a dry low NOx combustor. 5. A method in accordance with claim 1 wherein supplying a predetermined amount of a first gaseous fuel to the combustor further comprises supplying a predetermined amount of natural gas to the combustor. 6. A method in accordance with claim 5 wherein supplying a predetermined amount of natural gas further comprises supplying natural gas to the combustor at a rate that enables the natural gas to be about 5% to about 50% of the blended gaseous fuel by volume. 7. A method in accordance with claim 1 wherein supplying a predetermined amount of a second gaseous fuel to the combustor further comprises supplying a predetermined amount of a synthesis gas to the combustor. 8. A method in accordance with claim 1 further comprising increasing the amount of the first gaseous fuel injected into the combustor to facilitate correcting a flashback event. 9. A dry low NOx combustor comprising: a combustion zone; a nozzle in flow communication with said combustion zone for injecting a blended gaseous fuel into said combustion zone, wherein said nozzle receives the blended gaseous fuel that includes a predetermined amount of a first gaseous fuel and a predetermined amount of a second gaseous fuel, wherein a Modified Wobbe Index (MWI) of the first gaseous fuel is higher than an MWI of the second gaseous fuel and a fuel reactivity of the first gaseous fuel is lower than a fuel reactivity of the second gaseous fuel. 10. A dry low NOx combustor in accordance with claim 9 wherein said nozzle receives a blended gaseous fuel that includes a predetermined amount of natural gas and a predetermined amount of synthesis gas. 11. A dry low NOx combustor in accordance with claim 10 wherein said nozzle receives a blended gaseous fuel that includes about 5% to about 50% of natural gas by volume. 12. A dry low NOx combustor in accordance with claim 8 wherein said nozzle receives a first gaseous fuel having a MWI between approximately 42 and approximately 54, and wherein said nozzle receives a second gaseous fuel having a MWI below approximately 20. 13. A dry low NOx combustor in accordance with claim 8 wherein said nozzle receives a blended gaseous fuel having a MWI between approximately 15 and approximately 54. 14. A combustion system comprising: a dry low NOx combustor; a blending device in flow communication with a first gaseous fuel source and a second gaseous fuel source, wherein said blending device receives a first gaseous fuel having a first Modified Wobbe Index (MWI) and a first fuel reactivity from the first gaseous fuel source and receives a second gaseous fuel having a second MWI and a second fuel reactivity from the second gaseous fuel source, wherein the second MWI is lower than the first MWI and the second fuel reactivity is higher than the first fuel reactivity, said blending device for combining the first and second gaseous fuels into a blended gaseous fuel; and an injection device in flow communication with said dry low NOx combustor and said blending device, said injection device for injecting the blended gaseous fuel into said dry low NOx combustor. 15. A combustion system in accordance with claim 14 wherein said blending device receives a first gaseous fuel having a first MWI between approximately 42 and approximately 54. 16. A combustion system in accordance with claim 14 wherein said blending device receives a first gaseous fuel that is natural gas. 17. A combustion system in accordance with claim 16 wherein said injection device receives a blended gaseous fuel that includes about 5% to about 50% of natural gas by volume. 18. A combustion system in accordance with claim 14 wherein said blending device receives a second gaseous fuel having a second MWI below approximately 20. 19. A combustion system in accordance with claim 14 wherein said blending device receives a second gaseous fuel that is synthesis gas. 20. A combustion system in accordance with claim 14 wherein said injection receives a blended gaseous fuel having an MWI between approximately 15 and approximately 54 and having a third fuel reactivity that is at least approximately two times that of at least one of the first fuel reactivity and the second fuel reactivity.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention relates generally to a combustor, and, more specifically, to a dry-low nitrogen oxide (NOx) (DLN) combustion system for a gas turbine engine. Combustion systems of at least some known gas turbine engines combust synthesis gas, or syngas, to create exhaust gases that drive a gas turbine. However, some known syngases have a low heating value as compared to other fuels, such as, natural gas, and, as such, may also have a low Modified Wobbe Index (MWI) as compared to other fuels. Additionally, some known syngases have a significant hydrogen content, based on molar fuel fractions, that can result in a highly reactive fuel stream with a very small characteristic chemical time. Due to this combination of low MWI and high fuel reactivity, conventional premixed DLN combustion systems can experience flashback when combusting syngas. “Flashback” refers to a condition that may occur when the aerodynamics of fuel introduction and mixing are overcome by the rapid chemistry of the combustion process thus allowing the reaction to stabilize within the premixing device. It is well established that the characteristic chemical time of the fuel can be used to correlate flashback, and that, the longer the characteristic chemical time, the slower the reaction and hence the lower proclivity of the fuel to induce a flashback event. Over time, occurrences of flashback may be damaging to hardware within the combustor. To reduce flashback occurrences within some known dry-low NOx combustion systems, narrow fuel specifications for both hydrogen content and MWI are required for normal operation. To dispense with flashback concerns, some known combustion systems that combust syngas are based on diffusion combustors that do not premix fuel with air, and are not susceptible to flashback. Such systems inject a diluent to reduce NOx emissions by suppressing the peak temperatures of the reaction. However, the proximity of the nitrogen supply to the combustion system and the additional compression the nitrogen may require before injection may add complexity and/or cost to the combustion systems, as compared to systems that do not include nitrogen injection into the combustor. Another known system introduces a nitrogen-water vapor mixture as the diluent, and yet another of the known systems injects a fuel-water vapor mixture into the combustor to control NOx formation, and still another uses carbon dioxide. Ultimately, water availability and water quality may adversely affect such systems, and, as such, combustors using steam injection may require costly and complex steam systems to avoid the adverse effects of the water.	<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one aspect, a method for operating a combustor is provided. The method includes supplying a predetermined amount of a first gaseous fuel to the combustor, wherein the first gaseous fuel has a first Modified Wobbe Index (MWI) and a first fuel reactivity, and supplying a predetermined amount of a second gaseous fuel to the combustor, wherein the second gaseous fuel has a second MWI that is lower than the first MWI and a second fuel reactivity that is higher than the first fuel reactivity. The method also includes mixing the first and second gaseous fuels together to form a blended gaseous fuel, and injecting the blended gaseous fuel into the combustor. In another aspect, a dry low NOx combustor is provided. The combustor includes a combustion zone and a nozzle in flow communication with the combustion zone for injecting a blended gaseous fuel into the combustion zone. The nozzle receives the blended gaseous fuel that includes a predetermined amount of a first gaseous fuel and a predetermined amount of a second gaseous fuel, wherein a Modified Wobbe Index (MWI) of the first gaseous fuel is higher than an MWI of the second gaseous fuel and a fuel reactivity of the first gaseous fuel is lower than a fuel reactivity of the second gaseous fuel. In still another aspect, a combustion system is provided. The combustion system includes a dry low NOx combustor and a blending device in flow communication with a first gaseous fuel source and a second gaseous fuel source. The blending device receives a first gaseous fuel having a first Modified Wobbe Index (MWI) and a first fuel reactivity from the first gaseous fuel source and receives a second gaseous fuel having a second MWI and a second fuel reactivity from the second gaseous fuel source. The second MWI is lower than the first MWI, and the second fuel reactivity is higher than the first fuel reactivity. The blending device is for combining the first and second gaseous fuels into a blended gaseous fuel. The system also includes an injection device in flow communication with the dry low NOx combustor and the blending device. The injection device is for injecting the blended gaseous fuel into the dry low NOx combustor.	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to a combustor, and, more specifically, to a dry-low nitrogen oxide (NOx) (DLN) combustion system for a gas turbine engine. Combustion systems of at least some known gas turbine engines combust synthesis gas, or syngas, to create exhaust gases that drive a gas turbine. However, some known syngases have a low heating value as compared to other fuels, such as, natural gas, and, as such, may also have a low Modified Wobbe Index (MWI) as compared to other fuels. Additionally, some known syngases have a significant hydrogen content, based on molar fuel fractions, that can result in a highly reactive fuel stream with a very small characteristic chemical time. Due to this combination of low MWI and high fuel reactivity, conventional premixed DLN combustion systems can experience flashback when combusting syngas. “Flashback” refers to a condition that may occur when the aerodynamics of fuel introduction and mixing are overcome by the rapid chemistry of the combustion process thus allowing the reaction to stabilize within the premixing device. It is well established that the characteristic chemical time of the fuel can be used to correlate flashback, and that, the longer the characteristic chemical time, the slower the reaction and hence the lower proclivity of the fuel to induce a flashback event. Over time, occurrences of flashback may be damaging to hardware within the combustor. To reduce flashback occurrences within some known dry-low NOx combustion systems, narrow fuel specifications for both hydrogen content and MWI are required for normal operation. To dispense with flashback concerns, some known combustion systems that combust syngas are based on diffusion combustors that do not premix fuel with air, and are not susceptible to flashback. Such systems inject a diluent to reduce NOx emissions by suppressing the peak temperatures of the reaction. However, the proximity of the nitrogen supply to the combustion system and the additional compression the nitrogen may require before injection may add complexity and/or cost to the combustion systems, as compared to systems that do not include nitrogen injection into the combustor. Another known system introduces a nitrogen-water vapor mixture as the diluent, and yet another of the known systems injects a fuel-water vapor mixture into the combustor to control NOx formation, and still another uses carbon dioxide. Ultimately, water availability and water quality may adversely affect such systems, and, as such, combustors using steam injection may require costly and complex steam systems to avoid the adverse effects of the water. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION In one aspect, a method for operating a combustor is provided. The method includes supplying a predetermined amount of a first gaseous fuel to the combustor, wherein the first gaseous fuel has a first Modified Wobbe Index (MWI) and a first fuel reactivity, and supplying a predetermined amount of a second gaseous fuel to the combustor, wherein the second gaseous fuel has a second MWI that is lower than the first MWI and a second fuel reactivity that is higher than the first fuel reactivity. The method also includes mixing the first and second gaseous fuels together to form a blended gaseous fuel, and injecting the blended gaseous fuel into the combustor. In another aspect, a dry low NOx combustor is provided. The combustor includes a combustion zone and a nozzle in flow communication with the combustion zone for injecting a blended gaseous fuel into the combustion zone. The nozzle receives the blended gaseous fuel that includes a predetermined amount of a first gaseous fuel and a predetermined amount of a second gaseous fuel, wherein a Modified Wobbe Index (MWI) of the first gaseous fuel is higher than an MWI of the second gaseous fuel and a fuel reactivity of the first gaseous fuel is lower than a fuel reactivity of the second gaseous fuel. In still another aspect, a combustion system is provided. The combustion system includes a dry low NOx combustor and a blending device in flow communication with a first gaseous fuel source and a second gaseous fuel source. The blending device receives a first gaseous fuel having a first Modified Wobbe Index (MWI) and a first fuel reactivity from the first gaseous fuel source and receives a second gaseous fuel having a second MWI and a second fuel reactivity from the second gaseous fuel source. The second MWI is lower than the first MWI, and the second fuel reactivity is higher than the first fuel reactivity. The blending device is for combining the first and second gaseous fuels into a blended gaseous fuel. The system also includes an injection device in flow communication with the dry low NOx combustor and the blending device. The injection device is for injecting the blended gaseous fuel into the dry low NOx combustor. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is partial schematic side view of an exemplary gas turbine combustion system. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION FIG. 1 is partial schematic side view of an exemplary gas turbine engine 10. Gas turbine engine 10 includes a compressor 12, a dry-low NOx combustor 14, and a turbine 16. Only a first stage nozzle 18 of turbine 16 is shown in FIG. 1. In the exemplary embodiment, turbine 16 is rotably coupled to compressor 12 with rotors (not shown) that are coupled to a single common shaft (not shown). Compressor 12 pressurizes inlet air 20 that is then channeled to combustor 14 for cooling combustor 14 and to provide air for the combustion process. More specifically, air 20 channeled to combustor 14 flows in a direction that is generally opposite to the flow of air through engine 10. In the exemplary embodiment, gas turbine engine 10 includes a plurality of combustors 14 that are oriented circumferentially about engine casing 22. More specifically, in the exemplary embodiment, combustors 14 are, for example, but are not limited to being, can-annular combustors. In the exemplary embodiment, combustor 14 includes a double-walled transition duct 24 that is coupled upstream from turbine 16. Further, in the exemplary embodiment, each combustor 14 includes a substantially cylindrical combustor casing 26 that is coupled to engine casing 22 and to an end cover assembly 28. End cover assembly 28 includes, for example, supply tubes, manifolds, valves for channeling gaseous fuel, liquid fuel, air and/or water to the combustor, and/or any other components that enable engine 10 to function as described herein. In the exemplary embodiment, a substantially cylindrical flow sleeve 30 is coupled within combustor casing 26 such that sleeve 30 is substantially concentrically aligned with casing 26. Flow sleeve 30, in the exemplary embodiment, includes a combustion liner 32 coupled therein. Combustion liner 32 is aligned substantially concentrically within flow sleeve 30 and is coupled to a combustion liner cap assembly 34. Combustion liner cap assembly 34 is secured within combustor casing 26 by a plurality of struts 36 and an associated mounting assembly (not shown). Liner 32 is coupled to an inner wall 40 of transition duct, and flow sleeve 30 is coupled to an outer wall 42 of transition duct 24. In the exemplary embodiment, an air passage 38 is defined between liner 32 and flow sleeve 30, and between inner and outer walls 40 and 42, respectively, of transition duct 24. Transition duct outer wall 42 includes a plurality of apertures 44 defined therein that enable compressed air 20 from compressor 12 to enter air passage 38. In the exemplary embodiment, air 20 flows in a direction that is generally opposite to a direction of core flow (not shown) from compressor 12 towards end cover assembly 28. Further, in the exemplary embodiment, combustor 14 also includes a plurality of spark plugs 46 and a plurality of cross-fire tubes 48. Spark plugs 46 and cross-fire tubes 48 extend through ports (not shown) in liner 32 that are defined downstream from combustion liner cap assembly 34 and within a combustion zone 50. Spark plugs 46 and cross-fire tubes 48 ignite fuel and air within each combustor 14 to create combustion gases 52. In the exemplary embodiment, a plurality of fuel nozzle assemblies 54 are coupled to end cover assembly 28. Although, only one type of fuel nozzle assembly 54 is described herein, more than one type of nozzle assembly, or any other type of fuel nozzle, may be included in combustor 14. In the exemplary embodiment, combustion liner cap assembly 34 includes a plurality of premix tube assemblies 56 that each substantially circumscribe a respective fuel nozzle assembly 54. Each premix tube assembly 56, in the exemplary embodiment, includes an assembly including two tubes (not shown) that are separated by a premix tube hula seal (not shown). The hula seal enables the dual-tube assembly to thermally expand and contract as combustion liner cap assembly 34 expands during operating conditions. Furthermore, in the exemplary embodiment, each premix tube assembly 56 includes a collar (not shown) that supports an air swirler (not shown), which may be, for example, positioned adjacent to a radially outermost wall (not shown) of each fuel nozzle assembly 54, formed integrally with each nozzle assembly 54, and/or configured in any other suitable configuration that enables engine 10 to function as described herein. The orientation of swirlers causes air 20 flowing through air passage 38 to reverse direction at a combustor inlet end 58 of combustor 14 (between end cover assembly 28 and combustion liner cap assembly 34) and to flow through the air swirlers and premix tube assemblies 56. Fuel passages (not shown) defined in each of the air swirlers channel fuel through an arrangement of apertures that continuously introduce gaseous fuel, depending upon the operational mode of gas turbine engine 10, into the passing air 20 to create a fuel and air mixture that is ignited in combustion zone 50, downstream from premix tube assemblies 56. In the exemplary embodiment, combustor 14 includes a main fuel supply line 60 that is coupled to a first fuel supply 62 and a second fuel supply 64 via a fuel blending device 66. More specifically, a first fuel supply line 68 is coupled between first fuel supply 62 and fuel blending device 66 and includes a first flow regulation device 70. A second fuel supply line 72 is coupled between second fuel supply 64 and fuel blending device 66 and includes a second flow regulation device 74. Although only two flow regulation devices 70 and 74 are illustrated and described, combustor 14 may include any suitable number of flow regulation devices and/or other suitable components that enable combustor 14 to function as described herein. In the exemplary embodiment, first fuel supply 62, first fuel supply line 68, and/or first fuel flow regulation device 70 may include a first fuel 76 therein. Similarly, second fuel supply 64, second fuel supply line 72, and/or second fuel flow regulation device 74 may include a second fuel 78 therein. In the exemplary embodiment, first fuel 76 and second fuel 78 are different fuels having different compositions, as described in more detail below. Main fuel supply line 60 is configured to inject a blended fuel 80 from fuel blending device 66 and into combustor 14. In the exemplary embodiment, fuel blending device 66 is configured to combine first fuel 76 and second fuel 78 into a substantially homogeneous blended fuel 80. Alternatively, first and second fuels 76 and 78 may be blended using other means than blending device 66. For example, fuels 76 and 78 may be blended within a common fuel supply (not shown), end cover assembly 28, premix tube assemblies 56, fuel nozzle assemblies 54, and/or any other suitable blending means that enables combustor 14 to function as described herein. Furthermore, in the exemplary embodiment, blending device 66 facilitates regulating a Modified Wobbe Index of blended fuel 80 by adjusting proportions of first and second fuels 76 and 78 within blended fuel 80. As used herein, the term “Modified Wobbe Index” or “MWI” refers to a temperature-corrected Wobbe Index. The MWI is calculated using: M   W   I = L   H   V Tg · S   G , wherein LHV is the lower heating value of the fuel in British thermal units per standard cubic foot (BTU/scf), Tg is the absolute temperature of the fuel in degrees Rankine (°R), and SG is the Specific Gravity of the fuel relative to air at ISO conditions. Such an equation is described in, for example, “Design Considerations for Heated Gas Fuel,” by D. M. Erickson et al., GE Power Systems (March 2003). As such, the MWI is a calculated measurement of the volumetric energy content of a fuel and is directly related to the temperature and lower heating value of the fuel. Generally, a lower MWI indicates a low heating value, and, conversely, a higher MWI indicates high heating value. Additionally, as used herein, the term “fuel reactivity” refers to a molar hydrogen content of a fuel, which, in turn, is an indicator of a characteristic chemical time of the fuel. As is known, hydrogen is extremely flammable and the addition of hydrogen to a gaseous fuel may have a significant impact on flammability limits, flame speed, and general combustion properties of the blended stream. In the exemplary embodiment, first fuel 76 is synthesis gas, or syngas, and second fuel 78 is natural gas. Hereinafter “first fuel” and “syngas” may be used interchangeably, and “second fuel” and “natural gas” may be used interchangeably. Furthermore, as used herein, the terms “synthesis gas” or “syngas” refer to a gaseous fuel created by a gasification process. Syngas includes primarily, but is not limited to only including, carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and hydrogen (H2) with the composition being dependent upon the feedstock material. Moreover, the term “natural gas,” as used herein, refers to a gaseous fuel including primarily methane (CH4), but may also include, but is not limited to including, ethane (C2H6), butane (C4H10), propane (C3H8), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N2), helium (He2), and/or hydrogen sulfide (H2S). For example, natural gas may have a composition of 70-90% by volume of methane, 5-15% by volume of ethane, less than 5% by volume of propane and butane, and the balance of the volumetric composition may include other gases, such as, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and/or hydrogen sulfide. The MWI for natural gas may be between approximately 42 and approximately 54, depending on the temperature of the natural gas. The MWI for syngas is generally below approximately 20. Furthermore, the characteristic chemical time of natural gas is approximately 5 to approximately 10 times slower than the characteristic chemical time of syngas. Generally, the MWI range and the fuel reactivity of syngas may enable flashback to occur, and accordingly, in the exemplary embodiment, a predetermined amount of natural gas 78 is blended with the syngas 76 to facilitate reducing the characteristic chemical time of the syngas 76. More specifically, in the exemplary embodiment, a percentage of natural gas 78 and a percentage of syngas 76 are selected to facilitate regulating a characteristic chemical time produced by blended fuel 80 such that flashback is facilitated to be reduced, as compared to combusting only syngas 76. In the exemplary embodiment, the percentages of syngas 76 and natural gas 78 are selected to produce a blended fuel 80 with a MWI of between approximately 15 and approximately 54. Furthermore, the blended fuel 80, in the exemplary embodiment, has a fuel reactivity with a characteristic chemical time of at least approximately twice that of syngas 76. Natural gas blending of less than 10% by volume is sufficient to approximately triple the characteristic chemical time of the syngas and hence reduce the tendency towards flashback by a factor of three. In the exemplary embodiment, a control system 82 is operatively coupled to first and second fuel flow regulation devices 70 and 74 to control the relative quantities of first and second fuels 76 and 78, respectively, that enter fuel blending device 66. Control system 82 may be, for example, but is not limited to being, a computer system and/or any other system that enables combustor 14 to function as described herein. In the exemplary embodiment, control system 82 is configured to allow first fuel 76 having a predetermined mass and/or volumetric flow rate to flow through first fuel supply line 68 and into fuel blending device 66 to facilitate achieving a predetermined MWI and fuel reactivity of blended fuel 80. Similarly, control system 82 is configured to allow second fuel 78 having a predetermined mass and/or volumetric flow rate to flow through second fuel supply line 72 and into fuel blending device 66 to facilitate achieving the predetermined MWI and fuel reactivity of blended fuel 80. Alternatively, control system 82 may be configured to control the relative quantities of first and second fuels 76 and 78 entering fuel blending device 66 by controlling flow properties other than mass and/or volumetric flow rate. In one embodiment, control system 82 is coupled to fuel blending device 66 to regulate and/or monitor the mixing of fuels 76 and 78 within blending device 66. In another embodiment, control system 82 is coupled to fuel blending device 66 and/or main fuel supply line 60 to regulate the quantity of blended fuel 80 injected into combustor 14. In yet another embodiment, the components within end cover assembly 28 are coupled to control system 82 for controlling blended fuel 80 entering combustor 14, fuel nozzle assemblies 54, and/or premix tube assemblies 56. In operation, air 20 enters engine 10 through an inlet (not shown) and is compressed in compressor 12. Compressed air 20 is discharged from compressor 12 and is channeled to combustor 14. Air 20 enters combustor through apertures 44 and then flows through air passage 38 towards end cover assembly 28 of combustor 14. Air 20 flowing through air passage 38 is forced to reverse its flow direction at combustor inlet end 58 and is redirected through the air swirlers and premix tube assemblies 56. To produce blended fuel 80 for supplying to combustor 14 through end cover assembly 28, control system 82 controls first and second fuel flow regulation devices 70 and 74 to enable respective fuels 76 and 78 to flow into fuel blending device 66. More specifically, first fuel flow regulation device 70 is controlled to allow first fuel 76 to be discharged from first fuel supply 62, through first fuel supply line 68, and into fuel blending device 66. Second fuel flow regulation device 74 is similarly controlled to allow second fuel 78 to be discharged from second fuel supply 64, through second fuel supply line 72, and into fuel blending device 66. Each fuel flow regulation device 70 and 74 is controlled to facilitate achieving a predetermined percentage by volume for each fuel 76 and 78 within blended fuel 80. In the exemplary embodiment, natural gas 78 is blended with the syngas 76 to produce a blended fuel 80 having a percentage of natural gas 78 between about 5% and about 50% of the total volume of the blended fuel 80. In another embodiment, the percentage of natural gas 78 and syngas 76 in the blended fuel 80 is approximately 20% and approximately 80% by volume, respectively. In another embodiment, the percentages by volume of natural gas 78 and syngas 76 are based on the design of dry-low NOx combustor 14 to enable the MWI and fuel reactivity of blended fuel 80 to be within the design specifications. In the exemplary embodiment, fuel blending device 66 combines first fuel 76 and second fuel 78 therein such that blended fuel 80 discharged from blending device 66 is substantially homogenous. Blended fuel 80 is discharged from fuel blending device 66, through main fuel supply line 60, and into combustor 14. Furthermore, in the exemplary embodiment, control system 82 regulates the air 20 and blended fuel 80 supplied to nozzle assemblies 54 and/or premix tube assemblies 56. Ignition is initially achieved when control system 82 initiates a starting sequence of gas turbine engine 10, and spark plugs 46 are retracted from combustion zone 50 once a flame has been continuously established. At the opposite end of combustion zone 50, hot combustion gases 52 are channeled through transition duct 24 and turbine nozzle 18 towards turbine 16. In one embodiment, during combustion, a flashback event is corrected by increasing the amount of first fuel 76 being injected into combustor 14 because first fuel 76 has a higher MWI and a lower fuel reactivity than second fuel 78. The above-described methods and apparatus facilitate dry-low NOx combustion of syngas within a combustor, without the addition of a diluent. More specifically, natural gas is blended with syngas to facilitate combustion of the syngas within a dry-low NOx combustor. The addition of natural gas facilitates slowing the characteristic chemical time of syngas to prevent flashback and, as a consequence, facilitates reducing damage and/or wear to components proximate the flame. The addition of natural gas also facilitates maintaining the MWI of the injected fuel within design specifications of at least some known dry-low NOx combustors because small amounts of natural gas have a large effect on the combustion chemistry of syngas. Furthermore, the above-described method and apparatus also facilitates decreasing the cost and complexity of the combustor, as compared to combustors having syngas and diluents injected therein, because natural gas may be used as a backup fuel in combustors and, as such, may be readily available for use without additional cost and/or hardware. Exemplary embodiments of a method and apparatus for combusting syngas within a combustor are described above in detail. The method and apparatus are not limited to the specific embodiments described herein, but rather, components of the method and apparatus may be utilized independently and separately from other components described herein. For example, the blended fuel may also be used in combination with other combustion systems and methods, and is not limited to practice with only the dry-low NOx combustor as described herein. Rather, the present invention can be implemented and utilized in connection with many other fuel combustion applications. While the invention has been described in terms of various specific embodiments, those skilled in the art will recognize that the invention can be practiced with modification within the spirit and scope of the claims.	F	F02	F02C	3	20
11872430	US20080033600A1-20080207	AUTOMATED PART PROCUREMENT AND SERVICE DISPATCH	ACCEPTED	20080123	20080207		[]	G06F1900	["G06F1900"]	7424345	20071015	20080909	700	107000	98614.0	RAPP	CHAD	[{"inventor_name_last": "Norbeck", "inventor_name_first": "Dean", "inventor_city": "Marco Island", "inventor_state": "FL", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A method for repairing an HVAC system is disclosed. The method includes monitoring a plurality of sensors positioned throughout the HVAC system and receiving data associated therewith, determining whether the data received from the plurality of sensors is within corresponding predetermined operational parameters, analyzing data determined to be outside the corresponding predetermined operational parameters to diagnose a malfunction of the HVAC system, accessing an on-board bill of materials to determine a proper replacement part to correct the malfunction, automatically ordering the replacement part, and automatically dispatching a service technician to install the replacement part.	1. A method for repairing an HVAC system comprising the steps of: monitoring a plurality of sensors positioned throughout the HVAC system; receiving data associated with the sensors outside of predetermined operational parameters; identifying a malfunction of the HVAC system corresponding to the received data outside of the corresponding predetermined operational parameters; accessing an on-board bill of replaceable HVAC system materials to determine a proper replacement part to correct the malfunction; automatically ordering the replacement part; and automatically dispatching a service technician to repair the HVAC system. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of automatically ordering the replacement part comprises initiating a communication to a parts center via a communications port, and ordering the replacement part from the parts center for delivery to the HVAC system. 3. The method of claim 1, further comprising determining an arrival date of the ordered replacement part at the location of the HVAC system from a first parts center; and determining whether an HVAC system failure will occur prior to the determined arrival date. 4. The method of claim 3, further comprising dispatching a service technician to the HVAC system before the determined arrival date in response to determining the HVAC system failure will occur prior to the determined arrival date. 5. The method of claim 3, further comprising canceling an automatically ordered replacement part from a first parts center and automatically ordering a replacement part from a second parts center in response to determining the arrival date from the first parts center. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the monitoring a plurality of sensors comprises monitoring sensors selected from the group of temperature sensors, pressure sensors, vibration sensors, current sensors, voltages sensors, and combinations thereof. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of automatically ordering the replacement part comprises electronically ordering the replacement part from a parts center. 8. The method of claim 1 further comprising the step of automatically advising a point of contact associated with the HVAC system of the HVAC system malfunction. 9. The method of claim 1 further comprising recording a log of the data determined to be outside the corresponding predetermined operational parameters; and remotely accessing, by a service technician, the log of the data determined to be outside the corresponding predetermined operational parameters. 10. The method of claim 1 further comprising updating the on-board bill of materials to include the replacement part.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Commercial heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) units, such as aptly named “rooftop units,” are often assembled onto the flat roofs of structures such as supermarkets, office buildings and other commercial structures. Chillers, or chilled water units, are cost-effective systems that utilize both water or other suitable liquids and refrigerants. Chillers cool the water or other liquid, then circulate the cooled water to other components in the system, such as an air handling unit. Chillers are typically located in equipment rooms such as in basements or at other remote locations of large buildings. Water is an excellent secondary coolant because it is readily available, inexpensive, non-toxic and substantially non-corrosive. It also has a favorable specific heat value. Other secondary coolants can also be used, depending upon the application. These include calcium chloride or sodium chloride brines, methanol, propylene glycols, ethylene glycol and glycerin. Chillers are frequently used for commercial air conditioning and industrial process cooling as well as for low temperature refrigeration. While there are various types of chillers, which may include many different components, a chiller typically includes a compressor, a motor and a control center, which may be in the form of a microprocessor control. A chiller can also include, in addition to the above equipment, a condenser, an evaporator and a metering device. Due to their sometimes difficult-to-reach locations, servicing chillers and rooftop units can be time consuming and inefficient, particularly if a service technician must make multiple trips to diagnose and later return with proper parts to effect a repair. However, most current methods of monitoring the operation of chillers, rooftop units of air conditioning systems, or other HVAC systems do not provide the capability to diagnose an existing problem or anticipate the occurrence of a problem that could result in shut down or improper operation of equipment and to arrange for that problem to be repaired. What is needed is a system for monitoring an HVAC system that utilizes information from the control center of the unit to automatically identify a malfunctioning part causing a problem, place an order for that part, and dispatch a service technician to install the replacement part upon its arrival.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is a method and system for monitoring operations of a heating ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) system such as a chiller system or a rooftop unit having a control center, and upon occurrence of a malfunction or other system failure, to automatically order needed replacement parts and dispatch a service technician to install the parts and make the repair. The system utilizes a control center located on-site, that is to say, at the facilities at which the chiller system or rooftop unit is located. The control center is in one-way communication with sensors configured to monitor components of the chiller system and receives data indicative of the operation of each of the components. The control center determines whether each component is operating within the normal operating parameters and stores data indicative of component operation in memory. If the data indicates that the HVAC system component is operating outside of normal parameters, a processing unit in the control center evaluates the information and determines whether remedial action is required. If a malfunction has occurred and remedial action is required, the control center determines the remedial action needed to correct the malfunction, including accessing a bill of materials to determine a proper replacement part. The processing unit then initiates a communication to order the replacement part from a repair center and dispatches a service technician to perform the repair. A method for repairing an HVAC system is disclosed. The method comprises the steps of monitoring a plurality of sensors positioned throughout the HVAC system and receiving data associated therewith, determining whether the data received from the plurality of sensors is within corresponding predetermined operational parameters, conducting a diagnosis of the HVAC system to identify a malfunction of the HVAC system in response to having data determined to be outside the corresponding predetermined operational parameters, accessing an on-board bill of materials to determine a proper replacement part to correct the malfunction, automatically ordering the replacement part, and automatically dispatching a service technician to install the replacement part. A system for automatically procuring parts and dispatching a service technician to repair an HVAC system is also disclosed. The system comprises a plurality of sensors positioned throughout the HVAC system and an HVAC system control center in communication with the plurality of sensors, the control center comprising a microprocessor, a memory and a communications port. The microprocessor comprises computer instructions to execute the steps of monitoring data received from the plurality of sensors, comparing the received data against pre-determined operational parameters, analyzing data outside of the operational parameters to determine an HVAC system malfunction, accessing an on-board bill of materials from the memory to identify a replacement part based on the data analysis to correct the HVAC system malfunction, initiating a call to a parts center via the communications port to order the replacement part, and initiating a call via the communications port to dispatch a service technician to install the replacement part. One advantage of exemplary embodiments of the present invention is that the HVAC system can perform a self-diagnosis and in response to that diagnosis, automatically order a replacement part without the need for a service technician to make a diagnostic visit and a subsequent repair visit to install the part in the malfunctioning system. Another advantage of exemplary embodiments of the present invention is the ability to reference an on-board bill of materials stored in memory to automatically determine a proper replacement part in light of a self-diagnosis by the HVAC system. Still another advantage of exemplary embodiments of the present invention is direct communication by the HVAC system to order replacement parts and dispatch a service technician without the need to route communications through a central HVAC service center or other intermediary. Other features and advantages of the present invention will be apparent from the following more detailed description of the preferred embodiment, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings which illustrate, by way of example, the principles of the invention.	CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/388,502, filed Mar. 24, 2006, allowed, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to self-diagnosis of malfunctioning equipment and more particularly directed to automatically procuring replacement parts for use in the repair of malfunctioning equipment and the coordinated dispatching of a service technician to perform the repair. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Commercial heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) units, such as aptly named “rooftop units,” are often assembled onto the flat roofs of structures such as supermarkets, office buildings and other commercial structures. Chillers, or chilled water units, are cost-effective systems that utilize both water or other suitable liquids and refrigerants. Chillers cool the water or other liquid, then circulate the cooled water to other components in the system, such as an air handling unit. Chillers are typically located in equipment rooms such as in basements or at other remote locations of large buildings. Water is an excellent secondary coolant because it is readily available, inexpensive, non-toxic and substantially non-corrosive. It also has a favorable specific heat value. Other secondary coolants can also be used, depending upon the application. These include calcium chloride or sodium chloride brines, methanol, propylene glycols, ethylene glycol and glycerin. Chillers are frequently used for commercial air conditioning and industrial process cooling as well as for low temperature refrigeration. While there are various types of chillers, which may include many different components, a chiller typically includes a compressor, a motor and a control center, which may be in the form of a microprocessor control. A chiller can also include, in addition to the above equipment, a condenser, an evaporator and a metering device. Due to their sometimes difficult-to-reach locations, servicing chillers and rooftop units can be time consuming and inefficient, particularly if a service technician must make multiple trips to diagnose and later return with proper parts to effect a repair. However, most current methods of monitoring the operation of chillers, rooftop units of air conditioning systems, or other HVAC systems do not provide the capability to diagnose an existing problem or anticipate the occurrence of a problem that could result in shut down or improper operation of equipment and to arrange for that problem to be repaired. What is needed is a system for monitoring an HVAC system that utilizes information from the control center of the unit to automatically identify a malfunctioning part causing a problem, place an order for that part, and dispatch a service technician to install the replacement part upon its arrival. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is a method and system for monitoring operations of a heating ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) system such as a chiller system or a rooftop unit having a control center, and upon occurrence of a malfunction or other system failure, to automatically order needed replacement parts and dispatch a service technician to install the parts and make the repair. The system utilizes a control center located on-site, that is to say, at the facilities at which the chiller system or rooftop unit is located. The control center is in one-way communication with sensors configured to monitor components of the chiller system and receives data indicative of the operation of each of the components. The control center determines whether each component is operating within the normal operating parameters and stores data indicative of component operation in memory. If the data indicates that the HVAC system component is operating outside of normal parameters, a processing unit in the control center evaluates the information and determines whether remedial action is required. If a malfunction has occurred and remedial action is required, the control center determines the remedial action needed to correct the malfunction, including accessing a bill of materials to determine a proper replacement part. The processing unit then initiates a communication to order the replacement part from a repair center and dispatches a service technician to perform the repair. A method for repairing an HVAC system is disclosed. The method comprises the steps of monitoring a plurality of sensors positioned throughout the HVAC system and receiving data associated therewith, determining whether the data received from the plurality of sensors is within corresponding predetermined operational parameters, conducting a diagnosis of the HVAC system to identify a malfunction of the HVAC system in response to having data determined to be outside the corresponding predetermined operational parameters, accessing an on-board bill of materials to determine a proper replacement part to correct the malfunction, automatically ordering the replacement part, and automatically dispatching a service technician to install the replacement part. A system for automatically procuring parts and dispatching a service technician to repair an HVAC system is also disclosed. The system comprises a plurality of sensors positioned throughout the HVAC system and an HVAC system control center in communication with the plurality of sensors, the control center comprising a microprocessor, a memory and a communications port. The microprocessor comprises computer instructions to execute the steps of monitoring data received from the plurality of sensors, comparing the received data against pre-determined operational parameters, analyzing data outside of the operational parameters to determine an HVAC system malfunction, accessing an on-board bill of materials from the memory to identify a replacement part based on the data analysis to correct the HVAC system malfunction, initiating a call to a parts center via the communications port to order the replacement part, and initiating a call via the communications port to dispatch a service technician to install the replacement part. One advantage of exemplary embodiments of the present invention is that the HVAC system can perform a self-diagnosis and in response to that diagnosis, automatically order a replacement part without the need for a service technician to make a diagnostic visit and a subsequent repair visit to install the part in the malfunctioning system. Another advantage of exemplary embodiments of the present invention is the ability to reference an on-board bill of materials stored in memory to automatically determine a proper replacement part in light of a self-diagnosis by the HVAC system. Still another advantage of exemplary embodiments of the present invention is direct communication by the HVAC system to order replacement parts and dispatch a service technician without the need to route communications through a central HVAC service center or other intermediary. Other features and advantages of the present invention will be apparent from the following more detailed description of the preferred embodiment, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings which illustrate, by way of example, the principles of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a flowchart illustrating a method of repairing an HVAC system using automated part procurement and service dispatch according to an exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2 is a portion of the flowchart of FIG. 1 further illustrating the step of monitoring with sensors. FIG. 3 is a system for automated part procurement and service dispatch according to an exemplary embodiment of the invention. Where the same parts are referred to in different Figures, like numerals are used for ease of identification. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION Exemplary embodiments of the invention are directed to automated part procurement and service dispatching for an HVAC system that includes a control center to automatically analyze a system malfunction and determine appropriate repairs for the HVAC system. Based on the determined needed repair, a processor accesses an on-board bill of materials, i.e. stored in a memory local to the HVAC system, to identify a replacement part(s) needed for the repair. The processor then initiates a communication with a repair center and orders the part(s). Additionally, a service technician is automatically dispatched to repair the HVAC system. Control centers with diagnostic capabilities are well known for use in HVAC systems to diagnose and record HVAC system faults and failures for later access by a service technician called to the site of HVAC system. The control center's diagnostic capabilities typically involve receiving electronic communications from various types of sensors positioned throughout the HVAC system that sense operating parameters of the HVAC system. The HVAC system operating parameter data is communicated to a microprocessor that monitors parameters of the HVAC system during operation. According to exemplary embodiments of the invention, the microprocessor has the ability to receive and analyze the operating parameter data, as well as the ability to initiate external communication protocols. When the HVAC system fails or malfunctions, the monitored parameters can be used to determine the cause of error though artificial intelligence or a series of logic rules relating to failure symptoms stored in memory to identify a failed part. The parameters can also be used to identify a part that is near failure and which needs to be replaced before the system breaks down. The microprocessor accesses the bill of materials to determine indicia associated with the failed part, such as a part number, useful for ordering a replacement part. The microprocessor initiates a communication with a parts center and electronically places an order for the proper part. Another communication notifies a service technician of the failure. The notification may be delivered in any convenient manner. Preferably, the notification is either electronic, such as an email sent to a predetermined email address, or telephonic, using speech generation software. Based at least in part on the communication with the parts center or other source of the replacement part, the microprocessor coordinates and dispatches the technician to the repair site when the replacement part is due to arrive or soon after it is due to have arrived. In some emergency situations, the microprocessor may dispatch a service technician before the part is due to arrive, for example, if the microprocessor determines the replacement part is not expected to arrive prior to system failure. Preferably, all of the communications originate from the HVAC system and connect directly to the parts center, service office and/or service technician without the need to be routed through a central HVAC service hub or other intermediary. The microprocessor may initiate yet another communication to a point of contact, such as the owner or maintenance department of the building associated with the malfunctioning HVAC system and advise the owner of the scheduled repair. The communication may provide the owner an opportunity to decline or postpone the repair, upon the occurrence of which the part order and/or dispatch call may be cancelled. In most cases, however, maintaining uninterrupted, or minimally interrupted HVAC service is desired or even necessary and the replacement part and service technician automatically arrive at the customer site prior to any loss of service to the customer or in some cases even before the customer notices a problem. A bill of materials, which may be limited to a bill of replaceable materials, for the HVAC system is incorporated into the memory of the control center, giving the microprocessor access to information identifying the components in the HVAC system, such as condensers, evaporators, burners or compressors, as well as sub-components of those components, such as valves, motors, transducers, sensors, or filters, all by way of example only. Information pertaining to site location is also incorporated into the control center memory. Delivery information, if different from site location, and contact information is also preferably included in the memory. The bill of replaceable materials could also be visually displayed to a screen or other output device as a look-up table available to the technician once on-site. The technician can then verify the correct part number was ordered or the technician may order any additional parts determined to be needed. When a part is replaced, the bill of materials may be manually or automatically updated to reflect the current on-board components. The invention is further described with respect to the following non-limiting example illustrated in FIG. 1. At s100, one or more sensors is monitored by a microprocessor associated with a control center of an HVAC system, or in some cases, with a control center of a particular HVAC component, in which the microprocessor is in one-way communication with the sensors. Different sensors may be used to measure any of a number of different types of properties useful for diagnosis of HVAC system function (or malfunction) or other properties desired to be monitored. As shown in FIG. 2, temperature sensors, pressure sensors and vibration sensors are each monitored at s110, s120 and s130. Additional sensors may also be measured as illustrated with the generic step s190. Typically, monitoring the sensors includes at least monitoring pressure, temperature, and vibration sensors. Voltage and current are also typically monitored properties using appropriate sensors. For each property to be measured, one or more sensors may be used. Each sensor is placed at a pre-determined location in the HVAC system selected for the best monitoring of the property of the HVAC system. Returning to FIG. 1, a determination is made whether data received from the sensors being monitored are within predetermined operating parameters associated with normal operating functionality at s200. If all of the sensors are within the parameters, the process returns to s100 for further monitoring. If data from one or more of the sensors is not within the parameters, the process passes to s300 and the measured properties are analyzed. Using information based at least in part on the number and type of sensors that received data falling outside the parameters and the magnitude by which the measured properties are non-compliant, the microprocessor determines the source of the malfunction with reference to diagnostic information stored in a control center memory accessible to the microprocessor in order to diagnose the malfunction at s400. For example, in a chiller, the sensors may determine that vibration sensors located near the chiller motor are reporting vibrations that fall outside of normal operating parameters. Using this information, and with reference to corresponding diagnostic information stored in the memory, the microprocessor may determine that the location and magnitude of the sensed vibration is consistent with motor bearings that are starting to fail in the chiller motor. It will be appreciated that in many cases, changes in properties monitored throughout the HVAC system will be the result of changes due to normal system operation, such as a change in load that results in changes in temperature or pressure, and are not attributable to changes in temperature or pressure that signal a malfunction. Thus, the diagnostic information typically includes a range of compliant behavior using known trends and pre-determined allowable limits expected to occur in normal operation. In some cases, the operating parameters themselves may associated with pre-determined load conditions, such that the acceptable operating parameters against which the monitored data is compared changes as the load changes. The diagnostic information is typically analyzed over a pre-determined period of time. Analyzing non-compliant parameters with respect to time may be particularly useful in differentiating a slight change or aberration in normal system operating conditions from a malfunction or impending system failure. In some cases, where the measured parameters are to be evaluated over time, the microprocessor may also compile and record a log of changes in the memory for use in later analysis in identifying a slowly failing part or to form a base line against which later conditions can be compared. This type of trend analysis may further depend on the magnitude by which the monitored parameters exceed the normal operating parameters. Returning to the chiller motor example, vibrations may begin as minor fluctuations outside of the operating parameters but persist over the course of several days or increase in frequency or magnitude. The vibrations may initially only exceed operating parameters by less than 1%, but increase over the course of a week to be 10% or more outside of the operating parameters. Based on the percentage by which the vibrations exceed parameters over a period of time, a trend can be determined to identify the malfunction and/or project how long the part will operated with the malfunction before failure. By analyzing properties over time to determine a trend, the microprocessor may avoid ordering parts that were aberrations in operation and not true malfunctions requiring a repair. By way of further example, the monitored vibration data may exceed the operating parameters by a small percentage and then return to normal for at least a pre-determined period of time without again exceeding the operating parameters. Conversely, if the chiller motor vibrations quickly escalate well outside of the normal operating parameters, the microprocessor may earlier or immediately identify the malfunction and a needed repair. The diagnostic parameters preferably include safety limits, wherein parameters measured outside of the safety limits indicate the malfunction creates a safety hazard or indicates an imminent catastrophic system failure and results in an emergency shutdown. Whether or not trend analysis is used as part of the part failure analysis, a separate log of malfunctions determined, as well as the parameters causing each diagnosis, may be compiled and stored in the control center memory. The log may be reviewed by a service technician once on-site. Alternatively, the technician may review the log in advance of arriving at the site by remotely accessing the control center over a communication network, such as the internet. At s500, the microprocessor accesses a bill of materials also stored in the control center memory. It should be appreciated that the bill of materials may be accessed either before or after the HVAC malfunction has been diagnosed. In some circumstances, identifying whether a specific part is a component of the HVAC system may be helpful or necessary to properly analyze and diagnose the malfunction. In combination with the diagnosed error, the bill of materials can be used by the microprocessor to identify the part or parts that need to be replaced in order for the HVAC system to be repaired. In the example of motor bearing failure in the chiller motor, the microprocessor may determine that the chiller has a particular type of chiller motor, and that a particular model number is needed to effect the repair. In some circumstances, the bill of materials may also contain certain other key characteristics of the on-board part useful in ordering a suitable replacement part, for example, in the event the particular model number is no longer available. By way of further example, the bill of materials may contain information regarding the size and capacity of the chiller motor in addition to, or in lieu of, a specific part number. Once the part(s) to be replaced is identified, a request to one or more pre-selected parts centers is initiated at s600 by the microprocessor using a communications port associated with the control center. The communications port may be adapted for either or both of wired and wireless communications and may be telephonic or electronic. Preferably, contact information for multiple pre-selected parts centers is accessible by the microprocessor in the event that the first contacted parts center is unable to deliver the necessary replacement part as discussed below. In addition to the part itself, information for payment and delivery may also be communicated by the microprocessor. The payment and delivery information may be separately stored in memory, but preferably is associated with the bill of materials. The microprocessor is adapted for two-way external communications in order to receive information from the parts center. In this manner, the microprocessor may first order the part at s700 and then receive information sufficient to determine an expected arrival of the replacement part at s800. If the arrival date is beyond a pre-selected period of time, the microprocessor may initiate a call to one of the other pre-selected parts centers in an attempt to more quickly procure the necessary part. If successful in identifying an earlier arrival date, the control center places an order with the parts center providing the earlier-to-arrive part, and if necessary, cancels any less-timely order previously placed with a different parts center. The pre-selected acceptable period of time for delivery may be any desired period of time and may be determined at least in part by the urgency of the repair as calculated during the diagnostics. The pre-selected period of time may also be determined based on a particular customer's status, such as depending on the size, importance or nature of business of the customer. After, the part has been ordered, the microprocessor also initiates a communication to dispatch a service technician to install the replacement part and who may conduct any further on-site analysis that the technician determines is appropriate. The service dispatch may be made directly to a specific technician assigned to the particular HVAC site or may be routed through a service office to dispatch any available technician. As shown in FIG. 1, preferably the microprocessor first determines whether the malfunction that initiated the automatic part procurement process is likely to result in a system failure and/or shutdown prior to the part's arrival at s900. If so, it may be desirable to dispatch a technician in advance of the part's arrival to perform stop-gap maintenance at s910 until the proper part arrives. Preferably, the parameters used to determine whether the HVAC system is operating normally are selected in combination with sensors sensitive enough to diagnose a malfunction well in advance of failure. In this way, the automatic part procurement can be initiated far enough in advance such that the microprocessor dispatches the service technician at s920 in a manner coordinated with the expected arrival of the replacement part. Returning to the example of a chiller with failing motor bearings, the microprocessor may determine that based on the level of vibration detected, the motor is likely to operate for at least another 200 hours to failure. Thus, if the appropriate replacement part procured through the parts center was designated for arrival in four days, a service technician could be automatically dispatched to install the new motor on day five without significant risk of system failure in the interim. It will be appreciated, that in addition to the day, an expected time of delivery may also be provided, such that the expected arrival date includes both the day and time of expected arrival. After the replacement part has been installed, particularly where the replacement part is not the same model number as the part replaced, the bill of materials may be automatically or manually updated by the service technician so that the bill of materials accurately reflects the post-repair make-up of the HVAC system. While the foregoing example was described with respect to motor bearings of a chiller, it will be appreciated that any number of components within a chiller or other HVAC system can be monitored and analyzed using a variety of diagnostic sensors, and that the systems and methods described can be used with these other HVAC systems and their respective components. FIG. 3 illustrates an exemplary system 10 for automated part procurement and service dispatching according to an embodiment of the invention. An HVAC system 110 having an HVAC control center 120 is located at an installation site. HVAC systems which may particularly benefit from the present invention include chillers and other large commercial HVAC systems that are often placed in difficult to service locations, such as on building rooftops, and thus particularly benefit from the efficiency of limiting the number of on-site visits for system repair. As illustrated, the HVAC control center 120 comprises a microprocessor 122, which may be a CPU or any other suitable processor, a memory 124, a communications port 126, and a display screen 128. The display screen 128 is typically, but need not necessarily be, a liquid crystal display (LCD). The display screen 128 typically provides for visual monitoring of the HVAC system 110 operations by the technician once on-site. Preferably, the display screen 128 also permits viewing the bill of materials and a log of recorded faults, including the faults that led to the ordering of the replacement part and the dispatch of the service technician viewing the display screen 128. The memory 124 can be any form of electronic storage device suitable for storing data accessible by the microprocessor 122, including by way of example only, a hard disk, flash memory, CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, or computer memory (RAM or ROM). A plurality of sensors 115 are distributed at pre-determined locations throughout the HVAC system 110, which plurality of sensors 115 are in one-way communication with the control center 120 such that the microprocessor 122 monitors and analyzes data sent by the sensors 115. The microprocessor 122 is in two-way communication with a parts center 200 to order replacement parts as described above via the communications port 126 over a communications network 400, which may be either or both of a wired or wireless communications network. The microprocessor is also in communication with a service office 300 or directly with a service technician via the communications port 126 over the communications network 400 to coordinate the dispatch of the service technician with the arrival of the ordered replacement part as also described above. While the invention has been described with reference to a preferred embodiment, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes may be made and equivalents may be substituted for elements thereof without departing from the scope of the invention. In addition, many modifications may be made to adapt a particular situation or material to the teachings of the invention without departing from the essential scope thereof. Therefore, it is intended that the invention not be limited to the particular embodiment disclosed as the best mode contemplated for carrying out this invention, but that the invention will include all embodiments falling within the scope of the appended claims.	G	G06	G06F	19	00
11578247	US20080158282A1-20080703	Method and Apparatus For Accurately Applying Structures to a Substrate	ACCEPTED	20080619	20080703		[]	B41J2015	["B41J2015", "H01L2102"]	8231931	20070827	20120731	427	058000	98115.0	ANGADI	MAKI	[{"inventor_name_last": "du Pau", "inventor_name_first": "Cornelis Petrus", "inventor_city": "Eindhoven", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "NL"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Evers", "inventor_name_first": "Marinus Franciscus J.", "inventor_city": "Heeze", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "NL"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Brier", "inventor_name_first": "Peter", "inventor_city": "Eindhoven", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "NL"}]	A method wherein a substrate is provided, wherein, in a scanning step, structures already applied to the substrate are detected by at least one scanning provision of a processing head, wherein the processing head is provided with at least one lighting provision, which lighting provision locally lights the applied lacquer structure in a lighting step by using the information obtained with the scanning step. Further, the invention discloses an apparatus for carrying out the method is described, which apparatus is provided with a processing head which is movable relative to a substrate carrier, wherein the processing head comprises at least one scanning provision and at least one lighting provision.	1. A method wherein a substrate is provided, wherein, in a scanning step, structures already applied to the substrate are detected by at least one scanning provision of a processing head, wherein the processing head is provided with at least one lighting provision, which lighting provision 5 locally lights the applied lacquer structure in a lighting step by using the information obtained with the scanning step. 2. A method according to claim 1, wherein the information obtained with the scanning step is also used for depositing the lacquer structure at a desired position. 3. A method according to claim 1, wherein the processing head is further provided with an inkjet printing provision, wherein, in an inkjet printing step, a complete lacquer layer or a lacquer structure is applied to the substrate using the inkjet printing provision of the processing head, wherein, in the inkjet printing step, the lacquer is preferably applied locally 15 for forming a lacquer structure. 4. A method according to claim 3, wherein a said scanning step is carried out immediately prior to the inkjet printing step in that a first scanning provision is provided on the processing head, and that on the upstream side of the inkjet printing provision, viewed in the relative 20 direction of movement of the processing head with respect to the substrate. 5. A method according to claim 3, wherein a said scanning step is carried out immediately after the inkjet printing step in that a second scanning provision is provided on the processing head, and that on the downstream side of the inkjet printing provision, viewed in the relative direction of movement of the processing head with respect to the substrate. 6. A method according to claim 5, wherein, using the information obtained with the second scanning provision, it is determined whether printing has taken place where it should, have and wherein, if this is not the case, the lacquer is still printed at the desired positions in a second printing step. 7. A method, according to claim 1, wherein a said scanning step is carried out immediately prior to the lighting step in that a first scanning provision is provided on the processing head, and that on the upstream side of the lighting provision, viewed in the relative direction of movement of the processing head with respect to the substrate. 8. A method according to claim 7, wherein a said scanning step is carried out immediately after the lighting step in that a second scanning provision is provided on the processing head, and that on the downstream side of the lighting provision, viewed in the relative direction of movement of the processing head with respect to the substrate. 9. A method according to claim 8, wherein, using the information obtained with the second scanning provision, it is determined whether lighting has taken place where it should have and wherein, if this is not the case, the lacquer is still lighted at the desired positions in a second lighting step. 10. A method according to claim 5, wherein the information obtained with the second scanning provision is also fed back to a measuring system with the aid of which the position of the processing head is controlled. 11. A method according to claim 1, wherein the lacquer structure is applied for the purpose of creating a structure in a material layer applied or to be applied to the substrate. 12. A method according to claim 11, wherein the material layer is a metal, such as for instance molybdenum, chromium, etc., a semiconductor, a dielectric layer, such as for instance SiOx, SiNx, or ITO. 13. A method according claim 1, wherein the said steps are part of a method for manufacturing an electronic component, such as for instance a TFT structure, an OLED, a solar cell or the like. 14. A method according to claim 1, wherein the lacquer structure is formed by a photoresist structure. 15. A method according to claim 1, wherein the lacquer structure is formed by a lacquer changing its structure or composition under the influence of a lighting treatment. 16. A method according to claim 1, wherein, in the application of the successive structures, an overlay accuracy is achieved of at least 0.7 micron, more particularly at least 0.4 micron. 17. A method according to claim 1, wherein, in the scanning step, an interferometric measurement or a triangulation measurement or image recognition is carried out. 18. A method according to at least claim 1, wherein the local lighting is carried out using an array of individually controllable lasers, LEDs or similar lighting means which can quickly be switched on and off or modulated, with the aid of which a respective lacquer can be lighted. 19. An apparatus for carrying out the method according to claim 1, wherein the apparatus is provided with a processing head which is movable relative to a substrate carrier, wherein the processing head comprises at least one scanning provision and at least one lighting provision. 20. An apparatus according to claim 19, wherein the processing head is further provided with an inkjet printing provision. 21. An apparatus according to claim 20, wherein the processing head is provided with two lighting provisions, wherein a first lighting provision is provided upstream and a second lighting provision is provided downstream of the inkjet printing provision, viewed in the relative direction of movement of the substrate with respect to the processing head. 22. An apparatus according to claim 20, wherein the processing head is provided with two scanning provisions, wherein a first scanning provision is provided upstream and a second scanning provision is provided downstream of the inkjet printing provision, viewed in the relative direction of movement of the substrate with respect to the processing head. 23. An apparatus according to claim 19, wherein the processing head is provided with two scanning provisions, wherein a first scanning provision is provided upstream and a second scanning provision is provided downstream of the at least one lighting provision, viewed in the relative direction of movement of the substrate with respect to the processing head. 24. An apparatus according to claim 19, wherein the processing head is arranged so as to be movable relative to the fixed world and wherein the substrate carrier is stationary, at least during the carrying out of the lighting step. 25. An apparatus according to claim 19, provided with a control arranged for processing information obtained with the at least one scanning provision, which control is further arranged for controlling the movement of the processing head, and controlling the at least one lighting o provision. 26. An apparatus according to claim 25, wherein the control is further arranged for controlling the various nozzles of an inkjet printer. 27. An apparatus according to claim 19, wherein the scanning provision is arranged for carrying out an interferometric measurement, a triangulation measurement or image recognition. 28. An apparatus according to claim 19, wherein the lighting provision comprises an array of individually controllable lasers, LEDs or similar lighting means which can quickly be switched on and off or modulated, with the aid of which the respective lacquer can be lighted locally.			The invention relates to a method and an apparatus for accurately applying lacquer structures to a substrate. To date, use is often made of masks to locally screen a lacquer, which is used for forming the structures, from lighting. The use of such masks is laborious and expensive. Moreover, for each new structure, a new mask needs to be manufactured. Another problem in applying structures to a substrate is formed by the large amount of lacquer and solvents used therein. Another problem one is faced with is providing structures with sharp outlines. The relative positioning of the structures in the various layers is also an important problem for accurately applying structures to a substrate. Applications of the method may, for instance, be a method for manufacturing electronic components, such as for instance an OLED, a solar cell, a TFT structure on a display or the like. With these components, it is very important that, in a large number of layers of material which are applied successively, the structures therein are very accurately positioned with respect to one another. Here, a so-called overlay accuracy of at least 2 microns and preferably at least 1 micron is desired. The invention contemplates a method for applying lacquer structures to a substrate with which at least a number of the above-described problems are solved. For this purpose, the invention provides a method where, in a scanning step, structures already applied to the substrate are detected by at least one scanning provision of a processing head, while the processing head is provided with at least one lighting provision, which lighting provision locally lights the applied lacquer structure in a lighting step by using the information obtained with the scanning step. Using the scanning provision of the processing head, positions of already applied structures can be determined very accurately, so that the applied lacquer structure can very accurately be lighted locally. Preferably, the processing head forms a direct mechanical coupling between the scanning and the lighting provision, which is strongly favorable to the positioning accuracy. In this context, the term “lighting” is to be understood in a broad sense. “Lighting” is not only understood to mean treatment with visible light, but also with UV radiation, IR radiation, ion beam and E beam. The lighting results in a change of the structure of the lacquer, for instance in that the lacquer cross-links or in that the solvent is removed from the lacquer. The term “lacquer” is also to be understood in a broad sense. Possibilities are photoresist, UV-curing lacquer, PPV and PDOT for the purpose of manufacturing OLEDs, and the like. Through the lighting step, carried out by the lighting provision, structures with fine, sharp boundaries can be obtained. A local lighting step is not understood to mean a lighting step using a mask, but locally lighting the lacquer with the aid of one narrow beam or with an array of narrow beams, which are each individually controllable. With such a narrow beam or array of individually controllable narrow beams—which may for instance be laser beams, infrared beams, visible-light beams, UV beams, ion beams or E beams—the desired structure can be written in the lacquer, as it were. The lighting can take place in those areas where the lacquer needs to be removed or, conversely, in those areas where the lacquer needs to remain present, depending on the lacquer used. According to an aspect of the invention, the information obtained with the scanning step is also used for depositing the lacquer structure at a desired position. In this manner, the new lacquer structure can accurately be positioned with respect to the existing structure. According to a further elaboration of the method, the processing head may also be provided with an inkjet printing provision, where a complete lacquer layer or a lacquer structure is applied to the substrate in an inkjet printing step using the inkjet printing provision of the processing head. Preferably, in the inkjet printing step, the lacquer is applied locally for forming a lacquer structure. In this manner, the depositing of the lacquer is effected by means of an advantageous printing technique. Because the inkjet printing is used, instead of completely covering the substrate with lacquer, the lacquer can be used in a much less wasteful manner. This is because the lacquer only needs to be applied where the forming of structures is desired. Incidentally, the invention does not preclude the possibility that, with the inkjet printing provision, a complete lacquer layer is applied to the substrate instead of a lacquer structure. Further, in this manner, the processing head is provided with both the inkjet printing provision and with the lighting provision. In that case, in one movement of the processing head with respect to the substrate, both the delivery of lacquer and the lighting of the lacquer just applied can be realized. In this manner, the position of the lighting provision is, moreover, directly mechanically coupled to the position of the processing head. As a result, after the application of the lacquer, it can be determined with great accuracy where this lacquer is then lighted using the lighting provision. The direct coupling of the position of the processing head with the lighting provision practically excludes the possibility of the lighting provision carrying out a lighting operation at wrong positions on the substrate. With the local lighting step, the relatively inaccurate outlines of the lacquer applied with the inkjet technique can be “cut off”, so that lighted structures with fine, sharp boundaries are obtained. According to a further elaboration of the invention, a scanning step can be carried out immediately prior to the inkjet printing step in that a first scanning provision is provided on the processing head, and that on the upstream side of the inkjet printing provision, viewed in the relative direction of movement of the processing head with respect to the substrate. With such a scanning step, it is known where the already applied structures are located on the substrate, so that, directly after the scanning step—in the printing step—new structures can accurately be positioned with respect to these structures already present on the substrate. However, it would further be advantageous to immediately check the structure just applied and lighted, for instance to determine whether the lacquer has been applied everywhere in the right manner. For this purpose, according to a further elaboration of the invention, a scanning step can be carried out immediately after the inkjet printing step in that a second scanning provision is provided on the processing head, and that on the downstream side of the inkjet printing provision, viewed in the relative direction of movement of the processing head with respect to the substrate. Here, using the information obtained with the second scanning provision, it can be determined whether printing has taken place where it should have and, if this is not the case, the lacquer can still be printed at the desired positions in a second printing step. For this purpose, the head can go through a forward and backward movement over the same area of the substrate. If it is detected with the second scanning provision that to some areas the lacquer has not yet been applied, lacquer can still be deposited and lighted in those areas in the backward movement. According to an aspect of the invention, a scanning step is carried out immediately prior to the lighting step in that a first scanning provision is provided on the processing head, and that on the upstream side of the lighting provision, viewed in the relative direction of movement of the processing head with respect to the substrate. In this manner, in one movement of the processing head with respect to the substrate, it can be determined where the applied lacquer structure is to be lighted locally, while the lighting of the lacquer can be carried out in the same movement of the processing head. It is then advantageous according to the invention if a scanning step is carried out immediately after the lighting step in that a second scanning provision is provided on the processing head, and that on the downstream side of the lighting provision, viewed in the relative direction of movement of the processing head with respect to the substrate. Thus, using the information obtained with the second scanning provision, it can determined whether lighting has taken place where it should have and, if this is not the case, the lacquer is still lighted at the desired positions in a second lighting step. Also in this case, for this purpose, the head can go through a forward and a backward movement over the same area of the substrate. If it is detected with the second scanning provision that the lacquer has not yet been lighted in some areas, lacquer can still be lighted in those areas in the backward movement. Detecting a desired lighting may, for instance, take place on the basis of an expected change of the lacquer, which change is realized under the influence of the lighting. Such a change may, for instance, be a change in color, structure and/or shape of the lacquer. Detecting in a second scanning step whether lacquer has been lighted at a desired position can of course be combined with detecting whether lacquer has been deposited at a desired position, at least if a lacquer deposition step has also been carried out before this second scanning step. In this manner, the lacquer can relatively rapidly and accurately be deposited as well as lighted, preferably during the forward and backward movements of the processing head. Further, information obtained with the second scanning provision can also be fed back to a measuring system with the aid of which the position of the processing head is controlled. When new structures in a next layer are far removed from a previously applied structure, such a feedback to a measuring system is important because no direct reference can be made to the previously applied structures during the movement of the head over the substrate. According to a further embodiment of the invention, the lacquer structure can be applied for the purpose of creating a structure in a material layer applied or to be applied to the substrate. Such processes are known per se and may, for instance, comprise etching away a material layer which is partly covered with the lacquer structure. Applying material layers to and/or between the lacquer structures as for instance described in U.S. Pat. No. 3,832,176 (a fill-in process) and U.S. Pat. No. 4,674,174 (a lift-off process) is also one of the possibilities. Here, the material layer may, for instance, be a metal, such as for instance molybdenum, chromium, etc., a semiconductor, a dielectric layer, such as for instance SiOx, SiNx, or ITO. However, a plurality of different substances are also possible. The steps of the method according to the invention may be part of a method for manufacturing an electronic component, such as for instance a TFT structure, an OLED, a solar cell or the like. The lacquer structure may be formed by a photoresist structure or by a lacquer curing rapidly under the influence of a lighting operation, such as for instance a UV-curing lacquer. It is also possible that the structure of the lacquer is changed by removing a solvent from the lacquer using the lighting, for instance using IR lighting. Preferably, in the application of the successive structures, an overlay accuracy is achieved of at least 0.7 micron, more particularly at least 0.4 micron. For this purpose, the measurements in the scanning step may, for instance, be based on an interferometric measurement, a triangulation measurement or image recognition. A very accurate local lighting can be carried out using an array of individually controllable lasers, LEDs or similar lighting means which can quickly be switched on and off or modulated with the aid whereof a respective lacquer can be lighted. The invention further relates to an apparatus for carrying out a method according to any one of claims 1-18, wherein the apparatus according to the invention is provided with a processing head which is movable relative to a substrate carrier, wherein the processing head comprises at least one scanning provision and at least one lighting provision. Using the processing head, a desired structure may, for instance, be written in a lacquer applied immediately before that. In order to accurately position the processing head with the lighting provision with respect to already applied structures, the processing head comprises at least one scanning provision. Using this at least one scanning provision, already applied structures can be detected, so that an accurate lacquer lighting can be carried out by the lighting provision. The lighting provision needs to generate at least one, but preferably an array of individually controllable narrow beams, such as for instance laser beams, infrared beams, visible-light beams, UV beams, E beams or ion beams, so that very fine structures can be positioned and formed in the lacquer with great accuracy. According to a further elaboration of the apparatus, the processing head is further provided with an inkjet printing provision. With such an inkjet printing provision, instead of a complete lacquer layer, lacquer structures can be formed, which results in a saving on the lacquer use. Here, it is more particularly preferred if the processing head is provided with two lighting provisions, while a first lighting provision is arranged upstream and a second lighting provision is arranged downstream of the inkjet printing provision, viewed in the relative direction of movement of the substrate with respect to the processing head. With such a head, in two directions of movement, lacquer can be applied and be lighted immediately afterwards. Further, the processing head is preferably provided with two scanning provisions, while a first scanning provision is arranged upstream and a second scanning provision is arranged downstream of the inkjet printing provision, viewed in the relative direction of movement of the substrate with respect to the processing head. With such a head, both prior to applying the lacquer and immediately afterwards, scanning can take place during the relative movement of the head with respect to the substrate. The measurements carried out during scanning can be used for regulating the delivery of lacquer with the aid of the processing head in a backward movement of the processing head. In addition, the measurements can be used for positioning the structures in the lacquer with the aid of the lighting provision. According to an aspect of the invention, for this purpose, the processing head is provided with two scanning provisions, while a first scanning provision is arranged upstream and a second scanning provision is arranged downstream of the at least one lighting provision, viewed in the relative direction of movement of the substrate with respect to the processing head. As a result, both prior to lighting the lacquer and immediately afterwards, scanning can take place during the relative movement of the head with respect to the substrate. In this case, the measurements carried out during scanning can be used for regulating the lacquer lighting with the aid of the processing head in a backward movement of the processing head. In this manner, it can be determined whether lighting has taken place where it should have and, if this is not the case, the lacquer can still be lighted at the desired positions in a second lighting step. Because the head is provided with two scanning provisions, lacquer can moreover be lighted accurately in two directions of movement of the head. In order to expose the substrate to vibrations and similar conditions causing inaccuracy as little as possible, it is preferred to arrange the processing head so as to be movable relative to the fixed world, while the substrate carrier is stationary, at least during the carrying out of the inkjet printing step and the lighting step of the method. It will be clear that the apparatus is provided with a control arranged for processing information obtained with the at least one scanning provision, which control is further arranged for controlling the movement of the processing head, and controlling the at least one lighting provision. Further, the control may also be arranged for controlling the various nozzles of the inkjet printing provision. The scanning provision may be arranged for carrying out, for instance, an interferometric measurement, a triangulation measurement or image recognition. Such measurements provide a very high accuracy. The at least one lighting provision for creating the at least one narrow beam may comprise an array of individually controllable lasers, LEDs or similar lighting means which can quickly be switched on and off or modulated, with the aid of which a respective lacquer can be lighted locally. The invention will now be explained in more detail on the basis of an exemplary embodiment, with reference to the drawing, in which: FIG. 1 shows a diagrammatic perspective view of a combined inkjet printhead with double lighting provision and double scanning provision; FIGS. 2-14 each show, in a left part, a cross-sectional view and, in a right part, a corresponding perspective view of a substrate undergoing a number of method steps; and finally FIG. 15 diagrammatically shows the various process steps gone through for applying a structure in a layer of material applied to a substrate. FIG. 1 shows a substrate S and an inkjet printhead 1 comprising a rod-shaped array of nozzles. On both sides of the inkjet printhead 1, a rod-shaped lighting provision 2, 3 and a rod-shaped scanning provision 4, 5 are fixedly connected with the inkjet printhead 1. Each rod-shaped lighting provision 2, 3 comprises an array of LEDs, lasers or the like which can be modulated individually for intensity, for instance in that they can be switched on and off individually. Each rod-shaped scanning provision 4, 5 comprises an array of sensors. The head as a whole is bearing-mounted with guides 6, 7 and provided with a drive 8 with the aid of which the head can be moved over the substrate S. In a movement of the head over the substrate S, using a scanning rod 4, 5, structures already applied to the substrate S can be detected and, depending thereon, using the inkjet printhead 1, the lacquer can be deposited on the substrate at the desired moment, such that the position of the lacquer is adjusted to the positions of the previously applied structures. Further, in the same movement, the lacquer can be lighted directly using the lighting rods 2, 3, while use can also be made of the positions of the already applied structures detected with the scanning rods 4, 5. Because lighting rods 2, 3 and scanning rods 4, 5 are provided on both sides of the inkjet printhead 1, the steps of scanning, printing and lighting can be carried out both in a forward and a backward movement. In addition, as a result of the double scanning rod 4, 5, the printed and lighted structure can be measured directly and, optionally, on the basis of the measurements, a second printing, lighting and a second scanning step can be gone through for correcting possibly incomplete structures applied in the first printing and lighting step. FIGS. 2-14 show an example of a process of which the method according to the invention is part. The process shown is exclusively an example and is particularly suitable for manufacturing, for instance, a TFT structure on a substrate. The method for applying lacquer structures may also be used in different processes, for instance in processes as described in U.S. Pat. No. 3,832,176 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,674,174. Further, the method may also be used for accurately applying PDOT and PPV or similar organic lacquers to a substrate for manufacturing an OLED or for manufacturing electronic components, such as for instance solar cells. FIG. 2 shows a substrate S. FIG. 3 shows the same substrate after the deposition of a layer of material 9 on the substrate S over the whole surface of the substrate S (step (a)). FIG. 4 then shows the substrate S after the inkjet printing step (step (b)) of the method has been gone through. With some overmeasure, using inkjet printing, the desired structure has been applied to the substrate S in the form of a lacquer 10, such as for instance photoresist or a different lacquer changing its structure under the influence of electromagnetic radiation (UV, visible, IR), E beam or ion beam. Instead of local application of the lacquer, full-surface printing of the lacquer could also be used. FIG. 5 shows the substrate S after it has gone through the lighting step (step (c)). Clearly visible are the sharp boundaries 11a of the structures 11 which have been applied using the lighting. FIG. 6 then shows the substrate S after a developing step (step (d)) has been gone through, i.e. after the lacquer has been developed and the lighted lacquer has been preserved and the non-lighted lacquer parts have been removed or vice versa. FIG. 6 clearly shows that the layer of material 9 in which the structure is to be provided is still completely present. Then, an etching step (step (e)) is gone through of which the result is shown in FIG. 7. It is clearly visible that the material layer 9 has now substantially been removed with the exception of the structure areas where the lacquer structure 11 is still present. Then, using an incineration step, the cured lacquer 11 which is still present is removed (step (f)). The result thereof is shown in FIG. 8. Removing the cured lacquer which is still present can also be carried out using solvents. In FIGS. 9-14, the respective steps (a)-(f) are again repeated for applying a structure in a second material layer 12 which has been deposited on the previous material layer 9 and the substrate S. It goes without saying that the process can be repeated a further number of times for applying an accumulation of different structures applied in successive material layers. Finally, FIG. 15 diagrammatically shows a number of blocks which each represent a processing station in which the various steps carried out per processing station are shown. In block a1, deposition of the material 9 on the substrate S takes place; in block a2, the deposited material is cleaned (this step is not necessary for all materials); in block bc, the printing, lighting and scanning takes place; in block d, the lacquer is developed, whereby the lighted lacquer structure is preserved and the non-lighted lacquer parts are removed or vice versa; in block d2, the remaining lacquer structure is baked to cure it further; in block e, the excess material is etched away. Only under the lacquer structures which are still present, the material remains present during the etching treatment, which is intended; in block f, the remaining cured lacquer structure is then removed using, for instance, an incineration step or using solvents. It will be clear that the invention is not limited to the exemplary embodiment described. The description of the figures each time refers to an inkjet printhead because, in the exemplary embodiment, the head is provided with an inkjet printing provision 1. It already appears from the claims that one main provision on the head is the at least one lighting provision, while another main provision is the scanning provision; this is why the term processing head is used in the claims. Therefore, the invention also comprises an embodiment in which the head is not provided with an inkjet printing provision but only with at least one lighting provision, supplemented with at least one scanning provision. In the latter case, the head may, for instance, be referred to as a lighting head. Further, for instance, processing steps may be added between the processing steps described. Here, possibilities are cleaning steps for, for instance, removing waste created after the incineration step. Also, instead of horizontal, the orientation of the substrate could, for instance, be vertical. Further, instead of the inkjet printhead, the substrate could move and the inkjet printhead could be stationary. As already indicated hereinabove, the method may also be used in completely different processes, namely processes in which the accurate application of a lacquer locally undergoing a structure change due to lighting with electromagnetic radiation (IR, visible and/or UV), E beam or ion beam plays a role. In order to calibrate the apparatus, use may be made of a calibration grid placed in the apparatus instead of a substrate. Further, a substrate may already have been provided with a lacquer layer in different manners, for instance by spin coating, spraying or immersion.	B	B41	B41J	20	15
11691178	US20080243052A1-20081002	Guide and Method for Inserting an Elongated Member Into a Patient	ACCEPTED	20080917	20081002		[]	A61M500	["A61M500"]	7993344	20070326	20110809	606	08600A	97114.0	KOSTELNIK	SUMMER	[{"inventor_name_last": "Pond", "inventor_name_first": "John Durward", "inventor_city": "Germantown", "inventor_state": "TN", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Dewey", "inventor_name_first": "Jonathan M.", "inventor_city": "Memphis", "inventor_state": "TN", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Patterson", "inventor_name_first": "Christopher M.", "inventor_city": "Olive Branch", "inventor_state": "MS", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Carls", "inventor_name_first": "Thomas A.", "inventor_city": "Memphis", "inventor_state": "TN", "inventor_country": "US"}]	The present application is directed to guides for inserting an elongated member into a patient. The guide generally includes an elongated shape with a distal end that is positioned within the patient, and a proximal end that may be positioned outside of the patient. The guide may include a channel formed between sidewalls. The channel is sized to receive the elongated member and guide the member into a predetermined location within the patient. In one embodiment, the guide is used with an insertion device that may include a pivoting carriage for initially inserting the guide and then the elongated member into the patient. The guide may also be used in a freehand technique that is positioned specifically within the patient by the surgeon.	1. A device to insert an elongated member into a patient during a surgical procedure, the device comprising: an elongated guide including a distal end that is placed within the patient and a proximal that is positioned outside of the patient, the guide including opposing sidewalls that form a channel sized to receive and partially extend around the elongated member; wherein one side of the guide is open. 2. The device of claim 1, wherein the guide includes a curved section positioned between the distal and proximal ends. 3. The device of claim 2, further comprising a second section that is substantially straight, the second section positioned adjacent to the curved section. 4. The device of claim 1, further comprising at least one extension that extends outward from one of the sidewalls and across the channel. 5. The device of claim 1, wherein the guide is constructed from first and second sections that are relatively movable to adjust a size of the channel. 6. The device of claim 5, wherein each of the first and second sections includes diagonal edges that contact together. 7. A device to insert an elongated member into a patient during a surgical procedure, the device comprising: an elongated guide including a distal end that is placed within the patient and a proximal that is positioned outside of the patient, the guide including opposing sidewalls that form a channel sized to receive and partially extend around the elongated member; wherein the guide is constructed of a first section and a second section that are relatively movable to adjust a size of the channel. 8. The device of claim 7, wherein one side of the guide is open. 9. The device of claim 7, wherein the first section includes a tab that fits into a receptacle in the second section. 10. The device of claim 7, wherein the guide is substantially U shaped with the opposing sidewalls and an intermediate side. 11. A device to insert an elongated member into a patient during a surgical procedure, the device comprising: an insertion device comprising at least one anchor extension and a carriage pivotally attached to the anchor extension, the carriage including an inserter with a curved shape that terminates at a tip; and a guide including opposing sidewalls that form a channel sized to extend around and attach with a section of the carriage, the guide including an elongated shape with a distal end and a proximal end; the carriage pivotable between a first orientation with the inserter and the guide positioned exterior to the patient and a second orientation with the inserter and the guide inserted into the patient; the guide sized to be removable from the inserter and remaining within the patient when the carriage is pivoted from the second orientation to the first orientation, the guide being positioned with the distal end remaining within the patient and the proximal end positioned outside of the patient. 12. The device of claim 11, wherein the channel includes an open side. 13. The device of claim 12, further comprising an extension that extends from the sidewalls and across the open side of the channel. 14. The device of claim 11, wherein the channel includes a tapered width that reduces from the proximal end towards the distal end. 15. The device of claim 11, wherein the distal end of the guide includes a pair of opposing fingers separated by an opening that is aligned with the channel. 16. The device of claim 11, wherein the guide is constructed of first and second sections that are operatively connected together, the first and second sections being relatively movable to adjust a width of the channel. 17. The device of claim 16, wherein the first section includes a tab and the second section includes a receptacle, the tab being sized to adjustably fit within the receptacle. 18. The device of claim 11, wherein the guide is curved along a substantial section of the length. 19. The device of claim 11, wherein the guide includes a substantial straight section and a curved section. 20. The device of claim 11, further including a handle that is attached to an exterior surface of the guide. 21. The device of claim 11, further comprising a locking mechanism to lock the guide to the inserter. 22. A device to insert an elongated member into a patient during a surgical procedure, the device comprising: an extension sized to connect with an anchor within the patient, the extension including a first end configured to mount with the anchor and a second end spaced away from the first end; a carriage pivotally attached to the extension in proximity to the second end, the carriage including an inserter with a distal tip; and a guide removably attached to the inserter with a channel sized to receive the inserter; wherein the carriage is pivotable between a first orientation with the inserter and the guide positioned exterior to the patient and a second orientation with the inserter and the guide inserted into the patient. 23. The device of claim 22, wherein the extension includes an opening at the first end, the opening including a width that is greater than a guide width such that the guide can move into the extension when the carriage is in the second orientation. 24. A device to insert an elongated member into a patient during a surgical procedure, the device comprising: an extension with a first end mounted to anchors secured to the patient and a second end spaced away from the first end; a carriage attached to the extension and movable about a pivot axis, the carriage including an inserter with an elongated shape that terminates at a distal tip; a guide including a pair of sidewalls that form a channel adapted to fit onto an exterior of the inserter; the carriage being pivotal about the pivot axis between a first orientation with the inserter positioned exterior to the patient to receive the guide and a second orientation to position a distal section of the guide within the patient. 25. The device of claim 24, wherein the inserter extends along the length of the guide from the distal tip to a proximal section. 26. The device of claim 24, wherein a distal end of the guide aligns with the distal tip when the guide is positioned on the exterior of the inserter. 27. The device of claim 24, wherein the guide includes an open side opposite from the pair of sidewalls and the inserter extends outward from the open side when the guide is positioned on the exterior of the inserter. 28. The device of claim 24, wherein a sectional shape of the guide and the inserter is substantially the same. 29. A method of inserting an elongated member into a patient during a surgical procedure, the method comprising: attaching a guide with sidewalls, a channel, and an open side to an exterior of an inserter; inserting the inserter and the guide into the patient and positioning a distal end of the guide at a predetermined position within the patient and maintaining a proximal end of the guide outside of the patient; removing the inserter from the patient and maintaining the guide at the predetermined position within the patient; aligning a first end of the elongated member with the proximal end of the guide; moving the elongated member along the channel of the guide and positioning the elongated member at the predetermined position within the patient; and removing the guide from the patient while the elongated member remains at the predetermined position. 30. The method of claim 29, further comprising locking the guide to the exterior of the inserter prior to insertion into the patient. 31. The method of claim 29, wherein the step of attaching the guide to the exterior of the inserter further includes aligning the distal end of the guide with an end of the inserter. 32. The method of claim 29, further comprising attaching a handle to the guide and grasping the handle to remove the guide from the patient. 33. A method of inserting an elongated member into a patient during a surgical procedure, the method comprising: attaching an insertion system to a patient with distal ends of an extension connected to an anchor within the patient and a proximal end of the extension extending out of the patient; positioning a carriage attached to the extension at a first orientation with an inserter of the carriage positioned out of the patient; attaching a guide that includes a channel to an exterior of the inserter while the carriage is in the first orientation; moving the carriage about a pivot axis to a second orientation with distal ends of the inserter and the guide within the patient and a proximal end of the guide extending out of the patient; detaching the guide from the inserter while the distal end of the guide remains within the patient; and inserting the elongated member along the guide and into the patient. 34. The method of claim 33, wherein the step of moving the carriage about the pivot axis to the second orientation with distal ends of the inserter and the guide within the patient and a proximal end of the guide extending out of the patient further includes moving the distal end of the guide through the anchor within the patient. 35. The method of claim 33, wherein the step of moving the carriage about the pivot axis to the second orientation with distal ends of the inserter and the guide within the patient and a proximal end of the guide extending out of the patient further includes moving the distal end of the guide in proximity to the extension. 36. The method of claim 33, wherein the step of inserting the elongated member along the guide and into the patient comprises sliding the elongated member along the channel from the proximal end to the distal end of the guide. 37. The method of claim 33, wherein the step of inserting the elongated member along the guide and into the patient comprises sliding the elongated member along the channel and underneath the extension that extends across an open side of the channel. 38. The method of claim 33, wherein the step of attaching the guide that includes the channel to the exterior of the inserter while the carriage is in the first orientation comprises locking the guide to the exterior of the inserter. 39. The method of claim 33, wherein the step of attaching the guide to the exterior of the channel further comprises expanding a width of the channel.	<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The application is a guide for insertion of an elongated member into a patient and, more particularly, to a guide with a channel to receive and position the elongated member percutaneously within a patient. Elongated members such as rods, cables, wires, and the like are inserted into patients during various surgical procedures. One example is a vertebral rod implanted to support and position two or more vertebral members in one or more regions of the spine. The elongated member is attached by anchors to the vertebral members when positioned within the patient. Often times the elongated members are constructed of a material that bends or flexes upon the application of an insertion force. This property often makes it difficult to insert the elongated member into the patient as the leading tip moves off course during insertion. Previous insertion methods have required a large incision through the skin and detachment of muscles to access the implant site. This type of procedure usually results in a longer surgical procedure with greater amounts of blood loss and increased anesthesia time. These procedures may also have a higher risk of infection, require a longer postoperative recovery time, and result in additional pain and discomfort to the patient. It is also necessary for accurate placement of the elongated member within the patient. A guide should provide a route for accurately inserting the elongated member. The guide should also be sized for a minimum incision to reduce the damage to the patient.	<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The present application is directed to guides for inserting an elongated member into a patient. The guide generally includes an elongated shape with a distal end that is positioned within the patient, and a proximal end that may be positioned outside of the patient. The guide may include a channel formed between sidewalls. The channel may be sized to receive the elongated member and guide the member into a predetermined location within the patient. In one embodiment, the guide is used with an insertion device that may include a pivoting carriage for initially inserting the guide and then the elongated member into the patient. The guide may also be used in a freehand technique that is positioned independently into the patient by the surgeon.	BACKGROUND The application is a guide for insertion of an elongated member into a patient and, more particularly, to a guide with a channel to receive and position the elongated member percutaneously within a patient. Elongated members such as rods, cables, wires, and the like are inserted into patients during various surgical procedures. One example is a vertebral rod implanted to support and position two or more vertebral members in one or more regions of the spine. The elongated member is attached by anchors to the vertebral members when positioned within the patient. Often times the elongated members are constructed of a material that bends or flexes upon the application of an insertion force. This property often makes it difficult to insert the elongated member into the patient as the leading tip moves off course during insertion. Previous insertion methods have required a large incision through the skin and detachment of muscles to access the implant site. This type of procedure usually results in a longer surgical procedure with greater amounts of blood loss and increased anesthesia time. These procedures may also have a higher risk of infection, require a longer postoperative recovery time, and result in additional pain and discomfort to the patient. It is also necessary for accurate placement of the elongated member within the patient. A guide should provide a route for accurately inserting the elongated member. The guide should also be sized for a minimum incision to reduce the damage to the patient. SUMMARY The present application is directed to guides for inserting an elongated member into a patient. The guide generally includes an elongated shape with a distal end that is positioned within the patient, and a proximal end that may be positioned outside of the patient. The guide may include a channel formed between sidewalls. The channel may be sized to receive the elongated member and guide the member into a predetermined location within the patient. In one embodiment, the guide is used with an insertion device that may include a pivoting carriage for initially inserting the guide and then the elongated member into the patient. The guide may also be used in a freehand technique that is positioned independently into the patient by the surgeon. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a slide inserted within a patient according to one embodiment. FIG. 2 is a perspective view of a guide according to one embodiment. FIG. 3 is a sectional view taken along line III-III of FIG. 2 illustrating a shape of a channel. FIG. 4 is a section view illustrating a shape of a channel according to one embodiment. FIG. 5 is a section view illustrating a shape of a channel according to one embodiment. FIG. 6 is an exploded sectional view of guide constructed of first and second sections according to one embodiment. FIG. 6A is a perspective view of guide constructed of first and second sections according to one embodiment. FIG. 6B is a sectional view illustrating a guide constructed according to one embodiment. FIG. 7 is a perspective view of a guide according to one embodiment. FIG. 8 is a partial top view of a distal section of a guide according to one embodiment. FIG. 9 is a partial top view of a distal section of a guide according to one embodiment. FIG. 10 is a partial perspective view of a proximal section of a guide according to one embodiment. FIG. 11 is a perspective view of a guide mounted on an inserter in a first orientation prior to insertion into a patient according to one embodiment. FIG. 12 is perspective view of a guide mounted on an inserter in a second orientation inserted into a patient according to one embodiment. FIG. 13 is a partial perspective view of a guide inserted within extensions according to one embodiment. FIG. 14 is a perspective view of a guide within a patient and the inserter in a first orientation according to one embodiment. FIG. 15 is a perspective view of a guide within a patient and an elongated member being moved into the guide by an inserter according to one embodiment. FIG. 16 is a perspective view of a guide within a patient and an elongated member being moved through the guide by an inserter according to one embodiment. FIG. 17 is a perspective view of a guide within a patient and an elongated member positioned within extensions according to one embodiment. FIG. 18 is a perspective view of a guide mounted on an inserter in a second orientation inserted into a patient according to one embodiment. FIG. 19 is a perspective view of a guide and a detached trocar according to one embodiment. FIG. 20 is a perspective view of a handle according to one embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present application is directed to a device for guiding an elongated member into a patient. The device may be constructed for percutaneous use with a distal section being inserted into the patient and a proximal section remaining outside of the patient. Once the device is inserted, it forms a guide for inserting and positioning the elongated member within the patient. FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic view of one embodiment of a device 20, generally referred to as a guide. Guide 20 includes an elongated shape with a distal end 21 and a proximal end 22. Guide 20 is inserted into the patient with the distal end 21 inserted through the skin 101 and into the patient while the proximal end 22 remains exterior to the patient. Guide 20 forms an insertion route for positioning an elongated member 30 into the patient. In this embodiment, guide 20 directs the elongated member 30 to anchors 90 for attachment to bony members 190. Guide 20 acts as a conduit for placement of the elongated member 30 into the patient. The elongated member 30 may be constructed of a material that may be unable to be inserted directly into the patient without adverse flexing that makes positioning difficult, or may even cause damage to the member. FIG. 2 illustrates one embodiment of the guide 20 with an elongated shape that terminates at a distal end 21 and a proximal end 22. A channel 23 is sized to receive the elongated member 30. Channel 23 may extend the entire length of the guide 20 with open distal and proximal ends as illustrated in the embodiment of FIG. 2, or along a limited length. Channel 23 may include a variety of different shapes. FIG. 3 includes one embodiment with the channel 23 formed by opposing sidewalls 24 and an intermediate side 25. In this embodiment, sidewalls 24 are substantially parallel. FIG. 4 illustrates another embodiment that is substantially V-shaped with a pair of sidewalls 24. FIG. 5 illustrates an embodiment with a continuous sidewall 24 with a curved configuration that forms the channel 23. In some embodiments, channel 23 includes a fixed shape and size. In other embodiments, channel 23 is adjustable depending upon the context of use. FIG. 6 includes a guide 20 constructed as two separate sections. A first section includes a sidewall 24 and a tab 26 that extends outward from an intermediate side 25. A second section includes a corresponding sidewall 24 and intermediate side 25 with a receptacle 27 sized to receive the tab 26. The first and second sections are adjustable in directions indicated by arrow A. Adjustment of the sections provides for varying the size of the channel 23 to receive a variety of sizes of elongated members 30. In another embodiment, guide 20 is constructed of a flexible material that allows the size of the channel 23 to vary depending upon the size of the elongated member 30. FIG. 6A illustrates another embodiment with first and second sections connected together along diagonal surfaces 129. The size of the channel 23 may be adjusted by sliding the surfaces 129 across each other. In another embodiment as illustrated in FIG. 6B, guide 20 is made of a flexible material that is biased towards a first shape with a closed or reduced channel 23. Guide 20 is flexible such that insertion of the elongated member 30 causes the guide 20 to generally conform to the shape of the elongated member 30. Guide 20 may include a substantially open side that leads into the channel 23 as illustrated in FIG. 2. In other embodiments, channel 23 is covered along one or more sections. FIG. 7 includes extensions 28 that extend from the sidewalls 24 over the channel 23. Extensions 28 may extend completely across the channel 23 such as the two proximal extensions 28 of FIG. 7. Alternatively, extensions 28 may extend a limited distance from one or both sidewalls 24 leaving an opening over the channel 23 as illustrated by the distal extension 28 of FIG. 7. The overall shape of the guide 20 may vary depending upon the context of use. In one embodiment as illustrated in FIG. 2, guide 20 is curved substantially along the entire length. In another embodiment as illustrated in FIG. 7, guide 20 includes a first section 120 that is substantially straight, and a second curved section 121. In this embodiment, the first straight section 120 is at the proximal portion of the guide 20 and the curved section 121 at the distal portion. In another embodiment, the distal section is substantially straight and the proximal section curved. Further, guide 20 may include multiple curved and straight sections along the length. The distal end 21 is positioned within the patient to deliver the elongated member 30. FIG. 8 illustrates one embodiment that includes a pair of opposing fingers 31 separated by an opening 32. The opening 32 is sized for insertion of a set screw as will be explained in detail below. In this embodiment, the fingers 31 are aligned with and extend outward from the sidewalls 24. FIG. 9 illustrates another embodiment with the sidewalls 24 extending completely to the distal end 21. As illustrated in FIG. 10, the proximal end 22 may include a flange 34. Flange 34 is positioned at the end of the channel 23 and may include a larger width than the sidewalls 24. Flange 34 provides a handle for grasping and manipulating the guide 20 during the surgical procedure. Flange 34 may also act as a stop to limit the extent of insertion of the guide 20 into the patient. The guide 20 may be used in many different applications. One application of the guide 20 is with a SEXTANT rod insertion system available from Medtronic Sofamor Danek of Memphis, Tenn. FIG. 11 illustrates the guide 20 mounted to the rod insertion system 100. The rod insertion system 100 includes a carriage 110 that is pivotally mounted to one or more extensions 101. Carriage 110 includes an elongated inserter 120 that is inserted into the patient. Carriage 110 moves about a pivot axis X between a first orientation as illustrated in FIG. 11 with the inserter 120 away from the patient, and a second orientation as illustrated in FIG. 12 with the inserter 120 positioned within the patient. Guide 20 is sized to mount to the inserter 120 for insertion and positioning into the patient. Embodiments of insertion systems are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,530,929 and U.S. Patent Application Publication 2005/0171540 each incorporated herein by reference. Extensions 101 are hollow conduits that are attached to the anchors 90 mounted to the bony members within the patient. Extensions 101 include a distal end 102 that attaches to the anchors 90 and a proximal end 103 operatively connected to the carriage 110. In one embodiment, a shaft (not illustrated) extends through each extension 101 along the pivot axis X to connect the carriage 110 to the extensions 101. Extensions 101 include a hollow interior for receiving a set screw to attach the elongated member 30 to the anchor 90. Extensions 101 may include an elongated shape such that the proximal end 103 remains exterior to the patient during the surgical procedure. In multiple-extension embodiments, each of the extensions 101 may be substantially identical or may be different. Extensions 101 may attach to a variety of different anchors 90. Examples of the anchors 90 include but are not limited to top-loading, side loading, off-set connectors, cross-link connectors, fixed angle screws, and multi-angle screws. Carriage 110 is pivotally attached to the extensions 101 and movable between the first and second orientations. Carriage 110 includes a first end with opposing arms 111 that are spaced apart and straddle the extensions 101. The inserter 120 is positioned at the ends of the arms 111 and includes an elongated shape that extends from a first end 121 at the arms 111 and terminates at a distal tip 122. The tip 122 and/or distal end 21 of the guide 20 may be sharpened to facilitate insertion of the inserter 120 into the patient. The sectional shape of the inserter 120 may be the same as the channel 23. In one embodiment, inserter 120 is substantially rectangular to correspond to the channel 23 of FIG. 3. Other embodiments may include a triangular shape that corresponds to the guide 20 of FIG. 4, and a circular shape of the guide 20 of FIG. 5. The guide 20 may attach to the inserter 120 in various manners. In one embodiment, the inserter 120 includes a tapered width that increases from the distal tip 122 towards the first end 121. Attachment includes aligning the proximal end 22 of the guide 20 with the distal tip 122 of the inserter 120. The guide 20 is then slid in a proximal direction with the inserter 120 within the channel 23. Sliding may continue until the increasing width of the inserter 120 matches the width of the channel 23. In one embodiment, further proximal movement of the guide 20 coincides with the distal end 21 of the guide 20 substantially aligned with the distal tip 122 of the inserter 120. In another embodiment, the channel 23 includes a tapered width that controls the positioning of the guide 20 on the inserter 120. In another embodiment, both inserter 120 and channel 23 are tapered. Another attachment method includes aligning the guide 20 along the inserter 120. Once aligned, the guide 20 is laterally moved to capture the inserter 120 within the channel 23. In one embodiment, the guide 20 flexes outward during insertion of the inserter 120 thus creating a biasing force that locks the guide 20 onto the exterior of the inserter 120. One or both of the inserter 120 and the guide 20 may include a locking mechanism 60 to attach the guide 20 to the inserter 120. FIG. 14 illustrates one embodiment with a pair of locking mechanisms 60 on each of the guide 20 and inserter 120. Locking mechanisms 60 may include various embodiments including a ball and detent combination, a biased member that extends outward from and contacts a receiving surface, slot and groove arrangement, ramped features, ratchet teeth, over-center latching mechanism, Nitinol and shape-memory latches, and threaded pins. In one embodiment, locking mechanism 60 includes a rim at the proximal end 22 of the guide 20 that attaches within a notch at the first end 121 of the inserter 120. One embodiment of using the guide 20 with the rod insertion system 100 is illustrated in FIGS. 11-17. Prior to use of the guide 20, the system 100 is mounted with the extensions 101 attached to anchors 90 positioned within the patient. In one embodiment, the proximal end 103 and carriage 110 are exterior to the patient with the distal ends 102 of the extensions 101 within the patient. For purposes of clarity, the patient is not illustrated in FIGS. 11-17. The guide 20 is attached to the inserter 120 when it is in a first orientation as illustrated in FIG. 11. As previously explained, the guide 20 may be slid or snap-fit onto the inserter 120. In one embodiment, the guide 20 and inserter 120 include substantially the same radius of curvature. In another embodiment, the guide 20 includes a different radius of curvature. After attachment, the carriage 110 is pivoted about the pivot axis X relative to the extensions 101 to move the carriage to a second orientation with the inserter 120 and guide 20 within the patient. As illustrated in FIG. 12, the pivoting movement is in the direction of arrow B. The distal section 21 of the guide 20 and distal tip 122 of the inserter 120 include a relatively small area which facilitates insertion into the patient. In one embodiment, the distal end of section 21 may be sharpened to further facilitate the insertion. The carriage 110 continues to be pivoted until the distal section 21 is positioned relative to the first extension 101. In one embodiment as illustrated in FIG. 12, this includes the distal section 21 contacting the outer side of the extension 101. This may include the fingers 31 (FIG. 8) inserted into the distal end 102 of the first extension 101 with the opening 32 positioned over the anchor 90. In another embodiment, the distal section 21 is in proximity to but spaced away from the outer side of the extension 101. In another embodiment, the guide 20 is positioned within one or more of the extensions 101. FIG. 13 includes an embodiment with anchors 90 including a saddle 91 with an opening 92. Extensions 101 also include an opening 106 at the distal end 102. Extensions 101 are mounted with the openings 106 aligned with the opening 92 in the saddle 91. The combined openings 92, 106 are sized to initially receive the guide 20 and subsequently the elongated member 30. In one embodiment, the guide 20 extends outward from the distal tip 122 of the inserter 120 and only the guide is positioned within the extensions 101. In another embodiment, both the guide 20 and inserter 120 are positioned within the extensions. Returning to the overall method, FIG. 14 illustrates the next step with the inserter 120 moved back to the first orientation once the guide 20 is positioned within the patient. Specifically, the carriage 110 is pivoted about the pivot axis X in the direction of arrow C thus removing the inserter 120 from the patient. During removal, the inserter 120 moves within the channel 23 thus allowing the guide 20 to remain positioned within the patient. As illustrated in FIG. 15, the elongated member 30 is then mounted to the inserter 120. The elongated member 30 may extend outward from the distal tip 122 of the inserter 120, or may be positioned inward from the tip 122. Inserter 120 may be hollow and sized to contain the member 30. Once the elongated member 30 is mounted to the inserter 120, the carriage 110 is again pivoted about the pivot axis X and the inserter 120 and elongated member 30 are moved from the first orientation towards the second orientation and into the patient. As illustrated in FIG. 16, this movement causes the elongated member 30 to move along the channel 23. Guide 20 protects the member 30 during the insertion into the patient and directs the leading end to the extensions 101. The elongated member 30 may contact and slide along the sides 24, 25 of the channel 23 during the insertion. This contact limits any flexing of member 30 which may possibly cause damage to or deflection of the member 30. FIG. 17 illustrates the carriage 110 moved to the second orientation and the elongated member 30 being inserted into each of the extensions 101. Once in this position, set screws (not illustrated) may be inserted through the hollow interiors of the extensions 101 to permanently attach the elongated member 20 to each anchor 90. The inserter 120 and guide 20 may then be removed from the patient. In one embodiment, the guide 20 remains attached to the inserter 120 and is removed as the carriage 110 moves back to the first orientation. In another embodiment, the guide 20 is detached from the inserter 120 and the two elements are separately removed from the patient. Flange 34 provides a convenient handle for grasping and removing the guide 20 from the patient. The embodiment described in FIGS. 11-17 includes the guide 20 in use with the rod insertion system 100. FIG. 18 includes another application with the guide in use with a carriage 110 attached to a single extender 101. The carriage 110 pivots about pivot axis X and guide 20 is attached in a similar manner as described above. The carriage 110 introduces the guide 20 into the patient and aligns the distal end 21 of the guide 20 with the first anchor 90. As described above, the guide 20 may be aligned relative to just the first anchor 90, or may extend through the first anchor 90 and align with a subsequent anchor 90. After the guide 20 is positioned within the patient, the carriage 110 is pivoted to the second orientation removing the inserter 120 from the guide 20. The elongated member 30 may be attached to the inserter 120 as described above, or may be inserted by hand by the surgeon. FIG. 19 illustrates another embodiment of a guide 20 for insertion in a freehand method by the surgeon. Guide 20 includes a handle 130 mounted at the proximal end 22 for grasping and manipulating the guide 20 by the surgeon. In one embodiment, a trocar 37 is attached to the distal end 21 to facilitate insertion into the patient. The trocar 37 includes a sharpened tip for insertion through the skin 101 and tissue during positioning within the patient. Trocar 37 may also prevent tissue from entering into the channel 23 as the guide 20 is introduced into the patient. This keeps the channel 23 free for insertion of the elongated member 30. In one embodiment, trocar 37 is a separate member that attaches to the distal end 22. In another embodiment, trocar 37 is attached to an elongated extension 38. The trocar 37 is positioned at the distal end 21 with the extension 38 positioned within the channel 23 and extending outward from the proximal end 22. Once the guide 20 is inserted within the patient, the trocar 37 may be removed through the channel 23 by pulling on the extension 38. In one embodiment, handle 130 is permanently attached to the guide 20. In another embodiment, handle 130 is removably attached to the guide 20. FIG. 20 illustrates a removable handle 130 that includes a grip 131 for grasping by the surgeon and movable jaws 133. Jaws 133 may be adjusted to extend around and grasp the guide 20. In one embodiment, jaws 133 are positioned distally below the flange 34 at the proximal end of the guide 20. This positioning prevents the handle 130 from inadvertently sliding off of the guide 20. In one embodiment, an arm may extend outward from the guide 20 for attachment to a support member. The arm secures the position of the guide 20 after being inserted into the patient. The arm further allows the guide 20 to remain in position within the patient without being held by the surgeon. Various means may be used for percutaneously tracking the position of the guide 20 and/or elongated member 30 during the various insertion applications. Examples include electromagnetic tracking, fluoroscopy and specifically the FluroNav virtual fluoroscopy system, and computed tomography (CT) scanning. In one embodiment, the distal end 21 of the guide 20 is constructed of a material that is transparent to the percutaneous tracking methods to allow the surgeon to observe the positioning of the elongated member 30 into one or more of the anchors 90. The guide 20 may be constructed of a variety of materials including stainless steel, ceramics, PEEK, Nitinol, and polymer materials. In one embodiment, the guide 20 is positioned on the inserter 120 with the distal ends of each being substantially aligned. In another embodiment, the distal end of the guide 20 extends beyond the distal tip 122 of the inserter 120. In yet another embodiment, the distal end of the guide 20 is positioned inward from the distal tip 122 of the inserter 120. The elongated member 30 may include a variety of different constructions. Examples include but are not limited to a balloon, tether, jointed rod, and flexible rod. The term “distal” is generally defined as in the direction of the patient, or away from a user of a device. Conversely, “proximal” generally means away from the patient, or toward the user. Spatially relative terms such as “under”, “below”, “lower”, “over”, “upper”, and the like, are used for ease of description to explain the positioning of one element relative to a second element. These terms are intended to encompass different orientations of the device in addition to different orientations than those depicted in the figures. Further, terms such as “first”, “second”, and the like, are also used to describe various elements, regions, sections, etc and are also not intended to be limiting. Like terms refer to like elements throughout the description. As used herein, the terms “having”, “containing”, “including”, “comprising” and the like are open ended terms that indicate the presence of stated elements or features, but do not preclude additional elements or features. The articles “a”, “an” and “the” are intended to include the plural as well as the singular, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. The present invention may be carried out in other specific ways than those herein set forth without departing from the scope and essential characteristics of the invention. The present embodiments are, therefore, to be considered in all respects as illustrative and not restrictive, and all changes coming within the meaning and equivalency range of the appended claims are intended to be embraced therein.	A	A61	A61M	5	00
10579248	US20070265186A1-20071115	Biotin-Facilitated Transport in Gram Negative Bacteria	ACCEPTED	20071101	20071115		[]	A61K4748	["A61K4748", "A61K3800", "A61P3104", "C12Q118"]	7601511	20070228	20091013	435	029000	74284.0	DUFFY	PATRICIA	[{"inventor_name_last": "Altman", "inventor_name_first": "Elliot", "inventor_city": "Athens", "inventor_state": "GA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Walker", "inventor_name_first": "Jennifer", "inventor_city": "Bogart", "inventor_state": "GA", "inventor_country": "US"}]	Biotinylation of compounds such as peptides and peptidomimetics facilitates illicit transport of the compounds into Gram negative bacteria.	1. A method for introducing a compound into a Gram negative bacterial cell, the method comprising contacting the cell with a biotinylated compound, wherein the compound comprises a peptide or a peptidomimetic. 2. The method of claim 1 wherein the contact is effective to deliver the compound into the cytosol of the cell. 3. A method for introducing a compound into a Gram negative bacterial cell, the method comprising contacting the cell, in the absence of a membrane-permeabilizing agent, with a biotinylated compound. 4. The method of claim 3 wherein the contact is effective to deliver the compound into the cytosol of the cell. 5. A method for identifying a compound having antimicrobial activity comprising: contacting a Gram negative bacterial cell with biotinylated compound to cause uptake of the biotinylated compound by the cell; determining whether the biotinylated compound has an antimicrobial effect on the cell. 6. The method of claim 1 or 5 wherein the cell is contacted with the biotinylated compound in the absence of a membrane-permeabilizing agent. 7. The method of claims 3 or 5 wherein the compound comprises a peptide or a peptidomimetic. 8. The method of any of claims 1, 3 or 5 further comprising linking a biotin moiety to the compound to yield the biotinylated compound. 9. (canceled) 10. (canceled) 11. (canceled) 12. (canceled) 13. (canceled) 14. (canceled) 15. (canceled) 16. (canceled) 17. (canceled) 18. (canceled) 19. (canceled) 20. (canceled) 21. The method of claim 1 wherein the peptide or peptidomimetic is conjugated to a bioactive compound. 22. The method of any of claims 1, 3 or 5 wherein the Gram negative bacterial cell is a cell of the genus Escherichia, Salmonella, or Pseudomonas. 23. The method of claim 22 wherein the Gram negative bacterial cell is an E. coli cell, a S. typhimurium cell, or a P. aeruginosa cell. 24. The method of any of claims 1, 3 or 5 wherein the Gram negative bacterial cell comprises a biotin transporter. 25. The method of claim 24 where the biotin transporter comprises a birB/bioP transporter. 26. The method of any of the claims 1, 3 or 5 wherein the compound comprises a therapeutic, diagnostic or imaging agent. 27. The method of claim 26 wherein the compound further comprises a targeting moiety that specifically targets a Gram negative bacterial cell. 28. The method of claim 27 wherein the targeting moiety comprises a receptor ligand or an antibody or fragment thereof. 29. The method of claim 26 wherein the compound comprises an antibiotic. 30. (canceled) 31. (canceled) 32. The method of any of claims 1, 3 or 5 wherein the Gram negative bacterial cell is a pathogen. 33. The method of any of claims 1, 3 or 5 wherein the compound, when introduced into the cell, inhibits the growth of the cell. 34. The method of any of claims 1, 3 or 5 wherein the compound, when introduced into the cell, causes the death of the cell. 35. The method of any of the claims 1, 3 or 5 performed in the absence of calcium chloride. 36. A compound identified by the method for identifying a compound having antimicrobial activity as in claim 5. 37. A pharmaceutical composition comprising an effective amount of the compound of claim 36 and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. 38. A method for the treatment of a disease treatable by the compound of claim 36, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of said compound. 39. (canceled) 40. (canceled) 41. (canceled) 42. The method of claim 38 wherein the disease is selected from the group consisting of enteritis, septicaemia, meningitis, enteric fever, pneumonia, epiglottitis, cellulitis, diarrhea and a sexually transmitted disease.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The outer membrane of Gram negative bacteria functions as a molecular sieve and allows only very small molecules to passively diffuse into the cell. Porins in the outer membrane allow the transport of larger molecules and may be specific or non-specific in their molecular recognition. Non-specific porins such as Omp F, Omp C and Pho E allow the rapid passage of hydrophilic molecules. Other porins allow the transport of specific molecules. The peptide permeases, for example, have a specificity for oligopeptides. The uptake of oligopeptides is dependent upon size, hydrophobicity and charge. It is well documented that Escherichia coli can not take up large peptides and that the size exclusion limit for porin mediated peptide transport is 650 Daltons or the size of a penta- or hexapeptide. The size exclusion limit for peptide uptake in other Gram negative organisms such as Salmonella typhimurium has also been determined and found to be similar to that of E. coli (Payne, 1980, “Transport and utilization of peptides by bacteria,” p. 211-256. In J. W. Payne (ed.), Microorganisms and Nitrogen Sources. John Wiley & Sons, Chisester; Payne et al., 1994, Adv. Microb. Physiol. 36:1-80). In contrast to Gram negative bacteria, Gram positive bacteria can transport much larger peptides. For example, Lactococcus lactis has been shown to take up peptides over 18 residues in length or 2,140 daltons in size (Detmers et al., 1998, Biochemistry 37:16671-16679) while Bacillus megaterium can transport molecules up to 10,000 daltons in size (Scherrer et al., 1971, J. Bacteriol. 107:718-735). Pathogenic Gram negative bacteria represent a serious threat to public health. The American Medical Association and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have become increasingly concerned about the dramatic increase in drug-resistance pathogens. The data below shows the incidence of Gram negative drug-resistant pathogens is the most problematic, totaling 59.9% of all drug-resistant pathogens that are monitored. TABLE I Incidence of antimicrobial-resistant pathogens that are monitored by the CDC. Number Percent Antimicrobial-resistant pathogen of cases of total Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) 49,247 14.3% Methicillin-resistant coagulase-negative 29,453 8.5% Staphylococci (MRCNS) Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus spp (VRE) 36,114 10.5% Ceftazidime, ciprofloxacin/ofloxacin, 109,165 31.6% imipenem, piperacillin, or levofloxacin- resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa Ceftazidime, cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, 17,252 5.0% imipenem, or meropenem-resistant Enterobacter spp Ceftazidime, cefotaxime, or ceftriaxone- 16,834 4.9% resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae Ceftazidime, cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, 80,729 23.4% ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin, or levofloxacin- resistant Escherichia coli Cefotaxime/ceftriaxone, or penicillin- 6,328 1.8% resistant Pnuemococci TOTAL 345,122 100.0% Data compiled from the CDC National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) August 2002 Report of Antimicrobial-Resistant Pathogens in Hospitals. Thus, despite many medical advances, the need for antibiotics effective against Gram negative bacteria continues to increase. Unfortunately, the current size and specificity limitations on uptake of molecules by Gram negative bacteria present obstacles to the use cellular uptake machinery to deliver compounds of interest, such as antibiotics, to these pathogens. Compounding this problem is the inability of the pharmaceutical industry to readily generate new antibiotics. Pharmaceutical companies have relied on making derivatives of naturally available compounds for several decades now as evidenced by the multiple generations of new antibiotics from drug classes such as penicillins, cephalosporins, and aminoglycosides. There has been increasing interest in the development of novel peptide antibiotics, however research has focused on the development of peptide antibiotics for Gram positive pathogens due to the problem of peptide uptake by Gram negative pathogens. Expansion of the size and type of molecules that can be taken up by Gram negative bacteria would open the door to numerous additional scientific and medical applications.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The invention provides a method for biotin-facilitated introduction of a compound into a bacterial cell, preferably a Gram negative bacterial cell. The compound to be introduced into the cell is biotinylated, and the biotinylated compound is contacted with the cell to effect delivery of the compound to the cell. Advantageously, the biotinylated compound can pass through both the inner and outer cell membranes and is delivered to the cytosol of the cell. The compound delivered to the Gram negative cell according to the invention is not limited. Preferably, the compound includes an antimicrobial compound. Delivery of a peptide or peptidomimetic (naturally occurring or synthetic), preferably a peptide or peptidomimetic having antimicrobial activity against a Gram negative bacterium, is preferred. The method of the invention makes possible the relatively simple and reliable uptake of small, medium and large peptides by Gram negative bacteria, paving the way to discovery, design, testing and use of new peptide antibiotics effective against Gram negative pathogens. A biotinylated compound can-be delivered to any Gram negative bacterial cell capable of transporting biotin from the extracellular environment to the intracellular environment. Examples of Gram negative bacterial cells include cells of the genus Escherichia, Salmonella , or Pseudomonas . Preferably, the Gram negative bacterial cell is a pathogenic cell, and the compound that is delivered to the call includes a therapeutic, diagnostic or imaging agent and/or has antimicrobial activity. No pretreatment of the bacterial cell is needed prior to introduction of the biotinylated compound. For example, the method can be performed in the absence of a membrane-permeabilizing agent, such as calcium chloride. The method of the invention optionally includes linking, covalently or noncovalently, a biotin moiety to the compound to yield the biotinylated compound. Preferably, the biotin moiety is covalently linked to the compound, for example through a biotin carboxyl group. A biotinylated compound, such as a peptide or peptidomimetic, which itself may or may not be bioactive, is optionally conjugated to a second, preferably bioactive, compound, thereby facilitating biotin-facilitated transport of the second compound into the cell. Alternatively or additionally, the biotinylated compound optionally includes a targeting moiety that specifically targets a Gram negative bacterial cell and/or a targeting moiety that specifically targets a host eukaryotic cell. The targeting moiety can take the form of, for example, a receptor ligand or an antibody or fragment thereof. Biotin-facilitated introduction of a compound into a Gram negative cell can be used to identify a compound having antimicrobial activity. A Gram negative bacterial cell is contacted with biotinylated compound to cause uptake of the biotinylated compound by the cell, and a determination is made as to whether the biotinylated compound has an antimicrobial effect on the cell. For example, the compound may inhibit the growth of the cell, up to and including causing cell death. The invention further encompasses antimicrobial compounds identified according to the screening method, as well as pharmaceutical compositions, methods of making pharmaceutical compositions, and uses thereof for the treatment or prevention of disease in plants and animals, particularly disease caused by Gram negative bacteria.	This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/519,100, filed Nov. 12, 2003, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The outer membrane of Gram negative bacteria functions as a molecular sieve and allows only very small molecules to passively diffuse into the cell. Porins in the outer membrane allow the transport of larger molecules and may be specific or non-specific in their molecular recognition. Non-specific porins such as Omp F, Omp C and Pho E allow the rapid passage of hydrophilic molecules. Other porins allow the transport of specific molecules. The peptide permeases, for example, have a specificity for oligopeptides. The uptake of oligopeptides is dependent upon size, hydrophobicity and charge. It is well documented that Escherichia coli can not take up large peptides and that the size exclusion limit for porin mediated peptide transport is 650 Daltons or the size of a penta- or hexapeptide. The size exclusion limit for peptide uptake in other Gram negative organisms such as Salmonella typhimurium has also been determined and found to be similar to that of E. coli (Payne, 1980, “Transport and utilization of peptides by bacteria,” p. 211-256. In J. W. Payne (ed.), Microorganisms and Nitrogen Sources. John Wiley & Sons, Chisester; Payne et al., 1994, Adv. Microb. Physiol. 36:1-80). In contrast to Gram negative bacteria, Gram positive bacteria can transport much larger peptides. For example, Lactococcus lactis has been shown to take up peptides over 18 residues in length or 2,140 daltons in size (Detmers et al., 1998, Biochemistry 37:16671-16679) while Bacillus megaterium can transport molecules up to 10,000 daltons in size (Scherrer et al., 1971, J. Bacteriol. 107:718-735). Pathogenic Gram negative bacteria represent a serious threat to public health. The American Medical Association and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have become increasingly concerned about the dramatic increase in drug-resistance pathogens. The data below shows the incidence of Gram negative drug-resistant pathogens is the most problematic, totaling 59.9% of all drug-resistant pathogens that are monitored. TABLE I Incidence of antimicrobial-resistant pathogens that are monitored by the CDC. Number Percent Antimicrobial-resistant pathogen of cases of total Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) 49,247 14.3% Methicillin-resistant coagulase-negative 29,453 8.5% Staphylococci (MRCNS) Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus spp (VRE) 36,114 10.5% Ceftazidime, ciprofloxacin/ofloxacin, 109,165 31.6% imipenem, piperacillin, or levofloxacin- resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa Ceftazidime, cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, 17,252 5.0% imipenem, or meropenem-resistant Enterobacter spp Ceftazidime, cefotaxime, or ceftriaxone- 16,834 4.9% resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae Ceftazidime, cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, 80,729 23.4% ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin, or levofloxacin- resistant Escherichia coli Cefotaxime/ceftriaxone, or penicillin- 6,328 1.8% resistant Pnuemococci TOTAL 345,122 100.0% Data compiled from the CDC National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) August 2002 Report of Antimicrobial-Resistant Pathogens in Hospitals. Thus, despite many medical advances, the need for antibiotics effective against Gram negative bacteria continues to increase. Unfortunately, the current size and specificity limitations on uptake of molecules by Gram negative bacteria present obstacles to the use cellular uptake machinery to deliver compounds of interest, such as antibiotics, to these pathogens. Compounding this problem is the inability of the pharmaceutical industry to readily generate new antibiotics. Pharmaceutical companies have relied on making derivatives of naturally available compounds for several decades now as evidenced by the multiple generations of new antibiotics from drug classes such as penicillins, cephalosporins, and aminoglycosides. There has been increasing interest in the development of novel peptide antibiotics, however research has focused on the development of peptide antibiotics for Gram positive pathogens due to the problem of peptide uptake by Gram negative pathogens. Expansion of the size and type of molecules that can be taken up by Gram negative bacteria would open the door to numerous additional scientific and medical applications. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention provides a method for biotin-facilitated introduction of a compound into a bacterial cell, preferably a Gram negative bacterial cell. The compound to be introduced into the cell is biotinylated, and the biotinylated compound is contacted with the cell to effect delivery of the compound to the cell. Advantageously, the biotinylated compound can pass through both the inner and outer cell membranes and is delivered to the cytosol of the cell. The compound delivered to the Gram negative cell according to the invention is not limited. Preferably, the compound includes an antimicrobial compound. Delivery of a peptide or peptidomimetic (naturally occurring or synthetic), preferably a peptide or peptidomimetic having antimicrobial activity against a Gram negative bacterium, is preferred. The method of the invention makes possible the relatively simple and reliable uptake of small, medium and large peptides by Gram negative bacteria, paving the way to discovery, design, testing and use of new peptide antibiotics effective against Gram negative pathogens. A biotinylated compound can-be delivered to any Gram negative bacterial cell capable of transporting biotin from the extracellular environment to the intracellular environment. Examples of Gram negative bacterial cells include cells of the genus Escherichia, Salmonella, or Pseudomonas. Preferably, the Gram negative bacterial cell is a pathogenic cell, and the compound that is delivered to the call includes a therapeutic, diagnostic or imaging agent and/or has antimicrobial activity. No pretreatment of the bacterial cell is needed prior to introduction of the biotinylated compound. For example, the method can be performed in the absence of a membrane-permeabilizing agent, such as calcium chloride. The method of the invention optionally includes linking, covalently or noncovalently, a biotin moiety to the compound to yield the biotinylated compound. Preferably, the biotin moiety is covalently linked to the compound, for example through a biotin carboxyl group. A biotinylated compound, such as a peptide or peptidomimetic, which itself may or may not be bioactive, is optionally conjugated to a second, preferably bioactive, compound, thereby facilitating biotin-facilitated transport of the second compound into the cell. Alternatively or additionally, the biotinylated compound optionally includes a targeting moiety that specifically targets a Gram negative bacterial cell and/or a targeting moiety that specifically targets a host eukaryotic cell. The targeting moiety can take the form of, for example, a receptor ligand or an antibody or fragment thereof. Biotin-facilitated introduction of a compound into a Gram negative cell can be used to identify a compound having antimicrobial activity. A Gram negative bacterial cell is contacted with biotinylated compound to cause uptake of the biotinylated compound by the cell, and a determination is made as to whether the biotinylated compound has an antimicrobial effect on the cell. For example, the compound may inhibit the growth of the cell, up to and including causing cell death. The invention further encompasses antimicrobial compounds identified according to the screening method, as well as pharmaceutical compositions, methods of making pharmaceutical compositions, and uses thereof for the treatment or prevention of disease in plants and animals, particularly disease caused by Gram negative bacteria. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows the chemical structure of biotin. FIG. 2 shows uptake of a 10 amino acid (aa) biotinylated peptide by (A) S. aureus and (B) E. coli MG1655 (B). The biotinylated peptide was added to mid-log cultures, samples were taken at different time intervals and analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS PAGE) as described in Example I. Peptide-only and cell-only samples were included as controls. FIG. 3 shows the effect of biotin on the uptake of a 31 amino acid (aa) biotinylated peptide in E. coli and S. aureus. Biotinylated peptide and equimolar or 10× equimolar amounts of biotin or thiamine were added to mid-log cultures. The cell samples were processed and analyzed by SDS PAGE as described in Example 1. FIG. 4 shows the effect of avidin on the uptake of a 31 amino acid (aa) biotinylated peptide in E. coli. Biotinylated peptide and equimolar or 10× equimolar amounts of avidin or bovine serum albumin were added to mid-log cultures. The cell samples were processed and analyzed by SDS PAGE as described in Example 1. FIG. 5 shows the effect of carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP) on the uptake of a 31 amino acid biotinylated peptide in E. coli. CCCP was added at a final concentration of 50 μM to mid-log cultures of MG1655 since it has been shown that E. coli continues to grow normally at this concentration of CCCP (Kinoshita et al.,1984, J. Bacteriol. 160:1074-1077). The cell samples were processed and analyzed by SDS PAGE as described in Example I. FIG. 6 shows the effect of a birB− mutation on the uptake of a 31 amino acid (aa) biotinylated peptide in E. coli. The biotinylated peptide was added to mid-log cultures of birB+ and birB− cells. After 10 minutes of incubation the cell samples were processed and analyzed by SDS PAGE as described in Example I. Peptide-only and cell-only samples were included as controls. FIG. 7 shows growth of an E. coli bio auxotroph on minimal media supplemented with biotin or equimolar amounts of biotinylated peptides. The E. coli SA291 bio auxotrophic strain was grown in minimal media at 37° C. with either no supplement (Δ), 1 μg/mL biotin (□), or equimolar amounts of the 10 (◯) and 31 (⋄) amino acid biotinylated peptides. Aliquots were removed at 12 hour intervals and the OD550 was determined. FIG. 8 shows localization of the biotinylated peptide in E. coli. Biotinylated peptide was added to mid-log cultures of MG1655 and the cells were fractionated into periplasmic, cytoplasmic, and membrane samples and analyzed by SDS PAGE as described in Example I. Peptide-only and whole cell plus peptide samples were included as controls. FIG. 9 shows uptake of a 31 amino acid biotinylated peptide by (A) S. typhimurium and (B) P. aeruginosa. Biotinylated peptide was added to mid-log cultures, aliquots were taken at different time intervals and analyzed by SDS PAGE as described in Example I. Peptide-only and cell-only samples were included as controls. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS The present invention provides materials and methods for uptake of biotinylated compounds by Gram negative bacteria. The biotin transport system is advantageously be used to accomplish “illicit transport” of biotinylated compounds into Gram negative bacteria In “illicit transport,” the entry of compounds into cells is accomplished through the use of transport systems designed for other substrates, in this case, biotin. Biotinylated compounds can be transported into any Gram negative bacterium that has the ability to take up biotin from the extracellular environment, for example by passive or active transport through a biotin transporter system. The invention is not limited by the particular biotin transport mechanism used by the Gram negative bacterium. As used herein, the term “biotin transporter” includes one or more components of a biotin transport system that permits the passage of biotin from the extracellular environment, across the cellular membrane(s) and preferably into the cytoplasm of a host cell. For example, a biotin transporter can take the form of one or more membrane-bound biotin receptor molecules or a molecular complex that facilitates uptake of exogenous of biotin by a cell. An example of a microbial biotin transporter is the biotin transporter birBibioP found in E. coli. A Gram negative bacterium is a bacterium with a cell wall structure that does not retain the methyl violet component of Gram's stain after elution with an organic solvent such as ethyl alcohol. The pink counterstain makes the bacteria appear pink. Gram negative bacteria are characterized by a two cellular membranes separated by a periplasmic space. The periplasmic space is external to the inner, cytoplasmic membrane. On the other side of the periplasm is an outer membrane comprising lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and capsular polysaccharide. Porin proteins typically are present the outer LPS layer. Gram negative bacteria include, without limitation, Escherichia spp. (e.g., E. coli); Salmonella spp. (e.g., S. typhimurium); Pseudomonas spp. (e.g., P. aeruginosa); Burkholderia spp.; Neisseria spp. (N. meningitidis); Haemophilus spp. (H. influenzae); Shigella spp. Bacterioides spp.; Campylobacter spp.; Brucella spp.; Vibrio spp.; Yersinia spp.; Helicobacter spp.; Calymmatobacterium spp.; Legionella spp.; Leptospira spp.; Borrelia spp., Bordetella spp.; Klebsiella spp.; Treponema spp.; Francisella spp.; and Gardnerella spp. Many of these organisms are known to be pathogenic to animals and/or plants, including mammals such as humans, and can cause diseases and disorders such as enteritis, septicaemia, meningitis, enteric fever, pneumonia, epiglottitis, cellulitis, diarrhea and sexually transmitted diseases. “Biotinylation” of a compound refers to binding, whether covalent or noncovalent, of a biotin molecule (including an analog or derivative thereof, or other ligand of a biotin transporter) to the compound. Biotinylated compounds as described herein may be singly or multiply biotinylated. When the term “biotin” is used herein, the term includes analogs and derivatives of biotin provided that they also enable or potentiate biotin-facilitated transport into the cell. Biotin analogs are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,416,016 (Low et al.) and include biocytin, biotin sulfoxide, oxybiotin and other biotin receptor-binding compounds. Other compounds capable of binding to a biotin transporter to initiate biotin-mediated transport of the biotinylated compound include, for example, antibodies specific for the biotin transporter. For example, a compound complexed with an anti-biotin transporter antibody (monoclonal or polyclonal) could be used to initiate transmembrane transport of the complex in accordance with the present invention. The invention is not limited by the type of compound that is biotinylated and delivered to the Gram negative bacterium, or by the type of linkage between the compound and the biotin. The compound to be delivered may possess a functional group that allows direct covalent or noncovalent linkage to a biotin molecule, or it may be derivatized with a linker or spacer molecule that possesses a functional group thereby allowing indirect covalent or noncovalent linkage of the compound to a biotin molecule. Covalent linkages such as amide, ester or imino bonds between acid, aldehyde, hydroxy, amino, or hydrazo groups on the biotin and the compound to be delivered (or the linker) are preferred. The functional group on the compound (or the linker molecule) that participates in the linkage with the biotin molecule is preferably one that can form a covalent linkage with the carboxyl group of biotin (FIG. 1). Compounds containing amine groups (either naturally or by way of derivatization with a linker molecule) can be conveniently biotinylated by covalently linking the amine group of the compound to the carboxylic acid of biotin to form an amide bond. However, other conjugation strategies may be used without adversely affecting transmembrane transport of the biotinylated compound. For example, the carboxylic acid of the biotin can be covalently linked to other functional groups on the compound to be biotinylated. Alternatively, the covalent linkage between the biotin and the compound to be biotinylated can include one of the constituents of the biotin ureido ring (nitrogen, sulfur or carbon) or the carbonyl group on the ureido ring. Well-known biotinylation methods are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,416,016 (Low et al.). For example, biotinylation can be readily accomplished by activating the carboxyl group of the biotin such that it reacts with free amino groups of the compound to be delivered, such as a peptide or peptidomimetic. A biotinylating reagent such-as D-biotin-N-hydroxy-succinimide ester or biotinyl-p-nitrophenyl ester can be used. The activated ester reacts under mild conditions with amino groups to incorporate a biotin residue into the desired molecule. The procedure to be followed for biotinylating macromolecules using D-biotin-N-hydroxy-succinimide ester is well known in the art (Hofmann et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 100, 3585-3590 (1978)). Procedures suitable for biotinylating an exogenous molecule using biotinyl-ε-nitrophenyl ester as a biotinylating reagent are also well known in the art (Bodanszk et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc, 99, 235 (1977)). Other reagents such as D-biotinyl-ε-aminocaproic acid N-hydroxy-succinimide ester in which ε-aminocaproic acid serves as a spacer link to reduce steric hindrance can also be used for the purposes of the present invention. As an example of a noncovalent linkage, hydrogen bonding between a biotinylated oligonucleotide and a complementary region on a nucleic acid to be delivered can be used to deliver the nucleic acid to a cell. The term “compound” as used herein is not limited to a single molecule but can include a complex of molecules, ions, and the like, including but not limited to heterogeneous or homogeneous multimolecular complexes, conjugates, chelated or caged complexes, and the like. Compounds whose transport into Gram negative bacteria can be facilitated by derivatization with a biotin moiety include, for example, biomolecules such as polypeptides, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids. Polypeptides represent a class of compounds that is particularly amenable to transport through the biotin transporter. A polypeptide is a plurality of -amino acids joined together in a linear chain via peptide bonds. The term “polypeptide” is inclusive of the terms peptide, oligopeptide and polypeptide. The amino acids present in a polypeptide or peptide may include naturally occurring amino acids as well as other, non-naturally occurring amino acids or derivatives thereof such as 3-hydroxyproline, 4-hydroxyproline, homocysteine, 2-aminoadipic acid, 2-aminopimelic acid, -carboxyglutamic acid, -carboxyaspartic acid, ornithine, homoarginine, N-methyl lysine, dimethyl lysine, trimethyl lysine, 2,3-diaminopropionic acid, 2,4-diaminobutyric acid, homoarginine, sarcosine, hydroxylysine, substituted phenylalanines, norleucine, norvaline, 2-aminooctanoic acid, 2-aminoheptanoic acid, statine, -valine, naphthylalanines, substituted phenylalanines, tetrahydroisoquinoline-3-carboxylic acid, and halogenated tyrosines. It should be understood that the terms “peptide” or “polypeptide” do not connote a specific length of a polymer of amino acids, nor are they intended to imply or distinguish whether the polypeptide is produced using recombinant techniques, chemical or enzymatic synthesis, or is naturally occurring. As the term is commonly used in the art, a “peptide” may have between 2 and about 50 or more amino acids, although peptides larger than about 50 amino acids in length are often referred to as polypeptides or proteins. For purposes of the present invention, the term “peptide” is not limited to any particular number of amino acids. Preferably a peptide contains a quantity of amino acids that ranges from 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 10, or 20 amino acids as a lower size limit, to 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 or 100 amino acids as an upper size limit, and any combination thereof. In various embodiments, the peptide contains, for example, between 2 and 80 amino acids; between 2 and 70 amino acids; between 2 and 50 amino acids; between 2 and 40 amino acids; between 5 and 80 amino acids; between 5 and 70 amino acids; between 5 and 50 amino acids; between 5 and 40 amino acids; between 10 and 80 amino acids; between 10 and 70 amino acids; between 10 and 50 amino acids; between 10 and 40 amino acids; and so on. As used herein, the terms “polypeptide” and “peptide” include naturally occurring or synthetic peptides, as well as analogs and conjugates thereof. An “analog” of a peptide is one that has been modified by the addition, substitution, or deletion of one or more contiguous or noncontiguous amino acids, or that has been chemically or enzymatically modified, e.g., by attachment of a reporter group, by an N-terminal, C-terminal or other functional group modification or derivatization, or by cyclization, as long as the analog retains the biological activity of the peptide. An analog can thus include additional amino acids at one or both of the termini of a polypeptide. As another example, a polypeptide can be acetylated, acylated, methylated, thiolated, esterified, or conjugated to another molecule. A peptidomimetic is a polymeric compound that is based on the structure of a parent peptide. However, a peptidomimetic contains non-peptidic structural elements. For example, the backbone of a peptidomimetic may contain one or more nonpeptide bonds. Additionally or alternatively, one or more of the monomeric components of a peptidomimetic may be a component other than a naturally occurring -amino acid. For example, a peptidomimetic can include, without limitation, one or more D-amino acids or one or more other nonnaturally occurring monomeric components such as 3-hydroxyproline, 2-aminopimelic acid and dimethyl lysine, and the like as exemplified above. A peptidomimetic “mimics” a “peptide”; that is, it is capable of mimicking or antagonizing the biological action(s) of a reference peptide, such as a natural parent peptide. As set forth in “Glossary of Terms used in Medicinal Chemistry, a publication of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) (IUPAC Recommendations 1998), a peptidomimetic may be lacking in one or more classical peptide characteristics such as enzymatically scissile peptidic bonds. (Pure Appl. Chem. 70:1129-1143, 1998). For example, in a peptidomimetic, one or more peptide (amide) bonds in a polypeptide backbone may be replaced by another type of chemical bond, or the backbone atoms of carbon or nitrogen may be substituted by other backbone atoms. A peptidomimetic may be designed de novo, or it may represent a structure that is derived, by substitution, deletion, and or addition, from a parent peptide. However, it should be understood the term peptidomimetic does not include a naturally occurring polypeptide, or a polypeptide that is composed exclusively of naturally occurring -amino acids joined by peptide bonds. In a preferred embodiment, the compound that is biotinylated and delivered to the Gram negative bacterium is a bioactive compound, preferably a bioactive peptide or peptidomimetic. A bioactive compound is a compound having a biological activity and/or detectability when delivered to a cell. A bioactive compound may directly or indirectly affects the structure or function of a target molecule, such as a component of a cell to which it is delivered. A bioactive compound may be capable of modulating or otherwise modifying cell function and includes pharmaceutically active compounds such therapeutic agents. Bioactive compounds also include diagnostic agents such as imaging agents, which associate with cell components and allow detection, classification and/or quantification. Additional bioactive compounds that can be biotinylated and delivered according to the invention are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,416,016 (Low et al.). They include without limitation organic molecules including natural products and toxins, metal-containing complexes, molecules containing radioisotopes, dyes and contrast agents, and the like. Examples of preferred bioactive compounds include antimicrobial peptides and drugs, particularly these effective against pathogenic Gram negative bacteria. Antimicrobial compounds are compounds that adversely affect a microbe such as a bacterium, virus, protozoan, or the like. Antimicrobial compounds include, for example, inhibitory compounds that slow the growth of a microbe, microbiocidal compounds that are effective to kill a microbe (e.g., bacteriocidal and virocidal drugs, sterilants, and disinfectants), and compounds effective to interfere with microbial reproduction, host toxicity, or the like. Compounds that are toxic to Gram negative bacteria, such as antibiotics, membrane-disrupting agents, nucleotide/nucleoside analogs, cytotoxic agents and the like, are particularly important candidates for delivery to Gram negative bacteria according to the invention. Such toxic compounds may arrest or inhibit the growth of the Gram negative bacteria, or may cause cell death. It should be understood that the term “bioactivity” as used herein includes, without limitation, any type of interaction with another biomolecule, such as a protein, glycoprotein, carbohydrate, for example an oligosaccharide or polysaccharide, nucleotide, polynucleotide, fatty acid, hormone, enzyme, cofactor or the like, whether the interactions involve covalent or noncovalent binding. Bioactivity further includes interactions of any type with other cellular components or constituents including salts, ions, metals, nutrients, foreign or exogenous agents present in a cell such as viruses, phage and the like, for example binding, sequestration or transport-related interactions, as further described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,416,016 (Low et al.). Bioactivity of a compound can be detected, for example, by observing phenotypic effects in a host cell in which it is expressed, or by performing an in vitro assay for a particular bioactivity, such as affinity binding to a target molecule, alteration of an enzymatic activity, or the like. Biotinylated peptides or peptidomimetics may themselves be bioactive and/or they can be conjugated to a bioactive “cargo” compound such as a therapeutic, diagnostic or imaging agent. Conjugation of a “cargo” compound to a biotinylated peptide or peptidomimetic facilitates delivery of the bioactive “cargo” compound to Gram negative bacteria. The compound that is conjugated to the peptide can be any type of compound. Conjugation can take the form of a covalent or noncovalent linkage; preferably it is covalent. For example, the cargo molecule or complex may contain an avidin or streptavidin moiety that binds with the biotin on the biotinylated peptide or peptidomimetic. In that embodiment, multiply biotinylated peptides or peptidomimetics are preferred so that biotin moieties are available for interaction with the cell's biotin transport system in order to facilitate uptake by the cell. The biotin-facilitated transport mechanism of the invention can be advantageously employed to reliably target and deliver known and newly discovered drugs to Gram negative bacteria via biotinylation of the drug. In some instances, biotin-mediated transport can serve as a secondary membrane transport system for a bioactive compound that already makes use of a different transmembrane transport system, thereby increasing efficacy by improving delivery to the target cell. In other instances, the bioactive compound can contain a targeting moiety that is specific for Gram-negative bacteria, in addition to a biotin moiety for facilitated transport once the compound is in contact with the cell membrane. The term “targeting moiety” is not limited to a particular molecular feature but can include a functional group or larger moiety, or a separate molecular structure that is covalently or noncovalently linked to the bioactive compound. For example, a targeting moiety may include a particular cell surface receptor ligand (e.g., a peptide or small organic molecule), or an antibody or fragment thereof that is capable of specific interaction with a component on the surface of a Gram negative bacterium. The method of the invention involves contacting a biotinylated compound with a Gram negative bacterium that possesses a biotin transporter for a time sufficient to allow binding of the biotin moiety to the transporter and uptake of the biotinylated compound. Contact between the biotinylated compound and the Gram negative bacterium may be in vitro, as in cell culture, or in vivo. The present invention thus finds diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic application in both the medical and veterinary fields, as well as application in basic and applied scientific research. For in vitro applications, the number of biotin transporters in a cell membrane can be increased by growing the cells on biotin-deficient substrates to promote biotin transporter production, or by expression of an inserted heterologous gene encoding the biotin transporter. It should be understood that the method of the invention is effective to transport a biotinylated compound into the cytoplasm of a Gram negative bacterium. That is, the method is effective to cause the biotinylated compound to cross both the outer and inner membranes as well as the periplasmic place separating them. The inner membrane does not act as a barrier to transport and the biotinylated compound typically does not accumulate in the periplasmic space. Rather, significant amounts of the biotinylated compound are transported into the cytosol of the cell. Amounts of the biotinylated compound may be found associated with either or both cell membranes as well, or with the periplasmic space. Notably, it is not necessary to pretreat cells prior to effecting biotin-facilitated transport of a compound of interest. For example, it is not necessary to make cells “competent” for transfer by pretreating in them with a permeabilizing agent such calcium chloride to facilitate transport of a compound, such as a nucleic acid or a protein; indeed the method is preferably performed in the absence of agents such as calcium chloride. The addition of glucose during biotin-meditated transport can increase the efficiency of transport. Thus, in a preferred embodiment, the biotinylated compound is contacted to the Gram negative bacterial cell in the presence of glucose, preferably about 0.05% to about 0.5% by weight; more preferably about 0.2±0.1% by weight. Also provided by the invention is a method for screening candidate compounds for bioactivity, particularly antimicrobial activity directed against the host Gram negative bacterium. The method involves contacting a candidate compound, which has been biotinylated, with a Gram negative bacterial cell to cause uptake of the biotinylated compound by the cell. A determination is then made as to whether the compound has antimicrobial activity. One exemplary method for determining whether a compound has antimicrobial activity is to observe whether it has an inhibitory effect on cell growth. As the phrase is used herein, an “inhibitory effect” on cell growth is inclusive of both bacteriocidal activity (i.e., killing/destroying of the bacterial cell) and bacteriostatic activity (i.e., inhibition of the growth and/or multiplication of bacteria without necessarily destroying the bacteria). Inhibition of cell growth can be evidenced, for example, by a reduction in cell doubling time, morphological changes, or a slowing down of the metabolism of the cells, up to and including a cytotoxic effect (cell death). For example, an inhibitory effect on cell growth can be observed as a slowing down or reduction of turbidity of a growing cell culture. Other methods of determining antimicrobial effect are well known to the art. These methods may vary with the type of compound being screened. The invention is intended to encompass antimicrobial compounds identified according to the biotin-facilitated screening method set forth herein. Such antimicrobial compounds include the biotinylated form of an antimicrobial compound thus identified as well as the antimicrobial compound in a form that does not include a biotin moiety. The compounds identified according to the screening method may be known to the art, or they may be newly discovered as part of a random or nonrandom screening process. These antimicrobial compounds are especially useful to treat or prevent disease caused by Gram negative bacteria, particularly to treat disease caused by a bacterium that served as the bacterial host used in the screening method to identify the antimicrobial compounds. The invention also provides pharmaceutical compositions and medicaments that include antimicrobial compounds identified according to the biotin-facilitated screening method of the invention, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. Additionally, the invention includes use of the antimicrobial compound for preparation of a pharmaceutical composition or medicament for treatment of a disease caused by a Gram negative bacterium. The antimicrobial compounds are preferably peptides and peptidomimetics. As discussed above, the therapeutically active antimicrobial compound may or may not be biotinylated. Preferably, the antimicrobial compound is biotinylated to facilitate cellular uptake of the antimicrobial compound. Optionally, the antimicrobial compound used in the pharmaceutical composition of medicament, or administered to a patient, further includes a targeting moiety that is specific for Gram negative bacteria. Incorporation of a moiety targeting a Gram negative bacterium may, in some instances, lessen or eliminate uptake of the antimicrobial compound by other cells in the host, which may in turn increase the effectiveness of the treatment, especially where the microbial infection is extracellular (i.e., present outside the eukaryotic host cells). It may also be desirable to include in the antimicrobial compound, either additionally or alternatively, a targeting moiety that targets a eukaryotic host cell, including a selected host cell, tissue or organ. Targeting a eukaryotic host cell (or a specific type of cell, tissue, organ, etc.) may be particularly useful in instances where the Gram negative bacterium is an intracellular pathogen and is therefore primarily present inside the animal or plant host cells. The pharmaceutical composition is administered to a patient in an amount effective to produce the intended diagnostic or therapeutic effect. Medical and veterinary uses are contemplated. The patient is preferably an animal, more preferably a human or a domesticated animal, including a pet or a farm animal, such as a cat, dog, horse, pig, chicken, and the like. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the patient is a human. The compounds identified according to the screening method of the invention can also be administered to plants, such as agricultural and crop plants, to treat or prevent infection by Gram negative bacteria that are pathogenic to plants. Preferably, such compounds are identified using a Gram negative plant pathogen as the host cell in the screening process. Pharmaceutical compositions of the invention are administered to a subject in a variety of forms adapted to the chosen route of administration. The formulations include those suitable for oral, rectal, vaginal, topical, nasal, ophthalmic or parenteral (including subcutaneous, intramuscular, intraperitoneal and intravenous) administration. Treatment can be prophylactic or, alternatively, can be initiated after known exposure to an pathogenic bacterium. The formulations may be conveniently presented in unit dosage form and may be prepared by any of the methods well known in the art of pharmacy. All methods include the step of bringing the active compound into association with a carrier which constitutes one or more accessory ingredients. In general, the formulations are prepared by uniformly and intimately bringing the active compound into association with a liquid carrier, a fmely divided solid carrier, or both, and then, if necessary, shaping the product into the desired formulations. Formulations of the present invention suitable for oral administration may be presented as discrete units such as tablets, troches, capsules, lozenges, wafers, or cachets, each containing a predetermined amount of the antimicrobial compound as a powder or granules, as liposomes containing the antimicrobial compound, or as a solution or suspension in an aqueous liquor or non-aqueous liquid such as a syrup, an elixir, an emulsion or a draught. The amount of antimicrobial compound in such therapeutically useful compositions is such that the dosage level will be effective to reduce, ameliorate or eliminate the bacterial infection in the subject, preferably by causing the bacterial death. Formulations suitable for parenteral administration conveniently comprise a sterile aqueous preparation of the antimicrobial compound, or dispersions of sterile powders comprising the antimicrobial compound, which are preferably isotonic with the blood of the recipient. Isotonic agents that can be included in the liquid preparation include sugars, buffers, and sodium chloride. Solutions of the antimicrobial compound can be prepared in water, optionally mixed with a nontoxic surfactant. Dispersions of the antimicrobial compound can be prepared in water, ethanol, a polyol (such as glycerol, propylene glycol, liquid polyethylene glycols, and the like), vegetable oils, glycerol esters, and mixtures thereof. The ultimate dosage form is sterile, fluid and stable under the conditions of manufacture and storage. The necessary fluidity can be achieved, for example, by using liposomes, by employing the appropriate particle size in the case of dispersions, or by using surfactants. Sterilization of a liquid preparation can be achieved by any convenient method that preserves the bioactivity of the antimicrobial compound, preferably by filter sterilization. Preferred methods for preparing powders include vacuum drying and freeze drying of the sterile injectible solutions. Subsequent microbial contamination can be prevented using various antimicrobial agents, for example, antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal agents including parabens, chlorobutanol, phenol, sorbic acid, thimerosal, and the like. Absorption of the antimicrobial compounds over a prolonged period can be achieved by including agents for delaying, for example, aluminum monostearate and gelatin. Nasal spray formulations comprise purified aqueous solutions of the antimicrobial compound with preservative agents and isotonic agents. Such formulations are preferably adjusted to a pH and isotonic state compatible with the nasal mucous membranes. Formulations for rectal or vaginal administration may be presented as a suppository with a suitable carrier such as cocoa butter, or hydrogenated fats or hydrogenated fatty carboxylic acids. Ophthalmic formulations are prepared by a similar method to the nasal spray, except that the pH and isotonic factors are preferably adjusted to match that of the eye. Topical formulations comprise the antimicrobial compound dissolved or suspended in one or more media such as mineral oil, petroleum, polyhydroxy alcohols or other bases used for topical pharmaceutical formulations. The compound of the invention is particularly suited to incorporation into topical treatments for wound healing. In addition to the aforementioned ingredients, the formulations of this invention may further include one or more accessory ingredients including diluents, buffers, binders, disintegrants, surface active agents, thickeners, lubricants, preservatives (including antioxidants) and the like. Also provided by the invention is a method for treatment of a disease which is treatable by an antimicrobial compound identified using the screening method of the invention. Preferably the antimicrobial compound is a peptide or a peptidomimetic. A therapeutically effective amount of the compound is administered to a subject suffering from, or who is or may have been exposed to, a treatable disease. Treatable diseases preferably include those caused by a pathogenic Gram negative bacterium, and include, for example, enteritis, septicaemia, meningitis, enteric fever, pneumonia, epiglottitis, cellulitis, diarrhea and sexually transmitted diseases as described above. Plant diseases caused by Gram negative bacteria can also be treated. EXAMPLES The present invention is illustrated by the following examples. It is to be understood that the particular examples, materials, amounts, and procedures are to be interpreted broadly in accordance with the scope and spirit of the invention as set forth herein. Example I Biotinylation Facilitates the Uptake of Large Peptides by E. coli and Other Gram Negative Bacteria Gram negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli can normally only take up small peptides less than 650 Daltons, or five to six amino acids, in size. This study provides evidence that large biotinylated peptides can be readily transported into Gram negative bacteria such as E. coli. We have found that biotinylated peptides up to 31 amino acids in length can be taken up by E. coli and that uptake is dependent on the biotin transporter. Uptake could be competitively inhibited by free biotin or avidin, blocked by the protonophore carbobyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP), and was abolished in E. coli mutants that lacked the biotin transporter. Biotinylated peptides could be used to supplement the growth of a biotin auxotroph and the transported peptides were shown to be localized to the cytoplasm in cell fractionation experiments. The uptake of biotinylated peptides was also demonstrated for two other Gram negative bacteria, Salmonella typhimurium and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This finding may make it possible to create new peptide antibiotics that can be used against Gram negative pathogens. Researchers have used various moieties to cause the illicit transport of compounds in bacteria and this study demonstrates the illicit transport of the largest known compound to date. Materials and Methods Bacterial strains. E. coli MG1655 (wild-type F-λ-), E. coli S1036 (Abio6l bioP98 (up promoter) recA1 thi rpsL λ b515 b5l9 galq6 red270 cI857), E. coli S1039 (birBts13 Abio6l bioP98 (up promoter) recA1 thi rpsL λ b515 b519 galq6 red270 cI857), E. coli SA291 (rpsL his Δ(gal-chlA)), Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC9721, S. typhimurium LT2, and S. aureus ATCC25923 were the bacterial strains used in this study. E. coli S 1036 and S1039 were derived from SK121 which is a derivative of SK98 (Ketner et al., 1975, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 7:2698-2702) and contains a mutation in the λ prophage that enables SK121 to grow at 43° C. Media. Rich LB and minimal M9 media as described by Miller (Miller, 1972, Experiments in Molecular Genetics. Cold Springs Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Springs Harbor, N.Y.) was used for E. coli MG 1655 and S. typhimurium cultures. Rich LB and minimal media as described by Gilleland et al. (Gilleland, Jr., et al., 1974, J. Bacteriol. 117:302-311) was used for P. aeruginosa. Tryptic soy broth and minimal media as described by Mah et al. (Mah et al., 1967, Appl. Microbiol. 15:866-870) was used for S. aureus. Rich LB and minimal media as described by Campbell (Campbell, 1961, Virology 14:22-32) was used for E. coli S1036, S1039 and SA291. Glucose was the carbon source used in the minimal media for the uptake experiments except for the fractionation studies where maltose was used instead. Peptides and reagents. The randomized biotinylated peptides XXXX[KBtn]XXXXA (10 amino acids) (SEQ ID NO. 1) and XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX[Kbtn]XXXXXXXXXXXXXA (31 amino acids) (SEQ ID NO. 2) were synthesized by Sigma Genosys, where A denotes the L-amino acid alanine, X denotes an equimolar mixture of all 20 natural L-amino acids, and KBtn denotes the L-amino acid lysine to which biotin has been attached. The average molecular weight of the 10 and 31 amino acid peptides were determined to be 1,534 and 3,904 Daltons, respectively, using an Applied Biosystems Voyager System 1105 mass spectrometer. This was in very close agreement with the theoretical molecular weights for the 10 and 31 amino acid peptides which were 1,517 and 3,947 Daltons, respectively. Biotin, thiamine, avidin, and bovine serum albumin were purchased from Sigma. NeutrAvidin Horseradish Peroxidase Conjugate and SuperSignal West Dura Extended Duration Chemilurninescent Substrate were purchased from Pierce. Uptake assays. Minimal 37° C. overnights were diluted into fresh minimal media and incubated at 37° C. until they reached an OD550 of 0.5. The 10 and 31 amino acid randomized biotinylated peptides were added to the media at a concentration of 1 μg per mL of culture. After addition of the peptide to the culture, 1 mL aliquots were extracted at time intervals up to an hour, washed twice of extracellular peptide using fresh minimal media, then boiled with SDS-PAGE gradient sample buffer. Samples were run on a 10-16% tricine gradient gel (Schägger et al., 1987, Anal. Biochem. 166:368-379) and transferred to nitrocellulose membranes. The resulting Western blots were treated with NeutrAvidin Horseradish Peroxidase Conjugate and SuperSignal West Dura Extended Duration Chemiluminescent Substrate. The membranes were incubated for 5-10 minutes then exposed to X-ray film for 1-10 minutes. Bands on the film were quantified using the AlphaEase 5.5 Densitometry ProGram from Alpha Innotech. To test the effects that biotin, thiamine, avidin, BSA, or CCCP had on peptide uptake, these compounds were added to mid-log cultures five minutes before the addition of the biotinylated peptide. One mL samples were extracted 10 minutes after the addition of the peptide and analyzed by SDS PAGE as previously described. An upper 22,500 Dalton protein band can be seen in the western blots involving E. coli samples that are shown in FIGS. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 8. This band is from the E. coli biotin carboxyl carrier protein which is the prominent biotinylated protein in E. coli (Fall et al. 1975, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 379:496-503). Multiple upper bands can be seen in the western blots involving S. typhimurium and P. aeruginosa samples that are shown in FIG. 9. Most bacteria contain several biotinylated proteins and the multiple biotinylated bands seen in the western blots involving S. typhimurium and P. aeruginosa are consistent with this fact. Additional protein bands ranging from 22,500 to 4,000 Daltons can be seen in the blots involving E. coli samples that are shown in FIGS. 4 and 8. These two blots were exposed to film longer than the other blots that are shown in FIGS. 2, 3, 5, 6 and 8, and these extra bands are likely extraneous background bands which appear due to overdevelopment of the blot. The biotinylated peptides in FIGS. 2 and 9 disappear over time. This is due to degradation by peptidases and proteases that are present in bacterial cells (Walker et al., 2003, J. Peptide Res. 62:214-226) All studies were repeated in triplicate, however, only one representative western blot is shown for each experiment. Cell fractionation. The 31 amino acid biotinylated peptide was added to E. coli MG1655 cells that had been grown to an OD550 of 0.5 in minimal maltose media to allow for the induction of the maltose binding protein which served as one of the fractionation controls. After an additional 10 minutes of incubation, the cultures were then subjected to periplasmic shock as described by Ames et al. (Ames et al., 1984, J. Bacteriol. 160:1181-1183) to isolate the periplasmic fraction. The remaining cell pellet was then further fractionated using the method described by Altman et al. (1983, J. Bacteriol. 155:1130-1137) to prepare cytoplasmic and membrane fractions with one modification. Cytoplasmic proteins were precipitated by adding trichloroacetic acid at a final concentration of 5% w/v to the cytoplasmic fraction. The precipitate was then centrifuged at 4° C., 50,000 rpm for 30 minutes to pellet the cytoplasmic proteins. The periplasmic, cytoplasmic, and membrane samples were analyzed using a 10-16% tricine gradient gel and Western blotted as described above for the uptake assays. Results Biotinylated peptides up to 31 amino acids in length can be taken up by E. coli. We initially tested the ability of E. coli and S. aureus to import a 10 amino acid biotinylated peptide. Randomized peptides were used as opposed to peptides with a specific sequence in order to avoid nonspecific uptake that might be caused by certain amino acid sequences. Peptide was added to mid-log cultures of bacteria which were allowed to incubate for time intervals up to 60 minutes in duration. Samples were removed at specific times, pelleted, washed to remove any peptide in the media that had not been taken up by the cells, and then analyzed as described above. As shown in FIG. 2, both E. coli and S. aureus readily imported the 10 amino acid biotinylated peptide. Using densitometry, we determined that up to 75% of the peptide was imported within the first 5 minutes of incubation. To determine whether the import, which was arguably due to biotinylation in E. coli, was limited to smaller peptides, we also tested whether a much larger 31 amino acid biotinylated peptide could be imported in E. coli and S. aureus. As with the 10 amino acid biotinylated peptide, the 31 amino acid biotinylated peptide was also taken up by both E. coli and S. aureus (data not shown). The uptake of biotinylated peptides in E. coli can be competitively inhibited by biotin or avidin and blocked by the protonophore CCCP. Given that peptides larger than six amino acids cannot be taken up by E. coli, the obvious interpretation of our results was that biotin was the mechanism by which this unexpected uptake was occurring. To test this assumption, we conducted a competition experiment in both E. coli and S. aureus using biotin. We rationalized that since large peptides can be readily taken up by Gram positive bacteria such as S. aureus, biotin should have no competitive effect. However, in E. coli, if the uptake was due to biotin, then free biotin should be able to competitively block uptake. FIG. 3 shows that this is indeed the case. The uptake of biotinylated peptides could be blocked in E. coli by the addition of biotin whereas biotin had no effect on the uptake of biotinylated peptides in S. aureus. Additionally, we showed that the competitive inhibition in E. coli was specific to biotin and the use of another similarly sized vitamin, thiamine, had no effect. Because avidin is known to tightly bind biotin (Gilleland, Jr., et al., 1974, J. Bacteriol. 117:302-311), we also tested whether avidin would be able to competitively inhibit the uptake of biotinylated peptides in E. coli. FIG. 4 shows that avidin could competitively inhibit the uptake of biotinylated peptides in E. coli, but that the use of another similarly sized protein, bovine serum albumin, which is routinely used in in vitro studies, had no effect. It has been shown that biotin uptake is blocked by the protonophore CCCP which disrupts membrane potential in E. coli (Piffeteau et al., 1982, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 688:29-36; Piffeteau et al., 1985, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 816:77-82). If the uptake of biotinylated peptides was due to the biotin transport system, then CCCP would be expected to block the uptake of biotinylated peptides. FIG. 5 shows that uptake is blocked when CCCP is added prior to the addition of the biotinylated peptide. The uptake of biotinylated peptides in E. coli is dependent on the biotin transport system. The biotin transport system in E. coli has been well characterized and mutants that prevent the uptake of biotin, birBibioP, are available (Campbell et al., 1980, J. Bacteriol. 142:1025-1028; Eisenberg et al., 1975, Bacteriol. 122:66-72). If the import of biotinylated peptides in E. coli were indeed due to the biotin transport system, then birB mutants should not be able to take up biotinylated peptides. FIG. 6 shows that this is the case. A wild-type birB+ strain was able to take up biotinylated peptide, while an isogenic birB− mutant strain was not. Biotinylated peptides can be used to fulfill the growth requirements of an E. coli biotin auxotroph. To further demonstrate that biotinylated peptides were truly taken up by E. coli, we tested whether a biotinylated peptide could be used instead of biotin to fulfill the growth requirement of an E. coli biotin auxotroph in minimal media. FIG. 7 shows that an E. coli biotin auxotroph grows as well in media supplemented with biotinylated peptide as it does in media supplemented with biotin. Cell fractionation studies show that the biotinylated peptide can be detected in the cytoplasm of E. coli. To demonstrate biochemically that biotinylated peptides were taken up by E. coli, we performed cell fractionation studies where periplasmic, cytosolic, and membrane fractions were prepared from cultures to which biotinylated peptide had been added. FIG. 8 shows that the biotinylated peptide localized to both the cytoplasmic and membrane fractions. Of the peptide that could be detected, 66% was found in the membrane fraction and 34% was found in the cytoplasmic fraction. To verify that the cell fractionation studies had been done correctly, we used the same cell fractions to visualize the GroEL and MBP proteins which are known to localize to the cytoplasm and periplasm, respectively. GroEL was found primarily in the cytoplasmic fraction, while MBP was found primarily in the periplasmic fraction. GroEL's distribution was 93% in the cytoplasm and 7% in the membrane, while MBP's distribution was 95% in the periplasm, 3% in the membrane and 2% in the cytoplasm (data not shown). Biotinylated peptides can be taken up by other Gram negative bacteria. Given our findings in E. coli, we also wanted to test whether biotinylated peptides could be transported by other Gram negative bacteria. We found that both the 10 and 31 amino acid biotinylated peptides could be readily transported by both S. typhimurium and P. aeruginosa. FIG. 9 shows the uptake of the 31 amino acid biotinylated peptide by S. typhimurium and P. aeruginosa. Discussion While conducting an in vivo screen for randomly encoded peptides which could inhibit the growth of Staphylococcus aureus, we performed a test to confirm that potential peptides resulting from the screen would be readily taken up, as expected, by this Gram positive organism. The synthetic peptides had been biotinylated so they could be easily visualized on Western blots using a neutravidin horseradish peroxidase conjugate. A biotinylated 10 amino acid peptide was added extracellularly to growing cultures of S. aureus and an E. coli control, since it is well established that Gram negative bacteria such as E. coli can only take up very small peptides that are six amino acids or less in size. The E. coli control therefore should not have been able to take up the 1,534 dalton peptide. Surprisingly, we found that the peptide was taken up by both S. aureus and E. coli within 5 minutes of incubation. This observation appeared to contradict the known size exclusion limit of E. coli and suggested that the biotinylation of peptides may allow for peptide uptake to occur via the biotin transport system. In this study, we have shown that biotinylation can indeed facilitate the uptake of peptides up to 31 amino acids in length by E. coli and that transport is dependent on the biotin transporter, birB/bioP. We have found that the uptake of the biotinylated peptides can be competitively inhibited by free biotin or avidin, and blocked by the protonophore CCCP which disrupts membrane potential. We also demonstrated that biotinylated peptide could be used to supplement the growth of a biotin auxotroph and that the biotinylated peptide was localized to the cytoplasm in cell fractionation studies. What is known about biotin function in E. coli is consistent with our finding that biotin can be used to facilitate the uptake of peptides via the biotin transporter in E. coli. Biotin can be synthesized as well as transported by E. coli and the genes involved in biotin biosynthesis and transport are repressible by biotin (Guha, 1971, J. Mol. Biol. 56:53-62). Biotin's transport system is regulated independently of the biosynthetic pathway (Pai, 1973, J. Bacteriol. 116:494-496). E. coli readily imports the vitamin biotin when it is available and concomitantly represses biotin synthesis. Biotin uptake is specific, energy dependent, and can accumulate against a concentration gradient (Piffeteau et al., 1982, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 688:29-36; Piffeteau et al., 1985, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 816:77-82; Prakash et al., 1974, J. Bacteriol. 120:785-791). Maximum uptake is observed during exponential growth phase and glucose has been shown to increase biotin uptake slightly. The rate of biotin uptake has also been shown to increase proportionally to the amount of extracellular biotin that is available. The first mutant that affected biotin transport was discovered by Campbell et al. (1972, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 69:676-680). They termed the mutant bir for biotin retention and showed that the mutant abolished the ability of E. coli to take up biotin. Eisenberg et al. (1975, Bacteriol. 122:66-72) isolated an independent mutant that abolished biotin uptake which they termed bioP. Campbell et al. (1980, J. Bacteriol. 142:1025-1028) renamed their original bir mutant birB and showed that birB and bioP mutants were identical via genetic mapping experiments. It is surprising that the biotin transport system can be used to facilitate the uptake of large peptides. Biotin has a molecular weight of 244, making it relatively small in comparison to a 10 amino acid biotinylated peptide with an average molecular weight of 1,534 or a 31 amino acid biotinylated peptide with an average molecular weight of 3,904. Clearly the biotin uptake system must be flexible since it can accommodate larger molecules. Our finding that 34% of the biotinylated peptide localized to the cytoplasm and 66% of the peptide localized to the membrane is consistent with such a model. Some of the biotinylated peptide was able to completely pass through the biotin transporter while a significant fraction remained in the membrane. There is contradictory evidence with regard to how biotin's structure affects its ability to be taken up by E. coli. Prakash and Eisenberg (Prakash et al., 1974, J. Bacteriol. 120:785-791) stated that while the ureido ring of biotin must be intact for uptake, modification of the side chain has little effect. However, Piffeteau et al. (Piffeteau et al., 1982, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 688:29-36) suggested that modifications to the side chain of biotin could drastically affect biotin's ability to be transported and that the carboxyl group on the side chain is essential for biotin uptake. In the biotinylated peptides used in this study, the biotin carboxyl group is joined to the amino group of lysine via an amide bond and thus the carboxyl group of biotin is not available for recognition. This fact supports Prakash and Eisenberg's argument that the side chain of biotin does not affect uptake. Extrapolation from our data further suggests that it is indeed the ureido ring that is important for recognition and uptake. The fact that biotinylation can facilitate the uptake of very large peptides by Gram negative bacteria represents the illicit transport of the largest known compound to date. Illicit transport has been defined as the entry of compounds into cells through the use of transport systems designed for other substrates (Ames et al., 1973, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 70:456-458). There are numerous examples of the use of peptide permeases to facilitate the uptake of small antibacterial peptides or antibiotics that have been coupled to di- or tripeptides (Ames et al., 1973, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 70:456-458; Atherton et al., 1980, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 18:897-905; Fickel et al., 1973, Nat. New Biol. 241:161-163; Morely et al., 1983, Biochem. Soc. Trans. 11:798-800; Staskawicz et al., 1980, J. Bacteriol. 142:474-479). Additionally, researchers have used various siderophores that are involved in iron uptake to facilitate the transport of antibiotics (Luckey et al., 1972, J. Bacteriol. 111:731-738; Wittmann et al., 2002, Bioorg. Med. Chem. 10:1659-1670). All of these compounds are much smaller than the 10 and 31 amino acid peptides that we have found to be transported via biotinylation. Interestingly, biotinylated molecules are currently being investigated for drug delivery in mammalian cells. Avidin drugs that bind to biotinylated vectors are being used to promote delivery across the blood brain barrier (Bonfils et al., 1992, Bioconjug. Chem. 3:277-284; Pardridge, 2002, Arch. Neurol. 59:3540; Song et al., 2002, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 301:605-610) while antitumor toxins or imaging agents coupled to streptavidin are being delivered using biotinylated antibodies (Hussey et al., 2002, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 124:6265-6273; Press et al., 2001, Blood 98:2535-2543). Biotinylation has also been shown to promote the delivery of polyethylene glycol camptothecin conjugates into human ovarian carcinoma cells (Minko et al., 2002, Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. 50:143-50) and increase the cellular uptake of polyethylene glycol TAT nonapeptide conjugates into human Caco and CHO cells (Ramanathan et al., 2001, J. Control. Release 77:199-212). Our finding that biotinylated peptides can be taken up by Gram negative bacteria such as E. coli, S. typhimurium and P. aeruginosa, represents an intriguing possibility for the development of antibacterial peptides. Given the abundance of naturally occurring antibacterial peptides and the increased interest in designing new synthetic peptide drugs, researchers have been trying to develop novel peptide antibiotics that can inhibit the function of key intracellular targets identified through genomics. Researchers have been focusing on Gram positive bacteria where the uptake of large peptides is not problematic. The use of biotinylated peptides may make it possible to use this same approach to develop antibacterial peptides that can target Gram negative bacteria. The complete disclosures of all patents, patent applications including provisional patent applications, and publications, and electronically available material (e.g., GenBank amino acid and nucleotide sequence submissions) cited herein are incorporated by reference. The foregoing detailed description and examples have been provided for clarity of understanding only. No unnecessary limitations are to be understood therefrom. The invention is not limited to the exact details shown and described; many variations will be apparent to one skilled in the art and are intended to be included within the invention defined by the claims.	A	A61	A61K	47	48
11870317	US20130109617A1-20130502	SUBSTITUTED TETRACYCLINE COMPOUNDS FOR TREATMENT OF BACILLUS ANTHRACIS INFECTIONS	ACCEPTED	20130417	20130502	A61K3165	["A61K3165", "A61K4506", "A61K3814", "A61K3143", "A61K317056"]	A61K3165	["A61K3165", "A61K317056", "A61K3143", "A61K4506", "A61K3814"]	8440646	20071010	20130514	514	152000	62917.0	RICCI	CRAIG	[{"inventor_name_last": "Alekshun", "inventor_name_first": "Michael N.", "inventor_city": "Marlboro", "inventor_state": "NJ", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Tanaka", "inventor_name_first": "S. Ken", "inventor_city": "Needham", "inventor_state": "MA", "inventor_country": "US"}]	Methods and compositions for the treatment of Bacillus anthracis infections are described.	1-4. (canceled) 5. A method for treating a bacillus anthracis infection in a subject, comprising administering to said subject an effective amount of a substituted tetracycline compound, such that said bacillus anthracis infection in said subject is treated, wherein said substituted tetracycline compound is of the formula I: wherein R2″ is C(═O)—NR2R2′; R2, R2′, and R3 are hydrogen; R4a and R4b are each alkyl; R10, R11, and R12 are each hydrogen; R4 and R4′ are each independently NR4aR4b; R5 and R5′ are each hydrogen; R6 and R6′ are each hydrogen; R7 is hydrogen, dialkylamino, alkyl, aryl, heterocyclic, or alkyl-O—N═C—CR7gR7h, wherein R7g and R7h are each independently hydrogen or alkyl; R8 is hydrogen; R9 is of the formula: wherein: J5 and J6 are each independently hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, or linked to form a ring; and J7 and J8 are each alkyl, halogen, or hydrogen; and X is CR6′R6; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester or enantiomer thereof. 6-9. (canceled) 10. The method of claim 5, wherein R7 is substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein R7 is substituted or unsubstituted pyrimidinyl, pyridinyl, or furanyl. 12-13. (canceled) 14. The method of claim 5, wherein R7 is hydrogen. 15-18. (canceled) 19. The method of claim 5, wherein J7 and J8 are each hydrogen. 20. The method of claim 19, wherein J6 is hydrogen. 21. The method of claim 19, wherein J5 is substituted or unsubstituted alkyl. 22. The method of claim 21, wherein J5 is propyl. 23-27. (canceled) 28. The method of claim 19, wherein J5 and J6 are linked to form a ring. 29. The method of claim 28, wherein J5 and J6 are linked to form a substituted or unsubstituted piperidinyl ring or fused ring. 30. The method of claim 29, wherein said fused ring is 2,3-dihydro-indole or decahydro-isoquinoline. 31. The method of claim 29, wherein said piperidinyl ring is substituted with one or more halogens or one or more heterocyclic groups. 32. The method of claim 5, wherein said substituted tetracycline compound is selected from the group consisting of: 33. The method of claim 5, wherein said substituted tetracycline compound is administered in combination with a second agent. 34. The method of claim 33, wherein said second agent is an antibiotic. 35. The method of claim 34, wherein said second agent is selected from the group consisting of rifampin, vancomycin, ampicillin, chloramphenicol, imipenem, clindamycin, and clarithromycin. 36. The method of claim 5, wherein said bacillus anthracis is multidrug resistant. 37-57. (canceled) 58. The method of claim 5, wherein R7 is dimethylamino. 59. The method of claim 22, wherein R7 is substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, dimethylamino, or hydrogen. 60. The method of claim 28, wherein R7 is substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, dimethylamino, or hydrogen. 61. The method of claim 29, wherein R7 is substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, dimethylamino, or hydrogen. 62. The method of claim 30, wherein R7 is substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, dimethylamino, or hydrogen. 63. The method of claim 31, wherein R7 is substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, dimethylamino, or hydrogen.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In the fall of 2001, letters intentionally contaminated with Bacillus anthracis were mailed to individuals in Florida, Washington, D.C., and New York City. These events resulted in exposures both at the sites of delivery and also at sites the letters passed through in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Maryland, and Connecticut. In total, there were 11 cases of documented inhalation anthrax infections, including 5 deaths, and 11 cases of documented cutaneous anthrax infections. Antimicrobial prophylaxis for at least 60 days was recommended for about 10,000 individuals; ultimately, about 32,000 people actually received prophylactic therapy. The public health crisis in antibiotic resistance generally focuses on nosocomial and community-acquired infections with organisms that have naturally become resistant to multiple agents. This situation has developed due to a combination of antibiotic use (including overuse and misuse) and the emergence of freely transmissible resistance determinant(s). Organisms that might be (or have been) used by bioterrorists could acquire antibiotic resistance not only naturally, but also as a result of intentional manipulation. Ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, and penicillin G procaine (penicillin) are the three drugs currently approved for intravenous therapy of all forms of anthrax (cutaneous (skin), inhalation, and gastrointestinal) infection. Mobile elements that confer resistance to tetracyclines and penicillins can be introduced into B. anthracis and are functional; resistance to ciprofloxacin can be induced by passage in vitro. Thus, there is a real possibility of multiple drug resistant (MDR) anthrax and alternative agents effective against such strains are needed.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one embodiment, the invention pertains to novel, narrow-spectrum, orally bioavailable substituted tetracycline compounds that are active against B. anthracis, including strains expressing resistance to known tetracycline resistance elements. In a further embodiment, the invention pertains to a method for treating a Bacillus anthracis infection in a subject. The method includes administering to the subject an effective amount of a substituted tetracycline compound, such that the Bacillus anthracis infection in the subject is treated. In another embodiment, the invention also pertains to a pharmaceutical composition comprising an effective amount of a substituted tetracycline compound for the treatment of a Bacillus anthracis infection and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?	RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/851,211, filed on Oct. 11, 2006, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In the fall of 2001, letters intentionally contaminated with Bacillus anthracis were mailed to individuals in Florida, Washington, D.C., and New York City. These events resulted in exposures both at the sites of delivery and also at sites the letters passed through in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Maryland, and Connecticut. In total, there were 11 cases of documented inhalation anthrax infections, including 5 deaths, and 11 cases of documented cutaneous anthrax infections. Antimicrobial prophylaxis for at least 60 days was recommended for about 10,000 individuals; ultimately, about 32,000 people actually received prophylactic therapy. The public health crisis in antibiotic resistance generally focuses on nosocomial and community-acquired infections with organisms that have naturally become resistant to multiple agents. This situation has developed due to a combination of antibiotic use (including overuse and misuse) and the emergence of freely transmissible resistance determinant(s). Organisms that might be (or have been) used by bioterrorists could acquire antibiotic resistance not only naturally, but also as a result of intentional manipulation. Ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, and penicillin G procaine (penicillin) are the three drugs currently approved for intravenous therapy of all forms of anthrax (cutaneous (skin), inhalation, and gastrointestinal) infection. Mobile elements that confer resistance to tetracyclines and penicillins can be introduced into B. anthracis and are functional; resistance to ciprofloxacin can be induced by passage in vitro. Thus, there is a real possibility of multiple drug resistant (MDR) anthrax and alternative agents effective against such strains are needed. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one embodiment, the invention pertains to novel, narrow-spectrum, orally bioavailable substituted tetracycline compounds that are active against B. anthracis, including strains expressing resistance to known tetracycline resistance elements. In a further embodiment, the invention pertains to a method for treating a Bacillus anthracis infection in a subject. The method includes administering to the subject an effective amount of a substituted tetracycline compound, such that the Bacillus anthracis infection in the subject is treated. In another embodiment, the invention also pertains to a pharmaceutical composition comprising an effective amount of a substituted tetracycline compound for the treatment of a Bacillus anthracis infection and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION: In one embodiment, the invention pertains to a method for treating a Bacillus anthracis infection in a subject. The method includes administering to the subject an effective amount of a substituted tetracycline compound, such that the Bacillus anthracis infection in the subject is treated. The term “Bacillus anthracis infection” includes any state, diseases, or disorders caused or which result from exposure or alleged exposure to Bacillus anthracis or another member of the Bacillus cereus group of bacteria. The Bacillus cereus group of bacteria is composed of B. anthracis (the etiologic agent of anthrax), B. cereus and B. weihenstephanensis (food borne pathogens), B. thuringiensis (an insect pathogen), and B. mycoides (non-pathogenic). B. anthracis is associated with three different clinical forms of infection. Inhalation anthrax is rare, with only 18 cases reported in the US from 1900-1976 and none from 1976-2001. The mortality rate of inhalation anthrax has been reported to range from 40% to 89%; however, many cases are from the pre-antibiotic era {Inglesby, 2002 #1942}. Patients that died following the accidental dissemination of B. anthracis from a bioweapons facility in Sverdlovsk, Russia in 1976 exhibited hemorrhagic thoracic lymphadenitis, hemorrhagic mediastinitis, and pleural effusions. This experience confirmed that typical bronchopneumonia is not a characteristic of pulmonary anthrax. The most common infection due to B. anthracis is cutaneous anthrax, which is rarely fatal when treated with appropriate antibiotics. Gastrointestinal anthrax may develop after eating improperly prepared, contaminated meat; these infections are typically encountered in developing countries in Africa and Asia. The term “subject” includes animals (e.g., mammals, e.g., cats, dogs, horses, pigs, cows, sheep, rodents, rabbits, squirrels, bears, primates (e.g., chimpanzees, gorillas, and humans)) which are capable of (or currently) suffering from a Bacillus anthracis infection. It also includes transgenic animal models. The term “treated,” “treating” or “treatment” includes therapeutic and/or prophylactic treatment of a Bacillus anthracis infection. The treatment includes the diminishment or alleviation of at least one symptom associated or caused by a Bacillus anthracis infection. For example, treatment can be diminishment of one or several symptoms of a Bacillus anthracis infection or complete eradication. The language “effective amount” of the tetracycline compound is that amount necessary or sufficient to treat or prevent a Bacillus anthracis infection in a subject, e.g. prevent the various morphological and somatic symptoms of multiple sclerosis. The effective amount can vary depending on such factors as the size and weight of the subject, the type of illness, or the particular tetracycline compound. For example, the choice of the tetracycline compound can affect what constitutes an “effective amount.” One of ordinary skill in the art would be able to study the aforementioned factors and make the determination regarding the effective amount of the tetracycline compound without undue experimentation. The term “tetracycline compound” does not include minocycline, doxycycline, or tetracycline. The term includes substituted tetracycline compounds or compounds with a similar ring structure to tetracycline. Examples of tetracycline compounds include: chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, demeclocycline, methacycline, sancycline, chelocardin, rolitetracycline, lymecycline, apicycline; clomocycline, guamecycline, meglucycline, mepylcycline, penimepicycline, pipacycline, etamocycline, penimocycline, etc. Other derivatives and analogues comprising a similar four ring structure are also included (See Rogalski, “Chemical Modifications of Tetracyclines,” the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference). Table 1 depicts tetracycline and several known other tetracycline derivatives. TABLE 1 Other tetracycline compounds which may be modified using the methods of the invention include, but are not limited to, 6-demethyl-6-deoxy-4-dedimethylaminotetracycline; tetracyclino-pyrazole; 7-chloro-4-dedimethylaminotetracycline; 4-hydroxy-4-dedimethylaminotetracycline; 12α-deoxy-4-dedimethylaminotetracycline; 5-hydroxy-6α-deoxy-4-dedimethylaminotetracycline; 4-dedimethylamino-12α-deoxyanhydrotetracycline; 7-dimethylamino-6-demethyl-6-deoxy-4-dedimethylaminotetracycline; tetracyclinonitrile; 4-oxo-4-dedimethylaminotetracycline 4,6-hemiketal; 4-oxo-11a Cl-4-dedimethylaminotetracycline-4,6-hemiketal; 5a,6-anhydro-4-hydrazon-4-dedimethylamino tetracycline; 4-hydroxyimino-4-dedimethylamino tetracyclines; 4-hydroxyimino-4-dedimethylamino 5a,6-anhydrotetracyclines; 4-amino-4-dedimethylamino-5a, 6 anhydrotetracycline; 4-methylamino-4-dedimethylamino tetracycline; 4-hydrazono-11a-chloro-6-deoxy-6-demethyl-6-methylene-4-dedimethylamino tetracycline; tetracycline quaternary ammonium compounds; anhydrotetracycline betaines; 4-hydroxy-6-methyl pretetramides; 4-keto tetracyclines; 5-keto tetracyclines; 5a, 11a dehydro tetracyclines; 11a Cl-6, 12 hemiketal tetracyclines; 11a Cl-6-methylene tetracyclines; 6, 13 diol tetracyclines; 6-benzylthiomethylene tetracyclines; 7, 11a-dichloro-6-fluoro-methyl-6-deoxy tetracyclines; 6-fluoro (α)-6-demethyl-6-deoxy tetracyclines; 6-fluoro (β)-6-demethyl-6-deoxy tetracyclines; 6-α acetoxy-6-demethyl tetracyclines; 6-β acetoxy-6-demethyl tetracyclines; 7, 13-epithiotetracyclines; oxytetracyclines; pyrazolotetracyclines; 11a halogens of tetracyclines; 12a formyl and other esters of tetracyclines; 5, 12a esters of tetracyclines; 10, 12a-diesters of tetracyclines; isotetracycline; 12-a-deoxyanhydro tetracyclines; 6-demethyl-12a-deoxy-7-chloroanhydrotetracyclines; B-nortetracyclines; 7-methoxy-6-demethyl-6-deoxytetracyclines; 6-demethyl-6-deoxy-5a-epitetracyclines; 8-hydroxy-6-demethyl-6-deoxy tetracyclines; monardene; chromocycline; 5a methyl-6-demethyl-6-deoxy tetracyclines; 6-oxa tetracyclines, and 6 thia tetracyclines. The term “substituted tetracycline compound” includes tetracycline compounds with one or more additional substituents, e.g., at the 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 11a, 12, 12a or 13 position or at any other position which allows the substituted tetracycline compound of the invention to perform its intended function, e.g., treat B. anthracis infections. In a further embodiment, the substituted tetracycline compound has an MIC less than that of doxycycline for at least one strain of Bacillus anthracis. The MIC of the substituted tetracycline compound can be tested using the method described in the Examples. In a further embodiment, the substituted tetracycline compound has an MIC less than 32 μg/ml for a doxycycline resistant strain of Bacillus anthracis. In a further embodiment, the MIC of the substituted tetracycline has an MIC that is 90% or less, 50% or less, 20% or less, 10% or less, 5% or less than the MIC of doxycycline for a particular strain of Bacillus anthracis. In a further embodiment, the substituted tetracycline compound has an MIC less than that of ciproflaxin for at least one strain of Bacillus anthracis. The MIC of the substituted tetracycline compound can be tested using the method described in the Examples. In a further embodiment, the substituted tetracycline compound has an MIC less than 32 μg/ml for a ciproflaxin resistant strain of Bacillus anthracis. In a further embodiment, the MIC of the substituted tetracycline has an MIC that is 90% or less, 50% or less, 20% or less, 10% or less, 5% or less than the MIC of ciproflaxin for a particular strain of Bacillus anthracis. In a further embodiment, the substituted tetracycline compound of the invention is of the formula I: wherein R1 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, arylalkyl, amido, alkylamino, amino, arylamino, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, alkoxy, alkoxycarbonyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, alkyloxycarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, aryloxy, thiol, alkylthio, arylthio, alkenyl, heterocyclic, hydroxy, or halogen, optionally linked to R2 to form a ring; R2″ is cyano or C(═)—NR2R2′; R2 is hydrogen, alkyl, halogen, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, hydroxyl, thiol, cyano, nitro, acyl, formyl, alkoxy, amino, alkylamino, heterocyclic, or absent, optionally linked to R1 to form a ring; R2′, R3, R4a, and R4b are each independently hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkoxy, alkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, alkylamino, arylalkyl, aryl, heterocyclic, heteroaromatic or a prodrug moiety; R10, R11, and R12 are each independently hydrogen, alkyl, aryl, benzyl, arylalkyl, or a pro-drug moiety; R4 and R4′ are each independently NR4aR4b, alkyl, acyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, hydroxyl, halogen, hydrogen, or taken together ═N—OR4a; R5 and R5′ are each independently hydroxyl, hydrogen, thiol, alkanoyl, aroyl, alkaroyl, aryl, heteroaromatic, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkoxy, alkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, alkylamino, arylalkyl, alkyl carbonyloxy, or aryl carbonyloxy; R6 and R6′ are each independently hydrogen, methylene, absent, hydroxyl, halogen, thiol, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, alkoxy, alkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, alkylamino, or an arylalkyl; R7 is hydrogen, dialkylamino, hydroxyl, halogen, thiol, nitro, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, alkoxy, alkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, arylalkyl, amino, arylalkenyl, arylalkynyl, acyl, aminoalkyl, heterocyclic, boronic ester, alkylcarbonyl, thionitroso, or —(CH2)0-3(NR7c)0-1C(═W′)WR7a; R8 is hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, thiol, nitro, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, alkoxy, alkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, alkylamino, amino, arylalkenyl, arylalkynyl, acyl, aminoalkyl, heterocyclic, thionitroso, or —(CH2)0-3(NR8c)0-1C(=E′)ER8a; R9 is hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, thiol, nitro, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, alkoxy, alkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, arylalkyl, amino, arylalkenyl, arylalkynyl, acyl, aminoalkyl, heterocyclic, thionitroso, or —(CH2)0-3(NR9c)0-1C(=Z′)ZR9a; R7a, R7b, R7c, R7d, R7e, R7f, R8a, R8b, R8c, R8d, R8e, R8f, R9a, R9b, R9c, R9d, R9e, and R9f are each independently hydrogen, acyl, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkoxy, alkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, alkylamino, arylalkyl, aryl, heterocyclic, heteroaromatic or a prodrug moiety; R13 is hydrogen, hydroxy, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkoxy, alkylthio, aryl, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, alkylamino, or an arylalkyl; E is CR8dR8e, S, NR8b or O; E′ is O, NR8f, or S; W is CR7dR7e, S, NR7b or O; W′ is O, NR7f, or S; X is CHC(R13Y′Y), C═CR13Y, CR6′R6, S, NR6, or O; Y′ and Y are each independently hydrogen, halogen, hydroxyl, cyano, sulfhydryl, amino, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkoxy, alkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, alkylamino, or an arylalkyl; Z is CR9dR9e, S, NR9b or O; Z′ is O, S, or NR9f, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters and enantiomers thereof. In a further embodiment, R2″ is C(═O)NH2; R3, R10, R11, and R12 are each hydrogen or a prodrug moiety; R4 is NR4aR4b; R4a and R4b are each methyl; R5 is hydrogen; R8 is hydrogen; X is CR6R6′; R6 is hydrogen; and R5′ and R6′ are hydrogen. In another further embodiment, R8 and R9 are hydrogen. In yet another further embodiment, R7 is substituted phenyl, a boronic ester, alkylcarbonyl, heterocyclic, aminoalkyl, or arylalkynyl. Examples of substituents for phenyl R7 groups include, but are not limited to, alkoxy, alkyl-O—N═C—CR7gR7h, alkylaminoalkyl, alkenylaminoalkyl, alkoxyalkylaminoalkyl, substituted alkyl, and substituted carbonylamino, wherein R7g and R9h are each independently hydrogen or alkyl. In another further embodiment, R7 is substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, e.g., substituted or unsubstituted pyrimidinyl, pyridinyl, or furanyl. In another further embodiment, R7 is substituted or unsubstituted piperdinyl-alkyl. In other embodiments, R7 is pyridinyl-alkynyl or substituted or unsubstituted phenyl-alkynyl. In other embodiment, R7 is hydrogen and R9 is substituted carbonylamino. In other embodiments, R8 is hydrogen; R7 is heterocyclic, alkyl, alkyl-O—N═C—CR7gR7h, or dimethylamino, wherein R7g and R9h are each independently hydrogen or alkyl. In a further embodiment, R9 is aminoalkyl. Examples of aminoalkyl R9 moieties include aminomethyl moieties and moieties of the formula: wherein: J5 and J6 are each independently hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, sulfonyl, acyl, alkoxycarbonyl, alkaminocarbonyl, alkaminothiocarbonyl, substituted thiocarbonyl, substituted carbonyl, alkoxythiocarbonyl, or linked to form a ring; and J7 and J8 are each alkyl, halogen, or hydrogen. In a further embodiment, J7 and J8 are each hydrogen. In another further embodiment, J6 is hydrogen and J5 is substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, 2-methyl-propyl, hexyl, and/or cyclohexyl. Examples of substituents of J5 include one or more fluorines or substituted or unsubstituted phenyl groups. In another embodiment, J5 and/or J6 is substituted or unsubstituted alkyl or alkenyl. Examples of J5 and/or J6 include methyl, ethyl, propyl, propenyl, 2-methyl-propyl, butyl, butenyl, pentyl, pentenyl, hexyl, and hexenyl. In a further embodiment, J5 is substituted with one or more fluorines or substituted or unsubstituted phenyl groups. In another further embodiment, J5 and J6 are linked to form a ring, e.g., a piperdinyl ring or a fused ring, e.g., 2,3-dihydro-indole or an decahydro-isoquinoline. In another further embodiment, the piperidinyl ring is substituted with one or more halogens, one or more heterocyclic groups or one or more halogenated alkyl groups (e.g., trifluoromethyl). In one embodiment, R2″ is C(═O)NH2; R4′, R5′, R3, R10, R11, and R12 are each hydrogen or a prodrug moiety; R4 is NR4aR4b; R4a and R4b are each methyl; R5 is hydroxyl; R8 is hydrogen; X is CR6R6′; R6 is hydrogen and R6′ is alkyl (e.g., methyl). In a further embodiment, R7 is hydrogen and R9 aminoalkyl (e.g., piperidinyl alkyl, such as halogenated alkyl substituted piperidinyl alkyl, for example, trifluoromethyl substituted piperidinylalkyl). In another embodiment, the substituted tetracycline compound is selected from the group consisting of: and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. The tetracycline compounds of this invention can be synthesized using the methods described in the Schemes and/or by other techniques known to those of ordinary skill in the art. The substituted tetracycline compounds of the invention can be synthesized using the methods described in the following schemes and by using art recognized techniques. All novel substituted tetracycline compounds described herein are included in the invention as compounds. 9- and 7-substituted tetracyclines can be synthesized by the method shown in Scheme 1. As shown in Scheme 1, 9- and 7-substituted tetracycline compounds can be synthesized by treating a tetracycline compound (e.g., doxycycline, 1A), with sulfuric acid and sodium nitrate. The resulting product is a mixture of the 7-nitro and 9-nitro isomers (1B and 1C, respectively). The 7-nitro (1B) and 9-nitro (1C) derivatives are treated by hydrogenation using hydrogen gas and a platinum catalyst to yield amines 1D and 1E. The isomers are separated at this time by conventional methods. To synthesize 7- or 9-substituted alkenyl derivatives, the 7- or 9-amino tetracycline compound (1E and 1F, respectively) is treated with HONO, to yield the diazonium salt (1G and 1H). The salt (1G and 1H) is treated with an appropriate reactive reagent to yield the desired compound (e.g., in Scheme 1, 7-cyclopent-1-enyl doxycycline (1H) and 9-cyclopent-1-enyl doxycycline (1I)). As shown in Scheme 2, tetracycline compounds of the invention wherein R7 is a carbamate or a urea derivative can be synthesized using the following protocol. Sancycline (2A) is treated with NaNO2 under acidic conditions forming 7-nitro sancycline (2B) in a mixture of positional isomers. 7-nitrosancycline (2B) is then treated with H2 gas and a platinum catalyst to form the 7-amino sancycline derivative (2C). To form the urea derivative (2E), isocyanate (2D) is reacted with the 7-amino sancycline derivative (2C). To form the carbamate (2G), the appropriate acid chloride ester (2F) is reacted with 2C. As shown in Scheme 3, tetracycline compounds of the invention, wherein R7 is a heterocyclic (i.e., thiazole) substituted amino group can be synthesized using the above protocol. 7-amino sancycline (3A) is reacted with Fmoc-isothiocyanate (3B) to produce the protected thiourea (3C). The protected thiourea (3C) is then deprotected yielding the active sancycline thiourea (3D) compound. The sancycline thiourea (3D) is reacted with an α-haloketone (3E) to produce a thiazole substituted 7-amino sancycline (3F). 7-alkenyl tetracycline compounds, such as 7-alkynyl sancycline (4A) and 7-alkenyl sancycline (4B), can be hydrogenated to form 7-alkyl substituted tetracycline compounds (e.g., 7-alkyl sancycline, 4C). Scheme 4 depicts the selective hydrogenation of the 7-position double or triple bond, in saturated methanol and hydrochloric acid solution with a palladium/carbon catalyst under pressure, to yield the product. In Scheme 5, a general synthetic scheme for synthesizing 7-position aryl derivatives is shown. A Suzuki coupling of an aryl boronic acid with an iodosancycline compound is shown. An iodo sancycline compound (5B) can be synthesized from sancycline by treating sancycline (5A) with at least one equivalent N-iodosuccinimide (NIS) under acidic conditions. The reaction is quenched, and the resulting 7-iodo sancycline (5B) can then be purified using standard techniques known in the art. To form the aryl derivative, 7-iodo sancycline (5B) is treated with an aqueous base (e.g., Na2CO3) and an appropriate boronic acid (5C) and under an inert atmosphere. The reaction is catalyzed with a palladium catalyst (e.g., Pd(OAc)2). The product (5D) can be purified by methods known in the art (such as HPLC). Other 7-aryl, alkenyl, and alkynyl tetracycline compounds can be synthesized using similar protocols. The 7-substituted tetracycline compounds of the invention can also be synthesized using Stille cross couplings. Stille cross couplings can be performed using an appropriate tin reagent (e.g., R—SnBu3) and a halogenated tetracycline compound, (e.g., 7-iodosancycline). The tin reagent and the iodosancycline compound can be treated with a palladium catalyst (e.g., Pd(PPh3)2Cl2 or Pd(AsPh3)2Cl2) and, optionally, with an additional copper salt, e.g., CuI. The resulting compound can then be purified using techniques known in the art. The compounds of the invention can also be synthesized using Heck-type cross coupling reactions. As shown in Scheme 6, Heck-type cross-couplings can be performed by suspending a halogenated tetracycline compound (e.g., 7-iodosancycline, 6A) and an appropriate palladium or other transition metal catalyst (e.g., Pd(OAc)2 and CuI) in an appropriate solvent (e.g., degassed acetonitrile). The substrate, a reactive alkene (6B) or alkyne (6D), and triethylamine are then added and the mixture is heated for several hours, before being cooled to room temperature. The resulting 7-substituted alkenyl (6C) or 7-substituted alkynyl (6E) tetracycline compound can then be purified using techniques known in the art. To prepare 7-(2′-chloro-alkenyl)-tetracycline compounds, the appropriate 7-(alkynyl)-sancycline (7A) is dissolved in saturated methanol and hydrochloric acid and stirred. The solvent is then removed to yield the product (7B). As depicted in Scheme 8, 5-esters of 9-substituted tetracycline compounds can be formed by dissolving the 9-substituted compounds (8A) in strong acid (e.g., HF, methanesulphonic acid, and trifluoromethanesulfonic acid) and adding the appropriate carboxylic acid to yield the corresponding esters (8B). As shown in Scheme 9 below, 7 and 9 aminomethyl tetracyclines may be synthesized using reagents such as hydroxymethyl-carbamic acid benzyl ester. The term “alkyl” includes saturated aliphatic groups, including straight-chain alkyl groups (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, heptyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, etc.), branched-chain alkyl groups (isopropyl, tert-butyl, isobutyl, etc.), cycloalkyl (alicyclic) groups (cyclopropyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl, cyclooctyl), alkyl substituted cycloalkyl groups, and cycloalkyl substituted alkyl groups. The term alkyl further includes alkyl groups, which can further include oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur or phosphorus atoms replacing one or more carbons of the hydrocarbon backbone. In certain embodiments, a straight chain or branched chain alkyl has 6 or fewer carbon atoms in its backbone (e.g., C1-C6 for straight chain, C3-C6 for branched chain), and more preferably 4 or fewer. Likewise, preferred cycloalkyls have from 3-8 carbon atoms in their ring structure, and more preferably have 5 or 6 carbons in the ring structure. The term C1-C6 includes alkyl groups containing 1 to 6 carbon atoms. Moreover, the term alkyl includes both “unsubstituted alkyls” and “substituted alkyls,” the latter of which refers to alkyl moieties having substituents replacing a hydrogen on one or more carbons of the hydrocarbon backbone. Such substituents can include, for example, alkenyl, alkynyl, halogen, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkyl amino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. Cycloalkyls can be further substituted, e.g., with the substituents described above. An “alkylaryl” or an “arylalkyl” moiety is an alkyl substituted with an aryl (e.g., phenylmethyl (benzyl)). The term “alkyl” also includes the side chains of natural and unnatural amino acids. The term “aryl” includes groups, including 5- and 6-membered single-ring aromatic groups that may include from zero to four heteroatoms, for example, benzene, phenyl, pyrrole, furan, thiophene, thiazole, isothiaozole, imidazole, triazole, tetrazole, pyrazole, oxazole, isooxazole, pyridine, pyrazine, pyridazine, and pyrimidine, and the like. Furthermore, the term “aryl” includes multicyclic aryl groups, e.g., tricyclic, bicyclic, e.g., naphthalene, benzoxazole, benzodioxazole, benzothiazole, benzoimidazole, benzothiophene, methylenedioxyphenyl, quinoline, isoquinoline, napthridine, indole, benzofuran, purine, benzofuran, deazapurine, or indolizine. Those aryl groups having heteroatoms in the ring structure may also be referred to as “aryl heterocycles,” “heterocycles,” “heteroaryls” or “heteroaromatics.” The aromatic ring can be substituted at one or more ring positions with such substituents as described above, as for example, halogen, hydroxyl, alkoxy, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, alkylaminoacarbonyl, arylalkyl aminocarbonyl, alkenylaminocarbonyl, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, arylalkylcarbonyl, alkenylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkyl amino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. Aryl groups can also be fused or bridged with alicyclic or heterocyclic rings which are not aromatic so as to form a polycycle (e.g., tetralin). The term “alkenyl” includes unsaturated aliphatic groups analogous in length and possible substitution to the alkyls described above, but that contain at least one double bond. For example, the term “alkenyl” includes straight-chain alkenyl groups (e.g., ethylenyl, propenyl, butenyl, pentenyl, hexenyl, heptenyl, octenyl, nonenyl, decenyl, etc.), branched-chain alkenyl groups, cycloalkenyl (alicyclic) groups (cyclopropenyl, cyclopentenyl, cyclohexenyl, cycloheptenyl, cyclooctenyl), alkyl or alkenyl substituted cycloalkenyl groups, and cycloalkyl or cycloalkenyl substituted alkenyl groups. The term alkenyl further includes alkenyl groups which include oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur or phosphorus atoms replacing one or more carbons of the hydrocarbon backbone. In certain embodiments, a straight chain or branched chain alkenyl group has 6 or fewer carbon atoms in its backbone (e.g., C2-C6 for straight chain, C3-C6 for branched chain). Likewise, cycloalkenyl groups may have from 3-8 carbon atoms in their ring structure, and more preferably have 5 or 6 carbons in the ring structure. The term C2-C6 includes alkenyl groups containing 2 to 6 carbon atoms. Moreover, the term alkenyl includes both “unsubstituted alkenyls” and “substituted alkenyls,” the latter of which refers to alkenyl moieties having substituents replacing a hydrogen on one or more carbons of the hydrocarbon backbone. Such substituents can include, for example, alkyl groups, alkynyl groups, halogens, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkyl amino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. The term “alkynyl” includes unsaturated aliphatic groups analogous in length and possible substitution to the alkyls described above, but which contain at least one triple bond. For example, the term “alkynyl” includes straight-chain alkynyl groups (e.g., ethynyl, propynyl, butynyl, pentynyl, hexynyl, heptynyl, octynyl, nonynyl, decynyl, etc.), branched-chain alkynyl groups, and cycloalkyl or cycloalkenyl substituted alkynyl groups. The term alkynyl further includes alkynyl groups which include oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur or phosphorus atoms replacing one or more carbons of the hydrocarbon backbone. In certain embodiments, a straight chain or branched chain alkynyl group has 6 or fewer carbon atoms in its backbone (e.g., C2-C6 for straight chain, C3-C6 for branched chain). The term C2-C6 includes alkynyl groups containing 2 to 6 carbon atoms. Moreover, the term alkynyl includes both “unsubstituted alkynyls” and “substituted alkynyls,” the latter of which refers to alkynyl moieties having substituents replacing a hydrogen on one or more carbons of the hydrocarbon backbone. Such substituents can include, for example, alkyl groups, alkynyl groups, halogens, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkyl amino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. Unless the number of carbons is otherwise specified, “lower alkyl” as used herein means an alkyl group, as defined above, but having from one to five carbon atoms in its backbone structure. “Lower alkenyl” and “lower alkynyl” have chain lengths of, for example, 2-5 carbon atoms. The term “acyl” includes compounds and moieties which contain the acyl radical (CH3CO—) or a carbonyl group. It includes substituted acyl moieties. The term “substituted acyl” includes acyl groups where one or more of the hydrogen atoms are replaced by for example, alkyl groups, alkynyl groups, halogens, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkyl amino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. The term “acylamino” includes moieties wherein an acyl moiety is bonded to an amino group. For example, the term includes alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido groups. The term “aroyl” includes compounds and moieties with an aryl or heteroaromatic moiety bound to a carbonyl group. Examples of aroyl groups include phenylcarboxy, naphthyl carboxy, etc. The terms “alkoxyalkyl,” “alkylaminoalkyl” and “thioalkoxyalkyl” include alkyl groups, as described above, which further include oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atoms replacing one or more carbons of the hydrocarbon backbone, e.g., oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atoms. The term “alkoxy” includes substituted and unsubstituted alkyl, alkenyl, and alkynyl groups covalently linked to an oxygen atom. Examples of alkoxy groups include methoxy, ethoxy, isopropyloxy, propoxy, butoxy, and pentoxy groups. Examples of substituted alkoxy groups include halogenated alkoxy groups. The alkoxy groups can be substituted with groups such as alkenyl, alkynyl, halogen, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkyl amino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moieties. Examples of halogen substituted alkoxy groups include, but are not limited to, fluoromethoxy, difluoromethoxy, trifluoromethoxy, chloromethoxy, dichloromethoxy, trichloromethoxy, etc. The term “amine” or “amino” includes compounds where a nitrogen atom is covalently bonded to at least one carbon or heteroatom. The term includes “alkyl amino” which comprises groups and compounds wherein the nitrogen is bound to at least one additional alkyl group. The term “dialkyl amino” includes groups wherein the nitrogen atom is bound to at least two additional alkyl groups. The term “arylamino” and “diarylamino” include groups wherein the nitrogen is bound to at least one or two aryl groups, respectively. The term “alkylarylamino,” “alkylaminoaryl” or “arylaminoalkyl” refers to an amino group which is bound to at least one alkyl group and at least one aryl group. The term “alkaminoalkyl” refers to an alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl group bound to a nitrogen atom which is also bound to an alkyl group. The term “amide,” “amido” or “aminocarbonyl” includes compounds or moieties which contain a nitrogen atom which is bound to the carbon of a carbonyl or a thiocarbonyl group. The term includes “alkaminocarbonyl” or “alkylaminocarbonyl” groups which include alkyl, alkenyl, aryl or alkynyl groups bound to an amino group bound to a carbonyl group. It includes arylaminocarbonyl and arylcarbonylamino groups which include aryl or heteroaryl moieties bound to an amino group which is bound to the carbon of a carbonyl or thiocarbonyl group. The terms “alkylaminocarbonyl,” “alkenylaminocarbonyl,” “alkynylaminocarbonyl,” “arylaminocarbonyl,” “alkylcarbonylamino,” “alkenylcarbonylamino,” “alkynylcarbonylamino,” and “arylcarbonylamino” are included in term “amide.” Amides also include urea groups (aminocarbonylamino) and carbamates (oxycarbonylamino). The term “carbonyl” or “carboxy” includes compounds and moieties which contain a carbon connected with a double bond to an oxygen atom. The carbonyl can be further substituted with any moiety which allows the compounds of the invention to perform its intended function. For example, carbonyl moieties may be substituted with alkyls, alkenyls, alkynyls, aryls, alkoxy, aminos, etc. Examples of moieties which contain a carbonyl include aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, amides, esters, anhydrides, etc. The term “thiocarbonyl” or “thiocarboxy” includes compounds and moieties which contain a carbon connected with a double bond to a sulfur atom. The term “ether” includes compounds or moieties which contain an oxygen bonded to two different carbon atoms or heteroatoms. For example, the term includes “alkoxyalkyl” which refers to an alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl group covalently bonded to an oxygen atom which is covalently bonded to another alkyl group. The term “ester” includes compounds and moieties which contain a carbon or a heteroatom bound to an oxygen atom which is bonded to the carbon of a carbonyl group. The term “ester” includes alkoxycarboxy groups such as methoxycarbonyl, ethoxycarbonyl, propoxycarbonyl, butoxycarbonyl, pentoxycarbonyl, etc. The alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl groups are as defined above. The term “thioether” includes compounds and moieties which contain a sulfur atom bonded to two different carbon or hetero atoms. Examples of thioethers include, but are not limited to alkthioalkyls, alkthioalkenyls, and alkthioalkynyls. The term “alkthioalkyls” include compounds with an alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl group bonded to a sulfur atom which is bonded to an alkyl group. Similarly, the term “alkthioalkenyls” and alkthioalkynyls” refer to compounds or moieties wherein an alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl group is bonded to a sulfur atom which is covalently bonded to an alkynyl group. The term “hydroxy” or “hydroxyl” includes groups with an —OH or —O−. The term “halogen” includes fluorine, bromine, chlorine, iodine, etc. The term “perhalogenated” generally refers to a moiety wherein all hydrogens are replaced by halogen atoms. The terms “polycyclyl” or “polycyclic radical” refer to two or more cyclic rings (e.g., cycloalkyls, cycloalkenyls, cycloalkynyls, aryls and/or heterocyclyls) in which two or more carbons are common to two adjoining rings, e.g., the rings are “fused rings.” Rings that are joined through non-adjacent atoms are termed “bridged” rings. Each of the rings of the polycycle can be substituted with such substituents as described above, as for example, halogen, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, alkylaminoacarbonyl, arylalkylaminocarbonyl, alkenylaminocarbonyl, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, arylalkyl carbonyl, alkenylcarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amido, amino (including alkyl amino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. The term “heteroatom” includes atoms of any element other than carbon or hydrogen. Preferred heteroatoms are nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur and phosphorus. The term “prodrug moiety” includes moieties which can be metabolized in vivo to a hydroxyl group and moieties which may advantageously remain esterified in vivo. Preferably, the prodrugs moieties are metabolized in vivo by esterases or by other mechanisms to hydroxyl groups or other advantageous groups. Examples of prodrugs and their uses are well known in the art (See, e.g., Berge et al. (1977) “Pharmaceutical Salts,” J. Pharm. Sci. 66:1-19). The prodrugs can be prepared in situ during the final isolation and purification of the compounds, or by separately reacting the purified compound in its free acid form or hydroxyl with a suitable esterifying agent. Hydroxyl groups can be converted into esters via treatment with a carboxylic acid. Examples of prodrug moieties include substituted and unsubstituted, branch or unbranched lower alkyl ester moieties, (e.g., propionoic acid esters), lower alkenyl esters, di-lower alkyl-amino lower-alkyl esters (e.g., dimethylaminoethyl ester), acylamino lower alkyl esters (e.g., acetyloxymethyl ester), acyloxy lower alkyl esters (e.g., pivaloyloxymethyl ester), aryl esters (phenyl ester), aryl-lower alkyl esters (e.g., benzyl ester), substituted (e.g., with methyl, halo, or methoxy substituents) aryl and aryl-lower alkyl esters, amides, lower-alkyl amides, di-lower alkyl amides, and hydroxy amides. Preferred prodrug moieties are propionoic acid esters and acyl esters. It will be noted that the structure of some of the tetracycline compounds of this invention includes asymmetric carbon atoms. It is to be understood accordingly that the isomers arising from such asymmetry (e.g., all enantiomers and diastereomers) are included within the scope of this invention, unless indicated otherwise. Such isomers can be obtained in substantially pure form by classical separation techniques and by stereochemically controlled synthesis. Furthermore, the structures and other compounds and moieties discussed in this application also include all tautomers thereof. In another further embodiment, the substituted tetracycline compound is administered in combination with a second agent. The language “in combination with” a second agent includes co-administration of the tetracycline compound, and with the second agent, administration of the tetracycline compound first, followed by the second agent and administration of the second agent, followed by the tetracycline compound. The second agent may be any agent which is known in the art to treat, prevent, or reduce the symptoms of a Bacillus anthracis infection. Furthermore, the second agent may be any agent of benefit to the subject when administered in combination with the administration of an tetracycline compound. Examples of second agents include antibiotics, such as rifampin, vancomycin, ampicillin, chloramphenicol, imipenem, clindamycin, and clarithromycin. In another embodiment, the invention pertains to pharmaceutical compositions comprising an effective amount of a substituted tetracycline compound of the invention for the treatment of a Bacillus anthracis infection and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The language “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” includes substances capable of being coadministered with the tetracycline compound(s), and which allow both to perform their intended function, e.g., treat or prevent a Bacillus anthracis infection. Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable carriers include but are not limited to water, salt solutions, alcohol, vegetable oils, polyethylene glycols, gelatin, lactose, amylose, magnesium stearate, talc, silicic acid, viscous paraffin, perfume oil, fatty acid monoglycerides and diglycerides, petroethral fatty acid esters, hydroxymethyl-cellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidone, etc. The pharmaceutical preparations can be sterilized and if desired mixed with auxiliary agents, e.g., lubricants, preservatives, stabilizers, wetting agents, emulsifiers, salts for influencing osmotic pressure, buffers, colorings, flavorings and/or aromatic substances and the like which do not deleteriously react with the active compounds of the invention. The tetracycline compounds of the invention that are basic in nature are capable of forming a wide variety of salts with various inorganic and organic acids. The acids that may be used to prepare pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts of the tetracycline compounds of the invention that are basic in nature are those that form non-toxic acid addition salts, i.e., salts containing pharmaceutically acceptable anions, such as the hydrochloride, hydrobromide, hydroiodide, nitrate, sulfate, bisulfate, phosphate, acid phosphate, isonicotinate, acetate, lactate, salicylate, citrate, acid citrate, tartrate, pantothenate, bitartrate, ascorbate, succinate, maleate, gentisinate, fumarate, gluconate, glucaronate, saccharate, formate, benzoate, glutamate, methanesulfonate, ethanesulfonate, benzenesulfonate, p-toluenesulfonate and palmoate [i.e., 1,1′-methylene-bis-(2-hydroxy-3-naphthoate)] salts. Although such salts must be pharmaceutically acceptable for administration to a subject, e.g., a mammal, it is often desirable in practice to initially isolate a tetracycline compound of the invention from the reaction mixture as a pharmaceutically unacceptable salt and then simply convert the latter back to the free base compound by treatment with an alkaline reagent and subsequently convert the latter free base to a pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salt. The acid addition salts of the base compounds of this invention are readily prepared by treating the base compound with a substantially equivalent amount of the chosen mineral or organic acid in an aqueous solvent medium or in a suitable organic solvent, such as methanol or ethanol. Upon careful evaporation of the solvent, the desired solid salt is readily obtained. The preparation of other tetracycline compounds of the invention not specifically described in the foregoing experimental section can be accomplished using combinations of the reactions described above that will be apparent to those skilled in the art. The tetracycline compounds of the invention that are acidic in nature are capable of forming a wide variety of base salts. The chemical bases that may be used as reagents to prepare pharmaceutically acceptable base salts of those tetracycline compounds of the invention that are acidic in nature are those that form non-toxic base salts with such compounds. Such non-toxic base salts include, but are not limited to those derived from such pharmaceutically acceptable cations such as alkali metal cations (e.g., potassium and sodium) and alkaline earth metal cations (e.g., calcium and magnesium), ammonium or water-soluble amine addition salts such as N-methylglucamine-(meglumine), and the lower alkanolammonium and other base salts of pharmaceutically acceptable organic amines. The pharmaceutically acceptable base addition salts of tetracycline compounds of the invention that are acidic in nature may be formed with pharmaceutically acceptable cations by conventional methods. Thus, these salts may be readily prepared by treating the tetracycline compound of the invention with an aqueous solution of the desired pharmaceutically acceptable cation and evaporating the resulting solution to dryness, preferably under reduced pressure. Alternatively, a lower alkyl alcohol solution of the tetracycline compound of the invention may be mixed with an alkoxide of the desired metal and the solution subsequently evaporated to dryness. The tetracycline compounds of the invention and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof can be administered via either the oral, parenteral or topical routes. In general, these compounds are most desirably administered in effective dosages, depending upon the weight and condition of the subject being treated and the particular route of administration chosen. Variations may occur depending upon the species of the subject being treated and its individual response to said medicament, as well as on the type of pharmaceutical formulation chosen and the time period and interval at which such administration is carried out. The tetracycline compounds of the invention may be administered alone or in combination with pharmaceutically acceptable carriers or diluents by any of the routes previously mentioned, and the administration may be carried out in single or multiple doses. For example, the novel therapeutic agents of this invention can be administered advantageously in a wide variety of different dosage forms, i.e., they may be combined with various pharmaceutically acceptable inert carriers in the form of tablets, capsules, lozenges, troches, hard candies, powders, sprays (e.g., aerosols, etc.), creams, salves, suppositories, jellies, gels, pastes, lotions, ointments, aqueous suspensions, injectable solutions, elixirs, syrups, and the like. Such carriers include solid diluents or fillers, sterile aqueous media and various non-toxic organic solvents, etc. Moreover, oral pharmaceutical compositions can be suitably sweetened and/or flavored. In general, the therapeutically-effective compounds of this invention are present in such dosage forms at concentration levels ranging from about 5.0% to about 70% by weight. For oral administration, tablets containing various excipients such as microcrystalline cellulose, sodium citrate, calcium carbonate, dicalcium phosphate and glycine may be employed along with various disintegrants such as starch (and preferably corn, potato or tapioca starch), alginic acid and certain complex silicates, together with granulation binders like polyvinylpyrrolidone, sucrose, gelatin and acacia. Additionally, lubricating agents such as magnesium stearate, sodium lauryl sulfate and talc are often very useful for tabletting purposes. Solid compositions of a similar type may also be employed as fillers in gelatin capsules; preferred materials in this connection also include lactose or milk sugar as well as high molecular weight polyethylene glycols. When aqueous suspensions and/or elixirs are desired for oral administration, the active ingredient may be combined with various sweetening or flavoring agents, coloring matter or dyes, and, if so desired, emulsifying and/or suspending agents as well, together with such diluents as water, ethanol, propylene glycol, glycerin and various like combinations thereof. The compositions of the invention may be formulated such that the tetracycline compositions are released over a period of time after administration. For parenteral administration (including intraperitoneal, subcutaneous, intravenous, intradermal or intramuscular injection), solutions of a therapeutic compound of the present invention in either sesame or peanut oil or in aqueous propylene glycol may be employed. The aqueous solutions should be suitably buffered (preferably pH greater than 8) if necessary and the liquid diluent first rendered isotonic. These aqueous solutions are suitable for intravenous injection purposes. The oily solutions are suitable for intraarticular, intramuscular and subcutaneous injection purposes. The preparation of all these solutions under sterile conditions is readily accomplished by standard pharmaceutical techniques well known to those skilled in the art. For parenteral application, examples of suitable preparations include solutions, preferably oily or aqueous solutions as well as suspensions, emulsions, or implants, including suppositories. Therapeutic compounds may be formulated in sterile form in multiple or single dose formats such as being dispersed in a fluid carrier such as sterile physiological saline or 5% saline dextrose solutions commonly used with injectables. Additionally, it is also possible to administer the compounds of the present invention topically when treating inflammatory conditions of the skin. Examples of methods of topical administration include transdermal, buccal or sublingual application. For topical applications, therapeutic compounds can be suitably admixed in a pharmacologically inert topical carrier such as a gel, an ointment, a lotion or a cream. Such topical carriers include water, glycerol, alcohol, propylene glycol, fatty alcohols, triglycerides, fatty acid esters, or mineral oils. Other possible topical carriers are liquid petrolatum, isopropylpalmitate, polyethylene glycol, ethanol 95%, polyoxyethylene monolauriate 5% in water, sodium lauryl sulfate 5% in water, and the like. In addition, materials such as anti-oxidants, humectants, viscosity stabilizers and the like also may be added if desired. For enteral application, particularly suitable are tablets, dragees or capsules having talc and/or carbohydrate carrier binder or the like, the carrier preferably being lactose and/or corn starch and/or potato starch. A syrup, elixir or the like can be used wherein a sweetened vehicle is employed. Sustained release compositions can be formulated including those wherein the active component is protected with differentially degradable coatings, e.g., by microencapsulation, multiple coatings, etc. In addition to treatment of human subjects, the therapeutic methods of the invention also will have significant veterinary applications, e.g., for treatment of livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats, cows, swine and the like; poultry such as chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys and the like; horses; and pets such as dogs and cats. It will be appreciated that the actual preferred amounts of active compounds used in a given therapy will vary according to the specific compound being used, the particular compositions formulated, the mode of application, the particular site of administration, etc. Optimal administration rates for a given protocol of administration can be readily ascertained by those skilled in the art using conventional dosage determination tests conducted with regard to the foregoing guidelines. In general, compounds of the invention for treatment can be administered to a subject in dosages used in prior tetracycline therapies. See, for example, the Physicians' Desk Reference. For example, a suitable effective dose of one or more compounds of the invention will be in the range of from 0.01 to 100 milligrams per kilogram of body weight of recipient per day, preferably in the range of from 0.1 to 50 milligrams per kilogram body weight of recipient per day, more preferably in the range of 1 to 20 milligrams per kilogram body weight of recipient per day. The desired dose is suitably administered once daily, or several sub-doses, e.g. 2 to 5 sub-doses, are administered at appropriate intervals through the day, or other appropriate schedule. It will also be understood that normal, conventionally known precautions will be taken regarding the administration of tetracyclines generally to ensure their efficacy under normal use circumstances. Especially when employed for therapeutic treatment of humans and animals in vivo, the practitioner should take all sensible precautions to avoid conventionally known contradictions and toxic effects. Thus, the conventionally recognized adverse reactions of gastrointestinal distress and inflammations, the renal toxicity, hypersensitivity reactions, changes in blood, and impairment of absorption through aluminum, calcium, and magnesium ions should be duly considered in the conventional manner. Furthermore, the invention also pertains to the use of a substituted tetracycline of the invention, for the preparation of a medicament. The medicament may include a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and the tetracycline compound is an effective amount, e.g., an effective amount to treat a Bacillus anthracis infection. EXEMPLIFICATION OF THE INVENTION Example 1 Antibacterial Activity of Tetracycline Compounds Against Susceptible and (Multiple) Antibiotic Resistant Organisms Efflux. The tetracycline efflux proteins, in general, confer resistance to both tetracycline and doxycycline. S. aureus RN4250 bears a TetK efflux mechanism and is resistant to both agents, but susceptible to minocycline (Table 2). A number of tetracyclines that overcome gram-positive efflux (Table 2) have been identified. TABLE 2 MICs (μg/ml) of novel TCs against strains with efflux resistance determinants. S. aureus S. aureus RN450a RN4250b Compound MIC (ug/ml) Doxycycline 0.06 4 Minocycline 0.25 0.5 Tetracycline 0.06 64 O 0.06 0.06 M 0.06 0.06 Q 0.06 0.06 P 0.06 0.06 S 0.06 0.06 T 0.06 0.06 U 0.06 0.06 V 0.06 0.06 W 0.06 0.06 X 0.06 0.06 Y 0.06 0.06 aWild type S. aureus. bContains a TetK (efflux) resistance determinant. Ribosome protection. The ribosome protection determinants, which confer resistance to tetracycline, doxycycline and minocycline, are predominantly found in gram-positive bacteria and are probably the most widespread tetracycline resistance determinant in these organisms. A number of tetracycline compounds that can overcome this mechanism of resistance in a variety of gram-positive bacteria including S. aureus, E. faecium, and S. pneumoniae (Table 3). TABLE 3 MICs (μg/ml) of tetracycline compounds against strains with ribosome protection resistance determinants S. S. S. aureus S. aureus E. faecium pneumoniae pneumoniae Com- RN450a MRSA5b 494c 157Ea 700905d pound MIC (ug/ml) Doxy- 0.06 4 8 0.06 4 cycline Mino- 0.25 2 16 0.06 8 cycline Tetra- 0.06 32 64 0.06 32 cycline Z 0.13 0.5 2 0.06 NDe AA 1 0.5 1 0.5 1 AB 0.06 1 0.06 0.06 4 AD 0.06 1 2 0.13 0.5 AE 0.06 0.5 2 0.13 1 AK 1 2 1 0.5 0.5 aWild type. bMethicillin resistant S. aureus; contains TetM (ribosome protection); also multi-drug resistant. cContains TetL (efflux) and TetM (ribosome protection); is also resistant to vancomycin and erythromycin. dContains TetM (ribosome protection); is also resistant to penicillin and erythromycin. eND, not determined. Efflux and ribosome protection concurrently. A number of tetracycline compounds were tested against gram-positive bacteria possessing both tetracycline efflux and ribosome protection determinants as well as other non-tetracycline resistance mechanisms. Compounds with substitutions at both R7 and R9 position in Formula I e.g., substituted 7-dimethylamino-9-aminomethylcyclines and 7-aryl or heteroaryl sancyclines) demonstrated activity against both tetracycline sensitive isolates and tetracycline resistant gram-positive bacteria containing efflux and ribosome protection determinants (Table 4). TABLE 4 MICs (μg/ml) of tetracycline compounds against strains with ribosome protection and efflux resistance determinants. E. faecium E. faecalis S. aureus S. pneumoniae 494a 29212b MRSA5c 700905d Compound MIC (ug/ml) Doxycycline 16 4 4 4 Minocycline 16 4 2 8 Tetracycline 64 16 32 32 A 1 1 1 0.25 B 1 1 1 0.5 C 0.25 0.5 1 0.25 D 1 0.25 1 0.25 E 1 0.25 0.25 0.06 F 1 0.5 0.5 0.25 G 1 0.5 0.5 0.06 H 0.5 0.5 0.35 0.06 I 1 1 1 0.5 J 1 0.25 0.5 0.06 K 1 1 0.5 0.25 L 1 1 0.5 0.75 R 1 2 1 0.13 N 0.5 1 1 0.13 AH 0.25 0.25 1 0.06 aHas TetM (ribosome protection) and TetL (efflux); is resistant to vancomycin and erythromycin. bHas TetM (ribosome protection). cMethicillin resistant S. aureus; contains TetM, ribosome protection; also multi-drug resistant. dHas TetM (ribosome protection). Bacillus cereus. In order to prevent the unnecessary use of the anthrax pathogen, a group of tetracycline resistant B. cereus was obtained. In this panel, B. cereus 95/3032 and 98/2658 were classified as tetracycline susceptible whereas B. cereus 98/2620 and 97/4144 were tetracycline resistant (Table 6). Preliminary MICs were determined for common antibiotics against the B. cereus isolates (Table 5). B. cereus containing natural tetracycline resistance determinants were chosen rather than creating isogenic tetracycline resistant B. anthracis strains since it would be a violation of International Bioweapons Treaty to purposefully create an antibiotic resistant category A agent. In addition, B. cereus are generally more tetracycline resistant than B. anthracis. TABLE 5 Activity of tetracycline compounds against tetracycline susceptible and tetracycline resistant Bacillus cereus. B. cereus B. cereus B. cereus B. cereus 98/2620a 95/3032b 98/2658c 97/4144d Compound MIC (ug/ml) Doxycycline 4 ≦0.06 ≦0.06 4 Minocycline 0.5 ≦0.06 ≦0.06 0.5 Tetracycline 32 ≦0.06 ≦0.06 64 Cefotaxime 64 >64 >64 32 Penicillin 32 >64 >64 >64 Vancomycin 1 1 2 1 Erythromycin ≦0.06 0.125 1 0.125 Clindamycin 0.25 0.5 0.5 0.5 aAn industrial fermenter isolate, serotype 1. bIsolated from an orthopedic-related area, serotype 24. cNon-typeable. dIsolated from an individual with food poisoning, serotype AA. Bacillus anthracis. The panel of B. anthracis isolates (n=27) that was available for susceptibility studies included two organisms that exhibit reduced susceptibility to doxycycline (Table 6). B. anthracis V770 was 4→33-fold less susceptible to doxycycline than 25 other B. anthracis and strain V770NPIR was fully doxycycline-resistant. The group of organisms listed in Table 6 all possessed the same tetracycline resistance determinants that would be found in B. anthracis and the majority were multi-drug resistant. The criteria for selecting compounds for subsequent testing in B. anthracis were (a) the compounds must not possess cytotoxicity in vitro (Table 9) and (b) the compounds were required to possess a MIC of ≦0.5 μg/ml against this panel of resistant isolates (Table 7). At least five tetracycline compounds were identified (Table 7). The activities of these tetracyclines were tested against B. anthracis (n=5), including the tetracycline resistant strains V770 and V770NPIR (Table 7). As illustrated, these compounds possessed exceptional activity against tetracycline susceptible and resistant B. anthracis isolates in vitro (Table 7). Compounds AI, H, and AJ all contain substituents at the R9 position of the tetracycline core while compounds AM and AF bear substitutions at the R7 and R9 positions. Without being bound by theory, these data support the hypothesis that tetracycline compounds directed against common tetracycline resistant organisms, e.g., S. aureus, S. pneumoniae, and Enterococcus spp. may also target tetracycline resistant B. anthracis. TABLE 6 Activity of tetracycline compounds against susceptible and doxycycline resistant B. anthracis. Vollum1B Sterne Ames V770 V770NPIR Compound MIC (ug/ml) Ciprofloxacin 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.12 0.25 Doxycyclinea 0.06 0.12 <0.03 1 32 AI <0.03 <0.03 0.06 0.12 0.06 AM 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.12 0.06 AF <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 0.06 0.06 H <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 0.06 AJ <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 aThe activity of doxycycline against the entire B. anthracis panel (n = 27) is as follows: MIC50 = 0.06 μg/ml; MIC90 = 0.25 μg/ml; MIC Range = <0.03-32 μg/ml. TABLE 7 Activity of tetracycline compounds against common susceptible and tetracycline resistant bacteria. S. aureus E. faecium E. faecalis S. pneumoniae MRSA5a 494b 29212c 700905d Compound MIC (ug/ml) Doxycycline 4 16 4 4 Minocycline 2 16 4 8 Tetracycline 32 64 16 32 AI 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.06 AM 0.25 0.25 0.13 0.06 AF 0.13 0.25 0.13 0.06 H 0.35 0.5 0.5 0.06 AJ 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.06 aMethicillin resistant S. aureus; contains TetM, ribosome protection; also multi-drug resistant. bHas TetM (ribosome protection) and TetL (efflux); is resistant to vancomycin and erythromycin. cHas TetM (ribosome protection). dHas TetM (ribosome protection); is resistant to penicillin and erythromycin. Example 2 Additional Potential Mechanisms of Antibacterial Activity by Tetracycline Compounds In addition to inhibiting protein synthesis, molecules within the tetracycline family are reported to affect peptidoglycan biosynthesis. Using cell-free macromolecular synthesis assays early studies divided the tetracycline compounds into two classes based on these additional activities. Class 1 compounds (tetracycline, minocycline, and doxycycline) were potent inhibitors of protein synthesis compared to the weak effects of class 2 molecules (chelocardin, anhydrotetracycline, and 4-epi-anhydrochlorotet). Using chemical footprinting assays, minocycline, doxycycline, and tetracycline were shown to affect the reactivity of nucleotides known to mediate binding of the antibiotics within the 16S rRNA. Tigecycline exhibited a chemical footprint similar to that of tetracycline. A similar effect was not seen with chelocardin or anhydrotetracycline, which correlates with their poor activity against the purified ribosome in vitro. As illustrated in Table 8, these previous findings were confirmed and methods for deriving IC50 values (i.e., compound concentration necessary to inhibit a biological process by 50%) were developed. In particular, compounds AA, O, and tigecycline have a profile similar to class I compounds. Compounds AA and A also affect peptidoglycan biosynthesis. TABLE 8 Effect of tetracycline compounds on macromolecular synthesis of S. aureus RN450. Protein Peptidoglycan MIC synthesisa synthesis Antibiotic (μg/ml) IC50 IC90 IC50 IC90 Tetracycline 0.06 <0.03 0.11 >32 >32 Minocycline 0.19 <0.03 0.1 4.6 20.9 Doxycycline 0.06 <0.03 <0.03 3.9 18.23 Anhydrotetracycline 2 <0.03 <0.03 19.2 >32 Tigecycline 2 0.12 0.68 >32 >32 AA 1 0.14 1.4 3.8 23 AB 0.06 0.19 1.8 18.3 >32 A 0.25 1.9 5 2.1 3.8 AE 0.06 0.07 0.62 6.0 >32 O 0.06 0.33 0.92 >32 >32 aCompounds were assayed against S. aureus RN450, a TC susceptible organism and IC50 and IC90 values are reported in μg/ml. Example 3 In Vitro and in Vivo Toxicity An in vitro determination of the cytotoxicity of the compounds of the invention was performed using standard mammalian cell assays and in vivo using mice. Specifically, African green monkey kidney (COS-1) and Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-K1) cell lines were used according to standard methods (see Zhi-Jun, Y., N. Sriranganathan, T. Vaught, S. K. Arastu, and S. A. Ahmed. 1997. A dye-based lymphocyte proliferation assay that permits multiple immunological analyses: mRNA, cytogenetic, apoptosis, and immunophenotyping studies. J Immunol Methods 210:25-39). Briefly, suspensions of tissue culture cells were grown overnight in the presence of serial dilutions of drug up to a maximum concentration of 50 or 100 μg/ml. The metabolism of the tissue culture cells was monitored with resazurin, a soluble non-toxic dye. Control cytotoxic and non-cytotoxic compounds were routinely included in all assays. Tox100 values represented the concentration of compound necessary to inhibit cellular proliferation by 100%. Compounds without measurable cytotoxicity in vitro were assigned a Tox100 value of greater than the highest concentration assayed (e.g., 50 or 100 μg/ml). The results are shown in Table 9. TABLE 9 Cytotoxicity of tetracycline compounds. Tox50 (μg/ml)a Compound COS-1 CHO-K1 AI >100 >100 AM >100 92.85 AF >100 >100 H >100 >100 AJ >100 >100 aRepresents the concentration necessary to cause 50% inhibition of cell growth in tissue culture cells. Example 4 Efficacy of Tetracycline Compounds Against Susceptible and Resistant Organisms in Animal Infection Models In vivo efficacy as well as oral bioavailability of the tetracycline compounds were assessed in murine models of infection and compared to control tetracyclines and other currently available antibiotics. In the standard screening assay of acute systemic infection (Table 10), mice were given a lethal intraperitoneal inoculum of S. pneumoniae strain 157E (tetracycline susceptible) or 700905 (tetracycline resistant), followed by a single dose of drug, and then observed for survival over 48 hours. Each experiment routinely included an untreated group (n=5; expected survival<5%) and a group (n=5) treated with a conventional antibiotic (e.g., minocycline, ciprofloxacin, and ampicillin; expected survival>80%). The results are tabulated in Table 10. TABLE 10 Efficacy of selected tetracyclines in the screening assay of acute systemic infection due to S. pneumoniae 157E. SC PO Compound dose % survival dose % survival B 5 mg/kg 100% 5 mg/kg 40% C 5 mg/kg 100% 10 mg/kg 60% D 5 mg/kg 0% 10 mg/kg 0% AI 5 mg/kg 40% 10 mg/kg 0% E 5 mg/kg 40% 10 mg/kg 0% AM 5 mg/kg 100% 50 mg/kg 0% F 5 mg/kg 100% 50 mg/kg 100% AJ 5 mg/kg 100% 50 mg/kg 80% ND, not determined. Compounds providing ≧60% survival at 10 mg/kg were further assessed in a dose response study to determine the PD50 (the drug concentration necessary to prevent death in 50% of the mice in a treatment group). These experiments involved an untreated group, a group treated with a control antibiotic (e.g., minocycline, ciprofloxacin, and ampicillin), and up to five groups each receiving a different doses of an active experimental compound; all groups included 5 animals (Table 11). Compounds B and C were efficacious following tetracycline administration and compounds H and I exhibited oral activity (Tables 10 and 11). Compound H, which exhibited potency against tetracycline resistant B. anthracis (Table 6), exhibits IV and PO efficacy against infections caused by tetracycline susceptible and resistant organisms (Table 11), and is efficacious in a model of lung infection following IV and PO drug administration (Table 12). TABLE 11 Efficacy (PD50) of selected tetracycline compounds in mice with acute systemic infection due to S. pneumoniae. S. pneumoniae S. pneumoniae 157E 700905 IV PO IV PO Compound PD50 (mg/kg) Minocycline 0.53 1.5 >50 >50 Ciprofloxacin >50 ND ND >50 Ampicillin 0.6 1.1 43.7 >50 H 1.1 5 2.2 12.7 I 1 13.4 2.2 31.6 AN 0.54 2.3 1.4 8.4 A chronic model of murine S. pneumoniae lung infection was also established and the efficacy of a variety of currently available tetracycline compounds were tested in this model (Table 12). TABLE 12 Efficacy (PD50) of tetracycline compounds in mice with acute pulmonary infection due to S. pneumoniae PBS1339. PD50 (mg/kg) Compound IV PO Minocycline 4.5 3.6 Doxycycline 7.1 35.3 Ampicillin ND 3.2 H <5.0 3.6 Example 5 In Vivo Murine Model of B. Anthracis Infection In this example, mice were exposed to B. anthracis using whole body aerosol challenge, which approximated the mode of pathogen dissemination that would be expected during a bioterrorist event and was therefore preferred over other models (e.g., intratracheal inoculation). Animals were challenged with 75-100 LD50 of B. anthracis Ames strain spores (LD50 3.4×104 CFU/ml), which has been demonstrated repeatedly to cause death in 90-100% of untreated animals. Treatment with the substituted tetracycline compounds of the invention began 24 hours after challenge and continued for 21 days. Due to the persistence of ungerminated anthrax spores in the lungs of challenged animals, a treatment duration of 21 days was used regardless of the antibiotic class. Antibiotics were administered by parenteral injection or oral administration. Treatment groups were followed for an additional 30 days after cessation of antibiotic treatment. In addition to monitoring survival in each treatment group, animals were sacrificed at selected time points to monitor microbiological burdens. Tissues, including brain, spleen, lungs, heart, and liver were excised and pathogens were enumerated using agar plates. Additionally, emergence of resistance was monitored by culturing organs on antibiotic containing media (usually at 3× the baseline MIC). Individual treatment groups consisted of 15 animals and the study endpoint was death after infectious challenge. Ciprofloxacin (30 mg/kg, q12h) or doxycycline (at experimentally determined doses) was included as the active control in all experiments. Moribund animals exhibiting labored breathing, showing signs of paralysis, or that are unresponsive were humanely euthanized. Challenged survivors were humanely euthanized at the conclusion of the example. Throughout the study the mice were observed three to four times daily and mortality was recorded with each inspection. All moribund mice were euthanized and the deaths were recorded as the day of sacrifice. All mice that died or were sacrificed had their lungs and spleens quantitatively cultured on drug-free and antibiotic supplemented agar (3× MIC) to determine the effect of the treatment regimen on the total and drug-resistant bacterial populations, respectively. Twenty-four hours after the last dose was given, a group of surviving mice (n=5) were sacrificed and the lungs and spleens were aseptically harvested. The homogenized specimens were washed with saline to prevent drug carryover and bacteria were quantitatively cultured on drug-free and antibiotic-supplemented agar (3× MIC). The remaining animals were observed for survival for 14 days after the last dose of drug is given. Those that were alive after the 2-week observation period were sacrificed and their lungs and spleens were quantitatively cultured for total and drug-resistant populations. Portions of the homogenates were “heat shocked” for spore determination and bacterial load was determined by plating onto culture media and incubated at 36° C. Differences in survival between treatment and control groups was assessed by the Fisher exact test and by survival analysis techniques (Kaplan-Meier analysis and Cox proportional hazards modeling). Differences in bacterial concentrations in the lungs were determined by Student's t-test or by ANOVA. A P value<0.05 is considered statistically significant. The results of the in vivo assay indicate that untreated mice exposed to B. anthracis survived approximately 4 days, all mice treated with 10 mg/kg compound AN survived the entire 21 days and 75% of mice treated with 25 mg/kg of compound AN survived the entire 21 days. Equivalents Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, numerous equivalents to the specific procedures described herein. Such equivalents are considered to be within the scope of the present invention and are covered by the following claims. The contents of all references, patents, and patent applications cited throughout this application are hereby incorporated by reference. The appropriate components, processes, and methods of those patents, applications and other documents may be selected for the present invention and embodiments thereof.	A	A61	A61K	31	65
11701189	US20080116291A1-20080522	Railway rail supporting pad	ACCEPTED	20080509	20080522		[]	E01B1900	["E01B1900"]	7775455	20070201	20100817	238	382000	78065.0	MCCARRY JR	ROBERT	[{"inventor_name_last": "Kawai", "inventor_name_first": "Shoji", "inventor_city": "Aichi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]	An object of the invention is to provide a railway rail supporting pad that allows easy operations at a field site. In the invention, there is provided an outer bag made of a synthetic resin sheet housing a first inner bag and a second inner bag, the first inner bag containing a first reaction solution, the second inner bag containing a second reaction solution, the first and the second inner bags being configured to open at least partly due to outer pressure, the outer bag being provided with a separable sub bag in a communicative manner, an inlet of the sub bag as a communication part between the outer bag and the sub bag being closed by an easily debondable sealed portion, an interior of the sub bag being formed with a plurality of partitioning spaces partitioned by another easily debondable sealed portion.	1. A railway rail supporting pad to be interposed between a rail bearing member and a rail, wherein an outer bag made of a synthetic resin sheet contains a first reaction solution as a base material and a second reaction solution as a curing agent so that the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution are mixed together due to external pressure from outside the outer bag, the outer bag is provided with a separable sub bag in a communicative manner, an inlet of the sub bag as a communication part between the outer bag and the sub bag is closed by an easily debondable sealed portion, and an interior of the sub bag is formed with a plurality of partitioning spaces each partitioned by another easily debondable sealed portion. 2. The railway rail supporting pad according to claim 1, wherein inside the outer bag, there is provided an inner bag made of the synthetic resin sheet so that at least a part thereof opens due to external pressure, the outer bag contains one of the first reaction solution as the base material and the second reaction solution as the curing agent, and the inner bag provided inside the outer bag contains one of the second reaction solution as the curing agent and the first reaction solution as the base material. 3. The railway rail supporting pad according to claim 1, wherein inside the outer bag, there are provided a first inner bag and a second inner bag each made of the synthetic resin sheet so that at least a part thereof opens due to external pressure, the first inner bag contains the first reaction solution as the base material and the second inner bag contains the second reaction solution as the curing agent.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a railway rail supporting pad to be interposed between a rail and a rail bearing member in a railway track for supporting the rail. 2. Description of the Related Art Conventionally, as such a type of railway rail supporting pad, a pad to be interposed between a rail and a rail bearing member as disclosed, for example, in Japanese Unexamined Patent Publication No. 2004-84467 has been known. That is, such a railway rail supporting pad has, at one corner of a bag body, an injection port for injecting fluid and ambient temperature-setting resin, an exhaust port provided at a corner of the bag body diagonal to the injection port, and when a resin is injected into the bag body through the injection port, an interior air of the bag body is discharged through the exhaust port, and an excess resin in the bag body is discharged through the exhaust port. Generally, such a railway rail supporting pad is mounted on a rail bearing member, and receives a rail mounted on a rubber pad mounted on the railway rail supporting pad. The railway rail supporting pad and the rubber pad are arranged at appropriate intervals in a longitudinal direction of the rail. A bag-like railway rail supporting pad is arranged so as to be interposed between the rail bearing member and the rubber pad, the rail is mounted on the rubber pad, and adhesivity of the rail with respect to the rail bearing member is adjusted by resin injected into the bag-like railway rail supporting pad. According to the railway rail supporting pad disclosed in Japanese Unexamined Patent Publication No. 2004-84467, operation of injecting resin from the injection port into the bag body should be conducted at a field site, so that there arises a problem of labor of this operation, and another problem of soiling a periphery when injecting the resin into the bag body from the injection port and when discharging excess resin in the bag body from the exhaust port.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention solves the aforementioned problems, and it is an object of the present invention to provide a railway rail supporting pad which eliminates necessity of injecting resin at a field site, causes no soiling a periphery with the resin at the field site, and allows easy operation at the field site. In order to achieve the object, the present invention is featured as follows: 1. A railway rail supporting pad to be interposed between a rail bearing member and a rail, wherein an outer bag made of a synthetic resin sheet contains a first reaction solution as a base material and a second reaction solution as a curing agent so that the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution are mixed together due to external pressure from outside the outer bag, the outer bag is provided with a separable sub bag in a communicative manner, an inlet of the sub bag as a communication part between the outer bag and the sub bag is closed by an easily debondable sealed portion, and an interior of the sub bag is formed with a plurality of partitioning spaces each partitioned by another easily debondable sealed portion. 2. The railway rail supporting pad according to 1, wherein inside the outer bag, there is provided an inner bag made of the synthetic resin sheet so that at least a part thereof opens due to external pressure, the outer bag contains one of the first reaction solution as the base material and the second reaction solution as the curing agent, and the inner bag provided inside the outer bag contains one of the second reaction solution as the curing agent and the first reaction solution as the base material. 3. The railway rail supporting pad according to 1, wherein inside the outer bag, there are provided a first inner bag and a second inner bag each made of the synthetic resin sheet so that at least a part thereof opens due to external pressure, the first inner bag contains the first reaction solution as the base material and the second inner bag contains the second reaction solution as the curing agent. According to the above configurations of the railway rail supporting pad, a mixture of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution mixed in the outer bag due to external pressure from outside the outer bag can be cured, redundant compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution can be introduced to the sub bag, and the sub bag can be easily removed from the outer bag. This eliminates the necessity of injecting the resin at the field site as in the conventional technique, and causes no soiling the periphery with the resin at the field site, and allows easy operation at the field site. Further, since the plurality of partitioning spaces each partitioned by the easily debondable sealed portion are formed in the sub bag, when a load of rail is applied on the railway rail supporting pad, the railway rail supporting pad is strongly pressed, and the redundant compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution tend to flow into the sub bag as a surplus. At this time, pressure of the redundant compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution applied on the sealed portion partitioning each partitioning space causes the sealed portion to open, the redundant compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution sequentially push to open the partitioning spaces to enter therein, and finally are removed from the outer bag.	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a railway rail supporting pad to be interposed between a rail and a rail bearing member in a railway track for supporting the rail. 2. Description of the Related Art Conventionally, as such a type of railway rail supporting pad, a pad to be interposed between a rail and a rail bearing member as disclosed, for example, in Japanese Unexamined Patent Publication No. 2004-84467 has been known. That is, such a railway rail supporting pad has, at one corner of a bag body, an injection port for injecting fluid and ambient temperature-setting resin, an exhaust port provided at a corner of the bag body diagonal to the injection port, and when a resin is injected into the bag body through the injection port, an interior air of the bag body is discharged through the exhaust port, and an excess resin in the bag body is discharged through the exhaust port. Generally, such a railway rail supporting pad is mounted on a rail bearing member, and receives a rail mounted on a rubber pad mounted on the railway rail supporting pad. The railway rail supporting pad and the rubber pad are arranged at appropriate intervals in a longitudinal direction of the rail. A bag-like railway rail supporting pad is arranged so as to be interposed between the rail bearing member and the rubber pad, the rail is mounted on the rubber pad, and adhesivity of the rail with respect to the rail bearing member is adjusted by resin injected into the bag-like railway rail supporting pad. According to the railway rail supporting pad disclosed in Japanese Unexamined Patent Publication No. 2004-84467, operation of injecting resin from the injection port into the bag body should be conducted at a field site, so that there arises a problem of labor of this operation, and another problem of soiling a periphery when injecting the resin into the bag body from the injection port and when discharging excess resin in the bag body from the exhaust port. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention solves the aforementioned problems, and it is an object of the present invention to provide a railway rail supporting pad which eliminates necessity of injecting resin at a field site, causes no soiling a periphery with the resin at the field site, and allows easy operation at the field site. In order to achieve the object, the present invention is featured as follows: 1. A railway rail supporting pad to be interposed between a rail bearing member and a rail, wherein an outer bag made of a synthetic resin sheet contains a first reaction solution as a base material and a second reaction solution as a curing agent so that the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution are mixed together due to external pressure from outside the outer bag, the outer bag is provided with a separable sub bag in a communicative manner, an inlet of the sub bag as a communication part between the outer bag and the sub bag is closed by an easily debondable sealed portion, and an interior of the sub bag is formed with a plurality of partitioning spaces each partitioned by another easily debondable sealed portion. 2. The railway rail supporting pad according to 1, wherein inside the outer bag, there is provided an inner bag made of the synthetic resin sheet so that at least a part thereof opens due to external pressure, the outer bag contains one of the first reaction solution as the base material and the second reaction solution as the curing agent, and the inner bag provided inside the outer bag contains one of the second reaction solution as the curing agent and the first reaction solution as the base material. 3. The railway rail supporting pad according to 1, wherein inside the outer bag, there are provided a first inner bag and a second inner bag each made of the synthetic resin sheet so that at least a part thereof opens due to external pressure, the first inner bag contains the first reaction solution as the base material and the second inner bag contains the second reaction solution as the curing agent. According to the above configurations of the railway rail supporting pad, a mixture of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution mixed in the outer bag due to external pressure from outside the outer bag can be cured, redundant compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution can be introduced to the sub bag, and the sub bag can be easily removed from the outer bag. This eliminates the necessity of injecting the resin at the field site as in the conventional technique, and causes no soiling the periphery with the resin at the field site, and allows easy operation at the field site. Further, since the plurality of partitioning spaces each partitioned by the easily debondable sealed portion are formed in the sub bag, when a load of rail is applied on the railway rail supporting pad, the railway rail supporting pad is strongly pressed, and the redundant compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution tend to flow into the sub bag as a surplus. At this time, pressure of the redundant compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution applied on the sealed portion partitioning each partitioning space causes the sealed portion to open, the redundant compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution sequentially push to open the partitioning spaces to enter therein, and finally are removed from the outer bag. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows exploded perspective views of an outer bag, a first inner bag, a second inner bag, and a glass fiber cloth constituting a railway rail supporting pad in a first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2A shows a plan view of the first inner bag, and FIG. 2B shows a plan view of the second inner bag; FIG. 3 shows an enlarged section view of the first and the second inner bags; FIG. 4 is an explanatory view showing orientation of resin; FIG. 5 is an explanatory view showing a combination state of a straight-chain low-density polyethylene resin part and a polybutene-1 resin part in a heat sealed portion; FIG. 6 shows an enlarged view of a relevant part of a sealing edge of the heat sealed portion on a short side; FIG. 7 shows an enlarged view of a relevant part of the sealing edge of the heat sealed portion on a long side; FIG. 8 shows a perspective view of the railway rail supporting pad; FIG. 9 shows a perspective view of a usage state of the railway rail supporting pad; FIG. 10 shows a front view of the usage state of the railway rail supporting pad; FIG. 11 shows exploded perspective views of an outer bag, an inner bag, and a glass fiber cloth constituting a railway rail supporting pad in a second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 12 shows a plan view of a railway rail supporting pad in a third embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 13 shows a plan view of a railway rail supporting pad in a fourth embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 14 shows a plan view of a railway rail supporting pad in a fifth embodiment of the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS FIGS. 1 to 10 show a first embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 1 to 10 illustrate an outer bag 1, a first inner bag 2 having substantially the same size with the inner dimension of the outer bag 1 and housed in the outer bag 1, and a second inner bag 3 smaller than the first inner bag 2 and also housed in the outer bag 1. These outer bag 1, first inner bag 2, and second inner bag 3 are each made of a synthetic resin sheet. Each of these outer bag 1, first inner bag 2, and second inner bag 3 has a rectangular, more specifically an oblong planar shape, when it is laid on a table or the like, and formed by four-side sealing. Among these outer bag 1, first inner bag 2, and second inner bag 3, the outer bag 1 is made of a commonly used sheet material including an inner layer made of a film material having a low melting point such as polyethylene, and an outer layer made of a film material having a higher melting point than that of the inner layer such as nylon, and formed by heat sealing the inner layers of the two sheet materials at their four sides. As is the case with the outer bag 1, the first and the second inner bags 2 and 3 are basically made of a sheet material including an inner layer made of a film material having a low melting point, and an outer layer made of a film material having a higher melting point than that of the inner layer. However, the film material forming the inner layer 4 is made by blending straight-chain low-density polyethylene and polybutene-1, and as the straight-chain low-density polyethylene, those having a density ranging from 0.915 to 0.950 are used, and the ratio of blending straight-chain low-density polyethylene and polybutene-1 is set within a range of 70:30 to 98:2. And it is found that, when the first and the second inner bags 2 and 3 are made by heat sealing with the film material made by blending straight-chain low-density polyethylene and polybutene-1, a difference arises in sealing strength between a heat sealed portion in a direction (X) extending perpendicularly to a film flow direction (direction of an arrow A) and a heat sealed portion in a direction (Y) extending parallel with the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A). In other words, the strength in a width direction along the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A) of the heat sealed portion in the perpendicular direction (X) tends to be smaller than the strength in the width direction extending perpendicularly to the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A) of the heat sealed portion in the parallel direction (Y). This is ascribable to the following facts. The resin as a material for the inner layer 4 of the first and the second inner bags 2 and 3 is a blend of straight-chain low-density polyethylene and polybutene-1. In laminating the inner layer 4 made of a film material as the blend and the outer layer 5 made of nylon or polyethyleneterephthalate, uniaxial orientation appears between straight-chain low-density polyethylene and polybutene-1 under the action of processing speed. In other words, a film is formed while the resin of straight-chain low-density polyethylene and the resin of polybutene-1 are irregularly aligned. This state is shown in FIG. 4 illustrating a resin 6 of straight-chain low-density polyethylene and a resin 7 of polybutene-1. In this manner, since the inner layer 4 has uniaxial orientation, when two film materials each having bilayer structure are overlaid and the peripheries are heat sealed so as to form the four-side sealed inner bags 2 and 3, as shown in FIG. 5, three patterns of facing combinations are provided: a straight-chain low-density polyethylene resin part 6 and a straight-chain low-density polyethylene resin part 6; a polybutene-1 resin part 7 and a polybutene-1 resin part 7; and a straight-chain low-density polyethylene resin part 6 and a polybutene-1 resin part 7. Since the same kinds of resins are heat sealed in the combination of the straight-chain low-density polyethylene resin part 6 and the straight-chain low-density polyethylene resin part 6, and in the combination of the polybutene-1 resin part 7 and the polybutene-1 resin part 7, heat sealing strength is obtained within the characteristics of the resin. On the contrary, in the part where the straight-chain low-density polyethylene resin part 6 and the polybutene-1 resin part 7 oppose to each other, different kinds of resins face each other, so that heat sealing strengths as the respective characteristics are not revealed. Such conditions are mixed in the heat sealing face. Heat seal characteristics according to uniaxial orientation and the above three patterns of combination, and heat sealing direction give the following phenomenon. In the sealing edge in the width direction along the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A) of the heat sealed portion in the direction (X) perpendicular to the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A), the three patterns of combinations appear irregularly (see FIG. 6). On the other hand, in the sealing edge in the width direction extending perpendicularly to the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A) of the heat sealed portion in the direction (Y) parallel to the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A), one of the three patterns of combinations appears (see FIG. 7). In measurement of heat sealing strength, it is well known that the sealing width of an object is in direct proportion to strength, and the wider the sealing width is, the larger strength the object has. In the sealing edge in the width direction along the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A) of the heat sealed portion in the direction (X) perpendicular to the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A), since three patterns of combinations appear irregularly, the percentage in the sealing width occupied by the combination of straight-chain low-density polyethylene resin part 6 and straight-chain low-density polyethylene resin part 6 and the combination of polybutene-1 resin part 7 and polybutene-1 resin part 7 increasing the strength is less than 100%, and presence of the combination of straight-chain low-density polyethylene resin part 6 and polybutene-1 resin part 7 in the sealing edge decreases the heat sealing strength. In the width direction extending perpendicularly to the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A) of the heat sealed portion in the direction (Y) parallel to the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A), since molecules are oriented uniaxially, there arise three cases of appearance: the combination of the straight-chain low-density polyethylene resin part 6 and the straight-chain low-density polyethylene resin 6 appears in the sealing edge, the combination of the polybutene-1 resin part 7 and the polybutene-1 resin part 7 appears in the sealing edge, and the combination of the straight-chain low-density polyethylene resin part 6 and the polybutene-1 resin part 7 appears in the sealing edge. In comparison with the sealing strength in the width direction along the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A) of the heat sealed portion in the direction (X) perpendicular to the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A), the strength is larger when the combination of the straight-chain low-density polyethylene part 6 and the straight-chain low-density polyethylene part 6 appears or when the combination of the polybutene-1 resin part 7 and the polybutene-1 resin part 7 appears, while the strength is smaller when the combination of the straight-chain low-density polyethylene resin part 6 and the polybutene-1 resin part 7 appears. However, since the sealing strength is determined by the strength of sealing edge, when the combination of the straight-chain low-density polyethylene resin part 6 and the polybutene-1 resin part 7 appears, the strength is small and hence peeling occurs. While, when the combination of the straight-chain low-density polyethylene resin part 6 and the straight-chain low-density polyethylene resin part 6 or the combination of the polybutene-1 resin part 7 and the polybutene-1 resin part 7 appears in the next instant, the sealing strength increases. Totally, the sealing strength in the width direction extending perpendicularly to the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A) of the heat sealed portion in the direction (Y) parallel to the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A) is stronger than that in the width direction along the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A) of the heat sealed portion in the direction (X) perpendicular to the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A). In order to make such characteristics appear, as the straight-chain low-density polyethylene as the material for the inner layer 4, those having a density ranging from 0.915 to 0.950 are preferred, and the ratio of blending straight-chain low-density polyethylene and polybutene-1 is preferably within the range of 70:30 to 98:2 as described above. Outside these ranges, it is difficult to clearly differentiate between the sealing strength in the width direction along the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A) of the heat sealed portion in the direction (X) perpendicular to the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A) and the sealing strength in the width direction extending perpendicularly to the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A) of the heat sealed portion in the direction (Y) parallel to the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A), and to thereby achieve the object of the present invention. Utilizing the aforementioned nature, in the present embodiment, the two film materials each having a bilayer structure are overlaid and the peripheries are heat sealed to produce the four-side sealed first and the second inner bags 2 and 3 having a rectangular planar shape. In that case, the sealing strength in the width direction along the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A) of the heat sealed portion 8 in the direction (X) perpendicular to the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A), namely on a short side is made smaller than the sealing strength in the width direction extending perpendicularly to the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A) of the heat sealed portion 9 in the direction (Y) parallel to the film flow direction (direction of the arrow A), namely on a long side so that the sealed portion debonds in the width direction of the heat sealed portion 8 on the short side upon increase in inner pressure of the first and the second inner bags 2 and 3. More specifically, of the heat sealed portions 8 opposing to each other on the short side, the widthwise dimension of one of the heat sealed portions 8 on the short side is made smaller than that of the other of the heat sealed portions 8 so that the sealed portion quickly debonds in the width direction of the one of the heat sealed portions 8. In brief, by forming a part where the heat sealing width is narrow at an appropriate position in the one of the heat sealed portions 8 opposing to each other on the short side, the part having the narrow heat sealing width quickly debonds and provides the opening when the inner pressure is increased by application of external pressure (force of pushing and pressing) on the first and the second inner bags 2 and 3. Inside the first inner bag 2 manufactured in the manner as described above, a first reaction solution as a base material is introduced via one opening side of the first inner bag 2 and the first inner bag 2 is hermetically sealed, while inside the second inner bag 3, a second reaction solution as a curing agent is introduced via one opening side of the second inner bag 3 and the second inner bag 3 is hermetically sealed. The first inner bag 2 containing the first reaction solution as the base material and the second inner bag 3 containing the second reaction solution as the curing agent are housed in the outer bag 1 from the one opening side thereof. Also, a glass fiber cloth 10 having substantially the same size as the inner dimension of the outer bag 1 is housed in the outer bag 1 so as to go along one face of the first inner bag 2, and the one opening side of the outer bag 1 is hermetically sealed. The outer bag 1 is provided with a sub bag 11 so as to communicate with one end corner part for removing redundant compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution as contents at the point of use. In the embodiment shown in the drawing, the sub bag 11 is continuously formed so that its one side elongates straight from the long side of the outer bag 1. The communication part between the outer bag 1 and the sub bag 11, namely an inlet of the sub bag 11 is closed by simply sealing, and a sealed portion 12 thereof is configured to debond due to inner pressure from the side of the outer bag 1. An interior of the sub bag 11 is formed with a plurality of partitioning spaces 14 each partitioned by an easily debondable sealed portion 13 as is the case with the sealed portion 12 described above. A railway rail supporting pad 15 shown in FIG. 8 formed by the outer bag 1 housing the first inner bag 2 containing the first reaction solution as the base material and the second inner bag 3 containing the second reaction solution as the curing agent is mounted on a rail bearing member 16 in a concrete or wooden sleeper shape shown in FIGS. 9 and 10. On the railway rail supporting pad 15, a rubber pad 17 is mounted for receiving a rail 18 mounted on the rubber pad 17. More specifically, when the railway rail supporting pad 15 is mounted on the rail bearing member 16, external pressure is applied from outside the outer bag 1 of the railway rail supporting pad 15 with the rail 18 floating, thereby causing the parts of the second inner bags 2 and 3 having the narrow heat sealing width to debond to open, so as to mix the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution as the contents of the outer bag 1 therein, whereby the railway rail supporting pad 15 is mounted on the rail bearing member 16. Then, on the railway rail supporting pad 15, the rubber pad 17 is mounted, and then the rail 18 is brought down on the rubber pad 17 via a U-shaped iron plate 19 to have a predetermined height, and then the rail 18 is fastened. The U-shaped iron plat 19 is set on the rubber pad 17 so as to go along the long side of the railway rail supporting pad 15. As the rail 18 is mounted on the U-shaped iron plate 19, the railway rail supporting pad 15 is strongly pushed, and the redundant compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution tend to flow into the sub bag 11 as the surplus. At this time, the sealed portion 12 opens due to pressure exerted on the sealed portion 12 by the redundant compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution, and the redundant compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution flow into the partitioning space 14 located closest to the sealed portion 12. Then the sealed portion 13 between this partitioning space 14 and an adjacent next partitioning space 14 opens, and the redundant compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution flow into the next partitioning space 14. In this manner, the redundant compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution flow into a plurality of partitioning spaces 14, thereby the redundant compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution are removed from the outer bag 1. Thereafter a path between the outer bag 1 and the sub bag 11 is closed appropriately by a clip or the like, and after confirming completion of curing of the compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution in the railway rail supporting pad 15, the sub bag 11 is separated from the outer bag 1 with scissors or a cutter. In other words, the thickness of a cured product of the compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution in the railway rail supporting pad 15 adjusts the adhesivity between the rail bearing member 16 and the rail 18 via the rubber pad 17, and the redundant compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution are contained in the sub bag 11 and separated from the outer bag 1. The compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution wrap around the glass fiber cloth 10, so as to enhance the strength of the cured product of the compounds. Concrete examples of the first reaction solution as the base material contained in the first inner bag 2 include compounds having an epoxy group, compounds having an isocyanate group, compounds of unsaturated diacid (glycol and maleic anhydride, fumaric acid, and the like), compounds such as acrylic acid or acrylate, compounds having a silanol group, and compounds having an amino group. Concrete examples of the second reaction solution as the curing agent contained in the second inner bag 3 include compounds such as polyamine, acid anhydride and polyphenol, compounds having a hydroxyl group, compounds such as peroxide, compounds having an isocyanate group, and compounds such as formaldehyde. The second reaction solution suited for the first reaction solution contained in the first inner bag 2 is contained in the second inner bag 3, and for example, when a compound having an epoxy group is used as the first reaction solution contained in the first inner bag 2, a compound of polyamine, acid anhydride, polyphenol or the like is used as the second reaction solution contained in the second inner bag 3; when a compound having the isocyanate group is used as the first reaction solution, a compound having the hydroxyl group is used as the second reaction solution; when a compound of unsaturated diacid (glycol and maleic anhydride, fumaric acid, or the like) or a compound of acrylic acid or acrylate is used as the first reaction solution, a compound of peroxide or the like is used as the second reaction solution; when a compound having the silanol group is used as the first reaction solution, a compound having the isocyanate group is used as the second reaction solution; and when a compound having the amino group is used as the first reaction solution, a compound of formaldehyde or the like is used as the second reaction solution. A combination of the first reaction solution as the base material contained in the first inner bag 2 and the second reaction solution as the curing agent contained in the second inner bag 3 is appropriately selected. In brief, the combination may be such that the first reaction solution as the base material and the second reaction solution as the curing agent are mixed together to turn into resin and cure. A quantity ratio between the first reaction solution as the base material and the second reaction solution as the curing agent differs depending on the kind of the reaction solution, and the sizes of the first inner bag 2 and the second inner bag 3 are determined in correspondence with the used quantity. The sealed portions 12 and 13 are sealed with a sealing agent not spontaneously resolve by the contained compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution, and such a sealing agent is appropriately selected from synthetic rubber adhesive, natural rubber adhesive, acrylic adhesive, heat sealing agent, hot melt resin and the like. Instead of using such a sealing agent, an easily debondable tape may be used to simplify the sealing. Next, A second embodiment shown in FIG. 11 will be explained. In the first embodiment, the first inner bag 2 containing the first reaction solution as the base material and the second inner bag 3 containing the second reaction solution as the curing agent are housed in the outer bag 1, while in the second embodiment, the first reaction solution as the base material or the second reaction solution as the curing agent is directly contained in the outer bag 1, and only one inner bag 20 containing the second reaction solution as the curing agent or the first reaction solution as the base material is housed in the outer bag 1. The inner bag 20 used in the second embodiment is also openable due to external pressure as in the case with the first and the second inner bags 2 and 3 of the first embodiment. Other configurations are the same as those of the first embodiment. The two embodiments have been described in the above, and it is also possible to house an inner bag containing a curing accelerator in the outer bag 1 as necessary. Also, this inner bag is configured to be openable due to external pressure as is the case with the first and the second inner bags 2 and 3 of the first embodiment. In the first embodiment, the curing accelerator may be directly contained in the outer bag 1. Further, in order to open the inner bag due to external pressure, a method of making a part of the sealed portion closing the inner bag smaller in strength and making the part open due to external pressure can be exemplified, as well as the method of using straight-chain low-density polyethylene and polybutene-1 as described above, and thus the method is not limited to using straight-chain low-density polyethylene and polybutene-1. Next, explanation will be made on a third embodiment shown in FIG. 12. According to the third embodiment, in a center part of the partitioning space 14 formed by the sealed portion 13 and the sealed portion 13 of the sub bag 11 as illustrated in the first embodiment, a sealed portion 21 simply sealed as is the case with the sealed portion 13 is formed, whereby inner pressure by the redundant compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution from the outer bag 1 gradually opens the sealed portion 13 and the sealed portion 21 from the center part thereof, to allow the redundant compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution to flow into the partitioning space 14. Next, explanation will be made on a fourth embodiment shown in FIG. 13. According to the fourth embodiment, the sub bag 11 is arranged so as to project from the outer bag 1 and to be in parallel with the long side of the outer bag 1. Also in this fourth embodiment, the interior of the sub bag 11 is formed with a plurality of partitioning spaces 14 by the sealed portion 13. As is the case in the third embodiment, in the center part of the partitioning space 14 formed by the sealed portion 13 and the sealed portion 13 of the sub bag 11, a simply sealed portion 21 may be formed. Next, explanation will be made on a fifth embodiment shown in FIG. 14. According to the fifth embodiment, the sub bag 11 is arranged to project perpendicularly from one end corner part of the outer bag 1. Also in this fifth embodiment, the interior of the sub bag 11 is formed with a plurality of partitioning spaces 14 by the sealed portion 13. As is the case in the third embodiment, in the center part of the partitioning space 14 formed by the sealed portion 13 and the sealed portion 13, a simply sealed portion 21 may be formed. Also in these forth and fifth embodiments, as is the case in the third embodiment, in the center part of the partitioning space 14, a simply sealed portion 21 may be formed. In the forth and fifth embodiments, after the redundant compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution flow into the plurality of partitioning spaces 14 and the redundant compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution are removed from the outer bag 1, the path between the outer bag 1 and the sub bag 11 is closed appropriately by the clip or the like, and after confirming completion of curing the compounds of the first reaction solution and the second reaction solution in the railway rail supporting pad 15, the sub bag 11 is separated from the outer bag 1 with the scissors or the cutter. Further, in the third to fifth embodiments, as is the case with the second embodiment, the first reaction solution as the base material or the second reaction solution as the curing agent may be directly contained in the outer bag 1, and only one inner bag containing the second reaction solution as the curing agent or the first reaction solution as the base material may be housed in the outer bag 1.	E	E01	E01B	19	00
11547246	US20070269695A1-20071122	Fuel Cell System	ACCEPTED	20071107	20071122		[]	H01M804	["H01M804"]	7824815	20070226	20101102	429	446000	74893.0	MAPLES	JOHN	[{"inventor_name_last": "Yamazaki", "inventor_name_first": "Daisuke", "inventor_city": "Ome-shi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Baika", "inventor_name_first": "Toyokazu", "inventor_city": "Susono-shi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Watanabe", "inventor_name_first": "Nobuo", "inventor_city": "Susono-shi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Kitamura", "inventor_name_first": "Nobuyuki", "inventor_city": "Minamituru-gun", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]	A fuel cell system (10, 200) includes an intake pipe (45, 46) that admits an introduction of oxidizing gas upstream of an oxidizing gas supply source that supplies the oxidizing gas to a fuel cell (20), and an exhaust pipe (51, 52, 221, 222) that discharges exhaust gas which contains a vapor generated at an oxygen electrode side through an operation of the fuel cell (20). The fuel cell system (10, 200) is provided with a circulating pipe (61, 62, 220) that connects the intake pipe and the exhaust pipe (51, 52, 221, 222), a circulating valve (60) that is provided in the circulating pipe and operated to adjust a flow rate of the exhaust gas supplied from the exhaust pipe (51, 52, 221, 222) to the intake pipe, and a pressure generating member that is provided in the exhaust pipe (51, 52, 221, 222) at a position at which the circulating pipe and the exhaust pipe (51, 52, 221, 222) are joined and generates a pressure that is higher than at least an atmospheric pressure.	1-10. (canceled) 11. A fuel cell system, comprising: a fuel cell; an intake pipe for admitting an introduction of oxidizing gas; an oxidizing gas supply source that is provided downstream of the intake pipe for supplying the oxidizing gas to a fuel cell; an exhaust pipe for discharging exhaust gas which contains vapor generated at an oxygen electrode side of the fuel cell through an operation of the fuel cell; a circulating pipe that connects the intake pipe and the exhaust pipe; a circulating valve that is provided in the circulating pipe for adjusting a flow rate of the exhaust gas supplied from the exhaust pipe to the intake pipe, a pressure regulating valve that is provided in the exhaust pipe for regulating a pressure at a position at which the circulating pipe and the exhaust pipe are joined; and a control unit for controlling the pressure regulating valve to regulate the pressure at the position at which the circulating pipe and the exhaust pipe are joined into a predetermined pressure value higher than a pressure within the intake pipe. 12. The fuel cell system according to claim 11, wherein the control unit controls the pressure regulating valve to regulate the pressure at the position at which the circulating pipe and the exhaust pipe are joined to be higher than at least an atmospheric pressure. 13. The fuel cell system according to claim 11, wherein the control unit controls the pressure regulating valve to regulate a pressure of the exhaust gas flowing through the exhaust pipe. 14. The fuel cell system according to claim 12, wherein the control unit controls the pressure regulating valve to regulate a pressure of the exhaust gas flowing through the exhaust pipe. 15. The fuel cell system according to claim 13, wherein one end of the circulating pipe that circulates the exhaust gas is connected to the exhaust pipe at a position between the fuel cell and the pressure regulating valve. 16. The fuel cell system according to claim 14, wherein one end of the circulating pipe that circulates the exhaust gas is connected to the exhaust pipe at a position between the fuel cell and the pressure regulating valve. 17. The fuel cell system according to claim 13, further comprising a sensor that is provided in the exhaust pipe for detecting a pressure of the exhaust gas, wherein the control unit electrically regulates an opening degree of the pressure regulating valve based on an electric signal output from the sensor. 18. The fuel cell system according to claim 14, further comprising a sensor that is provided in the exhaust pipe for detecting a pressure of the exhaust gas, wherein the control unit electrically regulates an opening degree of the pressure regulating valve based on an electric signal output from the sensor. 19. The fuel cell system according to claim 15, further comprising a sensor that is provided in the exhaust pipe for detecting a pressure of the exhaust gas, wherein the control unit electrically regulates an opening degree of the pressure regulating valve based on an electric signal output from the sensor. 20. The fuel cell system according to claim 16, further comprising a sensor that is provided in the exhaust pipe for detecting a pressure of the exhaust gas, wherein the control unit electrically regulates an opening degree of the pressure regulating valve based on an electric signal output from the sensor. 21. The fuel cell system according to claim 11, wherein the control unit controls the pressure regulating valve to regulate a pressure within the fuel cell. 22. The fuel cell system according to claim 12, wherein the control unit controls the pressure regulating valve to regulate a pressure within the fuel cell. 23. The fuel cell system according to claim 21, wherein one end of the circulating pipe that circulates the exhaust gas is connected to the exhaust pipe at a position between the fuel cell and the pressure regulating valve. 24. The fuel cell system according to claim 22, wherein one end of the circulating pipe that circulates the exhaust gas is connected to the exhaust pipe at a position between the fuel cell and the pressure regulating valve. 25. The fuel cell system according to claim 21, further comprising a sensor that is provided in the exhaust pipe at a position close to the fuel cell for detecting a pressure of the exhaust gas, wherein the control unit electrically regulates an opening degree of the pressure regulating valve based on an electric signal output from the sensor. 26. The fuel cell system according to claim 22, further comprising a sensor that is provided in the exhaust pipe at a position close to the fuel cell for detecting a pressure of the exhaust gas, wherein the control unit electrically regulates an opening degree of the pressure regulating valve based on an electric signal output from the sensor. 27. The fuel cell system according to claim 23, further comprising a sensor that is provided in the exhaust pipe at a position close to the fuel cell for detecting a pressure of the exhaust gas, wherein the control unit electrically regulates an opening degree of the pressure regulating valve based on an electric signal output from the sensor. 28. The fuel cell system according to claim 24, further comprising a sensor that is provided in the exhaust pipe at a position close to the fuel cell for detecting a pressure of the exhaust gas, wherein the control unit electrically regulates an opening degree of the pressure regulating valve based on an electric signal output from the sensor. 29. The fuel cell system according to claim 11, wherein the oxygen gas supply source is provided with a compressor that introduces air from outside through the intake pipe. 30. The fuel cell system according to claim 29, wherein the air that is introduced by the compressor is ambient air.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of Invention The invention relates to a fuel cell system which circulates exhaust gas discharged from an oxygen electrode of a fuel cell so as to be recycled. 2. Description of Related Art A fuel cell system for generating power through an electrochemical reaction between oxidizing gas, i.e., air, and fuel gas, i.e., hydrogen requires humidification of the oxidizing gas to be supplied to the fuel cell so as to obtain a predetermined power generation efficiency. Generally in the fuel cell system, the exhaust gas that contains vapor generated by the electrochemical reaction on the oxygen electrode is circulated to the side to which the oxidizing gas is supplied as disclosed in the publication of JP-A-8-500931. The aforementioned system adjusts the flow rate of the exhaust gas to be circulated so as to perform appropriate humidification without using a humidifying module at the side to which the oxidizing gas is supplied. The publication of JP-A-2002-343398 discloses the technology in which a bypass passage is formed such that water content within the fuel cell is removed within a short period when the operation of the fuel cell is stopped. The aforementioned fuel cell system, as shown in FIG. 5 , includes an intake pipe A upstream of a compressor that admits the oxidizing gas, an exhaust pipe B that discharges the exhaust gas from the fuel cell stack, and a connecting pipe C that connects those pipes A and B. A circulating valve V 2 is provided in the connecting pipe C so as to adjust the flow rate of the exhaust gas. One end of the connecting pipe C is connected to the portion downstream of a pressure regulating valve V 1 that regulates the inner pressure of the fuel cell stack. The exhaust gas from the fuel cell stack is admitted into the intake pipe A from the exhaust pipe B in the course of discharging the exhaust gas to the outside via the pressure regulating valve V 1 , which is used for humidification of the oxidizing gas to be supplied to the fuel cell stack. The fuel cell system as aforementioned fails to appropriately control the flow rate of the exhaust gas to be circulated, and accordingly to adjust the humidification amount. As one end of a circulating valve V 2 is connected to a portion around an outlet of the exhaust gas, the pressure at the inlet of the circulating valve V 2 becomes approximately an atmospheric pressure. Accordingly the difference in the pressure between the inlet and the outlet of the circulating valve V 2 becomes small, which makes it difficult to execute the appropriate flow rate control. Additionally the exhaust gas after passing through the pressure regulating valve V 1 is influenced by the change in the flow rate in accordance with the request with respect to the output of the fuel cell stack, which may cause pressure fluctuation. The flow rate control of the circulating exhaust gas in consideration with the pressure fluctuation requires further complicated control of the circulating valve V 2 .	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is an object of the invention to provide a fuel cell system that improves controllability of the valve that circulates the exhaust gas to the intake side. A fuel cell system according to the invention includes an intake pipe that admits an introduction of oxidizing gas upstream of an oxidizing gas supply source that supplies the oxidizing gas to a fuel cell, and an exhaust pipe that discharges exhaust gas which contains a vapor generated at an oxygen electrode side through an operation of the fuel cell. The fuel cell system is provided with a circulating pipe that connects the intake pipe and the exhaust pipe, a circulating valve that is provided in the circulating pipe and operated to adjust a flow rate of the exhaust gas supplied from the exhaust pipe to the intake pipe, and a pressure generating member that is provided in the exhaust pipe at a position at which the circulating pipe and the exhaust pipe are joined and generates a pressure that is higher than at least an atmospheric pressure. In the fuel cell system according to the invention, the pressure generating member allows the exhaust gas at the pressure higher than the atmospheric pressure to reach the upstream side of the circulating valve. That is, the difference in the pressure between the inlet and outlet of the circulating valve is maintained to be equal to or higher than a predetermined value. This makes it possible to improve the controllability of the circulating valve. An appropriate amount of the exhaust gas is circulated so as to supply an appropriate amount of vapor to the oxidizing gas at the intake side. Accordingly the humidification amount at the intake side can be effectively adjusted. In the above-structured fuel cell system, the pressure generating member may be formed as an exhaust gas pressure regulating valve that regulates a pressure of the exhaust gas flowing through the exhaust pipe into a predetermined pressure value. In the above structured fuel cell system, the pressure of the exhaust gas flowing into the circulating valve is adjusted to be brought into a predetermined pressure range that is higher than the atmospheric pressure in accordance with the control range of the pressure regulating valve. Even if the pressure of the vapor containing exhaust gas discharged from the fuel cell fluctuates depending on the output, such pressure fluctuation can be restrained so as to stabilize the pressure of the exhaust gas flowing into the circulating valve. This makes it possible to improve the controllability of the circulating valve. The use of the existing pressure regulating valve allows easy pressure control of the exhaust gas flowing into the circulating valve. In the above-structured fuel cell system, one end of the circulating pipe that circulates the exhaust gas may be connected to the exhaust pipe at a position between the fuel cell and the exhaust gas pressure regulating valve. In the above-structured fuel cell system, a sensor that detects a pressure of the exhaust gas is provided on the exhaust pipe. The exhaust gas pressure regulating valve may be structured to electrically adjust the opening degree of the exhaust gas pressure regulating valve based on an electric signal sent from the sensor. In the above-structured fuel cell system, the opening degree of the exhaust gas pressure regulating valve is electrically controlled based on the detected pressure of the exhaust gas. Accordingly the pressure of the exhaust gas flowing into the circulating valve can be accurately adjusted. In the above-structured fuel cell system, the pressure generating member may be formed as a pressure regulating valve regulating a pressure within the fuel cell. Furthermore, one end of the circulating pipe that circulates the exhaust gas may be connected to the exhaust pipe at a position between the fuel cell and the pressure regulating valve. In the above-structured fuel cell system, the exhaust gas taken from the exhaust pipe between the fuel cell and the pressure regulating valve passes through the circulating pipe so as to flow into the circulating valve. The pressure of the exhaust gas is controlled by the pressure regulating valve into a predetermined pressure value. In the fuel cell system, the piping for circulating the exhaust gas is designed such that the additional device is no longer required. This makes it possible to configure the system to improve the controllability of the circulating valve with less number of components. In the above-structured fuel cell system, a sensor that detects a pressure of the exhaust gas is provided around the fuel cell on the exhaust pipe. The pressure regulating valve may be structured to electrically adjust the opening degree of the pressure regulating valve based on an electric signal sent from the sensor. In the above-structured fuel cell system, the opening degree of the pressure regulating valve is electrically controlled based on the detected pressure of the exhaust gas. Accordingly the pressure of the exhaust gas flowing into the circulating valve can be accurately adjusted. In the fuel cell system according to the invention, the pressure generating member may be formed as one of a throttle and a relief valve provided in the exhaust pipe downstream of a position at which the circulating pipe and the exhaust pipe are joined. In the fuel cell system, the exhaust gas pressure within the pipe before passing through the throttle is set to the value higher than the atmospheric pressure. Accordingly the exhaust gas at the increased pressure flows into the circulating valve, improving the controllability of the circulating valve. In the above-structured fuel cell system, the oxygen gas supply source that supplies the oxidizing gas to the fuel cell may be provided with a compressor that introduces air from outside through the intake pipe. In the above-structured fuel cell system, the oxidizing gas is admitted by the compressor so as to be supplied to the fuel cell, and the pressure within the intake pipe becomes negative. The difference in the pressure between the upstream and downstream of the circulating valve is increased, thus improving the controllability of the circulating valve. In the above-structured fuel cell system, air that is introduced by the compressor is ambient air. Another fuel cell system according to the invention includes includes an intake pipe that admits an introduction of oxidizing gas upstream of an oxidizing gas supply source that supplies the oxidizing gas to a fuel cell, and an exhaust pipe that discharges exhaust gas which contains a vapor generated at an oxygen electrode side through an operation of the fuel cell. The fuel cell is provided with a circulating pipe that connects the intake pipe and the exhaust pipe, a circulating valve that is provided in the circulating pipe and operated to adjust a flow rate of the exhaust gas supplied from the exhaust pipe to the intake pipe and a pressure generating member that is provided in the exhaust pipe and generates a pressure that is higher than a pressure within the intake pipe at a position at which the circulating pipe and the exhaust pipe are joined.	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of Invention The invention relates to a fuel cell system which circulates exhaust gas discharged from an oxygen electrode of a fuel cell so as to be recycled. 2. Description of Related Art A fuel cell system for generating power through an electrochemical reaction between oxidizing gas, i.e., air, and fuel gas, i.e., hydrogen requires humidification of the oxidizing gas to be supplied to the fuel cell so as to obtain a predetermined power generation efficiency. Generally in the fuel cell system, the exhaust gas that contains vapor generated by the electrochemical reaction on the oxygen electrode is circulated to the side to which the oxidizing gas is supplied as disclosed in the publication of JP-A-8-500931. The aforementioned system adjusts the flow rate of the exhaust gas to be circulated so as to perform appropriate humidification without using a humidifying module at the side to which the oxidizing gas is supplied. The publication of JP-A-2002-343398 discloses the technology in which a bypass passage is formed such that water content within the fuel cell is removed within a short period when the operation of the fuel cell is stopped. The aforementioned fuel cell system, as shown in FIG. 5, includes an intake pipe A upstream of a compressor that admits the oxidizing gas, an exhaust pipe B that discharges the exhaust gas from the fuel cell stack, and a connecting pipe C that connects those pipes A and B. A circulating valve V2 is provided in the connecting pipe C so as to adjust the flow rate of the exhaust gas. One end of the connecting pipe C is connected to the portion downstream of a pressure regulating valve V1 that regulates the inner pressure of the fuel cell stack. The exhaust gas from the fuel cell stack is admitted into the intake pipe A from the exhaust pipe B in the course of discharging the exhaust gas to the outside via the pressure regulating valve V1, which is used for humidification of the oxidizing gas to be supplied to the fuel cell stack. The fuel cell system as aforementioned fails to appropriately control the flow rate of the exhaust gas to be circulated, and accordingly to adjust the humidification amount. As one end of a circulating valve V2 is connected to a portion around an outlet of the exhaust gas, the pressure at the inlet of the circulating valve V2 becomes approximately an atmospheric pressure. Accordingly the difference in the pressure between the inlet and the outlet of the circulating valve V2 becomes small, which makes it difficult to execute the appropriate flow rate control. Additionally the exhaust gas after passing through the pressure regulating valve V1 is influenced by the change in the flow rate in accordance with the request with respect to the output of the fuel cell stack, which may cause pressure fluctuation. The flow rate control of the circulating exhaust gas in consideration with the pressure fluctuation requires further complicated control of the circulating valve V2. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the invention to provide a fuel cell system that improves controllability of the valve that circulates the exhaust gas to the intake side. A fuel cell system according to the invention includes an intake pipe that admits an introduction of oxidizing gas upstream of an oxidizing gas supply source that supplies the oxidizing gas to a fuel cell, and an exhaust pipe that discharges exhaust gas which contains a vapor generated at an oxygen electrode side through an operation of the fuel cell. The fuel cell system is provided with a circulating pipe that connects the intake pipe and the exhaust pipe, a circulating valve that is provided in the circulating pipe and operated to adjust a flow rate of the exhaust gas supplied from the exhaust pipe to the intake pipe, and a pressure generating member that is provided in the exhaust pipe at a position at which the circulating pipe and the exhaust pipe are joined and generates a pressure that is higher than at least an atmospheric pressure. In the fuel cell system according to the invention, the pressure generating member allows the exhaust gas at the pressure higher than the atmospheric pressure to reach the upstream side of the circulating valve. That is, the difference in the pressure between the inlet and outlet of the circulating valve is maintained to be equal to or higher than a predetermined value. This makes it possible to improve the controllability of the circulating valve. An appropriate amount of the exhaust gas is circulated so as to supply an appropriate amount of vapor to the oxidizing gas at the intake side. Accordingly the humidification amount at the intake side can be effectively adjusted. In the above-structured fuel cell system, the pressure generating member may be formed as an exhaust gas pressure regulating valve that regulates a pressure of the exhaust gas flowing through the exhaust pipe into a predetermined pressure value. In the above structured fuel cell system, the pressure of the exhaust gas flowing into the circulating valve is adjusted to be brought into a predetermined pressure range that is higher than the atmospheric pressure in accordance with the control range of the pressure regulating valve. Even if the pressure of the vapor containing exhaust gas discharged from the fuel cell fluctuates depending on the output, such pressure fluctuation can be restrained so as to stabilize the pressure of the exhaust gas flowing into the circulating valve. This makes it possible to improve the controllability of the circulating valve. The use of the existing pressure regulating valve allows easy pressure control of the exhaust gas flowing into the circulating valve. In the above-structured fuel cell system, one end of the circulating pipe that circulates the exhaust gas may be connected to the exhaust pipe at a position between the fuel cell and the exhaust gas pressure regulating valve. In the above-structured fuel cell system, a sensor that detects a pressure of the exhaust gas is provided on the exhaust pipe. The exhaust gas pressure regulating valve may be structured to electrically adjust the opening degree of the exhaust gas pressure regulating valve based on an electric signal sent from the sensor. In the above-structured fuel cell system, the opening degree of the exhaust gas pressure regulating valve is electrically controlled based on the detected pressure of the exhaust gas. Accordingly the pressure of the exhaust gas flowing into the circulating valve can be accurately adjusted. In the above-structured fuel cell system, the pressure generating member may be formed as a pressure regulating valve regulating a pressure within the fuel cell. Furthermore, one end of the circulating pipe that circulates the exhaust gas may be connected to the exhaust pipe at a position between the fuel cell and the pressure regulating valve. In the above-structured fuel cell system, the exhaust gas taken from the exhaust pipe between the fuel cell and the pressure regulating valve passes through the circulating pipe so as to flow into the circulating valve. The pressure of the exhaust gas is controlled by the pressure regulating valve into a predetermined pressure value. In the fuel cell system, the piping for circulating the exhaust gas is designed such that the additional device is no longer required. This makes it possible to configure the system to improve the controllability of the circulating valve with less number of components. In the above-structured fuel cell system, a sensor that detects a pressure of the exhaust gas is provided around the fuel cell on the exhaust pipe. The pressure regulating valve may be structured to electrically adjust the opening degree of the pressure regulating valve based on an electric signal sent from the sensor. In the above-structured fuel cell system, the opening degree of the pressure regulating valve is electrically controlled based on the detected pressure of the exhaust gas. Accordingly the pressure of the exhaust gas flowing into the circulating valve can be accurately adjusted. In the fuel cell system according to the invention, the pressure generating member may be formed as one of a throttle and a relief valve provided in the exhaust pipe downstream of a position at which the circulating pipe and the exhaust pipe are joined. In the fuel cell system, the exhaust gas pressure within the pipe before passing through the throttle is set to the value higher than the atmospheric pressure. Accordingly the exhaust gas at the increased pressure flows into the circulating valve, improving the controllability of the circulating valve. In the above-structured fuel cell system, the oxygen gas supply source that supplies the oxidizing gas to the fuel cell may be provided with a compressor that introduces air from outside through the intake pipe. In the above-structured fuel cell system, the oxidizing gas is admitted by the compressor so as to be supplied to the fuel cell, and the pressure within the intake pipe becomes negative. The difference in the pressure between the upstream and downstream of the circulating valve is increased, thus improving the controllability of the circulating valve. In the above-structured fuel cell system, air that is introduced by the compressor is ambient air. Another fuel cell system according to the invention includes includes an intake pipe that admits an introduction of oxidizing gas upstream of an oxidizing gas supply source that supplies the oxidizing gas to a fuel cell, and an exhaust pipe that discharges exhaust gas which contains a vapor generated at an oxygen electrode side through an operation of the fuel cell. The fuel cell is provided with a circulating pipe that connects the intake pipe and the exhaust pipe, a circulating valve that is provided in the circulating pipe and operated to adjust a flow rate of the exhaust gas supplied from the exhaust pipe to the intake pipe and a pressure generating member that is provided in the exhaust pipe and generates a pressure that is higher than a pressure within the intake pipe at a position at which the circulating pipe and the exhaust pipe are joined. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The foregoing and further objects, features and advantages of the invention will become apparent from the following description of preferred embodiments with reference to the accompanying drawings, wherein like numerals are used to represent like elements and wherein: FIG. 1 is a schematic view showing a structure of a fuel cell system according to a first embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2 is a schematic view of a unit cell; FIG. 3 is a block diagram showing signals input to and output from a control unit of the fuel cell system; FIG. 4 is a schematic view showing a structure of a fuel cell system according to a second embodiment of the invention; and FIG. 5 is a schematic view of a fuel cell system as related art. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Preferred embodiments and a modified example of the invention will be described as below. FIG. 1 is a schematic view showing a structure of a fuel cell system as a first embodiment of the invention. The system is formed as a fuel cell system 10 that generates power through the electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, which is mounted in a vehicle driven by power generated by the fuel cell. Referring to FIG. 1, the fuel cell system 10 is mainly formed of a fuel cell stack 20, a hydrogen system 30, an air system 40, a cooling system 70, an exhaust system 80, an output system 90, a control unit 120, and the like. The fuel cell stack 20 includes a plurality of unit cells 21 each having a hydrogen electrode (hereinafter referred as an anode) and an oxygen electrode (hereinafter referred as a cathode), which are stacked. The stacked unit cells 21 are interposed between end plates 28, 29. FIG. 2 is a schematic view showing a structure of the unit cell 21. The unit cell 21 is formed by stacking a separator 22, an anode 23, an electrolyte 24, a cathode 25, and a separator 26 in sequence. The separators 22, 26 have grooves 27 each serving as a flow path which allows passage of the hydrogen gas, the oxygen gas, and the coolant therethrough. The hydrogen gas and the oxygen gas are supplied to the anode 23 and the cathode 25 via the grooves 27, respectively. The hydrogen gas supplied to the anode 23 reacts with a catalyst on a catalytic layer that constitutes the anode 23 to generate a hydrogen ion. The hydrogen ion permeates the electrolyte 24 and reacts with oxygen contained in the oxygen gas on the cathode 25. Electric power is generated in the unit cell 21 through the electrochemical reaction as aforementioned. The fuel cell stack 20 is formed by a plurality of unit cells 21 in series so as to output high power. In the embodiment, Nafion®, a product of a solid polymer membrane is employed as the electrolyte membrane 24. The electrolyte membrane 24 functions well in a wet state. The end plate 28 includes an inlet port through which various types of fluid such as the hydrogen gas, oxidizing gas, coolant is supplied into the fuel cell stack 20, and an outlet port through which the fluid is discharged outside. Those ports are connected to the respective pipes. The various types of fluid supplied through the inlet port is appropriately supplied to the grooves 27 of the unit cells 21 such that the electrochemical reaction progresses smoothly. In the embodiment, air is used as the oxidizing gas, and cooling water is used as the coolant, respectively. The hydrogen system 30 is formed of a hydrogen tank 31, a hydrogen circulating pump 32, piping, and the like as shown in FIG. 1, which is connected to the end plate 28 of the fuel cell stack 20 via the piping. The pressure and the flow rate of the hydrogen gas at high pressure stored in the hydrogen tank 31 are adjusted by a valve (not shown) so as to be supplied into the fuel cell stack 20. It is possible to reform methane, methanol and the like to generate hydrogen so as to be supplied instead of the hydrogen gas supplied from the hydrogen tank 31. The hydrogen gas discharged from the fuel cell stack 20 is recirculated thereto again by a hydrogen circulating pump 32. This makes it possible to effectively use the discharged hydrogen gas that has not been subjected to the electrochemical reaction. The air system 40 is mainly formed of an intake line that supplies air to the fuel cell stack 20, an exhaust line that discharges air from the fuel cell stack 20, and a circulating line that circulates air from the exhaust line to the intake line. The intake line is formed of an air cleaner 41, an air flow meter 42, an air compressor 43, an intercooler 44 and intake pipes 45, 46 that connects the aforementioned equipment in the order from the upstream of the flow of air supplied to the fuel cell stack 20. The intake line is connected to the end plate 28 of the fuel cell stack 20 via the intake pipe 46. Air introduced from the outside is cleaned through the air cleaner 41, passes through the air flow meter 42, and is compressed by the air compressor 43. Such air then is cooled by the intercooler 44 so as to be supplied to the fuel cell stack 20. The air compressor 43 is driven by a motor such that air is introduced in accordance with the rotating speed of the motor. The pressure within the intake pipe 45 becomes negative upon introduction of air as aforementioned. The air flow meter 42 detects a flow rate of air introduced from the outside. The flow rate of the introduced air is output to the control unit 120 that controls operations of the fuel cell stack 20, based on which the motor of the air compressor 43 is controlled. Meanwhile the exhaust line is formed of a pressure regulating valve 50, an exhaust gas pressure regulating valve 59, exhaust pipes 51, 52 that connect the aforementioned equipment and the like in the order from the upstream of the flow of air (referred as the cathode exhaust gas) discharged from the fuel cell stack 20. The exhaust line is connected to the end plate 28 of the fuel cell stack 20 via the exhaust pipe 51. The cathode exhaust gas discharged from the fuel cell stack 20 is discharged from a muffler 81 of the exhaust system 80 through the pressure regulating valve 50, exhaust gas pressure regulating valve 59, and exhaust pipes 51, 52 that connect those valves. The pressure regulating valve 50 has its opening degree controlled so as to adjust the pressure of air to be supplied to the fuel cell stack 20. The exhaust gas pressure regulating valve 59 adjusts the pressure of the exhaust pipe 52 that fluctuates in accordance with the operation request so as to be brought into a predetermined range. A poppet valve may be employed for the pressure regulating valve 50 and the exhaust gas pressure regulating valve 59 such that the opening degree of the valve is adjusted by advancing or retarding the poppet. The control of the opening degree of the valve as aforementioned can be made by controlling the rotating angle of the motor for driving the poppet valve. The exhaust pipe 51 is provided with a temperature sensor 55, a pressure sensor 56, and the exhaust pipe 52 is provided with the pressure sensor 57, respectively. The electric signals from those sensors are output to the control unit 120 for controlling various kinds of valves. The circulating line is formed of a circulating valve 60, and circulating pipes 61, 62. The circulating pipe 61 connects the exhaust pipe 52 and the circulating valve 60, and the circulating pipe 62 connects the circulating valve 60 and the intake pipe 45, respectively. The cathode exhaust gas discharged from the fuel cell stack 20 passes through the exhaust pipe 52 via the pressure regulating valve 50, and flows into the exhaust gas pressure regulating valve 59. Then all or part of the cathode exhaust gas flows into the circulating valve 60 through the exhaust pipe 52 and the circulating pipe 61. The circulating valve 60 regulates the flow rate of the cathode exhaust gas by adjusting its opening degree such that the cathode exhaust gas at the predetermined flow rate is supplied to the intake pipe 45 through the circulating pipe 62. In the cathode 25 within the fuel cell stack 20, water (vapor) is generated by the electrochemical reaction. Accordingly the discharged cathode exhaust gas contains vapor, and thus, is in the wet state. The circulating valve 60 supplies air in the wet state to the intake pipe 45. The poppet valve is employed as the circulating valve 60 in the embodiment of the invention. The air compressor 43 admits both air in wet state supplied through the circulating valve 60 and air newly supplied from outside to be introduced therein so as to be further supplied to the fuel cell stack 20 as humidified air. The circulating valve 60 directly controls the flow rate of the circulating cathode exhaust gas such that an amount of humidified air supplied to the fuel cell stack 20 is controlled. The fuel cell system 10 of this embodiment is not provided with a humidifying module for air humidification in the intake line. The cooling system 70 is formed of a radiator 71, a pump 72, and a pipe that connects the radiator 71 and the pump. 72. The end plate 28 of the fuel cell stack 20 is connected to the cooling system 70 via the pipe. The electrochemical reaction in the fuel cell stack 20 generates heat which increases the temperature therein. The cooling water that flows into the fuel cell stack 20 to restrain the temperature rise therein is cooled by the radiator 71, and then circulated by the pump 72. The exhaust system 80 is provided with the muffler 81 connected to the air system 40 such that the exhaust gas from the fuel cell stack 20 is discharged to the outside of the fuel cell system 10. In the course of circulating the hydrogen gas that contains nitrogen components through a hydrogen circulating pump 32, highly concentrated nitrogen gas is generated. The exhaust system 80 is also connected to the hydrogen system 30, which is not shown in the drawing. The thus generated nitrogen is diluted in the hydrogen system 30 so as to be discharged to the outside at a predetermined timing. The output system 90 is formed of an inverter 91, a motor 92 for a vehicle operation, a DC/DC converter 93, a secondary battery 94, and the like. Electric power generated by the electrochemical reaction between hydrogen gas and air supplied to the fuel cell stack 20 is used for driving the motor 92 for operating the vehicle via the inverter 91. A surplus of the electric power generated upon normal running or deceleration of the vehicle can be stored in the secondary battery 94 via the DC/DC converter 93. The control unit 120 serves to control various valves, motors, pumps of the above-structured fuel cell system 10. FIG. 3 is a block diagram that represents signals input to and output from the control unit 120. Referring to FIG. 3, based on signals received from various sensors, the control unit 120 determines the operation state of the vehicle, and outputs signals for controlling the actuator. More specifically, the control unit 120 receives signals indicating pressures P1, P2, temperature T, air flow rate q, accelerator opening θ, vehicle speed V and the like from the pressure sensors 56, 57, the temperature sensor 55, the air flow meter 42, the accelerator position sensor 121, the vehicle speed sensor 122 and the like, respectively, based on which the required output (electric power) is calculated so as to operate the fuel cell system 10 by controlling the air compressor 43, the pressure regulating valve 50, the circulating valve 60, exhaust gas pressure regulating valve 59, the hydrogen circulating pump 32, the pump 72 and the like. The control unit 120 controls the humidification amount serving as the humidifying module that is not provided in the fuel cell system 10 according to the invention. More specifically the control unit 120 calculates the humidification amount required for the air supply line so as to control the opening degree of the circulating valve 60. When it is determined that the humidification amount is insufficient for the required amount, for example, the control unit 120 increases the opening degree of the circulating valve 60. Meanwhile when it is determined that the humidification amount is excessive for the required amount, the control unit 120 decreases the opening degree of the circulating valve 60. The humidification amount may be calculated based on the detection values including outputs such as current value, and voltage value of the fuel cell stack 20 (not shown), the temperature T detected by the temperature sensor 55, the flow rate q detected by the air flow meter 42, the intake air amount derived from the motor rotating speed of the air compressor 43, and a predetermined map of water content. The circulating flow rate of the cathode exhaust gas corresponding to the required humidification amount is determined based on the calculated water content so as to determine the opening degree of the circulating valve 60. During operation of the fuel cell system 10 according to the first embodiment, when it is determined by the control unit 120 that the power generation amount of the fuel cell stack 20 has been increased based on the operation state, the air supply quantity is increased by the air system 40 for the purpose of increasing the reaction speed. More specifically, the control unit 120 executes the control for increasing the rotating speed of the motor of the air compressor 43. Upon increase in the rotating speed of the air compressor 43, the flow rate of the supplied air is increased, and the pressures within the fuel cell stack 20, the exhaust pipe 51 and the like are increased. The pressure sensor 56 provided in the exhaust pipe 51 detects the pressure value P1 that has been increased. Receiving the electric signal from the pressure sensor 56, the control unit 120 executes the control of reducing the pressure value P1 by increasing the opening degree of the pressure regulating valve 50 for the purpose of keeping the pressure within the fuel cell stack 20 substantially constant. Upon increase in the opening degree of the pressure regulating valve 50, the flow rate of the cathode exhaust gas in the exhaust pipe 52 is increased to raise the pressure therein. The pressure sensor 57 provided in the exhaust pipe 52 detects the pressure value P2 that has been increased. Receiving the electric signal from the pressure sensor 57, the control unit 120 executes the control of decreasing the pressure value P2 by increasing the opening degree of the exhaust gas pressure regulating valve 59 for the purpose of keeping the pressure within the exhaust pipe 52 within a predetermined range. When it is determined by the control unit 120 that the electric power generated by the fuel cell stack 20 has been decreased during the operation of the fuel cell system 10, the control for decreasing the rotating speed of the motor of the air compressor 43 is executed. As the rotating speed of the air compressor 43 is decreased, the pressure within the exhaust pipe 51 decreases. The control unit 120 executes the control of increasing the pressure value P1 that has been decreased by reducing the opening degree of the pressure regulating valve 50 based on the pressure value P1 of the pressure sensor 56. As the opening degree of the pressure regulating valve 50 is decreased, the pressure of the exhaust pipe 52 decreases. The control unit 120 executes the control of increasing the pressure value P2 that has been decreased by reducing the opening degree of the exhaust gas pressure regulating valve 59 based on the pressure value P2 of the pressure sensor 57. The control unit 120 executes a series of control of the valves as described above so as to keep each pressure in the exhaust pipes 51, 52 substantially constant. That is, the pressure fluctuation in the cathode exhaust gas caused by the change in the request with respect to the output of the fuel cell is restrained by controlling the exhaust gas pressure regulating valve 59 such that the pressure within the exhaust pipe 52 is controlled into a predetermined range. The cathode exhaust gas within the exhaust pipe 52 at the pressure controlled to be in the predetermined range flows into the circulating valve 60 via the circulating pipe 61 in the circulating line. The pressure of the cathode exhaust gas upstream of the circulating valve 60 is constantly maintained within the predetermined range. The circulating valve 60 upstream of which has the cathode exhaust gas kept at a constant pressure serves to supply a predetermined quantity of the cathode exhaust gas to the intake pipe 45. In the fuel cell system according to the first embodiment, in spite of the pressure fluctuation in the cathode exhaust gas within the exhaust pipe 52, such fluctuation can be restrained by adjusting the opening degree of the exhaust gas pressure regulating valve 59. Additionally the pressure within the exhaust pipe 52 (within the circulating pipe 61) is controlled to a predetermined value that is higher than the atmospheric pressure by the exhaust gas pressure regulating valve 59 so as to increase the difference in the pressure between the upstream and downstream of the circulating valve 60. This makes it possible to supply the cathode exhaust gas at the stabilized pressure to the upstream side of the circulating valve 60 so as to improve controllability of the circulating valve 60. Thus, the appropriate amount of vapor can be supplied to air at the intake side. The valve of poppet type is employed for the pressure regulating valve 50, the exhaust gas pressure regulating valve 59, and the circulating valve 60. However, the valve of a butterfly type may be employed. It is also possible to use solenoid for driving the poppet. In this case, the duty control may be executed so as to drive (On-Off operation) the valve body repeatedly at a predetermined cycle. In the first embodiment, the exhaust gas pressure regulating valve 59 is controlled based on the pressure value P2 of the pressure sensor 57. However, such control may be executed based on the pressure value P1 of the pressure sensor 56. It is also possible to output the control command to the exhaust gas pressure regulating valve 59, which is equivalent to the one output from the control unit 120 to the pressure regulating valve 50. In either case, the existing process for controlling the fuel cell system allows the pressure control of the exhaust pipe 52 to be brought into a predetermined range. In the first embodiment, the exhaust gas pressure regulating valve 59 is used for controlling the pressure of the cathode exhaust gas that flows into the circulating valve 60. It is also possible to provide a throttle in the pipe instead of the exhaust gas pressure regulating valve 59. In this case, the pressure of the cathode exhaust gas that flows through the circulating pipe 61 is controlled to be higher than that of the cathode exhaust gas in the exhaust system 80. That is, the throttle with a predetermined size can increase the difference in the pressure between the circulating pipes 61 and 62 so as to improve the controllability of the circulating valve 60. FIG. 4 is a schematic view of a fuel cell system as a second embodiment of the invention. Referring to FIG. 4, a fuel cell system 200 is mainly formed of a fuel cell stack 20, a hydrogen system 30, an air system 210, a cooling system 70, an exhaust system 80, an output system 90 and the like. The fuel cell system 200 according to the second embodiment is the same as the fuel cell system 10 according to the first embodiment except a part of the air system 210. The components of the fuel cell system 200 other than the part of the air system 210 will be designated as the same reference numerals as those of the first embodiment, and explanation thereof, thus, will be omitted. The fuel cell system 200 includes the control unit (not shown) that controls various actuators, which is the same as in the first embodiment. Referring to FIG. 4, the air system 210 is formed of the intake line, the exhaust line, and the circulating line similar to those described in the first embodiment. The exhaust line includes a temperature sensor 55, an exhaust pipe 221 having a pressure sensor 56 therein, a pressure regulating valve 50 for regulating the pressure within the fuel cell stack 20, and an exhaust pipe 222 that leads the cathode exhaust gas through the pressure regulating valve 50 to the exhaust system 80. The exhaust pipes 221, 222 correspond with the exhaust pipes 51, 52 of the fuel cell system 10 according to the first embodiment as shown in FIG. 1, which exhibit the same functions. The exhaust line of the second embodiment is different from that of the first embodiment in that the exhaust gas pressure regulating valve is not provided. The circulating line is formed of a circulating valve 60, circulating pipes 62, 220 and the like. The circulating line of the second embodiment is equivalent to that of the first embodiment in the point that the cathode exhaust gas flowing through the exhaust line is circulated to the intake line. However, in the second embodiment, the position at which the circulating pipe 220 connected to the circulating valve 60 is joined with the exhaust line is different from that of the first embodiment. The circulating pipe 220 has one end connected to the exhaust pipe 221 such that the cathode exhaust gas between downstream of the fuel cell stack 20 and upstream of the pressure regulating valve 50 is supplied to the circulating valve 60. The pressure of the cathode exhaust gas within the exhaust pipe 221 is maintained at substantially constant by the pressure regulating valve 50 that executes the pressure control. In the fuel cell system 200 of the second embodiment, the pressure of the cathode exhaust gas flowing through the exhaust pipe 221 between the downstream of the fuel cell stack 20 and the upstream of the pressure regulating valve 50 is maintained at a predetermined value by the pressure regulating valve 50 that executes the pressure control. Accordingly, the system for improving the controllability of the circulating valve 60 can be formed with less components. As the embodiments of the invention have been described, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited to the aforementioned embodiments, and that the invention may be formed into various forms without departing from the scope of the invention. The fuel cell system of the first embodiment is structured to regulate the pressure upstream of the circulating valve 60 using the exhaust gas pressure regulating valve 59. It is also possible to employ a relief valve instead of the exhaust gas pressure regulating valve 59. The use of the device serving as the resistance in the flow path may set the pressure upstream of the circulating valve 60 to the value equal to or greater than the pressure loss (atmospheric pressure, for example) owing to the resistance in the pipe of the exhaust system 80. Thus, the pressure increase caused by the output fluctuation of the fuel cell stack 20 can be restrained into a predetermined range by the use of the relief valve.	H	H01	H01M	8	04
11696862	US20080245975A1-20081009	Electrically Programmable Reticle and System	ACCEPTED	20080924	20081009		[]	G03F720	["G03F720", "G03B2752"]	7724416	20070405	20100525	359	265000	57770.0	BEN	LOHA	[{"inventor_name_last": "Miller", "inventor_name_first": "Keith Randolph", "inventor_city": "Wappingers Falls", "inventor_state": "NY", "inventor_country": "US"}]	An electrically programmable reticle is made using at least one electrochromatic layer that changes its optical transmissibility in response to applied voltages. Transparent conductor layers are configured to the desired patterns. The electrically programmable reticles are either patterned in continuous forms that have separately applied voltages or in a matrix of rows and columns that are addressed by row and column selects such that desired patterns are formed with the application of a first voltage level and reset with the application of a second voltage level.	1. An electrically programmable reticle comprising: an electrochromatic layer having a substantially reflective area and a substantially opaque area, wherein said substantially reflective area is in response to a first electric field, and further wherein said substantially opaque area is in response to a second electric field. 2. The electrically programmable reticle of claim 1, wherein said substantially reflective area is defined by a first transparent conductor layer positioned under a first surface of said electrochromatic layer and patterned to form first elements in response to exposing said first elements to said first electric field, wherein said substantially opaque area is defined by a second transparent conductor layer positioned above a second surface of said electrochromatic layer and patterned to form second elements in response to exposing said second elements to said second electric field. 3. The programmable reticle of claim 1, wherein said substantially reflective area remains substantially reflective following removal of said first electric field, wherein said substantially opaque area remains substantially opaque following removal of said second electric field. 4. The programmable reticle of claim 2, wherein said first elements of said first conductor layer are a multiplicity of isolated rows each coupled by an electronic switch to a first voltage potential of a programmable voltage level in response to a program signal. 5. The programmable reticle of claim 2, wherein said second elements of said second conductor layer are a multiplicity of isolated columns each coupled by an electronic switch to a second voltage potential of said programmable voltage level in response to a program signal. 6. The programmable reticle of claim 5, wherein said substantially reflective area is formed by sequentially addressing a pixel by applying said programmable voltage to a row and column intersecting at said pixel. 7. The programmable reticle of claim 2, wherein said first elements of said first conductor layer are a plurality of isolated continuous first sub-patterns each coupled by an electronic switch to a first potential of a programmable voltage level in response to a program signal. 8. The programmable reticle of claim 7, wherein said second elements are a plurality of isolated continuous second sub-patterns each a mirror image of a corresponding one of said first sub-patterns and each coupled by an electronic switch to a second potential of said programmable voltage level in response to said program signals and concurrent with application of said first potential to said first sub-patterns. 9. The programmable reticle of claim 1 further comprising one or more layers that enhance a transference of ions into said electrochromatic layer in response to said second electric field. 10. A lithography system comprising: a light source; and an electrochromatic reticle, wherein said electrochromatic reticle includes a substantially opaque region in response to a first signal and a substantially transparent region in response to a second signal. 11. The system of claim 10, wherein said first signal results in a first electric field across a first portion of an electrochromatic layer, wherein said second signal results in a second electric field across a second portion of said electrochromatic layer, wherein said first electric field induces a flow of charge carriers to said first portion of said electrochromatic layer resulting in generation of said substantially opaque region. 12. The electrically programmable reticle of claim 11, wherein each of said first and second portions of said electrochromatic layer results from patterned transparent conductive layers comprising: a first transparent conductor layer positioned above a first surface of said electrochromatic layer and patterned to form first elements; and a second transparent conductor layer positioned under a second surface of said electrochromatic layer directly opposite said first transparent layer and patterned to form second elements that operate in cooperation with said first elements to form predetermined patterned areas responsive to coupling a voltage across said first and second elements. 13. The system of claim 12, wherein said predetermined patterned areas are programmed transparent when subjected to said electric field at a first voltage level and programmed opaque when subjected to said electric field at a second voltage level. 14. The system of claim 11, wherein said optical transmissivity of said first portion of said electrochromatic layer remains substantially opaque following removal of said first electric field. 15. The system of claim 12, wherein said first elements of said first conductor layer are a multiplicity of isolated rows each coupled by an electronic switch to a first voltage potential of a programmable voltage level in response to a first program signal. 16. The system of claim 12, wherein said second elements of said second conductor layer are a multiplicity of isolated columns each coupled by an electronic switch to a second voltage potential of said programmable voltage level in response to second program signal. 17. The system of claim 16, wherein said patterned areas are formed by sequentially addressing pixels in said patterned areas. 18. The system of claim 13, wherein said first elements of said first conductor layer are a plurality of isolated, continuous, first sub-patterns, wherein each is coupled by an electronic switch to a first potential of a programmable voltage level in response to program signals. 19. The system of claim 18, wherein said second elements are a plurality of isolated, continuous, second sub-patterns, wherein each is a mirror image of a corresponding one of said first sub-patterns and is each coupled by an electronic switch to a second potential of said programmable voltage level in response to a program signal concurrent with application of said first potential to said first sub-patterns. 20. The system of claim 11, said system further comprising a controller for programming said electrochromatic reticle by applying said programmable voltage in response to row and column addresses defining selected pixels of said electrochromatic reticle, wherein said optical transmissivity of said selected pixels of said electrochromatic reticle is altered while said reticle is within an expose unit, wherein said alteration forms a predetermined pattern. 21. A method of manufacturing a semiconductor device using a programmable reticle, said method comprising the steps of: providing a first voltage to a first portion of an electrochromatic layer of said programmable reticle resulting in said first portion having substantial transparency; providing a second voltage to a second portion of said electrochromatic layer of said programmable reticle resulting in said second portion having substantial opaqueness; directing a beam at a portion of a wafer through said programmable reticle, whereby a semiconductor device is formed. 22. The method of claim 21, said method further comprising the steps of: automatically moving an X-Y table to sequentially expose a plurality of wafer portions to a portion of said beam passing through said programmable reticle. 23. The method of claim 21, said method further comprising the steps of: exposing a first wafer portion to energy passing through said programmable reticle; providing a complement of said programmable reticle by providing said second voltage to said first portion of said electrochromatic layer and by providing said first voltage to said second portion of said electrochromatic layer; and exposing a second wafer portion to energy passing through said complement of said programmable reticle. 24. The method of claim 21, wherein said electrochromatic layer has a third portion and a fourth portion, wherein each of said first, second, third, and fourth portions is an independent, addressable pixel coupled to one or more voltage signals through a switch. 25. The method of claim 21, wherein said steps of providing a first voltage and providing a second voltage are implemented in an off-line system operated prior to coupling said programmed reticle to an expose unit, wherein said step of directing a beam at a portion of a wafer through said programmable reticle occurs after coupling said programmable reticle to said expose unit.	<SOH> BACKGROUND INFORMATION <EOH>In semiconductor device fabrication, the various processing steps fall into four general categories: deposition, removal, patterning, and modification of electrical properties. Deposition is any process that grows, coats, or otherwise transfers a material onto the wafer. Available technologies consist of physical vapor deposition (PVD), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), electrochemical deposition (ECD), molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) and more recently, atomic layer deposition (ALD) among others. Removal processes are any that remove material from the wafer either in bulk or selective form and consist primarily of etch processes, both wet etching and dry etching such as reactive ion etch (RIE). Chemical-mechanical planarization (CMP) is also a removal process used between levels. Patterning covers the series of processes that shape or alter the existing shape of the deposited materials and is generally referred to as lithography. For example, in conventional lithography, the wafer is coated with a chemical called a “photoresist.” The photoresist is exposed by a “stepper,” a machine that focuses, aligns, and moves the mask, exposing select portions of the wafer to short wavelength light. The unexposed regions are washed away by a developer solution. After etching or other processing, the remaining photoresist may be removed by plasma ashing. Semiconductor manufacturing entails the formation of various patterns on wafers. These patterns define the structure of and interconnection between the different components and features of the integrated circuit. The patterns are formed on wafers using patterning tools known as masks and reticles. A mask is defined as a tool that contains patterns which can be transferred to an entire wafer or another mask in just a single exposure. A reticle is defined as a tool that contains a pattern image that needs to be stepped and repeated in order to expose the entire wafer or mask. Reticles have two major applications: 1) printing of images directly onto wafers in equipment known as step-and-repeat aligners; and 2) printing of images onto masks which, in turn, transfer the images onto wafers. The patterns on a reticle are usually 2× to 20× the size of the patterns on the substrate. However, some reticle patterns are 1× the substrate pattern. The equipment used for printing patterns on substrates that are smaller than the patterns on the reticles is also referred to as a ‘reduction stepper’, while one that's used for printing equal-size patterns is known as a 1× stepper. The ‘polarity’ of a mask or reticle can either be positive or negative. A positive mask or reticle has background areas (or fields) that are clear or transparent, which is why a positive mask or reticle is also known a ‘clear-field’ tool. A negative mask or reticle has fields that are opaque, which is why a negative mask or reticle is also known a ‘dark-field’ tool. There are many ways by which a pattern may be transferred to a wafer using a mask, a reticle, or a combination of both. Regardless of the pattern transfer process, everything starts with a set of pattern data that are converted into an actual pattern by a ‘pattern generator.’ Commonly-used pattern generators include: 1) plotters; 2) optical pattern generators; and 3) electron beam pattern generators. The patterns generated by the pattern generators are formed on either a mask or reticle. For example, plotter-generated patterns can be photo-reduced and formed on 10× emulsion reticle, while optically generated patterns can be formed on 5-20× hard-surface reticles. E-beam generated patterns can be formed on a 5-10× reticle, a 1× reticle, a 1× hard surface mask, or even directly to the wafer. The patterns formed on a reticle can be transferred directly onto the wafer, or they may first go to a mask which is the one that transfers the patterns to the wafer. Patterns on masks generally get transferred to the wafer directly. Currently reticles are patterned with fixed images which will block light in certain regions while allowing light to penetrate other regions. This allows an image of the design to be translated to the silicon through a lithographic system. Reticles are the source image for generating patterns in semiconductor processing. They suffer from high cost and slow turn-around times required when first fabricated or modified. In addition, each reticle is a fixed design which means that any changes in a design require a new reticle to be fabricated. Therefore, there is a need for a multi-use reticle that may be programmed using electrical signals. This would allow for more flexible designs, a more rapid turn-around time from concept to test and an overall reduction in system costs.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An electrically programmable reticle is fabricated as a sandwich of materials including an electrochromatic layer whose optical transmissivity is voltage controlled. In one embodiment, the electrochromatic layer has adjacent layers that enhance the transference of positive and negative ions into the electrochromatic layer in response to selectively applied voltages wherein the ions are operable to change the optical characteristics until another voltage is applied to reverse the process. Transparent conductor layers are applied to both sides of the sandwich layer and patterned so that the voltages may be selectively applied to particular areas of over the electrochromatic layer. In one embodiment, at least one of the transparent conductor layers is patterned to create continuous “islands” in desired shapes. These “islands” are coupled to voltage source(s) with electrically controlled switches such that the voltage may be applied to the islands to configure the reticle in desired transparent and opaque patterns. In another embodiment, the transparent conductors are patterned into rows and columns such that a matrix patterned may be programmed by selectively applying voltages to one row and then applying voltages to each column that has a pixel that is to be programmed to a particular optical state by the application of a voltage level. The foregoing has outlined rather broadly the features and technical advantages of the present invention in order that the detailed description of the invention that follows may be better understood. Additional features and advantages of the invention will be described below.	TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to reticles used in integrated circuit manufacture and in particular to reticles that have characteristics that may be electrically modified. BACKGROUND INFORMATION In semiconductor device fabrication, the various processing steps fall into four general categories: deposition, removal, patterning, and modification of electrical properties. Deposition is any process that grows, coats, or otherwise transfers a material onto the wafer. Available technologies consist of physical vapor deposition (PVD), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), electrochemical deposition (ECD), molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) and more recently, atomic layer deposition (ALD) among others. Removal processes are any that remove material from the wafer either in bulk or selective form and consist primarily of etch processes, both wet etching and dry etching such as reactive ion etch (RIE). Chemical-mechanical planarization (CMP) is also a removal process used between levels. Patterning covers the series of processes that shape or alter the existing shape of the deposited materials and is generally referred to as lithography. For example, in conventional lithography, the wafer is coated with a chemical called a “photoresist.” The photoresist is exposed by a “stepper,” a machine that focuses, aligns, and moves the mask, exposing select portions of the wafer to short wavelength light. The unexposed regions are washed away by a developer solution. After etching or other processing, the remaining photoresist may be removed by plasma ashing. Semiconductor manufacturing entails the formation of various patterns on wafers. These patterns define the structure of and interconnection between the different components and features of the integrated circuit. The patterns are formed on wafers using patterning tools known as masks and reticles. A mask is defined as a tool that contains patterns which can be transferred to an entire wafer or another mask in just a single exposure. A reticle is defined as a tool that contains a pattern image that needs to be stepped and repeated in order to expose the entire wafer or mask. Reticles have two major applications: 1) printing of images directly onto wafers in equipment known as step-and-repeat aligners; and 2) printing of images onto masks which, in turn, transfer the images onto wafers. The patterns on a reticle are usually 2× to 20× the size of the patterns on the substrate. However, some reticle patterns are 1× the substrate pattern. The equipment used for printing patterns on substrates that are smaller than the patterns on the reticles is also referred to as a ‘reduction stepper’, while one that's used for printing equal-size patterns is known as a 1× stepper. The ‘polarity’ of a mask or reticle can either be positive or negative. A positive mask or reticle has background areas (or fields) that are clear or transparent, which is why a positive mask or reticle is also known a ‘clear-field’ tool. A negative mask or reticle has fields that are opaque, which is why a negative mask or reticle is also known a ‘dark-field’ tool. There are many ways by which a pattern may be transferred to a wafer using a mask, a reticle, or a combination of both. Regardless of the pattern transfer process, everything starts with a set of pattern data that are converted into an actual pattern by a ‘pattern generator.’ Commonly-used pattern generators include: 1) plotters; 2) optical pattern generators; and 3) electron beam pattern generators. The patterns generated by the pattern generators are formed on either a mask or reticle. For example, plotter-generated patterns can be photo-reduced and formed on 10× emulsion reticle, while optically generated patterns can be formed on 5-20× hard-surface reticles. E-beam generated patterns can be formed on a 5-10× reticle, a 1× reticle, a 1× hard surface mask, or even directly to the wafer. The patterns formed on a reticle can be transferred directly onto the wafer, or they may first go to a mask which is the one that transfers the patterns to the wafer. Patterns on masks generally get transferred to the wafer directly. Currently reticles are patterned with fixed images which will block light in certain regions while allowing light to penetrate other regions. This allows an image of the design to be translated to the silicon through a lithographic system. Reticles are the source image for generating patterns in semiconductor processing. They suffer from high cost and slow turn-around times required when first fabricated or modified. In addition, each reticle is a fixed design which means that any changes in a design require a new reticle to be fabricated. Therefore, there is a need for a multi-use reticle that may be programmed using electrical signals. This would allow for more flexible designs, a more rapid turn-around time from concept to test and an overall reduction in system costs. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An electrically programmable reticle is fabricated as a sandwich of materials including an electrochromatic layer whose optical transmissivity is voltage controlled. In one embodiment, the electrochromatic layer has adjacent layers that enhance the transference of positive and negative ions into the electrochromatic layer in response to selectively applied voltages wherein the ions are operable to change the optical characteristics until another voltage is applied to reverse the process. Transparent conductor layers are applied to both sides of the sandwich layer and patterned so that the voltages may be selectively applied to particular areas of over the electrochromatic layer. In one embodiment, at least one of the transparent conductor layers is patterned to create continuous “islands” in desired shapes. These “islands” are coupled to voltage source(s) with electrically controlled switches such that the voltage may be applied to the islands to configure the reticle in desired transparent and opaque patterns. In another embodiment, the transparent conductors are patterned into rows and columns such that a matrix patterned may be programmed by selectively applying voltages to one row and then applying voltages to each column that has a pixel that is to be programmed to a particular optical state by the application of a voltage level. The foregoing has outlined rather broadly the features and technical advantages of the present invention in order that the detailed description of the invention that follows may be better understood. Additional features and advantages of the invention will be described below. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a more complete understanding of the present invention, and the advantages thereof, reference is now made to the following descriptions taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1A is a cross section of layers of material including an electrochromatic layer suitable for fabricating a reticle according to embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 1B is the cross section of FIG. 1A with a voltage applied across the electrochromatic layer; FIG. 2A illustrates a column/row method for addressing pixels of the electrochromatic reticle; FIG. 2B illustrates opaque and transparent areas of an electrically programmable electrochromatic reticle according to embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 3A illustrates an electrically programmable electrochromatic reticle with different voltages applied to different areas; FIG. 3B illustrates the electrically programmable electrochromatic reticle of FIG. 1A with the applied voltages reversed; FIG. 4 illustrates two pixels selected with row/column addressing of an electrically programmable electrochromatic reticle according to embodiments of the present invention; and FIG. 5 is a block diagram of a system for exposing patterns on an IC wafer using an electrically programmable electrochromatic reticle according to embodiments of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The particulars shown herein are by way of example and for purposes of illustrative discussion of the preferred embodiments of the present invention only and are presented in the cause of providing what is believed to be the most useful and readily understood description of the principles and conceptual aspects of various embodiments of the invention. In this regard, no attempt is made to show structural details of the invention in more detail than is necessary for the fundamental understanding of the invention, the description taken with the drawings making apparent to those skilled in the art how the several forms of the invention may be embodied in practice. The following definitions and explanations are meant and intended to be controlling in any future construction unless clearly and unambiguously modified in the following examples or when application of the meaning renders any construction meaningless or essentially meaningless. In cases where the construction of the term would render it meaningless or essentially meaningless, the definition should be taken from Webster's Dictionary, 3rd Edition. As used herein, the term “attached,” or any conjugation thereof describes and refers the at least partial connection of two items. As used herein, the term “dielectric” means and refers to a substance in which an electric field may be maintained with zero or near-zero power dissipation, i.e., the electrical conductivity is zero or near zero. In various embodiments, a dielectric material is an electrical insulator. As used herein, a “fluid” is a continuous, amorphous substance whose molecules move freely past one another and that has the tendency to assume the shape of its container, for example, a liquid or a gas. As used herein, the term “integral” means and refers to a non-jointed body. As used herein, the term “optical anisotropy” means and refers to a the property of being optically directionally dependent. Stated another way, it is the behavior of a medium, or of a single molecule, whose effect on electromagnetic radiation depends on the direction of propagation of the radiation. As used herein, the term “reaction chamber” means and refers to a gas activation zone. The reaction chamber is capable of being defined by walls or other boundaries, but also is capable of comprising a zone or other unrestricted area. As used herein, the term “semiconductor device” means and refers at least one device used in or with a formation of transistors, capacitors, interconnections, batteries, supercapacitors, and/or the like, particularly various memory devices, such as, but not limited to DRAM, SRAM, SCRAM, EDRAM, VDRAM, NVSRAM, NVDRAM, DPSRAM, PSDRAM, transistor/capacitor cell devices, vias or interconnects, and vertical stacks of logic gates. However, other devices utilizing transistors at least one transistors, capacitors, interconnections, and/or the like are to be included within this definition. As used herein, the term The term “trace” is not intended to be limiting to any particular geometry or fabrication technique and instead is intended to broadly cover an electrically conductive path. Other than in the operating examples, or where otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities of ingredients or reaction conditions used herein are to be understood as modified in all instances by the term “about”. References herein to terms such as “vertical” and “horizontal” are made by way of example to establish a frame of reference. The term “horizontal” as used herein is defined as a plane parallel to the conventional plane or surface of substrate. The term “vertical” refers to a direction perpendicular to the horizontal, as defined above. Terms, such as “on”, “above”, “below”, “side” (as in “sidewall”), “higher”, “lower”, “over”, “beneath” and “under”, are defined with respect to the horizontal plane. In chemistry, chromism is a process that induces a reversible change in the colors of compounds. In most cases, chromism is based on a change in the electron states of molecules, especially the π- or d-electron state, so this phenomenon is induced by various external stimuli which can alter the electron density of substances. It is known that there are many natural compounds that have chromism, and many artificial compounds with specific chromism have been synthesized to date. Chromism is classified by what kind of stimuli are used. The major kinds of chromism are as follows: Thermochromism is chromism that is induced by heat, that is, a change of temperature. This is the most common chromism of all; Photochromism is induced by light irradiation. This phenomenon is based on the isomerization between two different molecular structures; Solvatochromism depends on the polarity of the solvent. Most solvatochromic compounds are metal complexes; and Electrochromism is induced by the gain and loss of electrons. This phenomenon occurs in compounds with redox active sites, such as metal ions or organic radicals. The present invention uses the process of electrochromism to formulate new and novel reticles for IC manufacture. Electrochromic materials darken when voltage is added and are transparent when voltage is taken away. Electrochromic materials may be used to produce a window, mask or reticle that may be adjusted to allow varying levels of visibility rather than an all-or-nothing window formed using liquid crystal materials. “Electrochromic” describes materials that can change color when energized by an electrical current. Essentially, electricity kicks off a chemical reaction in this sort of material. This reaction (like any chemical reaction) changes the properties of the material. In this case, the reaction changes the way the material reflects and absorbs light. In some electrochromic materials, the change is between different colors. In electrochromic windows, the material changes between colored (reflecting light of some color) and transparent (not reflecting any light). At its most basic level, an electrochromic window needs this sort of electrochromic material and an electrode system to change its chemical state from colored to transparent and back again. There are several different ways to do this, employing different materials and electrode systems. Like other smart windows, electrochromic windows are made by sandwiching certain materials between two panes of glass. Here are the materials inside one basic electrochromic window system and the order in which they are layered: Glass or plastic panel; Conducting oxide; Electrochromic layer, such as tungsten oxide; Ion conductor/electrolyte; Ion storage; A second layer of conducting oxide; and A second glass or plastic panel. In this design, the chemical reaction at work is an oxidation reaction; a reaction in which molecules in a compound lose an electron. Ions in the sandwiched electrochromic layer are what allow it to change from opaque to transparent. It's these ions that allow it to absorb light. A power source is wired to the two conducting oxide layers, and a voltage drives the ions from the ion storage layer, through the ion conducting layer and into the electrochromic layer. This makes the glass opaque. By shutting off the voltage, the ions are driven out of the electrochromic layers and into the ion storage layer. When the ions leave the electrochromic layer, the window regains its transparency. With an electrochromic smart-window, it only requires electricity to make the initial change in opacity. Maintaining a particular shade does not require constant voltage. One merely needs to apply enough voltage to make the change, and then enough to reverse the change making this process energy efficient. New reflective hydrides that are being developed behave in a noticeably different way. Instead of absorbing light, they reflect it. Thin films made of nickel-magnesium alloy are able to switch back and forth from a transparent to a reflective state. The switch can be powered by low-voltage electricity (electrochromic technology) or by the injection of hydrogen and oxygen gases (gas-chromic technology). Furthermore, this material has the potential to be even more energy efficient than other electrochromic materials. Various embodiments of the present invention design reticles where the typical Chrome layer is replaced by an electrochromatic film that is transparent with the application of a voltage X and opaque or reflective at an application of a voltage Y. The electrochromatic film is patterned on a reticle substrate with wiring layers as necessary to allow the application of separate voltages to the electrochromatic patterns. This allows for flexibility in design as well as enabling multi-use capabilities. In one embodiment, a fixed pattern may implemented that produces a standard reticle pattern when the voltage X is applied while producing the complement of the reticle patter when the voltage Y is applied. A reticle pattern and its complement are commonly needed in IC processes such as implantation. Presently, in various embodiments, this requires two separate reticle designs, however, the present invention would reduce this to a single reticle that is customized by applied voltages. In another embodiment, a reticle is produced with a matrix of minimum geometry elements similar to a computer display. In this manner, these elements or pixels may be independently controlled allowing for a wide range of design implementations. The matrix design would be particularly useful in development activities where testing new designs could be achieved simply changing the voltage applied to individual elements as opposed to having to wait for the fabrication of new reticles, which is common in the present state of the art. Additional uses for the electrochromatic reticle of the present invention would be the use in generating dummy tiles for better processing control, fixed elements for existing reticles, and as programmable elements in existing reticle designs. Implementing such a reticle system according to embodiments of the present invention may be accomplished by creating a reticle that may be programmed by an off-line system or by hardwiring a reticle with a lithographic system which could allow for real-time changes in a reticle while the lithographic system is in use. FIG. 1A is a cross-section view of a composite material 100 suitable for practicing embodiments of the present invention. One way of fabricating composite material 100 would start with glass layer 107. Transparent conductor layer 106 would be deposited over glass layer 107 and would then be patterned as determined by a pre-determined desired reticle design. An electrochromatic layer 105 is then deposited over transparent conductor layer 106. Layers of ion conductor/electrolyte 104 and ion storage 103 are deposited over electrochromatic layer 104. A second transparent conductor layer 102 is deposited and patterned to be synergistic with transparent conductor layer 106. Finally, a second protective glass layer 101 completes composite material 100. Voltage 108 is selectively coupled to sub-patterns of transparent conductors 102 and 106. When voltage 108 is shown having a first value VA, the portion of the electrochromatic layer 105 overlaid by conductor patterns is transparent. FIG. 1B is a cross-section view of composite material 100 wherein voltage 108 has second value VB that causes the electrochromatic layer 105 to change its optical properties. Positive ions 111 from the ion storage layer 103 are driven through the ion conductor/electrolyte layer 104 into the electrochromatic layer 105 to change its optical properties. Negative charges 110 are also shown. When voltage 108 has the second value VB, then the portion of the electrochromatic layer 105 overlaid by conductor patterns is altered to be either opaque or reflective. FIG. 2A illustrates portions of an exemplary reticle according to embodiments of the present invention. In this illustration, only the transparent conductor rows 202 and columns 201 are shown. The columns are numbered from left to right and the rows from bottom to top. Exemplary electronic switches 205 and 208 are used to apply the two potentials VB 209 and VG 206 of a voltage source to selected rows and columns. In this example, when Sel_X(6) 207 turns on switch 208 and Sel_Y(3) turns on switch 205, a voltage (VB-VG) is applied across the intersection of row 3 and column 6 causing electrochromatic material 203 to change its optical characteristics. If the electrochromatic material 203 is of the type that retains its altered properties until a reset voltage is applied, then a pattern may be formed by “addressing” selected rows and columns. FIG. 2B illustrates the electrochromatic material 203 of FIG. 2A where opaque or reflective patterns 220 have been “written” as described in FIG. 2A leaving translucent or transparent areas 221. FIG. 3A illustrates another embodiment of the present invention. An exemplary reticle 305 has patterns that allows a voltage VA to be applied to areas 303 and 304 and a voltage VB to be applied to areas 301 and 302. Voltage VA renders areas 303 and 304 transparent/translucent and voltage VB renders areas 301 and 302 opaque/reflective. FIG. 3B shows the embodiment of FIG. 3A with the voltages potentials to areas 303-304 and 301-302 reversed. Voltage VA to be applied to areas 301-302 and voltage VB to be applied to areas 303-304. Voltage VB renders areas 303 and 304 opaque/reflective and voltage VA renders areas 301 and 302 transparent/translucent. FIG. 4 is another illustration of a matrix implementation of an embodiment of the present invention. Exemplary reticle 400 is “addressed” by applying variable voltage levels to selected rows and columns to “paint” a pattern of opaque or reflective areas. In this example, exemplary Row_2_Sel 405 and Row_9_Sel 401 are set to a logic one, turning on switches 403 and 410 applying voltage VB 402 to conductors 424 and 404 of the second and ninth row, respectively. Likewise, exemplary Col_2_Sel is set to a logic one, turning on switch 412 and applying voltage VG 413 to conductor 425 of the second column. At each intersection 408 and 409, the electrochromatic material is made opaque as illustrated. Since Col_11_Sel is set to a logic zero and switch 415 is off, conductor 426 does not have voltage VG 413 applied and the intersection points 406 and 407 remain in a transparent state. FIG. 5 illustrates a system 500 for exposing patterns on IC wafer 504 according to embodiments of the present invention. An expose unit 509 is positioned a predetermined distance from the IC wafer 504 which is coated with an optically sensitive resist material for a process step. The expose unit 509 has a source of energy (e.g., light source 501 that is collimated using a condenser lens 502). An electrochromatic reticle 506, fabricated and programmed using embodiments of the present invention, contains a pattern to be exposed on wafer 504. Electrochromatic reticle 506 may be programmed in situ to the expose unit 509 with program controller 508 or it may be first programmed off-line and then placed in expose unit 509 for the expose process step. A projection lens 503 is used to reduce the reticle image (predetermined pattern) to a size corresponding to the area 507 that is exposed during each step and repeat operation. X-Y table 505 is used to move the wafer 504 under the expose unit 509. As such, various embodiments of the present invention comprise an electrically programmable reticle comprising an electrochromatic layer having a substantially reflective area and a substantially opaque area, wherein said substantially reflective area is in response to a first electric field, and further wherein said substantially opaque area is in response to a second electric field. Various further embodiments comprise a lithography system comprising a light source; and an electrochromatic reticle, wherein said electrochromatic reticle includes a substantially opaque region in response to a first signal and a substantially transparent region in response to a second signal. Yet further embodiments comprise a method of manufacturing a semiconductor device using a programmable reticle, said method comprising the steps of providing a first voltage to a first portion of an electrochromatic layer of said programmable reticle resulting in said first portion having substantial transparency; providing a second voltage to a second portion of said electrochromatic layer of said programmable reticle resulting in said second portion having substantial opaqueness; directing a beam at a portion of a wafer through said programmable reticle, whereby a semiconductor device is formed. While a particular embodiment of the invention has been shown and described, numerous variations and alternate embodiments will occur to those skilled in the art. Accordingly, it is intended that the invention be limited only in terms of the appended claims. The invention may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from its spirit or essential characteristics. The described embodiments are to be considered in all respects only as illustrative and not restrictive. The scope of the invention is, therefore, indicated by the appended claims rather than by the foregoing description. All changes to the claims that come within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are to be embraced within their scope. Further, all published documents, patents, and applications mentioned herein are hereby incorporated by reference, as if presented in their entirety.	G	G03	G03F	7	20
11942524	US20080126775A1-20080529	ELECTRONIC APPARATUS INCORPORATING A PLURALITY OF MICROPROCESSOR UNITS	ACCEPTED	20080514	20080529		[]	G06F15177	["G06F15177"]	7987350	20071119	20110726	713	001000	67150.0	TRAN	VINCENT	[{"inventor_name_last": "Miwa", "inventor_name_first": "Kenji", "inventor_city": "Kawasaki-shi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]	An electronic apparatus includes an initializing unit configured to, at power-on, execute in parallel a process of initializing data, which is stored in a first nonvolatile memory and requires initialization, into a first volatile memory by a first microprocessor unit and a process of initializing data, which is stored in a second nonvolatile memory and requires initialization, into a second volatile memory by a second microprocessor unit, and to copy a second set of initialized data, which has been initialized by the second microprocessor unit and stored in the second volatile memory, into the first volatile memory via the communication interface. A startup time of the electronic apparatus is shortened.	1. An electronic apparatus including: a first nonvolatile memory; a first volatile memory; a first microprocessor unit to which are connected the first nonvolatile memory and the first volatile memory; a second nonvolatile memory; a second volatile memory; a second microprocessor unit to which are connected the second nonvolatile memory and the second volatile memory; a communication interface arranged to interconnect the first microprocessor unit and the second microprocessor unit; and an initializing unit configured to, at power-on, execute in parallel a process of initializing data, which is stored in the first nonvolatile memory and requires initialization, into the first volatile memory by the first microprocessor unit, and a process of initializing data, which is stored in the second nonvolatile memory and requires initialization, into the second volatile memory by the second microprocessor unit; and copy a second set of initialized data, which has been initialized by the second microprocessor unit and stored in the second volatile memory, into the first volatile memory via the communication interface. 2. The electronic apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the initializing unit further copies a first set of initialized data, which has been initialized by the first microprocessor unit and stored in the first volatile memory, into the second volatile memory via the communication interface. 3. The electronic apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the initializing unit executes the initialization such that the initialized data and the second set of initialized data are not overlapped with each other. 4. The electronic apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the data stored in the first nonvolatile memory and requiring initialization and the data stored in the second nonvolatile memory and requiring initialization are each given by one of divided parts of data, which are successively required in accordance with the progress of an entire initialization process, and the initializing unit copies the initialized data at a time when a process of initializing each of the divided parts of the data is completed. 5. The electronic apparatus according to claim 4, wherein the divided parts of the data are divided to have the same data size. 6. The electronic apparatus according to claim 4, wherein the divided parts of the data are divided to have the same processing time. 7. The electronic apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the first volatile memory connected to the first microprocessor unit receives a copy of the initialized data before the other data. 8. A control method for an electronic apparatus including: a first nonvolatile memory; a first volatile memory; a first microprocessor unit to which are connected the first nonvolatile memory and the first volatile memory; a second nonvolatile memory; a second volatile memory; a second microprocessor unit to which are connected the second nonvolatile memory and the second volatile memory; and a communication interface arranged to interconnect the first microprocessor unit and the second microprocessor unit, the control method comprising: a first processing step of, at power-on, initializing data, which is stored in the first nonvolatile memory and requires initialization, into the first volatile memory by the first microprocessor unit; a second processing step of, at power-on, initializing data, which is stored in the second nonvolatile memory and requires initialization, into the second volatile memory by the second microprocessor unit; and a step of copying a second set of initialized data, which has been initialized by the second microprocessor unit and stored in the second volatile memory, into the first volatile memory via the communication interface, wherein the first processing step and the second processing are executed in parallel.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an electronic apparatus, such as an electronic camera, which incorporates a plurality of microprocessor units. 2. Description of the Related Art An electronic camera becoming more widely used at present has a tendency to increase the number of pixels of an image pickup element employed in the electronic camera with the provision of more advanced functions. In the past, various kinds of control processes were performed by one microprocessor unit (hereinafter referred to also as “MPU (Micro Processing Unit)”). However, an electronic camera incorporating a plurality of MPUs has also been recently practiced to realize higher performance and higher functionality. At the system startup of an electronic camera after power-on, the startup operation is performed by reading all of data, which is stored in a ROM (Read Only Memory) and requires initialization, into a RAM (Random Access Memory). At that time, a system has to be started up after the initialization of all of the data which requires the initialization. The data requiring the initialization includes, for example, not only setting values and correction values for a sensor and hardware which are necessary for picking up an image, but also setting values selected from a menu. In the electronic camera having more advanced functions, the number of setting values which have to be set and selected is increased and the number of pixels of an image pickup element, such as a CCD (Charge-Coupled Device) or CMOS sensor, is also increased. Therefore, an amount of the data requiring the initialization tends to increase. For that reason, a difficulty arises in shortening a startup time of the camera. Hence, an image pickup operation cannot be started immediately even with pressing of a release button after the power-on, and a shutter chance is missed. In a digital camera disclosed in Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 2003-189165, to overcome the above-described disadvantages, a program is divided into two parts, i.e., one part required to start up an image pickup system and another part. After power-on, the program part necessary for the image pickup system is first initialized and started up. Then, the remaining part is initialized and started up. By first starting up only the program part necessary for the image pickup system, a startup time from the power-on to a photographing-enable state can be shortened to reduce a possibility that the shutter chance is missed. Also, in a camera disclosed in Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 2001-94844, management information necessary for reading and writing data from and in a memory card is saved/recovered respectively in response to power-off/on of the camera. This technique eliminates the need of newly reconstructing the management information for the memory card at the power-on. Accordingly, a time taken until the start of a photographing operation can be shortened to reduce a possibility that the shutter chance is missed. In the digital camera disclosed in the above-cited Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 2003-189165, however, the photographing operation is allowed at a point in time when the startup of the program part necessary for the image pickup system is completed. Therefore, the photographing operation is allowed in spite of a situation where there is actually an error in a memory card, or where the memory card has no vacant capacity and cannot store any more images even when the images are photographed. The above-cited Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 2001-94844 discloses the camera related to the technique of saving/recovering the management information necessary for the memory card, and it does not propose a method of avoiding prolongation of the system startup time, which is caused by an increase in the setting values required in the sensor and the hardware. Further, Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 2001-94844 proposes a system incorporating a plurality of MPUs, but it has the following disadvantage. When the plurality of MPUs require the same management information, each of the MPUs has to save/recover the same management information, thus resulting in a longer startup time.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In view of the above-described problems, the present invention is directed to an electronic apparatus capable of shortening a startup time. According to one aspect of the present invention, an electronic apparatus includes a first nonvolatile memory, a first volatile memory, a first microprocessor unit to which are connected the first nonvolatile memory and the first volatile memory, a second nonvolatile memory, a second volatile memory, a second microprocessor unit to which are connected the second nonvolatile memory and the second volatile memory, a communication interface arranged to interconnect the first microprocessor unit and the second microprocessor unit, and an initializing unit configured to, at power-on, execute in parallel a process of initializing data, which is stored in the first nonvolatile memory and requires initialization, into the first volatile memory by the first microprocessor unit and a process of initializing data, which is stored in the second nonvolatile memory and requires initialization, into the second volatile memory by the second microprocessor unit, and to copy a second set of initialized data, which has been initialized by the second microprocessor unit and stored in the second volatile memory, into the first volatile memory via the communication interface. Further features of the present invention will become apparent from the following description of exemplary embodiments with reference to the attached drawings.	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an electronic apparatus, such as an electronic camera, which incorporates a plurality of microprocessor units. 2. Description of the Related Art An electronic camera becoming more widely used at present has a tendency to increase the number of pixels of an image pickup element employed in the electronic camera with the provision of more advanced functions. In the past, various kinds of control processes were performed by one microprocessor unit (hereinafter referred to also as “MPU (Micro Processing Unit)”). However, an electronic camera incorporating a plurality of MPUs has also been recently practiced to realize higher performance and higher functionality. At the system startup of an electronic camera after power-on, the startup operation is performed by reading all of data, which is stored in a ROM (Read Only Memory) and requires initialization, into a RAM (Random Access Memory). At that time, a system has to be started up after the initialization of all of the data which requires the initialization. The data requiring the initialization includes, for example, not only setting values and correction values for a sensor and hardware which are necessary for picking up an image, but also setting values selected from a menu. In the electronic camera having more advanced functions, the number of setting values which have to be set and selected is increased and the number of pixels of an image pickup element, such as a CCD (Charge-Coupled Device) or CMOS sensor, is also increased. Therefore, an amount of the data requiring the initialization tends to increase. For that reason, a difficulty arises in shortening a startup time of the camera. Hence, an image pickup operation cannot be started immediately even with pressing of a release button after the power-on, and a shutter chance is missed. In a digital camera disclosed in Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 2003-189165, to overcome the above-described disadvantages, a program is divided into two parts, i.e., one part required to start up an image pickup system and another part. After power-on, the program part necessary for the image pickup system is first initialized and started up. Then, the remaining part is initialized and started up. By first starting up only the program part necessary for the image pickup system, a startup time from the power-on to a photographing-enable state can be shortened to reduce a possibility that the shutter chance is missed. Also, in a camera disclosed in Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 2001-94844, management information necessary for reading and writing data from and in a memory card is saved/recovered respectively in response to power-off/on of the camera. This technique eliminates the need of newly reconstructing the management information for the memory card at the power-on. Accordingly, a time taken until the start of a photographing operation can be shortened to reduce a possibility that the shutter chance is missed. In the digital camera disclosed in the above-cited Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 2003-189165, however, the photographing operation is allowed at a point in time when the startup of the program part necessary for the image pickup system is completed. Therefore, the photographing operation is allowed in spite of a situation where there is actually an error in a memory card, or where the memory card has no vacant capacity and cannot store any more images even when the images are photographed. The above-cited Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 2001-94844 discloses the camera related to the technique of saving/recovering the management information necessary for the memory card, and it does not propose a method of avoiding prolongation of the system startup time, which is caused by an increase in the setting values required in the sensor and the hardware. Further, Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 2001-94844 proposes a system incorporating a plurality of MPUs, but it has the following disadvantage. When the plurality of MPUs require the same management information, each of the MPUs has to save/recover the same management information, thus resulting in a longer startup time. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In view of the above-described problems, the present invention is directed to an electronic apparatus capable of shortening a startup time. According to one aspect of the present invention, an electronic apparatus includes a first nonvolatile memory, a first volatile memory, a first microprocessor unit to which are connected the first nonvolatile memory and the first volatile memory, a second nonvolatile memory, a second volatile memory, a second microprocessor unit to which are connected the second nonvolatile memory and the second volatile memory, a communication interface arranged to interconnect the first microprocessor unit and the second microprocessor unit, and an initializing unit configured to, at power-on, execute in parallel a process of initializing data, which is stored in the first nonvolatile memory and requires initialization, into the first volatile memory by the first microprocessor unit and a process of initializing data, which is stored in the second nonvolatile memory and requires initialization, into the second volatile memory by the second microprocessor unit, and to copy a second set of initialized data, which has been initialized by the second microprocessor unit and stored in the second volatile memory, into the first volatile memory via the communication interface. Further features of the present invention will become apparent from the following description of exemplary embodiments with reference to the attached drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram of primary components of an electronic camera according to one exemplary embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a flowchart showing the operation at the startup of one MPU in FIG. 1. FIG. 3 is a flowchart showing the operation at the startup of another MPU in FIG. 1. DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS Embodiments of the present invention will be described in detail in accordance with the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 is a block diagram of main components of an electronic camera, which is one example of an electronic apparatus incorporating a plurality of MPUs, according to one exemplary embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 1, the electronic camera includes an MPU 101 incorporated therein, a RAM 102 serving as a volatile memory used by the MPU 101, and a ROM 103 serving as a nonvolatile memory used by the MPU 101. The MPU 101, the RAM 102, and the ROM 103 are interconnected by a system bus 104 on the side including the MPU 101. The ROM 103 stores software and parameters which are required to operate the camera. The parameters include ones which are common in the same model, and other ones which are specific to each model and differ per camera (i.e., depending on individual settings). Also, the parameters include ones which are just read and are not rewritten, and other ones which are read and rewritten. Generally, a nonvolatile ROM has a slower read rate than a RAM. Therefore, when it is required to read a parameter at a high rate, even a parameter that is just read is often used after being developed into a RAM from a ROM. The electronic camera further includes an MPU 301 incorporated therein, a RAM 302 serving a volatile memory used by the MPU 301, and a ROM 303 serving as a nonvolatile memory used by the MPU 301. The MPU 301, the RAM 302, and the ROM 303 are interconnected by a system bus 304 on the side including the MPU 301. The MPU 101 and the MPU 301 are connected to each other by a high-rate bus 201, i.e., a high-rate communication interface dedicated for interconnection between MPUs, such that information is notified via the inter-MPU high-rate bus 201. The inter-MPU high-rate bus 201 is a dedicated bus having a data transfer rate comparable to that of the RAM which is connected to each of the MPU 101 and the MPU 301. When data is transferred, the type and the transfer size of the data are first notified from the MPU as a transfer source to the MPU as a transfer destination. Then, the transfer destination MPU performs preparations for receiving the data and notifies the end of the preparations for the reception to the transfer source MPU. Finally, the transfer source MPU starts transmission of the data. In such a way, the data can be transferred between the MPUs via the bus. Parameters necessary for executing a program and parameters (correction data) necessary for correcting an image in an image pickup operation are separately stored in the ROM 103 and the ROM 303. The parameters necessary for executing the program are parameters that are required to start up the program and are further required earlier than the operation of the electronic camera. On the other hand, the parameters necessary for the image correction are parameters that are required to be initialized until reaching a time when the image pickup operation is actually performed after the startup of the electronic camera. The reason why the parameters are divided into ones necessary for executing the program and the others (correction data) necessary for the image correction resides in enabling the MPU 101 and the MPU 301 to initialize the divided groups of parameters in parallel at the startup by storing the divided groups of parameters to be initialized, which are required at different points in time, in two respective ROMs. The operation of the thus-constructed electronic camera at the startup will be described next. FIG. 2 is a flowchart showing the operation at the startup of the MPU 101, and FIG. 3 is a flowchart showing the operation at the startup of the MPU 301. When the startup is instructed by turning-on a power switch, the MPU 101 and the MPU 301 are both released from the reset state at the same time to start up a system of the electronic camera. The operations at the startup of the MPU 101 and the MPU 301 will be described in detail with reference to the flowcharts of FIGS. 2 and 3. The MPU 101 first develops the parameters necessary for executing the program into the RAM 102 from the ROM 103 (S101). Then, after the completion of development of the parameters, the MPU 101 executes a program booting process (S102). The MPU 301 first develops the correction data necessary for correcting the image into the RAM 302 from the ROM 303 (S201). Then, after the completion of development of the correction data, the MPU 301 executes correction-data transmission setting for the inter-MPU high-rate bus 201 (S202) and notifies the end of the preparations for transmitting the correction data to the MPU 101 (S203). Upon receiving, from the MPU 301, a notice indicating the end of the preparations for transmitting the correction data (S103), the MPU 101 performs the setting needed to receive the correction data for the inter-MPU high-rate bus 201 (S104) and notifies the end of the preparations for receiving the correction data to the MPU 301 (S105). After receiving a notice indicating the end of the preparations for the reception (S204), the MPU 301 transfers the correction data (S205) such that the MPU 101 can develop the correction data, which has been developed in the RAM 302, into the RAM 102 via the inter-MPU high-rate bus 201 (S106). Upon the completion of development of the correction data, the parameters requiring the development are all developed in the RAM 102. At this time, the electronic camera comes into a state where the MPU 101 can start the operation of the electronic camera, such as image pickup or reproduction. After receiving the correction data and developing the parameters, the MPU 101 performs the setting needed to transmit the parameters via the inter-MPU high-rate bus 201 (S107) and notifies the end of the preparations for the transmission to the MPU 301 (S108). After receiving a notice indicating the end of preparations for transmission (S206), the MPU 301 develops the parameters necessary for executing the program, which have been developed in the RAM 102 and sent to the RAM 302 via the inter-MPU high-rate bus 201. More specifically, the MPU 301 performs the setting needed to receive the parameters for the inter-MPU high-rate bus 201 (S207) and notifies the end of the preparations for the reception to the MPU 101 (S208). After receiving a notice indicating the end of the preparations for the reception (S109), the MPU 101 starts transfer of the parameters (S110) such that the MPU 301 can develop the parameters necessary for executing the program into the RAM 302 (S209). Upon the completion of development of the parameters, the MPU 301 is allowed to transit to a program booting process and executes the program booting process (S210). Hence, the electronic camera comes into a state where the MPU 301 can start the operation of the electronic camera, such as image pickup or reproduction. Because the electronic camera system comes into a started-up state at the time when the boot-up of the program and the initialization of the parameters are completed on the side including the MPU 101, there is no problem even when the startup process is completed in the MPU 301 with a delay from the MPU 101. In that case, the MPU 101 operates as a primary MPU in the electronic camera system. In the above-described exemplary embodiment, the setting for the inter-MPU high-rate bus 201 by the transfer destination MPU is performed after receiving the notice indicating the end of the preparations for the transmission in the transfer source MPU. However, since the development sequence and the development size of the parameters are known in advance in many cases, the setting for the reception can be set for the inter-MPU high-rate bus 201 before the notice indicating the end of the preparations for the transmission is received from the transfer source MPU. In such a case, a time required from the setting of the data transfer to the actual transfer using the inter-MPU high-rate bus 201 can be shortened by notifying the end of the preparations for the reception immediately upon receiving the notice indicating the end of the preparations for the transmission. Also, the data transfer via the inter-MPU high-rate bus 201 can be performed through hardware using DMA (Direct Memory Access), for example, so as to reduce the amount of processing to be executed by the MPU. Further, the data transfer via the inter-MPU high-rate bus 201 can be performed by such an arrangement that the transfer source MPU is able to directly access a memory in the transfer destination MPU to copy the parameters in the memory without the process of mutually confirming the communication partners, i.e., the transfer source MPU and the transfer destination MPU. As described above, when developing the parameters necessary for performing the operation of the electronic camera, the MPU 101 is just required to read the parameters necessary for executing the program from the ROM having a relatively low read rate, and the parameters necessary for the image correction are developed by using the inter-MPU high-rate bus 201. Accordingly, the startup time can be shortened. In addition, since the developments of the parameters from the ROMs are performed by the MPU 101 and the MPU 301 in parallel, quicker startup of the electronic camera can be realized. The electronic camera according to the above-described exemplary embodiment incorporates the plurality MPUs each having the ROM and the RAM and also includes the inter-MPU high-rate bus 201 connecting the MPUs to each other. At power-on of the electronic camera, the data stored in the ROMs and requiring initialization is developed into the RAMs for the initialization by the plural MPUs at the same time. Then, respective sets of the initialized data are copied between the MPUs from one to the other and vice versa via the inter-MPU high-rate bus 201. As a result, in the electronic camera incorporating the plural MPUs to realize higher performance and higher functionality, the startup time can be shortened as far as possible even with the presence of a large amount data requiring the initialization, thus reducing a possibility that the shutter chance is missed. Also, the data to be initialized at the power-on is initialized by the plural MPUs in a manner not overlapping with each other. With that feature, the initialization process can be performed without overlapping and the time required for the initialization can be minimized. Further, the data to be initialized at the power-on is divided into data that is necessary in the first half of the initialization process of the electronic camera and data that is necessary in the second half of the initialization process of the electronic camera. Correspondingly, MPUs are separated into at least one MPU for initializing the data necessary in the first half of the initialization process of the electronic camera and at least one MPU for initializing the data necessary in the second half of the initialization process of the electronic camera. With that feature, when the initialization of the data necessary in the first half of the initialization process of the electronic camera is completed, a subsequent initialization process can be immediately started at earlier timing. The data necessary in the second half of the initialization process of the electronic camera is copied between the MPUs after the initialization of the data necessary in the first half of the initialization process. Hence, all of the data can be initialized while realizing a shorter initialization time of the electronic camera. Moreover, the data to be initialized at the power-on is divided so as to have the same data size. Therefore, the time required for each MPU to execute the initialization is the same, thus minimizing the time taken until one MPU starts copying of the data from the other MPU after each MPU has completed the initialization of the respective data. In other words, the initialization time of the electronic camera can be prevented from being prolonged due to the reason that one MPU has to wait for the completion of the initialization executed by the other MPU. Alternatively, the data to be initialized at the power-on is divided so as to have the same initialization time. With that feature, even when the initialization time differs depending on the difference in the contents of the initialization process in spite of the divided sets of data having the same size, the MPUs can complete the respective initialization processes at the same timing as a result of dividing the data in consideration of the initialization time. After the completion of the initialization process executed by one MPU, the copying of the data from the other MPU to the one MPU can be started immediately and the initialization time of the electronic camera can be shortened. In addition, a primary one of the plural MPUs is set to initialize the data necessary in the first half of the initialization process of the electronic camera. Since the primary MPU initializes the data necessary in the first half of the initialization process, the primary MPU can execute the entire initialization process with higher priority than the other MPU. After the primary MPU has completed the entire initialization process, the other MPU executes the remaining initialization process. Hence, the initialization time required to start up the electronic camera by the primary MPU can be shortened. With the features described above, an electronic camera is realized which has a shorter startup time and can reduce a possibility that the shutter chance is missed. While the present invention has been described with reference to exemplary embodiments, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited to the disclosed exemplary embodiments. The scope of the following claims is to be accorded the broadest interpretation so as to encompass all modifications, equivalent structures and functions. This application claims the benefit of Japanese Patent Application No. 2006-318636 filed Nov. 27, 2006, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.	G	G06	G06F	151	77
11850528	US20080097129A1-20080424	PROCESS FOR THE PREPARATION OF ALKYLENE GLYCOL	ACCEPTED	20080409	20080424		[]	C07C2700	["C07C2700"]	7465840	20070905	20081216	568	858000	68402.0	PRICE	ELVIS	[{"inventor_name_last": "VAN KRUCHTEN", "inventor_name_first": "Eugene Marie", "inventor_city": "Amsterdam", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "NL"}]	A process for the preparation of an alkylene glycol, said process comprising reacting the corresponding alkylene carbonate with water and/or an alcohol in the presence of a metalate immobilised on a solid support, having one or more electropositive sites.	1. A process for the preparation of an alkylene glycol, said process comprising reacting the corresponding alkylene carbonate with water and/or an alcohol in the presence of a metalate immobilised on a solid support, wherein the solid support is a strongly basic ion exchange resin having cations attached to a polymeric backbone. 2. The process according to claim 1, wherein the cations are selected from the group consisting of quaternary ammonium, quaternary phosphonium, quaternary arsenonium, quaternary stibonium, and ternary sulfonium cations. 3. The process according to claim 1, wherein the metalate is a transition metal oxide anion. 4. The process according to claim 3, wherein the metal oxide anion comprises a metal selected from the group consisting of group 5 metals and group 6 metals of the periodic table according to IUPAC nomenclature. 5. The process according to claim 1, wherein the metalate is selected from the group consisting of tungstates, vanadates, and molybdates. 6. The process according to claim 1, wherein the metalate is molybdate. 7. The process according to claim 1, wherein the cations are selected from the group consisting of quaternary ammonium and quaternary phosphonium cations. 8. The process according to claim 1, wherein the process is carried out at a temperature in the range of from 40 to 200° C. and at a pressure in the range of from 100 to 5000 kPa. 9. The process according to claim 1, wherein the alkylene carbonate is ethylene carbonate. 10. The process according to claim 1, wherein the metalate is present in an amount in the range of from 0.0001 to 0.5 mol/mol alkylene carbonate. 11. The process according to claim 1, wherein the metalate is present in an amount in the range of from 0.001 to 0.1 mol/mol alkylene carbonate. 12. The process according to claim 1, wherein the water and/or alcohol is present in a total amount in the range of from 0.5 to 20 mol/mol alkylene carbonate. 13. The process according to claim 1, wherein the water and/or alcohol is present in a total amount in the range of from 1 to 5 mol/mol alkylene carbonate. 14. The process according to claim 1, wherein the cations are attached to the polymeric backbone via a spacer group. 15. The process according to claim 14, wherein the spacer group comprises an alkylene group optionally interrupted with one or more oxygen atoms. 16. A process for the preparation of ethylene glycol, said process comprising reacting ethylene carbonate with water in the presence of a molybdate immobilised on a solid support, wherein the solid support is a strongly basic ion exchange resin having quaternary ammonium cations attached to a polymeric backbone. 17. The process according to claim 16, wherein the molybdate is present in an amount in the range of from 0.001 to 0.1 mol/mol ethylene carbonate. 18. The process according to claim 16, wherein the water is present in a total amount in the range of from 1 to 5 mol/mol ethylene carbonate. 19. A process for the preparation of alkylene glycol comprising the steps of: preparing an alkylene carbonate by contacting the corresponding alkylene oxide with carbon dioxide in the presence of a catalyst then reacting the alkylene carbonate with water and/or an alcohol by a process according to claim 1. 20. A process for the preparation of ethylene glycol comprising the steps of: preparing ethylene carbonate by contacting ethylene oxide with carbon dioxide in the presence of a catalyst then reacting the ethylene carbonate with water by a process according to claim 16.			The invention relates to a process for the preparation of an alkylene glycol by reacting the corresponding alkylene carbonate with water and/or an alcohol in the presence of a catalyst. Alkylene glycols, in particular monoalkylene glycols, are of established commercial interest. For example, monoalkylene glycols are used in anti-freeze compositions, as solvents and as base materials in the production of polyalkylene terephthalates e.g. for fibres or bottles. The production of alkylene glycols by liquid phase hydrolysis of alkylene oxide is known. The hydrolysis is generally performed by adding a large excess of water, e.g. 20 to 25 moles of water per mole of alkylene oxide. The reaction is considered to be a nucleophilic substitution reaction, whereby opening of the alkylene oxide ring occurs, water acting as the nucleophile. Because the primarily formed monoalkylene glycol also acts as a nucleophile, as a rule a mixture of monoalkylene glycol, dialkylene glycol and higher alkylene glycols is formed. In order to increase the selectivity to monoalkylene glycol, it is necessary to suppress the secondary reaction between the primary product and the alkylene oxide, which competes with the hydrolysis of the alkylene oxide. One effective means for suppressing the secondary reaction is to increase the relative amount of water present in the reaction mixture. Although this measure improves the selectivity towards the production of the monoalkylene glycol, it creates a problem in that large amounts of water have to be removed for recovering the product. Considerable efforts have been made to find an alternative means for increasing the reaction selectivity without having to use a large excess of water. The hydrolysis of alkylene oxides to alkylene glycols can be performed with a smaller excess of water in a catalytic system. Therefore, these efforts have usually focused on the selection of more active hydrolysis catalysts and various catalysts have been disclosed in the literature. In addition, processes for the production of alkylene glycols from alkylene oxides, comprising a two-step process, have been described in the art. Such processes involve the reaction of alkylene oxides with carbon dioxide in the presence of a catalyst, followed by subsequent thermal or catalytic hydrolysis of the resultant alkylene carbonate. Examples of such two-step processes include those described in JP-A-57106631, JP-A-59013741 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,080,897. Catalysts suitable for the hydrolysis of alkylene carbonates are described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,283,580, which is directed to the use of molybdenum or tungsten in metal or compound form as catalysts in the production of substituted or unsubstituted ethylene glycols by the reaction of substituted or unsubstituted ethylene carbonates with water. Although progress has been made in the hydrolysis of alkylene carbonates there still remains a need for a catalyst system that allows easy purification of the desired product. We have now surprisingly found that the hydrolysis (being the catalytic conversion of alkylene carbonate with water) of alkylene carbonates to the corresponding alkylene glycol can be efficiently catalysed by a metalate immobilised on a solid support. We furthermore found that these catalysts are also very suitable for alcoholysis (being the catalytic conversion of alkylene carbonate with an alcohol) of alkylene carbonates to the corresponding alkylene glycol and a dialkyl carbonate. The present invention therefore provides a process for the preparation of an alkylene glycol, said process comprising reacting the corresponding alkylene carbonate with water and/or an alcohol in the presence of a metalate immobilised on a solid support, having one or more electropositive sites. This heterogeneous system allows for facile separation of the desired product from the catalytic composition. Such separation can be accomplished without distilling of the product in the presence of the catalyst composition at the high temperatures generally required to purify alkylene glycols. Further, this heterogeneous catalyst system displays higher levels of activity in the conversion of alkylene carbonate to alkylene glycol than the catalyst systems described in the prior art. Another advantage is that the concentration of catalyst is much higher with the same reactor volume. The alkylene carbonate used as starting material in the process of the invention has its conventional definition, i.e. a compound having a carbonate group in its molecule. Particular suitable are alkylene carbonates having a five-membered alkylene carbonate ring (1,3-dioxolan-2-ones) of the general formula (I), wherein R1 to R4 independently represent a hydrogen atom or an optionally substituted alkyl group having from 1 to 6 carbon atoms. Any alkyl group, represented by R1, R2, R3 and/or R4 preferably has from 1 to 3 carbon atoms. As substituents, inactive moieties, such as hydroxy groups may be present. Preferably, R1, R2 and R3 represent hydrogen atoms and R4 represents a non-substituted C1-C3-alkyl group and, more preferably, R1, R2, R3 and R4 all represent hydrogen atoms. Examples of suitable alkylene carbonates therefore include ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, 1,2-butylene carbonate and 2,3-butylene carbonate. In the present invention the most preferred alkylene carbonate of the general formula (II) is ethylene carbonate, where R1, R2, R3 and R4 all represent hydrogen atoms. Alkylene carbonate preparation is well known to the skilled person. They can be prepared by a process comprising contacting the corresponding alkylene oxide with carbon dioxide in the presence of a catalyst. Particularly suitable are alkylene oxides of the general formula (II), wherein R1 to R4 correspond to R1 to R4 of the corresponding alkylene carbonate. Therefore suitable alkylene oxides include ethylene oxide, propylene oxide, 1,2-butylene oxide and 2,3-butylene oxide. In the present invention the most preferred alkylene oxide of the general formula (II) is ethylene oxide, where R1, R2, R3 and R4 all represent hydrogen atoms. Alkylene oxide preparation is well known to the skilled person. In the case of ethylene oxide, it may be prepared by the well known direct oxidation of ethylene, i.e. by air or oxygen oxidation, utilizing silver-based catalysts and often also organic moderators, e.g. organic halides (see for example Kirk Othmer's Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 4th edition, Vol. 9, pages 923-940). As used herein, the term ‘metalate’ is defined as a metal oxide anion in which the metal is polyvalent, having a positive functional oxidation state of at least +3, and may, for example, be a transition metal. In the present invention, the metalate is suitably selected from metal oxide anions comprising group 5 and 6 metals (according to IUPAC Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, Recommendations 1990. Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1990. Edited by G J Leigh). Preferably, the metalate is selected from the group of tungstates, vanadates and molybdates. Most preferably the metalate is a molybdate. Typical examples of such metalate anions include anions conventionally characterized by the formulae [MoO4]2−, [VO3]−, [V2O7H]3−, [V2O7]4− and [WO4]2−. It is recognized that the chemistry of these metalate anions is complex and the exact chemical formula under the conditions of the process of the present invention may prove to be different, but the above is the commonly accepted characterization. The amount of metalate used in the process of the present invention is suitably in the range of from 0.0001 to 0.5 mol/mol alkylene carbonate. Preferably, the metalate is present in an amount in the range of from 0.001 to 0.1 mol/mol alkylene carbonate. The solid support is a support having one or more electropositive sites. Suitable solid supports having one or more electropositive sites include those of an inorganic nature such as carbon, silica, silica-alumina, zeolites, glass and clays such as hydrotalcite. Such solid supports may have the cation bonded by adsorption, reaction or grafting. Further, immobilised complexing macrocycles, such as crown ethers, are also considered as solid support having one or more electropositive sites according to this invention, since these materials are able to bind a cation. Preferably, the solid support contains a quaternary ammonium, quaternary phosphonium, quaternary arsenonium, quaternary stibonium, a ternary sulfonium cation or a complexing macrocycle. More preferably, the cation is a quaternary ammonium or quaternary phosphonium ion. Advantageously, in the present invention solid supports comprising a strongly basic ion exchange resin are used, wherein the cation is attached to a polymeric backbone. The polymeric backbone may comprise high molecular weight polymers and co-polymers including polyalkylene, polyester, polycarbonate, polyurethane, formaldehyde resins, etc. Suitable commercially available ion exchange resins include those comprising polyacrylate or styrene-divinylbenzene copolymers as polymeric backbones. Resins with silica-based polymeric backbones, such as polysiloxanes, and resins incorporating vinylpyridine monomers in their polymeric backbones may also be used. Commercially available ion exchange resins suitable for the process of the present invention include, but are not limited to, Lewatit 500 KR (Lewatit is a trade mark), Amberlite IRA-900, Amberlite IRA-458 (Amberlite is a trade mark), Amberjet 4200, Amberjet 4400 (Amberjet is a trade mark), DOWEX 1×16 (DOWEX is a trade mark), Reillex HPQ (Reillex is a trade mark), Marathon-A, Marathon-MSA (Marathon is a trade mark) and DELOXAN AMP (DELOXAN is a trade mark). Other suitable ion exchange resins include those made according to the method described by Nishikubo, et al. in J. Polym. Sci., Part A: Polym. Chem., (1993) 31, 939-947. These resins have so-called spacer groups, comprising a chemical structure linking the polymeric backbone to the cation. Suitably the spacer group contains an alkylene group optionally interrupted with one or more oxygen atoms. The metalate can be immobilised on the solid support by any technique know to the person skilled in the art. These techniques include pore volume impregnation, impregnation, precipitation and ion-exchange. Preferably, the metalate is immobilised on the solid support via ion-exchange. Ion exchange comprises contacting the solid support with a solution, preferably an aqueous solution of a corresponding metalate salt, wherein the molar ratio between the metalate anion in the solution and the number of electropositive sites present in or on the solid support is equal to or larger than 0.2. Preferably the molar ratio between the metalate cation and the number of electropositive sites is between 0.25 and 20. An electropositive site is a site where theoretically an anion can be adsorbed. In the preferred case of the strongly basic ion exchange resins, containing a quaternary ammonium or quaternary phosphonium ion, two such electropositive sites are needed to adsorb the preferred metalate anion [MoO4]2−. Preferably, ion-exchange takes place at a temperature in the range from 0° C. to 100° C., more preferably at a range from 20° C. to 90° C. Preferably, ion-exchange takes place at atmospheric pressure. The process of the present invention can be carried out in any reaction system suitable for a hydrolysis or alcoholysis process. The alkylene carbonate used in the process of the present invention may comprise purified alkylene carbonate or any other suitable alkylene carbonate. The alkylene carbonate may also be a raw product from a alkylene carbonate production unit, wherein the corresponding alkylene oxide is contacted with carbon dioxide in the presence of a catalyst. It may be that the catalyst is still present in this raw product. The catalytic conversion in the process of the present invention may comprise hydrolysis (reaction with water), alcoholysis (reaction with alcohol) or the two catalytic conversion reactions concomitantly or consecutively. If alcohols or a mixture of water and an alcohol are used, a transesterification reaction of the (cyclic) alkylene carbonate takes place, resulting in a conversion of the (cyclic) carbonate into a mixture of an alkylene glycol and a dialkylcarbonate, in which the alkyl group corresponds with the alkyl group of the alcohol used. The alcohol used in the process of the present invention may be aromatic, such as phenol, or non-aromatic such as a C1-C8 alkyl alcohol. Preferably the alcohol is a C1-C8 alkyl alcohol. The C1-C8 alkyl alcohol may be a primary, secondary and/or tertiary alcohol having preferably a C1-C5 alkyl group, more preferably a C1-C3 alkyl group. The alkyl alcohol may be methanol, ethanol or isopropanol. Preferably, the process of the invention comprises reacting the corresponding alkylene carbonate with water only. Preferably, the total amount of water and/or alcohol supplied to the reactor is an amount of at least 0.5 mol/mol alkylene carbonate, preferably at least 1 mol/mol alkylene carbonate. Preferably the total amount of water and/or alcohol supplied to the reactor is an amount of at most 20 mol/mol alkylene carbonate, more preferably in an amount of at most 5 mol/mol alkylene carbonate, even more preferably at most 2 mol/mol alkylene carbonate. The process of the present invention may be carried out in batch operation. However, in particular for large-scale embodiments, it is preferred to operate the process continuously. Such continuous process can be carried out in fixed bed reactors, operated in up-flow or down-flow. Other reactor options include bubble column reactors and fluidized bed reactors. The reactors of the present invention may be maintained under isothermal, adiabatic or hybrid conditions. Isothermal reactors are generally shell- and tube reactors, mostly of the multi-tubular type, wherein the tubes contain the catalyst and a coolant passes outside the tubes. Adiabatic reactors are not cooled, and the product stream leaving them may be cooled in a separate heat exchanger. It may be advantageous for the process of this invention to recycle a part of the reactor output to at least one inlet of the same reactor, because any temperature difference that may arise between the top and the bottom of the reactor is minimised. Accordingly, less external temperature control is required to maintain the reaction temperature than with a conventional reactor. This is particularly advantageous when isothermal conditions are preferred. The part of the reactor output to be recycled may be conveniently separated from the part not to be recycled after the reactor output has left the reactor; or alternatively the part of the reactor output to be recycled may be conveniently removed from the reactor via a different outlet of the reactor than that from which the part of the reactor output not to be recycled is removed. The amount of reactor output mixture to be recycled may be varied to obtain optimum performance with regard to other reaction parameters employed. A problem, which may occasionally arise in certain processes using catalysts containing the above mentioned quaternary or ternary groups, is the presence of small amounts of impurities in the product stream. For example, when strongly basic anion exchange resins, wherein the basic groups comprise quaternary ammonium or phosphonium groups, are used as the solid support for the catalytic group it has been found that during operation, small amounts of amines or phosphines tend to leach from the resin into the product stream. Other impurities in the product stream may include amines originating from corrosion inhibitors, which may be added to the water used in the process. Although the amounts of such contaminants reaching the end-product are generally very small, they may affect the quality of the end-product such that it may be desirable to reduce the amounts to as low as possible so as not to affect the quality of the product. For example, trimethylamine (TMA) and/or dimethylamine (DMA) may reach the end product in an amount of up to 10 ppm while the fishy odour of TMA may be detected in an amount as low as 1 ppb. An effective measure in removing such contaminants is the use of a post-reactor bed, containing an acidic species, particularly a strongly acidic ion exchange resin, which effectively captures the contaminants. Strongly acidic ion exchange resins may be of the sulfonic type. Commercially available examples are those known by the trademarks AMBERLYST 15, AMBERJET 1500H, AMBERJET 1200H, DOWEX MSC-1, DOWEX 50W, DIANON SK1B, LEWATIT VP OC 1812, LEWATIT S 100 MB and LEWATIT S 100 G1. Such strongly acidic ion exchange resins are available in H+ form and in salt form, such as the Na+ form. When only the H+ form of the strongly acidic resin is used in the post-reactor guard bed, the product stream after passing it may become acidic. Using a mixture of the strongly acidic ion exchange resin in its H+ form and salt form has the advantage of the pH of the product stream remaining close to neutral. Such a post-reactor bed may be positioned after the hydrolysis reaction bed in which the process according to the present reaction is carried out. An added advantage of the strongly acidic post-reactor bed positioned after a reactor bed in which the alkylene carbonate has undergone hydrolysis to form the corresponding alkylene glycol is that any remaining alkylene carbonate, which may be still present in the product alkylene glycol product stream, is hydrolysed to alkylene glycol. In order to allow for exhaustion and replacement or regeneration of the strongly acidic ion exchange resin during operation, it is advantageous to operate the post-reactor bed in two or more separate vessels, to allow the process to be switched between the two vessels, thus maintaining continuous operation. Exhausted strongly acidic ion exchange resin can be regenerated by treatment with an acid, such as HCl and H2SO4. Hot sulfuric acid of 0.1 to 2 N has been proven to be effective. In order to accommodate any swelling of the catalyst that may still occur during operation, the reactor volume can advantageously be greater than the volume occupied by the catalyst therein, preferably in the range of from 10 to 70 volt greater. Suitable reaction temperatures for the catalytic carboxylation of alkylene oxides, according to the present invention are generally in the range of from 20 to 200° C.; temperatures in the range of from 50 to 120° C. are preferred. The reaction pressure is usually selected in the range of from 100 to 5000 kPa, preferably in the range of from 200 to 3000 kPa, most preferably in the range of from 500 to 2000 kPa. The following Examples will illustrate the invention. CATALYST PREPARATION The Amberjet 4200 resin (ex Rohm & Haas) used in the following examples was based on a polystyrene/divinylbenzene copolymer backbone. 100 ml of wet Amberjet 4200 (i.e. a commercial sample containing 55% of water) was transferred onto a vertical glass ion-exchange column and treated with 1100 ml of a 3% molybdate (Na2MoO4) solution with a temperature of 75-80° C. with an LHSV of 0.6 l/l/h. Finally, rinsing was carried out with 1000 ml demineralised water at room temperature (LHSV 0.6 l/l/h). Experiment 1 The experiments were carried out in a 120 ml glass autoclave. The reactor was filled with 35 g ethylene carbonate and 21.5 g water. The hydrolysis catalyst was added in a sufficient quantity to provide 4.1 mmol of catalyst. The reactor was purged with CO2 and pressurized with a CO2 atmosphere of 4.5 bar (450 kPa). The reactor content was heated to 110° C., while maintaining the pressure at 4.5 bar. Samples were taken at regular time intervals of 30 minutes and analysed by gas liquid chromatography (GLC). The results are shown in table I. TABLE I MEG selectivity Amount Amount EC conversion (%; at 100% Catalyst (g) (mmol) (%; at 150 min) conversion) — — — 13.1 — K2MoO4 1.047 4.4 100 99.9 K2MoO4 0.131 0.55 100 99.9 Amberjet 2.75 ml 4.1 100 99.9 4200/MoO4 Experiment 2 The prepared Amberjet 4200/MoO4 catalyst (IER capacity of 1.3 meq/ml) was tested under continuous flow conditions in a fixed-bed plug flow reactor for more than 2000 hours. The performance of the catalyst was tested in two different experiments at two liquid hourly space velocities (LHSV) of 0.51 and 0.75 l/l/h. The catalyst performance was tested by placing 20 ml of the catalyst in a 65 cm long 0.5 inch wide Hoke tube, provided with a heating jacket using a hot oil system. An ethylene carbonate (EC)/water mixture comprising 17.5 wt % EC was pumped down-flow with an HPLC pump over the catalyst bed at a temperature of around 50° C. and a pressure of 1000 kPa for at least 2000 hours. The reaction temperature was controlled by the temperature of the hot oil system. In the centre of the catalyst bed a thermo well was placed with a thermo couple to measure the bed temperatures. The reactor effluent was cooled and collected in a product vessel, from which samples were taken for GLC analysis. The results are summarized in table II. TABLE II Experiment 2a Experiment 2b LHSV (l/l/h) 0.51 0.75 Temperature (° C.) 52.1 50.6 Selectivity (mol %) >99.9 >99.9 Run time (hours) Conversion (%) Conversion (%) 193 89.2 72.3 260 89.1 72.4 337 89.2 72.9 432 88.7 71.2 523 88.7 71.5 597 88.6 70.8 669 88.8 70.2 787 88.5 70.0 866 88.6 71.7 933 88.6 71.2 1004 88.6 71.2 1101 89.4 71.9 1195 89.4 72.3 1293 90.4 72.8 1369 81.5 66.8 1438 89.6 72.7 1627 89.7 72.3 1772 89.7 73.2 1849 89.4 73.6 1965 88.2 72.4 2042 89.7 73.8 The results as presented in table II and FIG. 1 clearly demonstrate that the catalyst remains active over a prolonged period of time. This indicates that the catalyst is not leaching and that the MoO4 metalate remains bound onto the Amberjet 4200 resin.	C	C07	C07C	27	00
11720536	US20080095618A1-20080424	Tip Turbine Engine Support Structure	ACCEPTED	20080409	20080424		[]	F01D2524	["F01D2524"]	7976273	20070531	20110712	415	213100	75163.0	WHITE	DWAYNE	[{"inventor_name_last": "Suciu", "inventor_name_first": "Gabriel", "inventor_city": "Glastonbury", "inventor_state": "CT", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Merry", "inventor_name_first": "Brian", "inventor_city": "Andover", "inventor_state": "CT", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A tip turbine engine assembly according to the present invention includes a load bearing engine support structure (12). The engine support structure (12) includes an engine support plane (P) that is substantially perpendicular to an engine centerline (A) and first rotationally fixed member (50) disposed about the engine centerline (A) and cantilevered from the engine support plane (P). A support member extends radially outward from the first rotationally fixed member (50) and structurally supports a second rotationally fixed member (58) that is coaxial with the first rotationally fixed member. A rotor is mounted on the first rotationally fixed member and rotates about the engine centerline (A).	1.-7. (canceled) 8. A tip turbine engine assembly comprising: a first rotationally fixed member disposed about an engine centerline; a support member extending radially from said first rotationally fixed member; a second rotationally fixed member attached to said support member and disposed coaxially with said first rotationally fixed member; and a rotor mounted between said first rotationally fixed member and said second rotationally fixed member, said rotor comprising compressor blades that extent radially outward. 9. The assembly as recited in claim 8, wherein said first rotationally fixed member and said second rotationally fixed member define a flow path therebetween. 10. The assembly as recited in claim 9, wherein said rotor is rotatable in said flow path. 11. (canceled) 12. The assembly as recited in claim 8, wherein said first rotationally fixed member comprises a static cylindrical shaft. 13. The assembly as recited in claim 8, wherein said second rotationally fixed member comprises a compressor case with compressor vanes that extend radially inward. 14. A tip turbine engine assembly comprising: a plurality of fan blades fixed to a fan rotor rotatable about an engine centerline, each of said plurality of fan blades defining a core airflow passage therethrough; a first rotationally fixed member disposed coaxially with said engine centerline; a support member extending radially from said first rotationally fixed member; a second rotationally fixed member fixed to said support member and disposed coaxially with said first rotationally fixed member; and a compressor rotor mounted on said first rotationally fixed member for rotation about said engine centerline. 15. The assembly as recited in claim 14, wherein said compressor rotor and said fan rotor are distinct from one another. 16. The assembly as recited in claim 14, wherein said compressor rotor and said fan rotor rotate at different speeds. 17. The assembly as recited in claim 14, wherein said first rotationally fixed member comprises a cylindrical shaft. 18. The assembly as recited in claim 14, wherein second rotationally fixed member comprises a compressor case with compressor vanes that extend radially inward. 19. The assembly as recited in claim 14, wherein said compressor rotor comprises compressor blades that extend radially outward.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a tip turbine engine, and more particularly to an assembly for structurally supporting the compressor rotor and compressor case. An aircraft gas turbine engine of the conventional turbofan type generally includes a forward bypass fan and a low pressure compressor, a middle core engine, and an aft low pressure turbine all located along a common central axis. A high pressure compressor and a high pressure turbine of the core engine are interconnected by a central high spool shaft. The high pressure compressor is rotatably driven to compress air entering the core engine to a relatively high pressure. This high pressure air is then mixed with fuel in a combustor and ignited to form a high energy gas stream. The gas stream flows axially aft to rotatably drive the high pressure turbine which rotatably drives the high pressure compressor through the central high spool shaft. The gas stream leaving the high pressure turbine is expanded through the low pressure turbine which rotatably drives the bypass fan and low pressure compressor through a central low spool shaft. Although highly efficient, conventional turbofan engines operate in an axial flow relationship. The axial flow relationship and rotating central shafts require that several engine cases on the outer portion of the engine directly bear the loads of engine components such as the compressor case. A recent development in gas turbine engines is the more longitudinally compact tip turbine engine. Tip turbine engines locate an axial compressor forward of a bypass fan. The axial compressor and bypass fan share a common rotor for co-rotation. The common rotor is supported on a front end by a front support that is fixed to a housing via a first set of radially extending struts. The common rotor is supported on a rear end by a rear support that is fixed to the housing via a second set of radially extending struts. The bypass fan of the tip turbine engine includes hollow fan blades that receive airflow from the axial compressor therethrough such that the hollow fan blades operate as a centrifugal compressor. Compressed core airflow from the hollow fan blades is mixed with fuel in an annular combustor located radially outward from the fan. The combustor ignites the fuel mixture to form a high energy gas stream which drives turbine blades that are integrated onto the tips of the hollow bypass fan blades for rotation therewith as disclosed in U.S. Patent Application Publication Nos.: 2003192303; 20030192304; and 20040025490. The integrated bypass fan-turbine drives the axial compressor through the common rotor. Such an architecture, however, depends on two sets of engine support planes, the first and second radial struts, to support the common rotor. Utilizing two engine support planes may complicate the assembly and may be unnecessary to support the length of the longitudinally compact engine. Accordingly, it is desirable to provide a load bearing support structure from a single support plane for the compressor case and compressor rotor.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The tip turbine engine according to the present invention provides a load bearing engine support structure for a compressor case. The engine support structure includes an outer case that supports exit guide vanes, a static outer support housing, a gearbox housing, and a first rotationally fixed member. The exit guide vanes bear radial loads and define an engine support plane that is perpendicular to an engine centerline. The first rotationally fixed member is disposed about the engine centerline and includes a static inner support shaft that is cantilevered relative to the engine support plane such that loads borne by the static inner support shaft are transferred through the exit guide vanes in the engine support plane and to the outer case. A second rotationally fixed member, the compressor case, is coaxial with the static inner support shaft. The compressor case is fixedly mounted to a support member that extends radially outward from the static inner support shaft. The static inner support shaft transfers the load of the compressor case through the engine to the outer case via the engine support plane, thereby structurally supporting the compressor case. An axial compressor rotor is mounted for rotation between the static inner support shaft and compressor case through a forward bearing assembly and an aft bearing assembly. The present invention therefore provides a load bearing support structure assembly for structurally supporting the compressor case and compressor rotor from a single engine support plane.	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a tip turbine engine, and more particularly to an assembly for structurally supporting the compressor rotor and compressor case. An aircraft gas turbine engine of the conventional turbofan type generally includes a forward bypass fan and a low pressure compressor, a middle core engine, and an aft low pressure turbine all located along a common central axis. A high pressure compressor and a high pressure turbine of the core engine are interconnected by a central high spool shaft. The high pressure compressor is rotatably driven to compress air entering the core engine to a relatively high pressure. This high pressure air is then mixed with fuel in a combustor and ignited to form a high energy gas stream. The gas stream flows axially aft to rotatably drive the high pressure turbine which rotatably drives the high pressure compressor through the central high spool shaft. The gas stream leaving the high pressure turbine is expanded through the low pressure turbine which rotatably drives the bypass fan and low pressure compressor through a central low spool shaft. Although highly efficient, conventional turbofan engines operate in an axial flow relationship. The axial flow relationship and rotating central shafts require that several engine cases on the outer portion of the engine directly bear the loads of engine components such as the compressor case. A recent development in gas turbine engines is the more longitudinally compact tip turbine engine. Tip turbine engines locate an axial compressor forward of a bypass fan. The axial compressor and bypass fan share a common rotor for co-rotation. The common rotor is supported on a front end by a front support that is fixed to a housing via a first set of radially extending struts. The common rotor is supported on a rear end by a rear support that is fixed to the housing via a second set of radially extending struts. The bypass fan of the tip turbine engine includes hollow fan blades that receive airflow from the axial compressor therethrough such that the hollow fan blades operate as a centrifugal compressor. Compressed core airflow from the hollow fan blades is mixed with fuel in an annular combustor located radially outward from the fan. The combustor ignites the fuel mixture to form a high energy gas stream which drives turbine blades that are integrated onto the tips of the hollow bypass fan blades for rotation therewith as disclosed in U.S. Patent Application Publication Nos.: 2003192303; 20030192304; and 20040025490. The integrated bypass fan-turbine drives the axial compressor through the common rotor. Such an architecture, however, depends on two sets of engine support planes, the first and second radial struts, to support the common rotor. Utilizing two engine support planes may complicate the assembly and may be unnecessary to support the length of the longitudinally compact engine. Accordingly, it is desirable to provide a load bearing support structure from a single support plane for the compressor case and compressor rotor. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The tip turbine engine according to the present invention provides a load bearing engine support structure for a compressor case. The engine support structure includes an outer case that supports exit guide vanes, a static outer support housing, a gearbox housing, and a first rotationally fixed member. The exit guide vanes bear radial loads and define an engine support plane that is perpendicular to an engine centerline. The first rotationally fixed member is disposed about the engine centerline and includes a static inner support shaft that is cantilevered relative to the engine support plane such that loads borne by the static inner support shaft are transferred through the exit guide vanes in the engine support plane and to the outer case. A second rotationally fixed member, the compressor case, is coaxial with the static inner support shaft. The compressor case is fixedly mounted to a support member that extends radially outward from the static inner support shaft. The static inner support shaft transfers the load of the compressor case through the engine to the outer case via the engine support plane, thereby structurally supporting the compressor case. An axial compressor rotor is mounted for rotation between the static inner support shaft and compressor case through a forward bearing assembly and an aft bearing assembly. The present invention therefore provides a load bearing support structure assembly for structurally supporting the compressor case and compressor rotor from a single engine support plane. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The various features and advantages of this invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description of the currently preferred embodiment. The drawings that accompany the detailed description can be briefly described as follows: FIG. 1 is a partial sectional perspective view of an exemplary tip turbine engine assembly of the present invention; and FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view of the tip turbine engine of FIG. 1. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT FIG. 1 illustrates a partial sectional perspective view of a tip turbine engine (TTE) gas turbine engine 10. The engine 10 includes a load bearing engine support structure 12. The engine support structure 12 includes an outer case 14 with engine mounts 16 located about the periphery. The outer case 14 includes a forward case portion 18 and an exhaust case portion 20 which includes an exhaust mixer 22. A plurality of fan inlet guide vanes 24 are mounted on the forward case portion 18 and extend radially inward from the forward case portion 18. Each inlet guide vane 24 preferably includes a variable trailing edge 24A. A plurality of exit guide vanes 26 extend radially inward from the exhaust case portion 20. A nosecone 28 is preferably located along the engine centerline A to improve airflow into an axial compressor 30. The axial compressor 30 is mounted about the engine centerline A behind the nosecone 28. A fan-turbine rotor assembly 32 is mounted for rotation about the engine centerline A aft of the axial compressor 30. The fan-turbine rotor assembly 32 includes a plurality of hollow fan blades 34 to provide internal, centrifugal compression of the compressed airflow from the axial compressor for distribution to an annular combustor 36 located within the outer case 14. A turbine 38 includes a plurality of tip turbine blades 40 (two stages shown) which rotatably drive the hollow fan blades 34 relative to a plurality of tip turbine stators 42 which extend radially inward from the outer case 14. The annular combustor 36 is axially forward of the turbine 38 and communicates with the turbine 38. Referring to FIG. 2, the engine support structure 12 includes engine mounts 16 on the periphery of the outer case 14 that are preferably located aft of the fan-turbine rotor assembly 32 and coplanar with an engine support plane P. The exit guide vanes 26 define the engine support plane P by virtue of providing radial load bearing structural support relative to the engine centerline A. The engine support plane is the only engine support plane of the engine 10, as the inlet guide vanes 24 do not provide appreciable radial load bearing structural support. Alternatively, the engine mounts 16 may be located coplanar with the fan-turbine rotor assembly 32 or forward of the fan-turbine rotor assembly 32, as illustrated by the phantom engine mounts 16B and 16C, respectively. The engine mounts 16 are mounted on the exhaust case portion 20 of the outer case 14, which is structurally attached to the exit guide vanes 26. The exit guide vanes 26 are preferably integrally formed with the exhaust case portion 20, however, the exit guide vanes 26 may alternatively be attached with a fastener, by welding, or by other method of attachment. The exit guide vanes 26 are structurally attached to a static outer support housing 44. Preferably, the exit guide vanes 26 are attached to the static outer support housing 44 by welding, however, other methods of attachment such as by fastener may be utilized. The static outer support housing 44 forms part of a gearbox housing 46, which houses a gearbox assembly 48. The gearbox housing 46 is structurally attached to a first rotationally fixed member 50, which is disposed about the engine centerline A. The first rotationally fixed member 50 includes a static inner support shaft 52. The static inner support shaft 52 has a cylindrical shape about the engine centerline A and is attached to the gearbox housing 46 with a fastener 54 at a flange joint 56. The static inner support shaft 52 is cantilevered from the engine support plane P. That is, a load borne by the static inner support shaft 52, which is parallel with the engine centerline A, is transferred to the outer case 14 through the exit guide vanes 26 in the perpendicular engine support plane P. The engine support plane P is the sole support plane of the engine 10 because it is the only radial plane along which a load on the static inner support shaft can be transferred to the outer case 10. The axial compressor 30 includes a second rotationally fixed member 58, a compressor case 60. A splitter 62 extends from the compressor case 60 and attaches to the inlet guide vane 24, however, this attachment does not provide structural support to the splitter 62 or compressor case 60. The compressor case 60 is spaced radially outward relative to the engine centerline A from the static inner support shaft 52 and is coaxial with the static inner support shaft 52. The compressor case 60 is fixedly mounted to a support member 64 that extends radially outward from the static inner support shaft 52. The static inner support shaft 52 structurally supports the compressor case 60. That is, the static inner support shaft 52 transfers the load of the compressor case 60 through the engine 10 to the outer case 14 via the engine support plane P. A plurality of compressor vanes 70 extend radially inwardly from the compressor case 60 between stages of compressor blades 72, which are mounted on an axial compressor rotor 74. The axial compressor rotor 74 is a distinct component from the fan-turbine rotor assembly 32. That is, the axial compressor rotor 74 is not integrally formed as a single rotor with the fan-turbine rotor assembly 32 and the axial compressor rotor is capable of rotating at a different speed than the fan-turbine rotor assembly 32. The compressor blades 72 and compressor vanes 70 are arranged circumferentially about the axial compressor rotor 74 in stages (three stages of compressor blades 72 and compressor vanes 70 are shown in this example). The axial compressor rotor 74 is mounted for rotation between the static inner support shaft 52 and compressor case 60 through a forward bearing assembly 76 and an aft bearing assembly 78. The fan-turbine rotor assembly 32 includes a fan hub 80 that supports a plurality of the hollow fan blades 34. Each hollow fan blade 34 includes an inducer section 82, a hollow fan blade section 84 and a diffuser section 86. The inducer section 82 receives airflow from the axial compressor 30 generally parallel to the engine centerline A and turns the airflow from an axial airflow direction toward a radial airflow direction. The airflow is radially communicated through a core airflow passage 88 within the fan blade section 84 where the airflow is centrifugally compressed. From the core airflow passage 88, the diffuser section 86 turns the airflow toward an axial airflow direction toward the annular combustor 36. Preferably the airflow is diffused axially forward in the engine 10, however, the airflow may alternatively be communicated in another direction. The gearbox assembly 48 aft of the fan-turbine rotor assembly 32 provides a speed increase between the fan-turbine rotor assembly 32 and the axial compressor 30. The gearbox assembly 48 includes a sun gear shaft 94 which rotates with the axial compressor 30 and a planet carrier 96 which rotates with the fan-turbine rotor assembly 32 to provide a speed differential therebetween. The gearbox assembly 48 is preferably a planetary gearbox that provides co-rotating or counter-rotating rotational engagement between the fan-turbine rotor assembly 32 and the axial compressor rotor 74. The gearbox assembly 48 is mounted for rotation between the sun gear shaft 94 and the static outer support housing 44 through a forward bearing 98 and a rear bearing 100. The forward bearings 98 and the rear bearing 100 are both tapered roller bearings and both handle radial loads. The forward bearing 98 handles the aft axial load, while the rear bearing 100 handles the forward axial loads. The sun gear shaft 94 is rotationally engaged with the axial compressor rotor 74 at a splined interconnection 102 or the like. Alternatively, the gearbox assembly 48 could provide a speed decrease between the fan-turbine rotor assembly 32 and the axial compressor rotor 74. A tailcone assembly 112 is mounted on the static outer support housing 44 with a set of fasteners 114, although only one fastener is illustrated in the FIG. 2. The tailcone assembly 112 houses a device 116, such as an oil cooler or other device, and includes a frustoconical surface 118. A wall structure 120 disposed about central axis 122 forms the frustoconical surface 118. The wall structure 120 defines an interior compartment 124 and a forward portion 126 that tapers to an aft portion 128 of the tailcone assembly 112. In operation, air enters the axial compressor 30, where it is compressed by the three stages of the compressor blades 72 and compressor vanes 70. The compressed air from the axial compressor 30 enters the inducer section 82 in a direction generally parallel to the engine centerline A and is turned by the inducer section 82 radially outwardly through the core airflow passage 88 of the hollow fan blades 34. The airflow is further compressed centrifugally in the hollow fan blades 34 by rotation of the hollow fan blades 34. From the core airflow passage 88, the diffuser section 86 turns the airflow axially forward in the engine 10 into the annular combustor 36. The compressed core airflow from the hollow fan blades 34 is mixed with fuel in the annular combustor 36 and ignited to form a high-energy gas stream. The high-energy gas stream is expanded over the plurality of tip turbine blades 40 mounted about the outer periphery of the fan-turbine rotor assembly 32 to drive the fan-turbine rotor assembly 32, which in turn drives the axial compressor 30 through the gearbox assembly 48. Concurrent therewith, the fan-turbine rotor assembly 32 discharges fan bypass air axially aft and the exhaust mixer 22 merges bypass air with the high energy gas stream in the exhaust case portion 20. The exit guide vanes 26 located between the static outer support housing 44 and the outer case 10 guide the combined airflow out of the engine 10 to provide forward thrust. The present invention therefore provides a load bearing assembly for structurally supporting the compressor case 60 and axial compressor rotor 74 from a single engine support plane. It should be understood that relative positional terms such as “forward,” “aft,” “upper,” “lower,” “above,” “below,” and the like are with reference to the normal operational attitude of the vehicle and should not be considered otherwise limiting. It should be understood that although a particular component arrangement is disclosed in the illustrated embodiment, other arrangements will benefit from the instant invention. Although particular step sequences are shown, described, and claimed, it should be understood that steps may be performed in any order, separated or combined unless otherwise indicated and will still benefit from the present invention. Although a preferred embodiment of this invention has been disclosed, a worker of ordinary skill in this art would recognize that certain modifications would come within the scope of this invention. For that reason, the following claims should be studied to determine the true scope and content of this invention.	F	F01	F01D	25	24
11794563	US20100010808A1-20100114	Method, Apparatus and Computer Program for Suppressing Noise	ACCEPTED	20091230	20100114		[]	G10L2100	["G10L2100"]	9318119	20070629	20160419	704	226000	94707.0	GODBOLD	DOUGLAS	[{"inventor_name_last": "Sugiyama", "inventor_name_first": "Akihiko", "inventor_city": "Tokyo", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Kato", "inventor_name_first": "Masanori", "inventor_city": "Tokyo", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]	To provide a noise suppressing method and apparatus capable of achieving high-quality noise suppression using a lower amount of operations. Noise contained in an input signal is suppressed by transforming the input signal into frequency-domain signals; integrating bands of the frequency-domain signals to determine integrated frequency-domain signals; determining estimated noise based on the integrated frequency-domain signals; determining spectral gains based on the estimated noise and said integrated frequency-domain signals; and weighting said frequency-domain signals by the spectral gains.	1. A noise suppressing method for suppressing noise contained in an input signal, comprising the steps of: transforming the input signal into frequency-domain signals; integrating bands of the frequency-domain signals to determine integrated frequency-domain signals; determining estimated noise based on the integrated frequency-domain signals; determining spectral gains based on the estimated noise and said integrated frequency-domain signals; and weighting said frequency-domain signals by the spectral gains. 2. The noise suppressing method according to claim 1, further comprising the steps of: correcting said estimated noise to determine corrected estimated noise; and determining spectral gains based on the corrected estimated noise and said integrated frequency-domain signals. 3. The noise suppressing method according to claims 1 or 2, further comprising the steps of: correcting the amplitude of said frequency-domain signals to determine amplitude corrected signals; and integrating bands of the amplitude-corrected signals to determine integrated frequency-domain signals. 4. The noise suppressing method according to claim 3, further comprising the steps of: correcting the phase of said frequency-domain signals to determine phase corrected signals; and transforming the result in which said amplitude corrected signals are weighted by using said spectral gains and said phase corrected signals into time-domain signals. 5. The noise suppressing method according to claims 3 or 4, comprising the steps of: removing an offset of the input signal to determine the offset-free signal; and transforming the offset-free signal into frequency domain signals. 6. A noise suppressing apparatus for suppressing noise contained in an input signal, comprising: a transformer for transforming the input signal into frequency-domain signals; a band integrator for integrating bands of the frequency-domain signals to determine integrated frequency-domain signals; a noise estimator for determining estimated noise based on the integrated frequency-domain signals; a spectral gain generator for determining spectral gains based on the estimated noise and said integrated frequency-domain signals; and a multiplier for weighting said frequency-domain signals by using the spectral gains. 7. The noise suppressing apparatus according to claim 6, further comprising: an estimated noise modifier for correcting said estimated noise to determine corrected estimated noise; and a spectral gain generator for determining spectral gains based on the corrected estimated noise and said integrated frequency-domain signals. 8. The noise suppressing apparatus according to claims 6 or 7, further comprising: an amplitude modifier for correcting the amplitude of said frequency-domain signals to determine amplitude corrected signals; and a band integrator for integrating bands of the amplitude-corrected signals to determine integrated frequency-domain signals. 9. The noise suppressing apparatus according to claim 8, further comprising: a phase modifier for correcting the phase of said frequency-domain signals to determine phase corrected signals; and an inverse transformer for transforming the result in which said amplitude corrected signals are weighted by using said spectral gains and said phase corrected signals into time-domain signals. 10. The noise suppressing apparatus according to claims 8 or 9, further comprising: an offset remover for removing offset of the input signal to determine an offset-free signal; and a transformer for transforming the offset-free signal into frequency domain signals. 11. A computer program of performing signal processing to suppress noise contained in an input signal, characterized by causing a computer to execute: a process for transforming the input signal into frequency-domain signals; a process for integrating bands of the frequency-domain signals to determine integrated frequency-domain signals; a process for determining estimated noise based on the integrated frequency-domain signals; a process for determining spectral gains based on the estimated noise and said integrated frequency-domain signals; and a process for weighting said frequency-domain signals by the spectral gains. 12. The computer program for suppressing noise according to claim 11, further characterized by causing a computer to execute: a process for correcting said estimated noise to determine corrected estimated noise; and a process for determining spectral gains based on the corrected estimated noise and said integrated frequency-domain signals. 13. The computer program for suppressing noise according to claims 11 or 12, further characterized by causing a computer to execute: a process for correcting the amplitude of said frequency-domain signals to determine amplitude corrected signals; and a process for integrating bands of the amplitude-corrected signals to determine integrated frequency-domain signals. 14. The computer program for suppressing noise according to claim 13, fisher characterized by causing a computer to execute: a process for correcting the phase of said frequency-domain signals to determine phase corrected signals; and a process for transforming the result in which said amplitude corrected signals are obtained by said spectral gains and said phase corrected signals into time-domain signals. 15. The computer program for suppressing noise according to claims 13 or 14, further characterized by causing a computer to execute: a process for removing offset of the input signal to determine an offset-free signal; and a process for transforming the offset-free signal into frequency domain signals. 16. A noise suppressing method, comprising: transforming an input signal into frequency-domain signals which comprise a plurality of band components; determining spectral gains based on said frequency-domain signals, said spectral gains being smaller than frequency components of said frequency-domain signals: and weighting said frequency-domain signals by the spectral gains to suppress noise contained in the input signal; wherein at least one of said spectral gains is employed for said plurality of band components. 17. The noise suppressing method according to claim 16, wherein, in said spectral gain determining step, for every spectral gain, said frequency-domain signals including a plurality of bands to be employed by said spectral gain is used to determine estimated noise which is common to said plurality of bands, and said spectral gain is determined based on the estimated noise. 18. A noise suppressing apparatus for suppressing noise, comprising: a transformer for transforming an input signal into frequency-domain signals; a spectral gain generator for determining spectral gains based on the frequency-domain signals, said spectral gains being smaller than frequency components of the frequency-domain signals; a multiplier for weighting said frequency-domain signals by the spectral gains; and a band integrator for integrating bands of said frequency-domain signals to determine integrated frequency-domain signals; wherein said spectral gain generator determines spectral gains based on said integrated frequency-domain signals and said multiplier employs at least one of said spectral gains for a plurality of bands to weight said frequency-domain signals. 19. The noise suppressing apparatus according to claim 18, further comprising: a noise estimator for determining estimated noise which is common to said plurality of bands based on said integrated frequency-domain signals, wherein said spectral gain generator determines said spectral gains based on the estimated noise. 20. A computer program for performing a signal process in which, to suppress noise contained in an input signal, the input signal is transformed into frequency-domain signals which comprise a plurality of band components, spectral gains are determined based on the frequency-domain signals, said spectral gains being smaller than frequency components of the frequency-domain signals, and said frequency-domain signals are weighted by the spectral gains, said computer program is characterized by causing a computer to execute: a process for integrating bands of said frequency-domain signals to determine integrated frequency-domain signals; a process for determining said spectral gains based on the integrated frequency-domain signals; and a process for employing at least one of the spectral gains for a plurality of bands to weight said frequency-domain signals. 21. The computer program according to claim 20, further characterized by causing a computer to execute: a process for determining estimated noise which is common to said plurality of bands based on said integrated frequency-domain signals end for determining said spectral gains based on the estimated noise.	<SOH> BACKGROUND ART <EOH>A noise suppressor (noise suppressing system) is a system for suppressing noise superimposed on a desired audio signal, and typically estimates the power spectrum of the noise component using the input signal that was converted into frequency domain, and subtracts this estimated power spectrum from the input signal to thereby suppress the noise mixed in the desired audio signal. When the power spectrum of the noise component is continuously estimated, it is possible to deal with the suppression of irregular noise. A conventional noise suppressor is disclosed in patent document 1 (Japanese Patent Application Laid-open 204175/2002), for example. Usually, a digital signal that has been obtained by analog-to-digital (AD) conversion of an output signal from a microphone that corrects speech waves is supplied as an input signal to a noise suppressor. Mostly, in general a high-pass filter is disposed between AD conversion and a noise suppressor in order to suppress a low-frequency component that is added during speech collection with a microphone or during AD conversion. An example of such a configuration is disclosed in patent document 2 (U.S. Pat. No. 5,659,622). FIG. 1 shows a configuration in which a high-pass filter of patent document 2 is applied to a noise suppressor of patent document 1. Supplied to input terminal 11 is a noisy speech signal (a signal that contains a desired speech signal and noise) as a sequence of sample values. The noisy speech signal samples are supplied to high-pass filter 17 where the low-pass component is suppressed, and then are supplied to frame divider 1 . Suppression of the low-pass component is an essential process in order to maintain the linearity of the input noisy speech and to present high enough signal processing performance. Frame divider 1 divides the noisy speech signal samples into frames of a specified number of samples and transmits them to windowing processor 2 . Windowing processor 2 multiplies the divided frame of noisy speech samples by a window function and transmits the result to Fourier transformer 3 . Fourier transformer 3 performs a Fourier transform on the windowed, noisy speech samples to divide the samples into a plurality of frequency components and multiplex the amplitude values and supplies them to estimated noise calculator 52 , spectral gain generator 82 and multiplex multiplier 16 . The phases are transmitted to invert Fourier transformer 9 . Estimated noise calculator 52 estimates the noise for each of the supplied multiple frequency components and transmits them to spectral gain generator 82 . As an example of noise estimation, there is a method of estimating the noise component by weighting the noisy speech based on the past signal-to-noise ratio, the detail being described in patent document 1. Spectral gain generator 82 generates individual spectral gains for multiple frequency components, in order to produce enhanced speech with noise suppressed by multiplying the noisy speech by the coefficients. As one example of generating spectral gains, the least mean square short period spectrum amplitude method in which the mean square power of enhanced speech is minimized has been widely used. Details are described in patent document 1. The spectral gains generated for individual frequencies are supplied to multiplex multiplier 16 . Multiplex multiplier 16 multiplies the noisy speech supplied from Fourier transformer 3 and the spectral gain supplied from spectral gain generator 82 for every frequency, and transmits the products as the amplitudes of the enhanced speech to inverse Fourier transformer 9 . Inverse Fourier transformer 9 performs inverse Fourier transformation making use of the enhanced speech amplitudes supplied from multiplex multiplier 16 and the phases of the noisy speech supplied from Fourier transformer 3 and supplies the result as enhanced speech signal samples to frame synthesizer 10 . This frame synthesizer 10 synthesizes output speech samples of the current frame using the enhanced speech samples of the neighboring frame and outputs the result to output terminal 12 .	<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing a configurational example of a conventional noise suppressing apparatus. FIG. 2 is a block diagram showing the first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a block diagram showing a configuration of an amplitude modifier included in the first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a phase modifier included in the first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a chart for explaining integration of frequency samples. FIG. 6 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a multiplex multiplier included in the first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 7 is a block diagram showing the second embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 8 is a block diagram showing the third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 9 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a multiplex multiplier included in the third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 10 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a weighted noisy speech calculator included in the third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 11 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a frequency-classified SNR calculator included in FIG. 10 . FIG. 12 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a multiplex non-linear processor included in FIG. 10 . FIG. 13 is a chart showing one example of a non-linear function in a non-linear processor. FIG. 14 is a block diagram showing a configuration of an estimated noise calculator included in the third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 15 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a frequency-classified estimated noise calculator included in FIG. 11 . FIG. 16 is a block diagram showing a configuration of an update controller included in FIG. 12 . FIG. 17 is a block diagram showing a configuration of an estimated apriori SNR calculator included in the third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 18 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a multiplexed limiter included FIG. 14 . FIG. 19 is a block diagram showing a multiplexed weighting accumulator included in FIG. 14 . FIG. 20 is a block diagram showing a weighting adder included in FIG. 16 . FIG. 21 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a spectral gain generator included in the third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 22 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a spectral gain modifier included in the third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 23 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a frequency-classified spectral gain modifier included in FIG. 22 . detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?	TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to a method and apparatus for suppressing noise to reduce the noise superimposed on a desired audio signal as well as to a computer program for use in signal processing of noise suppression. BACKGROUND ART A noise suppressor (noise suppressing system) is a system for suppressing noise superimposed on a desired audio signal, and typically estimates the power spectrum of the noise component using the input signal that was converted into frequency domain, and subtracts this estimated power spectrum from the input signal to thereby suppress the noise mixed in the desired audio signal. When the power spectrum of the noise component is continuously estimated, it is possible to deal with the suppression of irregular noise. A conventional noise suppressor is disclosed in patent document 1 (Japanese Patent Application Laid-open 204175/2002), for example. Usually, a digital signal that has been obtained by analog-to-digital (AD) conversion of an output signal from a microphone that corrects speech waves is supplied as an input signal to a noise suppressor. Mostly, in general a high-pass filter is disposed between AD conversion and a noise suppressor in order to suppress a low-frequency component that is added during speech collection with a microphone or during AD conversion. An example of such a configuration is disclosed in patent document 2 (U.S. Pat. No. 5,659,622). FIG. 1 shows a configuration in which a high-pass filter of patent document 2 is applied to a noise suppressor of patent document 1. Supplied to input terminal 11 is a noisy speech signal (a signal that contains a desired speech signal and noise) as a sequence of sample values. The noisy speech signal samples are supplied to high-pass filter 17 where the low-pass component is suppressed, and then are supplied to frame divider 1. Suppression of the low-pass component is an essential process in order to maintain the linearity of the input noisy speech and to present high enough signal processing performance. Frame divider 1 divides the noisy speech signal samples into frames of a specified number of samples and transmits them to windowing processor 2. Windowing processor 2 multiplies the divided frame of noisy speech samples by a window function and transmits the result to Fourier transformer 3. Fourier transformer 3 performs a Fourier transform on the windowed, noisy speech samples to divide the samples into a plurality of frequency components and multiplex the amplitude values and supplies them to estimated noise calculator 52, spectral gain generator 82 and multiplex multiplier 16. The phases are transmitted to invert Fourier transformer 9. Estimated noise calculator 52 estimates the noise for each of the supplied multiple frequency components and transmits them to spectral gain generator 82. As an example of noise estimation, there is a method of estimating the noise component by weighting the noisy speech based on the past signal-to-noise ratio, the detail being described in patent document 1. Spectral gain generator 82 generates individual spectral gains for multiple frequency components, in order to produce enhanced speech with noise suppressed by multiplying the noisy speech by the coefficients. As one example of generating spectral gains, the least mean square short period spectrum amplitude method in which the mean square power of enhanced speech is minimized has been widely used. Details are described in patent document 1. The spectral gains generated for individual frequencies are supplied to multiplex multiplier 16. Multiplex multiplier 16 multiplies the noisy speech supplied from Fourier transformer 3 and the spectral gain supplied from spectral gain generator 82 for every frequency, and transmits the products as the amplitudes of the enhanced speech to inverse Fourier transformer 9. Inverse Fourier transformer 9 performs inverse Fourier transformation making use of the enhanced speech amplitudes supplied from multiplex multiplier 16 and the phases of the noisy speech supplied from Fourier transformer 3 and supplies the result as enhanced speech signal samples to frame synthesizer 10. This frame synthesizer 10 synthesizes output speech samples of the current frame using the enhanced speech samples of the neighboring frame and outputs the result to output terminal 12. DISCLOSURE OF INVENTION High-pass filter 17 suppresses the frequency components in the vicinity of the direct current, and usually permits components having frequencies equal to or greater than 100 Hz to 120 Hz to pass through as they are without suppression. Though high-pass filter 17 can be configured of either a finite impulse response (FIR) type filter or an infinite impulse response (IIR) type filter, usually the latter is used because a sharp passband end characteristic is needed. It is known that the transfer function of an IIR type filter is represented by a rational function and the sensitivity of the denominator coefficient is markedly high. Accordingly, when high-pass filter 17 is realized by finite word length operations, it is necessary to use frequent double precision operations in order to achieve high enough precision. So there has been the problem that the amount of operations becomes great. In contrast, if high-pass filter 17 is omitted in order to reduce the amount of operations, it is difficult to maintain the linearity of the input signal, hence it is impossible to achieve high-quality noise suppression. Also, in estimated noise calculator 52, noise is estimated for all the frequency components supplied from Fourier transformer 3, and in spectral gain generator 82, spectral gains corresponding to these are determined. Therefore, if the block length (frame length) for the Fourier transform is made longer in order to improve frequency resolution, the number of samples constituting each block becomes greater, resulting in the problem that the amount of operations increases. The object of the present invention is to provide a noise suppressing method and apparatus capable of achieving high-quality noise suppression using a lower amount of operations. A noise suppressing method according to the present invention includes the steps of: transforming an input signal into frequency-domain signals; integrating bands of the frequency-domain signals to determine integrated frequency-domain signals; determining estimated noise based on the integrated frequency-domain signals; determining spectral gains based on the estimated noise and the aforesaid integrated frequency-domain signals; and weighting the aforesaid frequency-domain signals by the spectral gains. Also, a noise suppressing apparatus according to the present invention includes: a transformer for transforming an input signal into frequency-domain signals; a band integrator for integrating bands of the frequency-domain signals to determine integrated frequency-domain signals; a noise estimator for determining estimated noise based on the integrated frequency-domain signals; a spectral gain generator for determining spectral gains based on the estimated noise and the aforesaid integrated frequency-domain signals; and a multiplier for weighting the aforesaid frequency-domain signals by the spectral gains. Further, a computer program that performs signal processing for suppressing noise causes a computer to execute: a process of transforming the input signal into frequency-domain signals; a process of integrating bands of the frequency-domain signals to determine integrated frequency-domain signals; a process of determining estimated noise based on the integrated frequency-domain signals; a process of determining spectral gains based on the estimated noise and the aforesaid integrated frequency-domain signals; and a process of weighting aforesaid frequency-domain signals by the spectral gains. In particular, the method, apparatus and computer program for suppressing noise of the present invention are characterized by execution of suppression of low-pass components for the signal after the Fourier transform. More specifically, the invention is characterized by inclusion of an amplitude modifier for suppressing low-pass components for the amplitudes of the Fourier transformed output and a phase modifier for performing phase correction corresponding to amplitude deformation of low-pass components for the phase of the Fourier transformed output. Also, the invention is characterized in that noise estimation and generation of spectral gains are performed for multiple frequency components. More specifically, the invention is characterized by inclusion of a band integrator for integrating part of multiple frequency components. According to the present invention, it is possible to achieve high quality noise suppression with a lower amount of operations, by means of single-precision operations because the amplitude of the signal that was converted into frequency domain is multiplied by a constant and a constant is added to the phase. Further, according to the present invention, noise estimation and generation of noise coefficients are performed for a lower number of frequency components than the number of samples that constitute each block of Fourier transform, so that it is possible to reduce the amount of operations. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing a configurational example of a conventional noise suppressing apparatus. FIG. 2 is a block diagram showing the first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a block diagram showing a configuration of an amplitude modifier included in the first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a phase modifier included in the first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a chart for explaining integration of frequency samples. FIG. 6 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a multiplex multiplier included in the first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 7 is a block diagram showing the second embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 8 is a block diagram showing the third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 9 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a multiplex multiplier included in the third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 10 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a weighted noisy speech calculator included in the third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 11 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a frequency-classified SNR calculator included in FIG. 10. FIG. 12 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a multiplex non-linear processor included in FIG. 10. FIG. 13 is a chart showing one example of a non-linear function in a non-linear processor. FIG. 14 is a block diagram showing a configuration of an estimated noise calculator included in the third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 15 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a frequency-classified estimated noise calculator included in FIG. 11. FIG. 16 is a block diagram showing a configuration of an update controller included in FIG. 12. FIG. 17 is a block diagram showing a configuration of an estimated apriori SNR calculator included in the third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 18 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a multiplexed limiter included FIG. 14. FIG. 19 is a block diagram showing a multiplexed weighting accumulator included in FIG. 14. FIG. 20 is a block diagram showing a weighting adder included in FIG. 16. FIG. 21 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a spectral gain generator included in the third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 22 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a spectral gain modifier included in the third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 23 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a frequency-classified spectral gain modifier included in FIG. 22. DESCRIPTION OF REFERENCE NUMERALS 1 frame divider 2,20 windowing processor 3 Fourier transformer 4,5049 counter 5,52 estimated noise calculator 6,1402 frequency-classified SNR calculator 7, estimated apriori SNR calculator 8,82 spectral gain generator 9 inverse Fourier transformer 10 frame synthesizer 11 input terminal 12 output terminal 13,16,161,704,705,1404 multiplexed multiplier 14 weighted noisy speech calculator 15 spectral gain modifier 17 high-pass filter 18 amplitude modifier 19 phase modifier 21 speech non-existence probability memory 22 offset remover 53 band integrator 54 estimated noise modifier 501,502,1302,1303,1422,1423,1495,1502,1503,1602,1603,1801,1901,7013,7072,7074 demultiplexer 503,1304,1424,1475,1504,1604,1803,1903,7014,7075 multiplexer 5040 to 504M-1 frequency-classified estimated noise calculator 520 update controller 701 multiplexed limiter 702 aposteriori SNR memory 703 spectral gain memory 706 weight memory 707 multiplexed weighting accumulator 708,5046,7092,7094 adder 811 MMSE STSA gain function value calculator 812 generalized likelihood ratio calculator 814 spectral gain calculator 921 temporary estimated SNR 9210 to 921M-1 frequency-band-classified temporary estimated SNR 922 past estimated SNR 9220 to 922M-1 past frequency-band-classified estimated SNR 923 weight 924 estimated apriori SNR 9240 to 924M-1 frequency-band-classified estimated apriori SNR 13010 to 1301K-1,1597,7091,7093 multiplier 1401,5042 estimated noise memory 1405 multiplex non-linear processor 14210 to 1421M-1 5048 divider 14850 to 1485M-1 non-linear processor 15010 to 1501M-1 frequency-classified spectral gain modifier 1591,70120 to 70120 to 7012M-1 maximum-value selector 1592 minimum-spectral-gain memory 1593,5204,5206 threshold memory 1594,5203,5205 comparator 1595,5044 switch 1596 modified-value memory 18020 to 1802K-1 weighting processor 19020 to 1902K-1 phase rotator 5041 register-length memory 5045 shift register 5047 minimum-value selector 5201 logical sum calculator 5207 threshold calculator 7011 constant-value memory 70710 to 7071M-1 weighting adder 7095 constant multiplier BEST MODE FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION FIG. 2 is a block diagram showing the first embodiment of the present invention. The configuration shown in FIG. 2 and the conventional configuration shown in FIG. 1 are the same except for high-pass filter 17, amplitude modifier 18, phase modifier 19, windowing processor 20, band integrator 53, estimated noise modifier 54 and multiplex multiplier 161. The detailed operation will be described herein below focusing on these points of difference. In FIG. 2, high-pass filter 17 and multiplex multiplier 16 in FIG. 1 are removed, and amplitude modifier 18, phase modifier 19, windowing processor 20, band integrator 53, estimated noise modifier 54 and multiplex multiplier 161 are added instead. Amplitude modifier 18 and phase modifier 19 are provided to apply frequency response of a high-pass filter to the signal that was converted into frequency domain. Specifically, in FIG. 2, the absolute value (amplitude-frequency response) of function f which is obtained by applying z=exp(j·2pf) to the transfer function of high-pass filter 17 in FIG. 1, applies to the input signal at amplitude modifier 18 and the phase (phase-frequency response) applies to the input signal at phase modifier 19. With this manipulation, it is possible to obtain the same effect as high-pass filter 17 in FIG. 1 is applied to the input signal. That is, instead of convoluting the transfer function of high-pass filter 17 with the input signal in time domain, the input signal is converted through Fourier transformer 3 into frequency domain signals, which then are multiplied by frequency response. The output from amplitude modifier 18 is supplied to band integrator 53 and multiplex multiplier 161. Band integrator 53 integrates signal samples corresponding to multiple frequency components to reduce the total number and transmits the result to estimated noise calculator 52 and spectral gain generator 82. Upon integration, multiple signal samples are added up and the sum is divided by the number of the added samples to determine the mean value. Estimated noise modifier 54 corrects the estimated noise supplied from estimated noise calculator 52 and transmits the result to spectral gain generator 82. The most essential operation for making corrections in estimated noise modifier 54 is to multiply all the frequency components by an identical constant. Also, different constants may be used depending on the frequency. A special case is that the constants for particular frequencies are set at 1.0; that is, the data at the frequencies for which the constant is set at 1.0 is not corrected and the data for the frequencies other than that is corrected. This means that selective correction can be made depending on the frequency. It is possible to make correction other than this, by adding a different value depending on the frequency, by performing a non-linear process or the like. By making the correction as above, it is possible to maintain the speech quality of the enhanced speech to be output high by reducing the deviation from the true value of the estimated noise value generated by band integration. For the aftermentioned band integrating method, it has been made clear by informal subjective evaluation that multiplication of the estimated noise in the band equal to or higher than 1000 Hz by a constant of 0.7 is suitable in sampling at 8 kHz. The output from phase modifier 19 is transmitted to inverse Fourier transformer 9. The operation from this point forward is the same as that described with FIG. 1. Windowing processor 20 is provided for suppressing intermittent speechs at frame boundaries, as disclosed in patent document 3 (Japanese Patent Application Laid-open 131689/2003). FIG. 3 shows a configurational example of amplitude modifier 18 of FIG. 2. Herein, the number of independent Fourier transform output components is assumed to be K. The multiplexed noisy speech amplitude spectrum supplied from Fourier transformer 3 is transmitted to demultiplexer 1801. Demultiplexer 1801 decomposes the multiplexed noisy speech amplitude spectrum into individual frequency components and transmits them to weighting processors 18020 to 1802K-1. Weighting processors 18020 to 1802K-1 weight the noisy speech amplitude spectra that were decomposed for individual frequency components, with corresponding amplitude frequency responses and transmit the result to multiplexer 1803. Multiplexer 1803 multiplexes the signals transferred from weighting processors 18020 to 1802K-1 and outputs the result as a corrected noisy speech amplitude spectrum. FIG. 4 shows a configurational example of phase modifier 19 of FIG. 2. The multiplexed noisy speech phase spectrum supplied from Fourier transformer 3 is transmitted to demultiplexer 1901. Demultiplexer 1901 decomposes the multiplexed noisy speech phase spectrum into individual frequency components and transmits them to phase rotators 19020 to 1902K-1. Phase rotators 19020 to 1902K-1 rotate the noisy speech phase spectra that were decomposed for individual frequency components, in accordance with corresponding phase frequency responses and transmit the result to multiplexer 1903. Multiplexer 1903 multiplexes the signals transferred from phase rotators 19020 to 1902K−1 and outputs the result as a corrected noisy speech phase spectrum. FIG. 5 is a chart for explaining how multiple frequency samples are integrated by band integrator 53 of FIG. 2. Shown here is a case of 8 kHz sampling, that is, a case where a signal having a band of 4 kHz is Fourier transformed with a block length L. In accordance with patent document 1, noisy speech signal samples that were Fourier transformed arise as many number as block length L of the Fourier transform. However, the number of the independent components is the half of these samples, i.e., L/2. In the present invention, these L/2 samples are partly integrated to reduce the number of independent frequency components. To do this, a greater number of samples are integrated into one sample in the higher frequency range. That is, many frequency components are integrated into one as their frequencies become higher, that is, the band is divided unequally. As an example of such unequal division, the octave division in which the band becomes narrower toward the lower band side having powers of 2, the critical band division in which the band is divided based on the human auditory characteristics, and others are known. Concerning the details of the critical band, non-patent document 1 (pp. 158 to 164 in PSYCHOACOUSTICS, 2ND ED., SPRINGER, January 1999) can be referred to. In particular, the band division, based on a critical band, has been widely used since it presents high consistency with human auditory characteristics. In 4 kHz band, the critical band consists of, in total, 18 bands. In contrast, in the present invention, the lower range is divided into narrower bands than those in the case of the critical band as shown in FIG. 5, so as to prevent deterioration of noise suppressing characteristics. The present invention is characterized in that the frequency range higher than 1156 Hz to 4 kHz is divided into bands in the same manner as in the critical band division, but the range lower than that is divided into narrower bands. FIG. 5 shows an example with L=256. The frequency components from the direct current to the thirteenth component are not integrated, and the frequency components are handed independently as they are. The following fourteen components are integrated, two by two, into seven groups. The six components that follow are integrated, three by three, into two groups. Then, the following four components are integrated into one group. Thereafter, the components are integrated in correspondence to the case of the critical band. The integration of frequency components as above makes it possible to reduce the number of independent frequency components from 128 to 32. The correspondence between the 128 frequency components after Fourier transform and the 32 frequency components after integration is shown in Table 1. Since the bandwidth for one frequency component is 4000/128=31.25 Hz, the corresponding frequencies calculated based on this is shown in the right-most column. TABLE 1 Generation of unequally divided sub-bands by frequency component integration Band Frequency component No. Frequency No. (the number of components) [Hz] 0 0(1) 0·31 1 1(1) 31·62 . . . . . . . . . 12 12(1) 375·406 13 13-14(2) 406·469 14 15-16(2) 469·531 15 17-18(2) 531·594 16 19-20(2) 594·656 17 21-22(2) 656·719 18 23-24(2) 719·781 19 25-26(2) 781·844 20 27-29(3) 844·938 21 30-32(3) 938·1031 22 33-36(4) 1031·1156 23 37-42(6) 1156·1344 24 43-48(6) 1344·1531 25 49-56(8) 1531·1781 26 57-65(9) 1781·2063 27 66-75(10) 2063·2375 28 76-87(12) 2375·2750 29 88-101(14) 2750·3188 30 102-119(18) 3188·3750 31 120-128(9) 3750·4000 (fs = 8 kHz) It is important in the operation of band integrator 53 that frequency components are not integrated for the frequencies below approximately 400 Hz. If frequency components in this frequency range are integrated, the resolution is lowered resulting in degradation of speech quality. On the other hand, in the frequencies above about 1156 Hz, frequency components may be integrated in conformity with the critical band. When the band of the input signal becomes wider, it is necessary to maintain speech quality by increasing the block length L of Fourier transform. This is because the bandwidth for one frequency component increases in the aforementioned band equal to or lower than 400 Hz where no frequency components are integrated, causing degradation of resolution. For example, using the case where L=256 and the bandwidth is 4 kHz as the reference, it is possible to maintain the speech quality at the same level as in the case with a bandwidth of 4 kHz even when a broader band signal is used, by determining the block length L of the Fourier transform so that L>fs/31.25 holds. When L is selected as a power of 2 in accordance with this rule, L is determined as L=512 when 8 kHz<fs=16 kHz, L=1024 when 16 kHz<fs=32 kHz and L=2048 when 32 kHz<fs=64 kHz. An example corresponding to Table 1, where fs=16 kHz is shown in Table 2. Table 2 shows one example, and those having band integration boundaries slightly different present the same effect. TABLE 2 Generation of unequally divided sub-bands by frequency component integration Band Frequency component No. Frequency No. (the number of components) [Hz] 0 0(1) 0·31 1 1(1) 31·62 . . . . . . . . . 12 12(1) 375·406 13 13-14(2) 406·469 14 15-16(2) 469·531 15 17-18(2) 531·594 16 19-20(2) 594·656 17 21-22(2) 656·719 18 23-24(2) 719·781 19 25-26(2) 781·844 20 27-29(3) 844·938 21 30-32(3) 938·1031 22 33-36(4) 1031·1156 23 37-42(6) 1156·1344 24 43-48(6) 1344·1531 25 49-56(8) 1531·1781 26 57-65(9) 1781·2063 27 66-75(10) 2063·2375 28 76-87(12) 2375·2750 29 88-101(14) 2750·3188 30 102-119(18) 3188·3750 31 119-140(21) 3750·4406 32 140-169(29) 4406·5313 33 169-204(35) 5313·6406 34 204-245(41) 6406·7688 35 245-255(10) 7688·8000 (fs = 16 kHz) FIG. 6 shows a configurational example of multiplex multiplier 161. Multiplex multiplier 161 includes multipliers 16010 to 1601K-1, demultiplexers 1602, 1603 and multiplexer 1604. The corrected noisy speech amplitude spectrum as it is being multiplexed, supplied from amplitude modifier 18 in FIG. 2 is decomposed in demultiplexer 1602 into K samples of individual frequencies, which are supplied to respective multipliers 16010 to 1601K-1. The spectral gains, which are supplied from spectral gain generator 82 in FIG. 2 as being multiplexed are separated by demultiplexer 1603 into individual frequency elements, which are supplied to respective multipliers 16010 to 1601K-1. The number of the spectral gains classified by frequency is equal to the number of bands integrated in band integrator 53. In other words, a spectral gain corresponding to each sub-band that was integrated by band integrator 53 is separated by demultiplexer 1603. In the example shown in FIG. 5, the number of the separated spectral gains is 32. The separated spectral gains are supplied to the multipliers that correspond to the band integration pattern in band integrator 53. In the example shown in FIG. 5, a common spectral gain is supplied to a plurality of multipliers in accordance with Table 1. In the example of Table 1, since K=128, common spectral gains are transmitted to each of multipliers 160127 to 160129, multipliers 160130 to 160132, multipliers 160133 to 160136, multipliers 160137 to 160142, multipliers 160143 to 160148, multipliers 160149 to 160156, multipliers 160157 to 160165, multipliers 160166 to 160175, multipliers 160176 to 160187, multipliers 160188 to 1601101, multipliers 1601102 to 1601119, and multipliers 1601120 to 1601128. Independent spectral gains are transmitted to multipliers 16010 to 160126, individually. Multipliers 16010 to 1601K−1 each multiply the input corrected noisy speech spectrum and input spectral gain and output the result to multiplexer 1604. Multiplexer 1604 multiplexes the input signals to output an enhanced speech amplitude spectrum. FIG. 7 is a block diagram showing the second embodiment of the present invention. The difference from the configuration shown in FIG. 2 of the first embodiment is offset remover 22. Offset remover 22 removes the offset from the windowed, noisy speech and outputs the result. The simplest scheme for offset removal is achieved by calculating the means value of noisy speech for every frame to assume it as the offset and subtracting it from all the samples in the frame. It is also possible to average the means values for individual frames, over a multiple number of frames to determine the average value as the offset and substrate it. By offset removal, it is possible to improve transformation accuracy in the following Fourier transformer and hence improve the speech quality of the enhanced speech in the output. FIG. 8 is a block diagram showing the third embodiment of the present invention. A noisy speech signal is supplied to input terminal 11 as a sequence of sample values. The noisy speech signal samples are supplied to frame divider 1 and divided into frames each including K/2 samples. Here, K is assumed to be an even number. The noisy speech signal samples divided into frames are supplied to windowing processor 2, where the signal is multiplied by window function w(t). Signal yn(t)bar that is windowed by w(t) for input signal yn(t) (t=0, 1, . . . , K/2−1) of the n-th frame is given as the following equation [Math 1] yn(t)=w(t)yn(t) (1) It is also a widely used practice for parts of two consecutive frames to be overlapped and windowed. When the overlap length is assumed to be 50% of the frame length, for t=0, 1, . . . , K/2−1, yn(t)bar (t=0, 1, . . . , K−1) obtained from the following equations: [Math 2] yn(t)=w(t)yn-1(t+K/2) yn(t+K/2)=w(t+K/2)yn(t) (2) is output from windowing processor 2. For a real number signal, a horizontally symmetrical window function is used. Further, the window function is designed so that the input signal and the output signal when the spectral gain is set at 1 will correspond to each other without calculation error. This means that w(t)+w(t+K/2)=1. Hereinbelow, description of an example follows in which reference is made to a case in which windowing is done by overlapping consecutive two frames by 50 percent. As w(t), the Hanning window represented by the following equation can be used, for example. [ Math   3 ] w  ( t ) = { 0.5 + 0.5   cos ( π  ( t - K / 2 ) K / 2 ) , 0 ≤ t < K 0 , K ≤ t ( 3 ) Other than this, various window functions such as the Hamming window, the Kaiser window, the Blackman window and the like are known. The windowed output, yn(t)bar is supplied to offset remover 22, where the offset is removed. The detail of offset removal is the same as that already described with reference to FIG. 7. The signal after offset removal is supplied to Fourier transformer 3, where it is transformed into noisy speech spectrum Yn(k). Noisy speech spectrum Yn(k) is separated into phase and amplitude; noisy speech phase spectrum arg Yn(k) is supplied to inverse Fourier transformer 9 by way of phase modifier 19 and noisy speech amplitude spectrum \|Yn(k)\| is supplied to multiplex multiplier 13 and multiplex multiplier 16 by way of amplitude modifier 18. The operations of phase modifier 19 and amplitude modifier 18 are the same as those already described with reference to FIG. 2. Multiplex multiplier 13 calculates a noisy speech power spectrum based on the amplitude-corrected, noisy speech amplitude spectrum and transmits it to band integrator 53. Band integrator 53 partly integrates the noisy speech power spectrum so as to reduce the number of independent frequency components, then transmits the result to estimated noise calculator 5, frequency-classified SNR (signal to noise ratio) calculator 6 and weighted noisy speech calculator 14. The operation of band integrator 53 is the same as that already described with reference to FIG. 2. Weighted noisy speech calculator 14 calculates a weighted noisy speech power spectrum based on the noisy speech power spectrum supplied from multiplex multiplier 13 and transmits the result to estimated noise calculator 5. Estimated noise calculator 5 estimates the power spectrum of noise based on the noisy speech power spectrum, the weighted noisy speech power spectrum and the count value from counter 4 and transmits the result as an estimated noise power spectrum to frequency-classified SNR calculator 6. Frequency-classified SNR calculator 6 calculates SNRs for individual frequency bands based on the input noisy speech power spectrum and estimated noise power spectrum, and supplies the results as aposteriori SNRs to estimated apriori SNR calculator 7 and spectral gain generator 8. Estimated apriori SNR calculator 7 estimates apriori SNRs based on the input aposteriori SNRs and the corrected spectral gains supplied from spectral gain modifier 15 and transmits the result as estimated apriori SNRs to spectral gain generator 8. Spectral gain generator 8 receives as its input the aposteriori SNRs, the estimated apriori SNRs and the speech non-existence probability supplied from speech non-existence probability memory 21, generates spectral gains based on these inputs, and transmits the results as the spectral gains to spectral gain modifier 15. Spectral gain modifier 15 corrects the spectral gains using the input estimated apriori SNRs and spectral gains and supplies corrected spectral gains Gn(k)bar to multiplex multiplier 161. Multiplex multiplier 161 weights the corrected, noisy speech amplitude spectra supplied from Fourier transformer 3 by way of amplitude modifier 18 using corrected spectral gains Gn(k)bar supplied from spectral gain modifier 15 to thereby determine enhanced speech amplitude spectra \|Xn(k)\|bar, and transfers them to inverse Fourier transformer 9. \|Xn(k)\|bar is represented by the following equation. [Math 4] \| Xn(k)= Gn(k)Hn(k)\|Yn(k)\| (4) Here, Hn(k) is a correction gain in amplitude modifier 18, having characteristics simulating the amplitude frequency response of high-pass filter 17. Inverse Fourier transformer 9 multiplies the enhanced speech amplitude \|Xn(k)\|bar supplied from multiplex multiplier 161 by the corrected noisy speech phase spectrum arg Yn(k)+arg Hn(k) supplied from Fourier transformer 3 via phase modifier 19 to determine enhanced speech Xn(k)bar. That is, [Math 5] Xn(k)=\| Xn(k)\|·{argYn(k)+argHn(k)} (5) is executed. Here, arg Hn(k) is the corrected phase in phase modifier 19, having characteristics that simulate the phase frequency response of high-pass filter 17. The obtained Xn(k)bar is inverse Fourier transformed to produce a time-domain sample sequence (t=0, 1, . . . , K−1) consisting of K samples xn(t)bar for one frame and output it to windowing processor 20, where it is multiplied with window function w(t). Signal xn(t)bar that is windowed by w(t) for input signal xn(t) (t=0, 1, . . . , K/2−1) is given as the following equation. [Math 6] xn(t)=w(t)xn(t) (6) It is also a widely used practice that consecutive two frames are partly overlapped to window. If the overleap length is assumed to be 50 percent of the frame length, for t=0, 1, . . . , K/2−1, yn(t)bar (t=0, 1, . . . , K−1), obtained by the following equations is output from windowing processor 20 and transmitted to frame synthesizer 10. [Math 7] xn(t)=x(t)xn-1(t+K/2) xn(t+K/2)=w(t+K/2)xn(t) (7) Frame synthesizer 10 extracts K/2 samples from each of the neighboring two frames of xn(t)bar, and by the following equation [Math 8] {circumflex over (x)}n(t)= xn-1(t+K/2)+ xn(t) (8) enhanced speech xn(t)hut is obtained. The obtained enhanced speech xn(t)hut (t=0, 1, . . . , K−1) is output from frame synthesizer 10 and transmitted to output terminal 12. FIG. 9 is a block diagram showing the configuration of multiplex multiplier 13 shown in FIG. 8. Multiplex multiplier 13 includes multipliers 13010 to 1301K-1, demultiplexers 1302 and 1303 and multiplexer 1304. The corrected, noisy speech amplitude spectrum, as it is being multiplexed and supplied from amplitude modifier 18 in FIG. 8, is separated into frequency-classified K samples by demultiplexers 1302 and 1303, and the separated samples are supplied to each of multipliers 13010 to 1301K-1. Multipliers 13010 to 1301K-1 square the input signal and transmit the result to multiplexer 1304. Multiplexer 1304 multiplexes the input signals and output the multiplexed signal as a noisy speech power spectrum. FIG. 10 is a block diagram showing the configuration of weighted noisy speech calculator 14. Weighted noisy speech calculator 14 includes estimated noise memory 1401, frequency-classified SNR calculator 1402, multiplex non-linear processor 1405 and multiplex multiplier 1404. Estimated noise memory 1401 stores the estimated noise power spectrum supplied from estimated noise calculator 5 in FIG. 8 and outputs the estimated power spectrum stored one frame before, to frequency-classified SNR calculator 1402. Frequency-classified SNR calculator 1402, based on the estimated noise power spectrum supplied from estimated noise memory 1401 and the noisy speech power spectrum supplied from band integrator 53 in FIG. 8, determines SNRs for individual frequency bands and outputs them to multiplex non-linear processor 1405. Multiplex non-linear processor 1405, based on the SNRs supplied from frequency-classified SNR calculator 1402, calculates a weight coefficient vector and outputs the weight coefficient vector to multiplex multiplier 1404. Multiplex multiplier 1404 calculates the product of the noisy speech power strum supplied from band integrator 53 in FIG. 8 and the weight coefficient vector supplied from multiplex non-linear processor 1405, for every frequency band, and outputs a weighted noisy speech power spectrum to estimated noise memory 5 in FIG. 8. The configuration of multiplex multiplier 1404 is the same as that of multiplex multiplier 13 described with reference to FIG. 9, so that detailed description is omitted. FIG. 11 is a block diagram showing the configuration of frequency-classified SNR calculator 1402 shown in FIG. 10. Frequency-classified SNR calculator 1402 includes dividers 14210 to 1421M-1, demultiplexers 1422 and 1423 and multiplexer 1424. The noisy speech power spectrum supplied from band integrator 53 in FIG. 8 is transmitted to demultiplexer 1422. The estimated noise power spectrum supplied from estimated noise memory 1401 in FIG. 10 is transmitted to demultiplexer 1423. The noisy speech power spectrum and estimated noise power spectrum are separated by demultiplexer 1422 and demultiplexer 1423, respectively, into M samples corresponding to individual frequency components, and supplied to corresponding dividers 14210 to 1421M-1. These M samples correspond to the sub-bands, each made up of frequency components integrated in band integrator 53. In divider 14210 to 1421M-1, the supplied noisy speech power spectrum is divided by estimated noise power spectrum in accordance with the following equation to determine frequency-classified SNR γn(k)hut, which is transmitted to multiplexer 1424. [ Math   9 ] γ ^ n  ( k ) =  Y n  ( k )  2 λ n - 1  ( k ) ( 9 ) Here, λn−1(k) is the estimated noise power spectratored in the preceding frame. Multiplexer 1424 multiplexes transmitted M frequency-classified SNRs and transmits the result to multiplex non-linear processor 1405 in FIG. 10. Referring next to FIG. 12, the configuration and operation of multiplex non-linear processor 1405 of FIG. 10 will be described in detail. FIG. 12 is a block diagram showing a configuration of multiplex non-linear processor 1405 included in weighted noisy speech calculator 14. Multiplex non-linear processor 1405 includes demultiplexer 1495, non-linear processors 14850 to 1485M-1 and multiplexer 1475. Demultiplexer 1495 separates the SNRs supplied from frequency-classified SNR calculator 1402 in FIG. 10 into frequency-band-classified SNRs and transmits them to non-linear processors 14850 to 1485M-1. Non-linear processors 14850 to 1485M-1 each have a non-linear function that outputs a real number value in accordance with the input value. FIG. 13 shows an example of a non-linear function. When f1 is an input value, the output value f2 from the non-linear function shown in FIG. 13 is given by the following equation: [ Math   10 ] f 2 = { 1 , f 1 ≤ a f 1 - b a - b , a < f 1 ≤ b 0 , b < f 1 ( 10 ) Here, a and b are arbitrary real numbers. In each of non-linear processors 14850 to 1485M-1 in FIG. 12, the frequency-band-classified SNR supplied from demultiplexer 1495 is processed by a non-linear function to determine a weight coefficient and the result is output to multiplexer 1475. That is, non-linear processors 14850 to 1485M-1 each output a weight coefficient ranging from 1 to 0 in accordance with the SNR. When the SNR is low, 1 is output and 0 is output when the SNR is high. Multiplexer 1475 multiplexes the weight coefficients output from non-linear processors 14850 to 1485M-1 and outputs the result as a weight coefficient vector to multiplex multiplier 1404. The weight coefficients, which are used in multiplex multiplier 1404 in FIG. 10 to multiply the noisy speech power spectrum, take values corresponding to the SNRs; the greater the SNR is, i.e., the greater the speech component that is contained in the noisy speech is, the smaller is the value of the weight coefficient. In updating the estimated noise, generally the noisy speech power spectrum is used. However, when the noisy speech power spectrum used for updating estimated noise is weighted in accordance with the SNRs, it is possible to reduce the influence of the speech component contained in the noisy speech power spectrum, and hence to achieve noise estimation with a higher precision. Here, though an example in which the weight coefficients are calculated using non-linear functions is shown, other than non-linear functions, SNR functions represented by other forms such as linear functions, high degree polynomials and the like can be also used. FIG. 14 is a block diagram showing a configuration of estimated speech noise calculator 5 shown in FIG. 8. Noise estimating calculator 5 includes demultiplexers 501, 502, multiplexer 503 and frequency-classified estimated noise calculators 5040 to 504M−1. Demultiplexer 501 separates the weighted noisy speech power spectrum supplied from weighted noisy speech calculator 14 in FIG. 8 into frequency-band-classified weighted noisy speech power spectra and supplies them to each of frequency-classified estimated noise calculators 5040 to 504M−1. Demultiplexer 502 separates the noisy speech power spectrum supplied from band integrator 53 in FIG. 8 into frequency-band-classified noisy speech power spectra and supplies them to each of frequency-classified estimated noise calculators 5040 to 504M-1. Frequency-classified estimated noise calculators 5040 to 504M-1 calculate frequency-classified estimated noise power spectra from the frequency-band-classified weighted noisy speech power spectra supplied from demultiplexer 501, the frequency-band-classified noisy speech power spectra supplied from demultiplexer 502 and the count value supplied from counter 4 in FIG. 8 and output them to multiplexer 503. Multiplexer 503 multiplexes the frequency-classified estimated noise power spectra supplied from frequency-classified estimated noise calculators 5040 to 504M-1 and outputs the estimated noise power spectrum to frequency-classified SNR calculator 6 and weighted noisy speech calculator 14 in FIG. 8. The configuration and operation of frequency-classified estimated noise calculators 5040 to 504M-1 will be described in detail with reference to FIG. 15. FIG. 15 is a block diagram showing a configuration of frequency-classified estimated noise calculators 5040 to 504M-1 shown in FIG. 14. Frequency-classified estimated noise calculator 504 includes update controller 520, register-length memory 5041, estimated noise memory 5042, switch 5044, shift register 5045, adder 5046, minimum-value selector 5047, divider 5048 and counter 5049. Switch 5044 is supplied with frequency-classified weighted noisy speech power spectrum from demultiplexer 501 in FIG. 14. When switch 5044 closes the circuit, the frequency-classified weighted noisy speech power spectrum is transmitted to shift register 5045. Shift register 5045, in accordance with the control signal supplied from update controller 520, shifts the stored values in the internal register to the neighboring register. The shift register length is equal to the value stored in register-length memory 5041, which will be described later. All the register outputs from shift register 5045 are supplied to adder 5046. Adder 5046 adds all the supplied register outputs and transmits the result to divider 5048. On the other hand, update controller 520 is supplied with the count value, the frequency-classified noisy speech power spectrum and frequency-classified estimated noise power spectrum. Update controller 520 constantly outputs “1” until the count value reaches a predetermined set value. After the predetermined set value is reached, update controller 520 outputs “1” when the input noisy speech signal is determined to be noise and outputs “0” otherwise, and transmits the result to counter 5049, switch 5044 and shifter register 5045. Switch 5044 closes and opens the circuit when the signal supplied from update controller 520 is “1” and “0”, respectively. Counter 5049 increases the count value when the signal supplied from update controller 520 is “1” and does not change the count value when the supplied signal is “0”. Shift register 5045 picks up one sample of the signal samples supplied from switch 5044 when the signal supplied from update controller 520 is “1” and at the same time shifts the stored values in the internal register to the neighboring register. Supplied to minimum-value selector 5047 are the output from counter 5049 and the output from register-length memory 5041. Minimum-value selector 5047 selects the smaller one form among the supplied count value and register length, and transmits it to divider 5048. Divider 5048 divides the sum of the frequency-classified noisy speech power spectra, supplied from adder 5046, by the smaller one form among the count value and the register length, and outputs the quotient as frequency-classified estimated noise power spectrum λn(k). When Bn(k) (n=0, 1, . . . , N−1) is assumed to be the sample value of the noisy speech power spectrum stored in shift register 5045, λn(k) is given as follows: [ Math   11 ] λ n  ( k ) = 1 N  ∑ n = 0 N - 1  B n  ( k ) ( 11 ) Here, N is the smaller value between the count value and the register length. Since the count value monotonously increases starting from zero, the division is done with the count value at the beginning and then is done with the register length. The mean value of the values stored in the shift register is determined by dividing by the register length. Since not many values have been stored in shift register 5045, division is done by the number of the registers in which values have been actually stored. The number of the registers in which values are actually stored is equal to the count value when the count value is smaller than the register length and is equal to the register length when the count value is greater than the register length. FIG. 16 is a block diagram showing a configuration of update controller 520 shown in FIG. 15. Update controller 520 includes logical sum calculator 5201, comparators 5203 and 5205, threshold memorys 5204 and 5206 and threshold calculator 5207. The count value supplied from counter 4 in FIG. 8 is transmitted to comparator 5203. The threshold as the output from threshold memory 5204 is also transmitted to comparator 5203. Comparator 5203 makes a comparison between the supplied count value and the threshold and transmits “1” and “0” to logical sum calculator 5201 when the count value is smaller than the threshold and greater than the threshold, respectively. On the other hand, threshold calculator 5207 calculates a value corresponding to the frequency-classified estimated noise power spectrum supplied from estimated noise memory 5042 in FIG. 15 and outputs it as the threshold value to threshold memory 5206. The simplest way of calculating the threshold value is to multiply the frequency-classified estimated noise power spectrum by a constant. Other than this, it is also possible to calculate the threshold value using a high degree polynomial or a non-linear function. Threshold memory 5206 stores the threshold output from threshold calculator 5207 and outputs the threshold stored in the preceding frame to comparator 5205. Comparator 5205 compares the threshold value supplied from threshold memory 5206 with the frequency-classified noisy speech power spectrum supplied from demultiplexer 502 in FIG. 14, and outputs “1” and “0” to logical sum calculator 5201 when the frequency-classified noisy speech power spectrum is smaller and greater than the threshold, respectively. In short, it determines whether or not the noisy speech signal is noise based on the magnitude of the estimated noise power spectrum. Logical sum calculator 5201 calculates the logical sum between the output value from comparator 5203 and the output value from comparator 5205 and outputs the calculated result to switch 5044, shift register 5045 and counter 5049 in FIG. 15. In this way, update controller 520 outputs “1” not only for the initial state and silent periods but also when the noisy speech power is low even in non-silent periods. That is, estimated noise is updated. Since the threshold value is calculated for every frequency, it is possible to update estimated noise for every frequency. FIG. 17 is a block diagram showing a configuration of estimated apriori SNR calculator 7 shown in FIG. 8. Estimated apriori SNR calculator 7 includes multiplexed value range limit processor 701, aposteriori SNR memory 702, spectral gain memory 703, multiplex multipliers 704 and 705, weight memory 706, multiplexed weighting accumulator 707 and adder 708. Aposteriori SNR γn(k)(k=0, 1, . . . , M−1) supplied from frequency-classified SNR calculator 6 in FIG. 8 is transmitted to aposteriori SNR memory 702 and adder 708. Aposteriori SNR memory 702 stores aposteriori SNR y (k) in the n-th frame and transmits aposteriori SNR γn−1(k) in the (n−1)-th frame to multiplex multiplier 705. Corrected spectral gains Gn(k)bar (k=0, 1, . . . , M−1) supplied from spectral gain modifier 15 in FIG. 8 are transmitted to spectral gain memory 703. Spectral gain memory 703 stores corrected spectral gains Gn(k)bar in the n-th frame and transmits corrected spectral gains Gn-1 (k)bar in the (n−1)-th frame to multiplex multiplier 704. Multiplex multiplier 704 squares supplied Gn(k)bar to determine G2n−1 (k)bar and transmits it to multiplex multiplier 705. Multiplex multiplier 705 multiplies G2n−1(k)bar and γn−1 (k) for K−0, 1, . . . , M−1 to determine G2n−1 (k)bar: e n−1 (k) and transmits the result to multiplexed weighting accumulator 707 as past estimated SNR 922. The configurations of multiplex multipliers 704 and 705 are the same as that of multiplex multiplier 13 already described with reference to FIG. 9, so that detailed description is omitted. The other terminal of adder 708 is supplied with −1, and the added result γn(k)−1 is transmitted to multiplexed limiter 701. Multiplexed limiter 701 performs an operation on the added result γn(k)−1, supplied from adder 708, by value range limit operator p[•] and transmits the result P[γn(k)−1] to adder 707 as temporary estimated SNR 921. Here, P[x] is defined as the following equation. [ Math   12 ] P  [ x ] = { x , x > 0 0 , x ≤ 0 ( 12 ) Supplied also to multiplexed weighting accumulator 707 is weight 923 from weight memory 703. Multiplexed weighting accumulator 707 determines estimated apriori SNR 924 based on the supplied temporary estimated SNR 921, past SNR 922 and weight 923. When weight 923 is represented by a and the estimated apriori SNR is represented by ζ n(k)hut, C n(k)hut is calculated by the following equation. [Math 13] {circumflex over (ξ)}n(k)=αγn-1(k) Gn-12(k)+(1−α)P[γn(k)−1] (13) Here, G2−I(k)γ−I(k)bar=I FIG. 18 is a block diagram showing a configuration of multiplexed limiter 701 shown in FIG. 17. Multiplexed limiter 701 includes constant-value memory 7011, maximum-value selectors 70120 to 7012M-1, demultiplexer 7013 and multiplexer 7014. Supplied from adder 708 in FIG. 17 to demultiplexer 7013 is γn(k)−1. Demultiplexer 7013 separates the supplied γn(k)−1 into M frequency-band-classified components and supplies them to maximum-value selectors 70120 to 7012M-1. The other inputs of maximum-value selectors 70120 to 7012M-1 are supplied with zero from constant-value memory 7011. Maximum-value selectors 70120 to 7012M-1 compare γn(k)−1 with zero and transmits the greater value to multiplexer 7014. This maximum value select operation corresponds to the execution of aforementioned formula 12. Multiplexer 7014 multiplexes these values and outputs the result. FIG. 19 is a block diagram showing a configuration of multiplexed weighting accumulator 707 included in FIG. 17. Multiplexed weighting accumulator 707 includes weighting adders 70710 to 7071M-1, demultiplexers 7072, 7074 and multiplexer 7075. Demultiplexer 7072 is supplied with P[γn(k)−1] from multiplexed limiter 701 in FIG. 17 as temporary estimated SNR 921. Demultiplexer 7072 separates P[γn(k)−1] into M frequency-band-classified components and transmits them as frequency-band-classified temporary estimated SNRs 9210 to 921M-1 to weighting adders 70710 to 7071M-1. Demultiplexer 7074 is supplied with G2n−1 (k) bar γn−1 (k) from multiplex multiplier 705 in FIG. 17 as past estimated SNR 922. Demultiplexer 7074 separates G2n−1 (k) bar γn−1 (k) into M frequency-band-classified components and transmits them as past frequency-band-classified estimated SNRs 9220 to 922M-1 to weighting adders 70710 to 7071M-1. On the other hand, weight 923 is also supplied to weighting adders 70710 to 7071M-1. Weighting adders 70710 to 7071M-1 execute the weighted addition represented by aforementioned formula 13 and transmit frequency-band-classified estimated apriori SNRs 9240 to 924M-1 to multiplexer 7075. Multiplexer 7075 multiplexes frequency-band-classified estimated apriori SNRs 9240 to 924M−1 and outputs the result as estimated apriori SNR 924. The operation and configuration of weighting adders 70710 to 7071M-1 will be described next with reference to FIG. 20. FIG. 20 is a block diagram showing a configuration of weighting adders 70710 to 7071M-1 shown in FIG. 19. Weighting adder 7071 includes multipliers 7091 and 7093, constant multiplier 7095, adders 7092 and 7094. Frequency-band-classified temporary estimated SNR 921 from demultiplexer 7072 in FIG. 19, past frequency-band-classified SNR 922 from demultiplexer 7074 in FIG. 19 and weight 923 from weight memory 706 in FIG. 17 are supplied as an input. Weight 923 having a value of a is transmitted to constant multiplier 7095 and multiplier 7093. Constant multiplier 7095 multiplies the input signal by −1 and transmits the obtained −α to adder 7094. The other input of adder 7094 is supplied with 1, so that adder 7094 outputs the sum, i.e., 1−α. This output, 1−α, is supplied to multiplier 7091, and multiplied therein by the other input, i.e., frequency-band-classified temporary estimated SNR P[γn(k)−1]. The resultant product, (1−α)P[γn(k)−1] is transmitted to adder 7092. On the other hand, in multiplier 7093, a supplied as weight 923 is multiplied by past estimated SNR 922, and the resultant product, αG2n−1 (k) bar γn−1 (k) is transmitted to adder 7092. Adder 7092 outputs the sum of (1−α)P[γn(k)−1] and αG2n−1(k) bar γn−1 (k) as frequency-band-classified estimated apriori SNR 904. FIG. 21 is a block diagram showing spectral gain generator 8 shown in FIG. 8. Spectral gain generator 8 includes MMSE STSA gain function value calculator 811, generalized likelihood ratio calculator 812 and spectral gain calculator 814. Hereinbelow, based on the formulae described in non-patent document 2 (IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ACOUSTICS, SPEECH, AND SIGNAL PROCESSING, VOL. 32, No. 6, PP. 1109-1121, DEC, 1984), the method of calculating spectral gains will be described. It is assumed that the frame number is n, the frequency number is k, γn(k) represents the frequency-classified aposteriori SNR supplied from frequency-classified SNR calculator 6 in FIG. 8, ζn(k)hut represents the frequency-classified estimated apriori SNR supplied from estimated apriori SNR calculator 7 in FIG. 8, and q represents the speech non-existence probability supplied from speech non-existence probability memory 21 in FIG. 8. It is also assumed that ηn(k)=ξn(k)hut/(1−q) vn(k)=(ηn(k)γn(k))/(1+ηn(k)). MMSE STSA gain function value calculator 811, based on aposteriori SNR γn(k) supplied from frequency-classified SNR calculator 6 in FIG. 8, estimated apriori SNR ζn(k)hut supplied from estimated apriori SNR calculator 7 in FIG. 8 and speech non-existence probability q supplied from speech non-existence probability memory 21 in FIG. 8, calculates an MMSE STSA gain function value for every frequency band and output it to spectral gain calculator 814. Each MMSE STSA gain function value Gn(k) for each frequency band is given as [ Math   14 ] G n  ( k ) = π 2  v n  ( k ) γ n  ( k )  exp ( - v n  ( k ) 2 )  [ ( 1 + v n  ( k ) )  I 0 ( v n  ( k ) 2 ) + v n  ( k )  I 1 ( V n  ( k ) 2 ) ] ( 14 ) Here, I0(z) is the 0-th order modified Bessel function and I1(z) is the 1st order modified Bessel function. Reference to the modified Bessel functions is found in non-patent document 3 (page 374G, Iwanami Shoten, Sugaku-jiten, 1985). Generalized likelihood ratio calculator 812, based on aposteriori SNR γn(k) supplied from frequency-classified SNR calculator 6 in FIG. 8, estimated apriori SNR ζn(k)hut supplied from estimated apriori SNR calculator 7 in FIG. 8 and speech non-existence probability q supplied from speech non-existence probability memory 21 in FIG. 8, calculates a generalized likelihood ratio for every frequency band and transmits it to spectral gain calculator 814. Generalized likelihood ratio Λn(k) for an individual frequency band is given as: [ Math   15 ] Λ n  ( k ) = 1 - q q  exp  ( v n  ( k ) ) 1 + η n  ( k ) ( 15 ) Spectral gain calculator 814 calculates a spectral gain for every frequency, from MMSE STSA gain function value Gn(k) supplied from MMSE STSA gain function value calculator 811 and generalized likelihood ratio Λn(k) supplied from generalized likelihood ratio calculator 812, and outputs the result to spectral gain modifier 15 in FIG. 8. Spectral gain Gn(k)bar for every frequency band is given as [ Math   16 ] G _ n  ( k ) = Λ n  ( k ) Λ n  ( k ) + 1  G n  ( k ) ( 16 ) Instead of calculating SNRs for individual frequency bands, it is also possible to determine a common SNR for a broadened band consisting of multiple frequency bands and to use it. FIG. 22 is a block diagram showing a configuration of spectral gain modifier 15 shown in FIG. 8. Spectral gain modifier 15 includes frequency-classified spectral gain modifiers 15010 to 1501M-1, demultiplexers 1502 and 1503 and multiplexer 1504. Demultiplexer 1502 separates estimated apriori SNR supplied from estimated apriori SNR calculator 7 in FIG. 8 into frequency-band-classified components and outputs them to individual frequency-classified spectral gain modifiers 15010 to 1501M-1. Demultiplexer 1503 separates the spectral gains supplied from spectral gain generator 8 in FIG. 8 into frequency-band-classified components and outputs them to individual frequency-classified spectral gain modifiers 15010 to 1501M-1. Frequency-classified spectral gain modifiers 15010 to 1501M-1 calculate frequency-band-classified corrected spectral gains, from frequency-band-classified estimated apriori SNRs supplied from demultiplexer 1502 and frequency-band-classified spectral gains supplied from demultiplexer 1503, and output them to multiplexer 1504. Multiplexer 1504 multiplexes the frequency-band-classified corrected spectral gains supplied from frequency-classified spectral gain modifiers 15010 to 1501M-1 and outputs them as corrected spectral gains to multiplex multiplier 16 and estimated apriori SNR calculator 7 in FIG. 8. Referring next to FIG. 23, the configuration and operation of frequency-classified spectral gain modifiers 15010 to 1501M-1 will be described in detail. FIG. 23 is a block diagram showing the configuration of frequency-classified spectral gain modifiers 15010 to 1501M-1 included in spectral gain modifier 15. Frequency-classified spectral gain modifier 1501 includes maximum-value selector 1591, minimum-spectral-gain memory 1592, threshold memory 1593, comparator 1594, switch 1595, modified-value memory 1596 and multiplier 1597. Comparator 1594 makes a comparison between the threshold supplied from threshold memory 1593 and the frequency-band-classified estimated apriori SNR supplied from demultiplexer 1502 in FIG. 22, and supplies “0” and “1” to switch 1595 when the frequency-band-classified estimated apriori SNR is greater and smaller than the threshold, respectively. Switch 1595 outputs the frequency-band-classified estimated apriori SNR supplied from demultiplexer 1503 in FIG. 22 to multiplier 1597 when the output value from comparator 1594 is “1” and to maximum-value selector 1591 and when the output value is “0”. More clearly, when frequency-band-classified estimated apriori SNR is smaller than the threshold value, the spectral gain is corrected. Multiplier 1597 calculates the product of the output value from switch 1595 and the output value from modified-value memory 1596 and transmits the product to maximum-value selector 1591. On the other hand, minimum-spectral-gain memory 1592 supplies the lower limit of the spectral gains that are stored to maximum-value selector 1591. Maximum-value selector 1591 compares the frequency-band-classified spectral gain supplied from demultiplexer 1503 in FIG. 22 or the product calculated by multiplier 1597 with the minimum spectral gain supplied from minimum-spectral-gain memory 1592, and outputs the greater value to multiplexer 1504 in FIG. 22. That is, the spectral gain necessarily takes a greater value than the lower limit being stored in minimum-spectral-gain memory 1592. Although in all the embodiments described heretofore the least mean square error short period spectrum amplitude method has been assumed as the scheme for suppressing noise, other methods may also be applied. Examples of such methods include the Wiener filtering method, disclosed in non-patent document 4 (PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 67, No. 12, PP. 1586-1604, DEC, 1979), a spectraubtracting method disclosed in non-patent document 5 (IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ACOUSTICS, SPEECH, AND SIGNAL PROCESSING, VOL. 27, No. 2,PP. 113-129, APR, 1979). However, description of detailed configurational examples of these is omitted. The noise suppressing apparatus of each of the aforementioned embodiments can be configured by a computer apparatus made up of a memory device for storing programs, a control portion equipped with input keys and switches, a display device such as an LCD or the like and a control device that receives input from the control portion and controls the operation of each part. The operation in the noise suppressing apparatus of each of the aforementioned embodiments can be realized by letting the control device execute the program stored in memory. The program may be stored beforehand in memory or may be written in CD-ROM or any other recording medium that the user prefers. It is also possible to provide the program by way of a network.	G	G10	G10L	21	00
11998039	US20090092947A1-20090409	Laser curettage	ACCEPTED	20090325	20090409		[]	A61C1906	["A61C1906"]	8998616	20071128	20150407	433	215000	97863.0	ROBERTS	LEZAH	[{"inventor_name_last": "Cao", "inventor_name_first": "Densen", "inventor_city": "West Jordan", "inventor_state": "UT", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Jensen", "inventor_name_first": "Steven", "inventor_city": "West Jordan", "inventor_state": "UT", "inventor_country": "US"}]	Laser ablation is used in curettage to treat periodontal disease. After an initial step of ablating afflicted tissues, an anti-microbial rinse is applied. A flexible fiber optic guide is the preferred means of directing radiant energy to the afflicted tissues. Sulcular disinfection may also be achieved by similar associated processes. Various anti-microbial agents and laser sources are disclosed.	1. A laser curettage method of treating periodontal disease comprising: a. a first step of directly applying radiant energy to an area of infected tissue in a periodontal pocket exhibiting periodontitis sufficient to ablate the infected tissue; and b. a second step of flushing the periodontal pocket with a fluid containing an antimicrobial agent. 2. The method of claim 1 further comprising the step of directing the radiant energy to the infected areas with a flexible fiber optic guide. 3. The method of claim 2, further comprising the step of generating the radiant energy from a source selected from the set of sources consisting of: a gas laser, a solid state laser, a diode laser, and an 810 nm diode laser. 4. The method of claim 1, further comprising the step of generating the radiant energy from a source selected from the set of sources consisting of: a gas laser, a solid state laser, a diode laser, and an 810 nm diode laser. 5. The method of claim 2, wherein said fiber optic guide includes a cladding layer with a portion removed therefrom. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the antimicrobial agent is selected from the set of antimicrobial agents consisting of: chlorhexidine gluconate, chlorhexidine, hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite, and sodium chlorite. 7. The method of claim 1, further comprising the step of applying sulcular disinfection. 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the method of sulcular disinfection includes the following steps: a. a first step of directly applying a second radiant energy to an area of infected tissue in a periodontal pocket exhibiting periodontitis sufficient to destroy pathogens; and b. a second step of flushing the periodontal pocket with a fluid containing an antimicrobial agent. 9. The method of claim 7 further comprising the step of directing the second radiant energy to the infected areas with a second flexible fiber optic guide. 10. The method of claim 9, further comprising the step of generating the second radiant energy from a source selected from the set of sources consisting of: a gas laser, a solid state laser, a diode laser, and an 810 nm diode laser. 11. The method of claim 7, wherein both the steps of directing the radiant energy and the second radiant energy to the infected area are performed using the same radiant source. 12. The method of claim 7, wherein the method of sulcular disinfection is applied intermittently with the method of laser curettage. 13. The method of claim 7, wherein the method of sulcular disinfection is applied at least twice-monthly. 14. The method of claim 7, wherein the method of sulcular disinfection is applied over the entire arch area of a tooth.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF INVENTION <EOH>Periodontal disease is a pathogenic infection of the gums which is common among all humans and animals. The disease provides a major pathway to the loss of teeth and oral bone throughout every society, leading to extreme personal discomfort among the afflicted. Given the prevalence of the disease and related costs, effective treatments of the disease and prevention strategies are continually being pursued. A major contributor to periodontal disease concerns the oral environment. The oral environment provides a warm moist cavity that is full of nutrients, making it an excellent location to incubate microbes. It is not surprising, therefore, that pathogens readily ingress into periodontal pockets where the infection occurs. In the milder forms of periodontal disease—commonly referred to as gingivitis—the gums redden, swell and bleed easily. Gingivitis is limited to the soft tissue surrounding the tooth and does not typically result in bone loss. This stage of the disease is reversible with treatment and proper oral care. On the other hand, uncontrolled or rampant periodontal infection leads to advanced stages of the disease called periodontitis. Left untreated, periodontitis causes progressive bone loss around teeth that ultimately results in the teeth becoming loose from their sockets. There are few if any characteristic stages of progression, as the driving actions underlying the disease are the same—e.g., accumulation of bacteria at the gum line leading to the formation of dental plaque. A specific treatment of the disease depends primarily on the extent of the disease—e.g., the extent of the infection or the formation of plaque. Some common characteristics of the disease are as follows. First, there occurs an accumulation of bacteria at the gum line that forms bacterial or dental plaque. Bacterial plaque later calcifies to form calculus, which can exist both above and below the gum line. At the same time, there occurs a sustained dramatic change in the normal micro flora existing below the gum line in the region between the gum and tooth—typically referred to as the gingival margin. Disease causing microbes find a safe home in the gingival margin, where they are safe from the tongue and major saliva pathways, thereby upsetting the balance of micro flora. The rogue microbes begin to emit enzymes that destroy the connective tissue between teeth and gums which creates a “periodontal pocket.” Because the mouth acts as an incubator with a good supply of nutrition, microbes flourish in the periodontal pockets. Dentists use a tool called a periodontal probe to measure pocket depths of individual patients. This provides a measure of the depth the rogue microbes have eaten the connective tissue away. The deeper the periodontal pocket goes, the more difficult it is to treat. When the pockets are near the surface (say about less than 3 mm) the pocket can in some cases be treated with a sulcular disinfection regime as disclosed in commonly owned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/382,586. An appropriate disinfection regime can bring back into balance the normal micro flora and allow healing to occur. There are two different issues a clinician must address in order to cure periodontal disease. The first obviously is the restoration of the normal micro flora, while the second is to restore the pocket to its normal state, at least to the extent possible. If the periodontal pocket is greater than 3 mm, then sulcular disinfection will not work because it only addresses one part of the problem—the microbes. This presents a major problem with periodontal pockets—even though you disinfect them, rogue microbes can easily migrate back into the deep protective pockets and start where they left off. One can continuously treat deep pockets and slow down the disease with a disinfection regime, but one will rarely restore the pockets to their pre-infection condition. Deep pockets provide too big a space for microbes and therefore require a different procedure in order to have some chance of success. The laser curettage treatment described herein provides certain advantages that will advance the treatment and prognosis for patients suffering advanced stages of the disease—i.e., to the point where deep pockets have developed. Curettage is a procedure used by many periodontists, and consists of using small hand instruments to physically scrape away the diseased lining of epithelial cells from the bottom of the pocket. The idea is to scrape away the diseased tissue and, at the same time, cause a slight wound. The wound is key to decreasing pocket depth. And if there are insufficient interfering microbes the new gingival tissue will grow back higher on the tooth. Through multiple curettage treatments it is possible to eliminate the pocket entirely. The curettage procedure described above has been used successfully on many patients. As described and disclosed below, the present invention dispenses with the use of hand instruments to destroy the diseased epithelial lining and, instead, uses a laser and a powerful disinfection regime. Specifically, while standard curettage comprises a physical scraping of tissue, the present invention achieves that result through the process of laser ablation of tissue combined with flooding the pocket with an anti-microbial solution. While lasers have been used in the treatment of periodontal disease, such treatments appear generally limited to photodynamic therapies, as disclosed, for example, in U.S. Patent Application Publication 2004/0259053 (Bekov et al.). Recently, lasers have been used to treat periodontal disease by using a fiber-optic guide to direct laser energy into periodontal pockets to kill bacteria. One approach using this technique is disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 6,663,386 (Moelsgaard). This less invasive and painful form of treatment does have its limitations, however, in that the laser is limited by the relative size of the guide and the ability to adequately control its direction. As such, areas needing treatment may not be adequately treated or can be missed entirely. What is needed is a method to improve upon the use of the laser treatment of periodontal disease for maximum coverage and disinfection of the treated area.	<SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In view of the foregoing disadvantages inherent in the known types of treatment of periodontal disease, this invention provides a new and improved method of treatment merging the benefits of laser ablation and chemical treatment. As such, the present invention's general purpose is to provide a new and improved method that is both safe and efficient, providing a broader treatment area than that obtained through use of a laser guide alone or in conjunction with a cooling spray of water or water and air with minimal resulting discomfort to the patient. The present invention provides an improved method for treating periodontal disease. The method comprises the use of a laser or radiant energy source that is tuned to ablate the cells and tissue comprising the gingival margin in the periodontal pocket below and in the region of the gum line. The laser light is applied to infected periodontal pockets with the intention of destroying through ablation the infected cells and tissue that make up the diseased epithelial lining, together with any susceptible pathogens. The periodontal pocket is then flushed with an anti-microbial substance with the intention to destroy any residual susceptible pathogens. The advantage of the flushing is that any residual organisms have been already weakened by the applied laser light and the use of a liquid anti-microbial substance will reach areas missed by the direction of the guide. The more important features of the invention have thus been outlined in order that the more detailed description that follows may be better understood and in order that the present contribution to the art may better be appreciated. Additional features of the invention will be described hereinafter and will form the subject matter of the claims that follow. Many objects of this invention will appear from the following description and appended claims, reference being made to the accompanying drawings forming a part of this specification wherein like reference characters designate corresponding parts in the several views. Before explaining at least one embodiment of the invention in detail, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited in its application to the details of construction and the arrangements of the components set forth in the following description or illustrated in the drawings. The invention is capable of other embodiments and of being practiced and carried out in various ways. Also it is to be understood that the phraseology and terminology employed herein are for the purpose of description and should not be regarded as limiting. As such, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the conception, upon which this disclosure is based, may readily be utilized as a basis for the designing of other structures, methods and systems for carrying out the several purposes of the present invention. It is important, therefore, that the claims be regarded as including such equivalent constructions insofar as they do not depart from the spirit and scope of the present invention.	CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/382,586, entitled “Method for Treating Periodontal Disease,” filed May 10, 2006, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/689,365, filed Jun. 10, 2005. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to the field of treatment of periodontal disease and, more particularly, relates to treating periodontal disease with a laser and chemical combination. BACKGROUND OF INVENTION Periodontal disease is a pathogenic infection of the gums which is common among all humans and animals. The disease provides a major pathway to the loss of teeth and oral bone throughout every society, leading to extreme personal discomfort among the afflicted. Given the prevalence of the disease and related costs, effective treatments of the disease and prevention strategies are continually being pursued. A major contributor to periodontal disease concerns the oral environment. The oral environment provides a warm moist cavity that is full of nutrients, making it an excellent location to incubate microbes. It is not surprising, therefore, that pathogens readily ingress into periodontal pockets where the infection occurs. In the milder forms of periodontal disease—commonly referred to as gingivitis—the gums redden, swell and bleed easily. Gingivitis is limited to the soft tissue surrounding the tooth and does not typically result in bone loss. This stage of the disease is reversible with treatment and proper oral care. On the other hand, uncontrolled or rampant periodontal infection leads to advanced stages of the disease called periodontitis. Left untreated, periodontitis causes progressive bone loss around teeth that ultimately results in the teeth becoming loose from their sockets. There are few if any characteristic stages of progression, as the driving actions underlying the disease are the same—e.g., accumulation of bacteria at the gum line leading to the formation of dental plaque. A specific treatment of the disease depends primarily on the extent of the disease—e.g., the extent of the infection or the formation of plaque. Some common characteristics of the disease are as follows. First, there occurs an accumulation of bacteria at the gum line that forms bacterial or dental plaque. Bacterial plaque later calcifies to form calculus, which can exist both above and below the gum line. At the same time, there occurs a sustained dramatic change in the normal micro flora existing below the gum line in the region between the gum and tooth—typically referred to as the gingival margin. Disease causing microbes find a safe home in the gingival margin, where they are safe from the tongue and major saliva pathways, thereby upsetting the balance of micro flora. The rogue microbes begin to emit enzymes that destroy the connective tissue between teeth and gums which creates a “periodontal pocket.” Because the mouth acts as an incubator with a good supply of nutrition, microbes flourish in the periodontal pockets. Dentists use a tool called a periodontal probe to measure pocket depths of individual patients. This provides a measure of the depth the rogue microbes have eaten the connective tissue away. The deeper the periodontal pocket goes, the more difficult it is to treat. When the pockets are near the surface (say about less than 3 mm) the pocket can in some cases be treated with a sulcular disinfection regime as disclosed in commonly owned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/382,586. An appropriate disinfection regime can bring back into balance the normal micro flora and allow healing to occur. There are two different issues a clinician must address in order to cure periodontal disease. The first obviously is the restoration of the normal micro flora, while the second is to restore the pocket to its normal state, at least to the extent possible. If the periodontal pocket is greater than 3 mm, then sulcular disinfection will not work because it only addresses one part of the problem—the microbes. This presents a major problem with periodontal pockets—even though you disinfect them, rogue microbes can easily migrate back into the deep protective pockets and start where they left off. One can continuously treat deep pockets and slow down the disease with a disinfection regime, but one will rarely restore the pockets to their pre-infection condition. Deep pockets provide too big a space for microbes and therefore require a different procedure in order to have some chance of success. The laser curettage treatment described herein provides certain advantages that will advance the treatment and prognosis for patients suffering advanced stages of the disease—i.e., to the point where deep pockets have developed. Curettage is a procedure used by many periodontists, and consists of using small hand instruments to physically scrape away the diseased lining of epithelial cells from the bottom of the pocket. The idea is to scrape away the diseased tissue and, at the same time, cause a slight wound. The wound is key to decreasing pocket depth. And if there are insufficient interfering microbes the new gingival tissue will grow back higher on the tooth. Through multiple curettage treatments it is possible to eliminate the pocket entirely. The curettage procedure described above has been used successfully on many patients. As described and disclosed below, the present invention dispenses with the use of hand instruments to destroy the diseased epithelial lining and, instead, uses a laser and a powerful disinfection regime. Specifically, while standard curettage comprises a physical scraping of tissue, the present invention achieves that result through the process of laser ablation of tissue combined with flooding the pocket with an anti-microbial solution. While lasers have been used in the treatment of periodontal disease, such treatments appear generally limited to photodynamic therapies, as disclosed, for example, in U.S. Patent Application Publication 2004/0259053 (Bekov et al.). Recently, lasers have been used to treat periodontal disease by using a fiber-optic guide to direct laser energy into periodontal pockets to kill bacteria. One approach using this technique is disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 6,663,386 (Moelsgaard). This less invasive and painful form of treatment does have its limitations, however, in that the laser is limited by the relative size of the guide and the ability to adequately control its direction. As such, areas needing treatment may not be adequately treated or can be missed entirely. What is needed is a method to improve upon the use of the laser treatment of periodontal disease for maximum coverage and disinfection of the treated area. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In view of the foregoing disadvantages inherent in the known types of treatment of periodontal disease, this invention provides a new and improved method of treatment merging the benefits of laser ablation and chemical treatment. As such, the present invention's general purpose is to provide a new and improved method that is both safe and efficient, providing a broader treatment area than that obtained through use of a laser guide alone or in conjunction with a cooling spray of water or water and air with minimal resulting discomfort to the patient. The present invention provides an improved method for treating periodontal disease. The method comprises the use of a laser or radiant energy source that is tuned to ablate the cells and tissue comprising the gingival margin in the periodontal pocket below and in the region of the gum line. The laser light is applied to infected periodontal pockets with the intention of destroying through ablation the infected cells and tissue that make up the diseased epithelial lining, together with any susceptible pathogens. The periodontal pocket is then flushed with an anti-microbial substance with the intention to destroy any residual susceptible pathogens. The advantage of the flushing is that any residual organisms have been already weakened by the applied laser light and the use of a liquid anti-microbial substance will reach areas missed by the direction of the guide. The more important features of the invention have thus been outlined in order that the more detailed description that follows may be better understood and in order that the present contribution to the art may better be appreciated. Additional features of the invention will be described hereinafter and will form the subject matter of the claims that follow. Many objects of this invention will appear from the following description and appended claims, reference being made to the accompanying drawings forming a part of this specification wherein like reference characters designate corresponding parts in the several views. Before explaining at least one embodiment of the invention in detail, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited in its application to the details of construction and the arrangements of the components set forth in the following description or illustrated in the drawings. The invention is capable of other embodiments and of being practiced and carried out in various ways. Also it is to be understood that the phraseology and terminology employed herein are for the purpose of description and should not be regarded as limiting. As such, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the conception, upon which this disclosure is based, may readily be utilized as a basis for the designing of other structures, methods and systems for carrying out the several purposes of the present invention. It is important, therefore, that the claims be regarded as including such equivalent constructions insofar as they do not depart from the spirit and scope of the present invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a partial sectional view of a normal tooth and surrounding tissue. FIG. 2 is the tooth and surrounding tissue of FIG. 1 having developed an early stage of gingivitis. FIG. 3 is the tooth and surrounding tissue of FIG. 2 having developed advanced periodontal disease. FIG. 4 is the tooth and surrounding tissue of FIG. 3, being treated by a fiber optic guide through which laser light is being transmitted. FIG. 5 is tooth and surrounding tissue of FIG. 4 being flushed with an anti-microbial substance by the means of a slender tip attached to a syringe. FIG. 6 illustrates a laser apparatus of the present invention being used to ablate infected tissue from the pocket region of a tooth exhibiting periodontitis. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION With reference now to the drawings, the preferred embodiment of the method of periodontal treatment is herein described. It should be noted that the articles “a”, “an” and “the”, as used in this specification, include plural referents unless the content clearly dictates otherwise. With reference to FIG. 1, a healthy tooth 2 rests in a bony socket 4 in the jaw 6. The entire area is covered by the gingiva 10, or “gums.” Over time, if left without proper oral care, tartar 12 will build up against tooth 2 (shown in FIG. 2), causing the gums 10 to recede away from the tooth and exposing the root 3 of the tooth 2 in a condition called “gingivitis.” FIG. 3 illustrates a condition further deteriorated from gingivitis, or the so-called peridontitis. Where periodontitis has occurred, the gums 10 have receded to the point of forming an open pocket 20 around the tooth 2 and its root system 3. The pocket 20 is filled with inflamed tissue 22 and infectious matter 24. If left untreated the tooth 2 and socket 4 may deteriorate, causing loss of the tooth 2. Treatment of the condition is shown in FIGS. 4 and 5. The method harnesses the benefits of a radiant energy source that is of sufficient strength to ablate the cells and tissue that comprise the lining of the open pocket 20 and the inflamed tissue 22. The process of ablation is coupled with flooding the pocket region with anti-microbial agents that are chemically lethal to a wide variety of pathogens. The combined effect of ablation by radiant energy and flooding with anti-microbial agents is intended to provide a “wound” to the epithelial lining through ablation of cells and tissue and, at the same time, to destroy a broad spectrum of pathogens, such that remaining pathogens can eventually be controlled by the normal functions of the immune system. The healing process of the wound creates a healthy tissue that reduces pocket size, thereby restoring the gum region to its pre-periodontitis state. The method warrants a radiant energy source with sufficient energy to become not only lethal to pathogens, but to destroy through ablation the cells and tissue that comprise the epithelial lining or the lining of the open pocket 20 and the inflamed tissue 22. The radiant energy can be produced from sources such as a diode laser, examples of which are the gallium nitride, aluminum gallium arsenide diode laser and the like. The radiant energy can be produced from sources such as high intensity light from incandescent, halogen or plasma arc devices. The radiant energy can be produced from sources such as solid state lasers, examples of which are neodymium YAG, titanium sapphire, thulium YAG, ytterbium YAG, Ruby, holmium YAG lasers and the like. The radiant energy can be produced from sources such as EB or electron beam devices. The radiant energy can be produced from sources such as gas lasers, examples of which include carbon dioxide gas, argon gas, xenon gas, nitrogen gas, helium-neon gas, carbon monoxide gas, and hydrogen fluoride gas lasers and the like. There are also many dye lasers that utilize a radiant energy source that pass through or are absorbed by various dyes or stains to achieve various incident energies or flux densities at specific wavelengths. Dye lasers are also within the scope of this method. The method also warrants an anti-microbial substance that is capable of destroying pathogens. There are numerous substances with anti-microbial or anti-pathogenic activity. Any substance that is capable of destroying or stemming the growth of a pathogen is within the scope of this method. A few possible examples of antimicrobial substances include: ethanol, isopropanol, methyl paraben, ethyl paraben, butyl paraben, propyl paraben, hydrogen peroxide, carbamide peroxide, eugenol, sodium chlorite, chlorhexidine, chlorhexidine gluconate, sodium chlorite, thymol, cetyl pyridinium chloride, chloroxylenol, iodine, hexachlorophene, triclosan, quaternary ammonium compounds, sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite, or any like substance that is capable of destroying or limiting the reproduction of pathogens. Many of these antimicrobial agents are a dry powder in their raw form and would benefit by being dissolved into a solvent. Liquid antimicrobial agents are able to migrate easier into difficult areas, thus having an advantage over powders. A few examples of possible solvents include: water, propylene glycol, glycerin, polysorbates, liquid polyethylene glycols, ethanol or any solvent capable of dissolving or liquefying an antimicrobial substance. Optionally, the antimicrobial agent can contain additional components that would improve patient comfort such as a flavor, sweetener or anesthetic. A few possible substances that would aid in patient comfort include: sodium saccharin, phenylalanine, benzocaine, lidocaine, dyclonine hydrochloride, peppermint oil, spearmint oil, methyl salicylate and any like substance. Numerous formulas are capable of being produced during the practice of this method. Compositions may be made in any combination according to the following Table A, dependant upon the desired agents used and overall effect. TABLE A Percentage by Rinse Component Total Weight Function Antimicrobial agent 0.01%-100% Kill bacteria Solvent 0%-99.99% Allows the rinse to be a fluid that will easily flow into a periodontal pocket. Flavoring 0%-5% Make the rinse palatable. Anesthetic 0%-30% Reduce patient discomfort. A few specific examples include: Formula #1 6.0%—chlorhexidine gluconate 20% aqueous 94.0%—Water Formula #2 1%—chlorhexidine 99.0%—Water Formula #3 5.0%—sodium hypochlorite 95.0%—Water Formula #4 1.0%—calcium chlorite 99.0%—Water Formula #5 0.5%—sodium chlorite 99.5.0%—Water Formula #6 10.0%—chlorhexidine gluconate 20% aqueous 73.4%—Water 0.3%—peppermint oil 15.0%—ethanol 0.3%—Phenylalanine 1.0%—dyclonine hydrochloride Formula #7 3.0%—hydrogen peroxide 55.4%—glycerin 0.3%—peppermint oil 40.0%—water 0.3%—Phenylalanine 1.0%—benzocaine Formula #8 1.0%—methyl paraben 25.0%—Water 0.3%—methyl salicylate 25.0%—ethanol 0.3%—sodium saccharin 1.0%—lidocaine 47.4%—propylene glycol The above example formulas are sufficiently adequate over one or multiple applications to destroy or limit the growth of pathogens in the oral environment. A typical procedure of events during a routine periodontal treatment regime would be to first identify areas of greatest infection. These areas would be selected for greatest exposure to radiant energy. Referring to FIG. 4, the radiant energy source would be focused into these infected pockets by means of a thin fiber optic guide 40, the fiber optic guide being small enough to be directed between the teeth and gums. The periodontal pocket 20 is then radiated with radiant energy while the optical fiber 40 is moved in increments around the gums 10. As illustrated in FIG. 5, once the treatment of the gums by radiant energy is complete, the periodontal pocket 20 is flushed with an antimicrobial fluid 46 by means of a small tip 42 attached to a syringe 44. The treatment regime may include multiple treatments, the number of which depends on the degree of infection present. The treatment regime usually continues until the pocket 20 has filled in substantially from its state of periodontitis. Following the filling in of the pocket 20, a regime of sulcular disinfection may be continued until swelling and redness of infected gums is no longer apparent and only pink healthy gums persist. The treatment regime can also begin by flushing the periodontal pockets with antimicrobial agents, followed by radiating with radiant energy. This would allow any additional anisthetic contained in the antimicrobial agent to anesthetize the working area prior to receiving radiant energy, and may prove particularly helpful and beneficial where substantial or repetitive ablation occurs during the process of laser curettage. In yet a further embodiment of the present invention, a 1% chlorhexidine gluconate irrigation solution is used in conjunction with an 810 nm diode laser. The solution may contain a mild anesthetic and, if desired, be flavored. The solution is delivered using a syringe having a capacity of about 1 cc, although larger or smaller syringes may be used. The above described irrigation solution is designed for irrigation into the periodontal pockets prior to their being irradiated with the 810 nm laser light. The synergistic application of this broad-spectrum anti-microbial solution in conjunction with 810 nm laser light provides an excellent treatment in the control of early-stage periodontal disease—e.g., the gingivitis stage. Indeed, independent research by the inventors indicates that when treatment of early-stage periodontal disease using the combined irrigation solution and 810 nm laser is performed, the combination provides an increase in the kill rate of an isolated strain of bacterium—e.g., streptococcus mutans—by 11% over chlorhexidine solution alone. In a yet further embodiment of the present invention—referred to herein as laser curettage—the following steps are performed leading to successful treatment of early-stage periodontal disease. First, the pocket depths are established using a periodontal probe. The pockets are then flooded throughout the entire pocket arch using the irrigation solution above described. Excess solution is then removed using a typical dental suction apparatus. The pockets are then irradiated with an 810 nm diode laser apparatus having a power output set from between about 1.0 to about 5.0 Watts or, more preferably, from between about 2.0 to about 4.0 Watts. Referring now to FIG. 6, in one embodiment, the laser apparatus 100 includes a fiber optic cable 101 surrounded by a cladding layer 102. A length 104 of the cladding layer 102 about 1-2mm greater than the measured pocket depth is then stripped and cleaved from the fiber of the laser apparatus 100 to form a bare fiber optic portion 106. The stripped and cleaved portion 106 of the fiber 101 is then inserted into the periodontal pocket, where the bare fiber optic portion 106 lightly contacts the sulcus lining just inside the crest of the gingiva 108 while resting against a tooth 110. Using very light pressure, the lasing commences using short paint brush-like strokes around the circumference of the tooth with the laser energy being directed at infected or inflamed tissue 115 with sufficient intensity to ablate the infected or inflamed tissue. This process will create a small trough between the tooth and gingiva. The suction apparatus or sterile cotton gauze or the like is then used to remove or extricate tissue from the treatment area or tissue that attaches to the fiber. The treatment is repeated over the entire arch. Upon completion, the pockets of entire arch are again flooded with the irrigation solution. The treatment may be repeated on a monthly basis until recovery is complete. In a yet further embodiment, patients with advanced periodontal disease are treated with an interim sulcular disinfection treatment, one embodiment of which is described below, which is performed intermittently between periodic treatments using the laser curettage routine. In an even further embodiment of the present invention—referred to herein as sulcular disinfection—the following steps are performed leading to successful treatment of early-stage periodontal disease. In a further embodiment, the same or similar steps may be performed intermittently with or following treatment by laser curettage. First, the pocket depths are established using a periodontal probe. The pockets are then flooded throughout the entire pocket arch using the irrigation solution above described. The pockets are then irradiated with an 810 nm laser apparatus having a power output set from between about 0.1 to about 0.5 Watts or, more preferably, from between about 0.2 to about 0.4 Watts. Referring now to FIG. 7, in one embodiment, the laser apparatus 200 includes a fiber optic cable 201 surrounded by a cladding layer 202. A length 204 of the cladding layer 202 approximately equal to the measured pocket depth is then stripped and cleaved from the fiber optic cable 201 of the laser apparatus 200 to form a bare fiber optic portion 206. The stripped and cleaved portion of the fiber is then inserted into the periodontal pocket, where the bare fiber optic portion 206 lightly contacts the sulcus lining just inside the crest of the gingiva 208 while resting against the tooth 210. Using very light pressure, the lasing commences using short paint brush-like strokes around the circumference of the tooth, with the laser energy being directed at infected or inflamed tissue 215 with sufficient intensity to destroy pathogens. Each tooth should receive an average of 15 seconds of laser treatment time. Problematic areas may be lased for longer treatment times. Areas of increased infection may be lased for 20-25 seconds per tooth. The treatment just described is repeated over the entire arch. Upon completion, the pockets over the entire arch are flooded again with the irrigation solution. The treatment is preferably repeated on a bimonthly to monthly regimen. If the patient overall shows little to no periodontal improvement within 3-4 scheduled treatments then the following additional embodiment of treatment should be performed. Although the present invention has been described with reference to preferred embodiments, numerous modifications and variations can be made and still the result will come within the scope of the invention. No limitation with respect to the specific embodiments disclosed herein is intended or should be inferred.	A	A61	A61C	19	06
11881019	US20080132191A1-20080605	Image rejection calibration system	ACCEPTED	20080521	20080605		[]	H04B110	["H04B110"]	8358993	20070725	20130122	455	285000	68060.0	HANNON	CHRISTIAN	[{"inventor_name_last": "Quinlan", "inventor_name_first": "Philip", "inventor_city": "Glounthaune", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "IE"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Chanca", "inventor_name_first": "Miguel", "inventor_city": "Valencia", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "ES"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Shanan", "inventor_name_first": "Hyman", "inventor_city": "Douglas", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "IE"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Foley", "inventor_name_first": "Vincent", "inventor_city": "Blarney", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "IE"}]	Image rejection calibration includes initializing the calibration mode by applying to quadrature mixers, in place of the wanted RF input, an RF source in the frequency range of the wanted RF input, sensing the power output from the poly-phase filter, developing gain adjust and phase adjust correction values in response to the power output and adjusting in accordance with the correction values the gain of the quadrature signals from the quadrature mixers to the poly-phase filter and the phase of local oscillator quadrature signals from the local oscillator to the quadrature mixers to reduce the power output.	1. An image rejection calibration system for a wireless receiver comprising: an input amplifier for receiving a wanted RF input signal; a pair of quadrature mixers; an RF source for providing an RF calibration signal in the frequency range of said wanted RF input signal; a switching circuit for selectively connecting said RF calibration signal and said wanted RF input signal to said quadrature mixers; a local oscillator; a quadrature phase adjust circuit responsive to said local oscillator for adjusting the phase of the outputs of said quadrature mixers; a quadrature gain adjust circuit for adjusting the gain of the outputs of said quadrature mixers; a poly-phase filter responsive to said gain adjust circuits for passing the wanted RF signals and attenuating image frequencies; a power measurement circuit responsive to said poly-phase filter for determining the power at the output of said poly-phase filter; and a control circuit for operating the switching circuit to selectively apply said RF source to said quadrature mixers in calibration mode and is responsive to the output of the power measurement circuit for driving, during calibration mode, the quadrature phase adjust circuit and quadrature gain adjust circuit to adjust the phase and gain, respectively, of the quadrature mixers to reduce the power of the image frequency. 2. The image rejection calibration system of claim 1 in which said input amplifier includes a low noise amplifier. 3. The image rejection calibration system of claim 1 in which said RF source includes a clock. 4. The image rejection calibration system of claim 3 in which said RF source includes a digital divider responsive to said clock for providing a fundamental frequency and harmonic frequencies. 5. The image rejection calibration system of claim 4 in which said RF source includes a high pass filter for passing a harmonic in the range of said wanted RF input signal. 6. The image rejection calibration system of claim 5 in which said digital divider is programmable. 7. The image rejection calibration system of claim 1 in which said control circuit controls the signal level of the RF source. 8. The image rejection calibration system of claim 1 in which said quadrature phase adjust circuit includes a programmable delay line. 9. The image rejection calibration system of claim 1 in which said local oscillator includes a fractional-N synthesizer. 10. The image rejection calibration system of claim 8 in which said quadrature phase adjust circuit includes a phase register for holding the phase adjust correction value from said control circuit. 11. The image rejection calibration system of claim 8 in which said programmable delay line includes a pair of quadrature delay lines. 12. The image rejection calibration system of claim 1 in which said quadrature gain adjust circuit includes a pair of quadrature gain adjust channels, each channel including a variable impedance device and a preamplifier, and a digital to analog converter, responsive to a command from said control circuit, for decreasing the impedance of one variable impedance in one channel and increasing the impedance of the other variable in the other channel. 13. The image rejection calibration system of claim 12 in which said quadrature gain adjust circuit includes a gain register for holding a correction value from said control circuit. 14. The image rejection calibration system of claim 12 in which each said preamplifier includes an amplifier with a feedback impedance and an input impedance connected to its respective variable impedance device. 15. The image rejection calibration system of claim 12 in which each said variable impedance device includes a current source and a field effect transistor. 16. The image rejection calibration system of claim 1 in which said power measurement circuit includes a received signal strength indicator. 17. The image rejection calibration system of claim 1 in which said power measurement circuit includes an analog to digital converter. 18. The image rejection calibration system of claim 1 in which said power measurement circuit includes a power measurement register for holding the present power measurement available to said control circuit. 19. The image rejection calibration system of claim 1 in which said control circuit includes a processor configured to sense the measured power from said power measurement circuit and command said quadrature gain adjust circuit and quadrature phase adjust circuit to drive, toward a minimum, the power measured by the power measurement circuit. 20. The image rejection calibration system of claim 19 in which said processor is on-chip. 21. The image rejection calibration system of claim 19 in which said processor is a microcontroller. 22. The image rejection calibration system of claim 1 in which said RF source includes a clock, digital divider responsive to said clock and a filter for passing harmonic frequencies from said digital divider in the frequency range of the wanted RF signal and image RF signal. 23. The image rejection calibration system of claim 22 in which said digital divider is a programmable digital divider. 24. The image rejection calibration system of claim 1 in which said input amplifier includes a shunting switch across its input to suppress introduction of external signals. 25. An image rejection calibration method comprising: initializing the calibration mode by applying to quadrature mixers, in place of the wanted RF input, an RF source in the frequency range of said wanted RF input; sensing the power output from the poly-phase filter; developing gain adjust and phase adjust correction values in response to said power output; and adjusting in accordance with said correction values the gain of the quadrature signals from the quadrature mixers to the poly-phase filter and the phase of local oscillator quadrature signals from the local oscillator to the quadrature mixers to reduce the power output. 26. The image rejection calibration method of claim 25 in which developing gain adjust and phase adjust correction values includes executing a successive approximation register algorithm. 27. The image rejection calibration method of claim 25 in which developing gain adjust and phase adjust correction values includes executing a gradient/slope estimation algorithm.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Achieving good Image Rejection (IR) performance in heterodyne receivers is one of the most important challenges in high performance radio design and the choice of radio architecture used in many applications is very often dictated by the image rejection requirements of the overall system. For example, in a double superheterodyne architecture, careful consideration must be given to proper frequency planning to achieve good IR performance. In this architecture, the use of a high first IF frequency relaxes the constraints on the RF band select filter at the low noise amplifier (LNA) input and improves image rejection performance. However, this comes at a cost of more expensive and power hungry filters for the first IF stage. On the other hand, a low first IF frequency relaxes the bandwidth, power and cost constraints on the first IF filter but now the external band select filter at the LNA input must have a much higher Q factor to maintain good image rejection performance. Similar consideration must also be given to the selection of the second IF frequency in a double superheterodyne design which also has an image component. In general, superheterodyne receivers can be designed to have excellent selectivity and can exhibit very good image rejection performance, but this comes at a cost of power and complexity and they are not widely used in integrated low power radio designs. A zero-IF receiver has the primary advantage that it does not have an image component. However, the zero-IF architecture is prone to low frequency impairments such as 1/f noise and DC offset problems and is not suitable for narrowband wireless communication applications such as the Flex/ReFlex pager standards and PMR radio standards such as APC025 and TETRA, where occupied spectral bandwidths of 6.25 kHz, 12 kHz and 25 kHz are required. Narrowband wireless telemetry and wireless sensor applications are other examples of communication networks where zero-IF receivers are not widely used. For example, the regulatory bodies; FCC (USA), ETSI (Europe) and ARIB (Japan) permit narrowband wireless telemetry in selected RF bands. In the USA, compliance to FCC part 90 requires channel bandwidths of 6.25-25 kHz channels. In Europe and in Japan, specifications for ETSI EN300-220 and ARIB STD-T67 respectively, require channel bandwidths of 12.5-25 kHz. A low-IF receiver architecture overcomes the low frequency and 1/f noise problems of the Zero-IF receiver by moving the received spectrum away from DC and this receiver architecture is well suited to the narrowband wireless telemetry applications described above. In a low-IF receiver architecture, image rejection is typically accomplished by the use of Hartley or Weaver image rejection techniques or by the use of complex analog bandpass filters. However, these architectures suffer from poor to moderate image rejection due to quadrature gain and phase mismatch errors in the local oscillator (LO) and signal paths. Fundamentally, these methods rely on complex signal cancellation techniques to remove the image component. However, due to manufacturing process tolerances, it is difficult to ensure quadrature gain and phase errors of better than 1-2% and 1-3 degrees respectively, which results in a typical image rejection performance of 25-30 dB. Thus, there is a need to enhance the IR performance of low-IF receiver architectures, and still preserve the benefits of low power, low-complexity and excellent narrowband performance that the low-IF receiver architectures offers.	<SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is therefore an object of this invention to provide an improved method and system for increasing image rejection. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system for a wireless receiver. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which uses an inexpensive, low noise, on-chip RF calibration source. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which can calibrate over a very wide range of frequencies for broadband operation and yet provide a calibration RF frequency close to the wanted RF frequency. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which can be implemented with low power and low complexity with very little additional hardware. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which can be implemented in hardware or software with low complexity algorithms. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which applies quadrature gain and quadrature phase corrections, at the source of the quadrature gain and phase errors, thereby making the receiver performance more robust and less susceptible to temperature, process and power supply variations. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which can employ fast convergence algorithms that conserve power. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which can be mostly or completely implemented on-chip. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which can improve the image rejection to 50 dB or higher. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which improves the image rejection performance by applying a tone at the image frequency to the mixer inputs and to determine the level of image rejection by measuring the power level of the image tone at the output of the poly-phase IF filter. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which can use a two-dimensional SAR algorithm which interleaves the bit trials of the phase and gain registers to reach the optimum phase and gain register settings which minimizes the image signal power in the minimum number of bit trials. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which can use image rejection calibration algorithm which uses the minimum number of iterations to find the optimum phase and gain register settings which minimizes the image signal power. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which can use a gradient estimation algorithm. The invention results from the realization that improved image rejection can be achieved in a wireless receiver by calibrating the receiver by applying to the input of the quadrature mixers in the calibration mode, an RF source, placed at the image frequency and sensing the power output from the poly-phase filter, then developing gain adjust and phase adjust values in response to the power output and adjusting, in accordance with those correction values, the gain of the quadrature signals from the quadrature mixers and the quadrature phase of the local oscillator signals from the local oscillator to the quadrature mixers to reduce the output power of the IF filter towards a minimum. The subject invention, however, in other embodiments, need not achieve all these objectives and the claims hereof should not be limited to structures or methods capable of achieving these objectives. This invention features an image rejection calibration system for a wireless receiver including an input amplifier for receiving a wanted RF input signal, a pair of quadrature mixers, and an RF source for providing an RF calibration signal in the frequency range of the wanted RF input signal. A switching circuit selectively connects the RF calibration signal and the wanted RF input signal to the quadrature mixers. There is a local oscillator, a quadrature phase adjust circuit responsive to the local oscillator for adjusting the phase of the outputs of the quadrature mixers, and a quadrature gain adjust circuit for adjusting the gain of the outputs of the quadrature mixers. A poly-phase filter is responsive to the gain adjust circuits for passing the wanted RF signals and attenuating image frequencies, and a power measurement circuit is responsive to the poly-phase filter for determining the power at the output of the poly-phase filter. A control circuit operates the switching circuit to selectively apply the RF source to the quadrature mixers in calibration mode and is responsive to the output of the power measurement circuit for driving, during calibration mode, the quadrature phase adjust circuit and quadrature gain adjust circuit to adjust the phase and gain, respectively, of the quadrature mixers to reduce the power of the image signal. The control circuit may adjust the RF frequency of the local oscillator to be an IF frequency above the frequency of the RF source. In a preferred embodiment the input amplifier may include a low noise amplifier. The low noise amplifier may have a shunting switch across its input terminals. The RF source may include a clock. The RF source may include a digital divider responsive to the clock for providing a fundamental frequency and harmonic frequencies. The RF source may include a high pass filter for passing a harmonic in the range of the wanted RF input signal. The control circuit may control the signal level of the RF source. The digital divider may be programmable. The quadrature phase adjust circuit may include a programmable delay line. The local oscillator may include a fractional-N synthesizer. The quadrature phase adjust circuit may include a phase register for holding the phase adjust correction value from the control circuit. The programmable delay line may include a pair of quadrature delay lines. The quadrature gain adjust circuit may include a pair of quadrature gain adjust channels. Each channel may include a variable impedance device and a preamplifier, and a digital to analog converter, responsive to a command from the control circuit, for decreasing the impedance of one variable impedance in one channel and increasing the impedance of the other variable in the other channel The quadrature gain adjust circuit may include a gain register for holding a correction value from the control circuit. Each preamplifier may include an amplifier with a feedback impedance and an input impedance connected to its respective variable impedance device. Each variable impedance device may include a current source and a field effect transistor. The power measurement circuit may include a received signal strength indicator. The power measurement circuit may include an analog to digital converter. The power measurement circuit may include a power measurement register for holding the present power measurement available to the control circuit. The control circuit may include a processor configured to sense the measured power from the power measurement circuit and command the quadrature gain adjust circuit and quadrature phase adjust circuit to drive, toward a minimum, the power measured by the power measurement circuit. The processor may be on-chip. The processor may be a microcontroller. The RF source may include a clock, digital divider responsive to the clock and a filter for passing harmonic frequencies from the digital divider in the frequency range of the wanted RF signal and image RF signal. The digital divider may be a programmable digital divider. This invention also features an image rejection calibration method including initializing the calibration mode by applying to quadrature mixers, in place of the wanted RF input, an RF source in the frequency range of the wanted RF input, sensing the power output from the poly-phase filter, developing gain adjust and phase adjust correction values in response to the power output and adjusting in accordance with the correction values the gain of the quadrature signals from the quadrature mixers to the poly-phase filter and the phase of local oscillator quadrature signals from the local oscillator to the quadrature mixers to reduce the power output. In a preferred embodiment developing gain adjust and phase adjust correction values may include executing a successive approximation register algorithm or may include executing a gradient/slope estimation algorithm.	RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims benefit of and priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/833,211 filed Jul. 25, 2006 and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/844,255 filed Sep. 13, 2006 both incorporated herein by this reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to an image rejection calibration system and method for a wireless receiver. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Achieving good Image Rejection (IR) performance in heterodyne receivers is one of the most important challenges in high performance radio design and the choice of radio architecture used in many applications is very often dictated by the image rejection requirements of the overall system. For example, in a double superheterodyne architecture, careful consideration must be given to proper frequency planning to achieve good IR performance. In this architecture, the use of a high first IF frequency relaxes the constraints on the RF band select filter at the low noise amplifier (LNA) input and improves image rejection performance. However, this comes at a cost of more expensive and power hungry filters for the first IF stage. On the other hand, a low first IF frequency relaxes the bandwidth, power and cost constraints on the first IF filter but now the external band select filter at the LNA input must have a much higher Q factor to maintain good image rejection performance. Similar consideration must also be given to the selection of the second IF frequency in a double superheterodyne design which also has an image component. In general, superheterodyne receivers can be designed to have excellent selectivity and can exhibit very good image rejection performance, but this comes at a cost of power and complexity and they are not widely used in integrated low power radio designs. A zero-IF receiver has the primary advantage that it does not have an image component. However, the zero-IF architecture is prone to low frequency impairments such as 1/f noise and DC offset problems and is not suitable for narrowband wireless communication applications such as the Flex/ReFlex pager standards and PMR radio standards such as APC025 and TETRA, where occupied spectral bandwidths of 6.25 kHz, 12 kHz and 25 kHz are required. Narrowband wireless telemetry and wireless sensor applications are other examples of communication networks where zero-IF receivers are not widely used. For example, the regulatory bodies; FCC (USA), ETSI (Europe) and ARIB (Japan) permit narrowband wireless telemetry in selected RF bands. In the USA, compliance to FCC part 90 requires channel bandwidths of 6.25-25 kHz channels. In Europe and in Japan, specifications for ETSI EN300-220 and ARIB STD-T67 respectively, require channel bandwidths of 12.5-25 kHz. A low-IF receiver architecture overcomes the low frequency and 1/f noise problems of the Zero-IF receiver by moving the received spectrum away from DC and this receiver architecture is well suited to the narrowband wireless telemetry applications described above. In a low-IF receiver architecture, image rejection is typically accomplished by the use of Hartley or Weaver image rejection techniques or by the use of complex analog bandpass filters. However, these architectures suffer from poor to moderate image rejection due to quadrature gain and phase mismatch errors in the local oscillator (LO) and signal paths. Fundamentally, these methods rely on complex signal cancellation techniques to remove the image component. However, due to manufacturing process tolerances, it is difficult to ensure quadrature gain and phase errors of better than 1-2% and 1-3 degrees respectively, which results in a typical image rejection performance of 25-30 dB. Thus, there is a need to enhance the IR performance of low-IF receiver architectures, and still preserve the benefits of low power, low-complexity and excellent narrowband performance that the low-IF receiver architectures offers. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is therefore an object of this invention to provide an improved method and system for increasing image rejection. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system for a wireless receiver. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which uses an inexpensive, low noise, on-chip RF calibration source. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which can calibrate over a very wide range of frequencies for broadband operation and yet provide a calibration RF frequency close to the wanted RF frequency. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which can be implemented with low power and low complexity with very little additional hardware. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which can be implemented in hardware or software with low complexity algorithms. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which applies quadrature gain and quadrature phase corrections, at the source of the quadrature gain and phase errors, thereby making the receiver performance more robust and less susceptible to temperature, process and power supply variations. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which can employ fast convergence algorithms that conserve power. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which can be mostly or completely implemented on-chip. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which can improve the image rejection to 50 dB or higher. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which improves the image rejection performance by applying a tone at the image frequency to the mixer inputs and to determine the level of image rejection by measuring the power level of the image tone at the output of the poly-phase IF filter. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which can use a two-dimensional SAR algorithm which interleaves the bit trials of the phase and gain registers to reach the optimum phase and gain register settings which minimizes the image signal power in the minimum number of bit trials. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which can use image rejection calibration algorithm which uses the minimum number of iterations to find the optimum phase and gain register settings which minimizes the image signal power. It is a further object of this invention to provide such an improved image rejection calibration method and system which can use a gradient estimation algorithm. The invention results from the realization that improved image rejection can be achieved in a wireless receiver by calibrating the receiver by applying to the input of the quadrature mixers in the calibration mode, an RF source, placed at the image frequency and sensing the power output from the poly-phase filter, then developing gain adjust and phase adjust values in response to the power output and adjusting, in accordance with those correction values, the gain of the quadrature signals from the quadrature mixers and the quadrature phase of the local oscillator signals from the local oscillator to the quadrature mixers to reduce the output power of the IF filter towards a minimum. The subject invention, however, in other embodiments, need not achieve all these objectives and the claims hereof should not be limited to structures or methods capable of achieving these objectives. This invention features an image rejection calibration system for a wireless receiver including an input amplifier for receiving a wanted RF input signal, a pair of quadrature mixers, and an RF source for providing an RF calibration signal in the frequency range of the wanted RF input signal. A switching circuit selectively connects the RF calibration signal and the wanted RF input signal to the quadrature mixers. There is a local oscillator, a quadrature phase adjust circuit responsive to the local oscillator for adjusting the phase of the outputs of the quadrature mixers, and a quadrature gain adjust circuit for adjusting the gain of the outputs of the quadrature mixers. A poly-phase filter is responsive to the gain adjust circuits for passing the wanted RF signals and attenuating image frequencies, and a power measurement circuit is responsive to the poly-phase filter for determining the power at the output of the poly-phase filter. A control circuit operates the switching circuit to selectively apply the RF source to the quadrature mixers in calibration mode and is responsive to the output of the power measurement circuit for driving, during calibration mode, the quadrature phase adjust circuit and quadrature gain adjust circuit to adjust the phase and gain, respectively, of the quadrature mixers to reduce the power of the image signal. The control circuit may adjust the RF frequency of the local oscillator to be an IF frequency above the frequency of the RF source. In a preferred embodiment the input amplifier may include a low noise amplifier. The low noise amplifier may have a shunting switch across its input terminals. The RF source may include a clock. The RF source may include a digital divider responsive to the clock for providing a fundamental frequency and harmonic frequencies. The RF source may include a high pass filter for passing a harmonic in the range of the wanted RF input signal. The control circuit may control the signal level of the RF source. The digital divider may be programmable. The quadrature phase adjust circuit may include a programmable delay line. The local oscillator may include a fractional-N synthesizer. The quadrature phase adjust circuit may include a phase register for holding the phase adjust correction value from the control circuit. The programmable delay line may include a pair of quadrature delay lines. The quadrature gain adjust circuit may include a pair of quadrature gain adjust channels. Each channel may include a variable impedance device and a preamplifier, and a digital to analog converter, responsive to a command from the control circuit, for decreasing the impedance of one variable impedance in one channel and increasing the impedance of the other variable in the other channel The quadrature gain adjust circuit may include a gain register for holding a correction value from the control circuit. Each preamplifier may include an amplifier with a feedback impedance and an input impedance connected to its respective variable impedance device. Each variable impedance device may include a current source and a field effect transistor. The power measurement circuit may include a received signal strength indicator. The power measurement circuit may include an analog to digital converter. The power measurement circuit may include a power measurement register for holding the present power measurement available to the control circuit. The control circuit may include a processor configured to sense the measured power from the power measurement circuit and command the quadrature gain adjust circuit and quadrature phase adjust circuit to drive, toward a minimum, the power measured by the power measurement circuit. The processor may be on-chip. The processor may be a microcontroller. The RF source may include a clock, digital divider responsive to the clock and a filter for passing harmonic frequencies from the digital divider in the frequency range of the wanted RF signal and image RF signal. The digital divider may be a programmable digital divider. This invention also features an image rejection calibration method including initializing the calibration mode by applying to quadrature mixers, in place of the wanted RF input, an RF source in the frequency range of the wanted RF input, sensing the power output from the poly-phase filter, developing gain adjust and phase adjust correction values in response to the power output and adjusting in accordance with the correction values the gain of the quadrature signals from the quadrature mixers to the poly-phase filter and the phase of local oscillator quadrature signals from the local oscillator to the quadrature mixers to reduce the power output. In a preferred embodiment developing gain adjust and phase adjust correction values may include executing a successive approximation register algorithm or may include executing a gradient/slope estimation algorithm. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS Other objects, features and advantages will occur to those skilled in the art from the following description of a preferred embodiment and the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a prior art low IF receiver; FIG. 2 is an illustration of the image signal and wanted RF signal at the low noise amplifier input and mixer outputs for the low IF receiver of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is an illustration of the poly-phase filter rejection profile for the low IF receiver of FIG. 1; FIG. 4 is an illustration of the image signal and wanted RF signal at the poly-phase filter output in FIG. 1; FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram for a receiver with a calibration system according to this invention; FIG. 6 is a more detailed schematic diagram of the receiver of FIG. 5; FIG. 7 is a three dimensional illustration of image rejection performance versus quadrature gain/phase correction according to this invention; FIG. 8 is a flow chart of the calibration method of this invention; FIG. 9 is a flow chart of one algorithm for developing the gain and phase adjust correction values according to this invention; FIG. 10 is a three dimensional illustration of the power of the image signal at the poly-phase filter output versus gain and phase adjustment values; and FIG. 11 is a flow chart of another algorithm for developing the gain and phase adjust correction values according to this invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Aside from the preferred embodiment or embodiments disclosed below, this invention is capable of other embodiments and of being practiced or being carried out in various ways. Thus, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited in its application to the details of construction and the arrangements of components set forth in the following description or illustrated in the drawings. If only one embodiment is described herein, the claims hereof are not to be limited to that embodiment. Moreover, the claims hereof are not to be read restrictively unless there is clear and convincing evidence manifesting a certain exclusion, restriction, or disclaimer. The calibration system and method of this invention is applicable for a wide range of wireless receiver architecture, e.g. heterodyne mixing circuits in radio receivers. One example of a typical receiver with which this invention may be used is a prior art low IF receiver 10, FIG. 1, which includes an input, low noise amplifier 12 which normally provides the wanted RF signal, for example, 900.1 MHz, to quadrature mixers 14 and 16 that provide the I and Q inputs to complex poly-phase filter 18. An intermediate frequency (IF) of 100 kHz is produced at the quadrature mixer outputs using local oscillator 20, which has a frequency, for example, of 900 MHz. The unwanted image frequency appears in this example at 899.9 MHz, located at a frequency that is equal to the frequency of the wanted signal minus two times the IF frequency. An alternate implementation which can also be used is to operate the local oscillator at an IF frequency above the wanted frequency and in this case the image component will be located at a frequency that is equal to the frequency of the wanted signal plus two times the IF frequency. The image RF input can appear at a higher power 22, FIG. 2, than the wanted RF input 24 at the output of low noise amplifier 12. Likewise the image input 26 to poly-phase filter 18 from quadrature mixers 14 and 16 can have higher power than the wanted RF input 28. Ideally poly-phase filter 18 should have a symmetrical rejection profile 30b, that is centered on the wanted channel at +100 kHz, FIG. 3. However, practically speaking, due to manufacturing process tolerances, the filter response is such that at the minus 100 kHz frequency, the image signal is typically only attenuated by 25 dB as shown as 32. The result is that, if the input power level of the image signal 22 increases by 25 dB or more, relative to the wanted RF input signal 24 in FIG. 2, the power level of the unwanted image signal 36 will become comparable to, or greater than, the wanted signal 34 at the poly-phase filter's output in FIG. 4 and this will cause a substantial degradation in the receiver's performance and will inhibit reception of the wanted signal. In accordance with this invention an image rejection calibration system 10a, FIG. 5, includes a sampling mux 40 and an RF source 42. There is also a gain adjust circuit 43 including two channels 44 and 46 and a phase adjust circuit 48. Also shown is a power measurement circuit 50 which may include an analog to digital converter 58. The local oscillator here is implemented with a fractional-N synthesizer 20a but an integer-N RF synthesizer can also be used in some applications. There is also a control circuit 60 which may be on chip 62 or not. It may be a microprocessor or microcontroller or it may be an on-chip dedicated hardware circuit or a device such as a digital signal processor (DSP) or field programmable gate array (FPGA). Low noise amplifier 12, FIG. 5, is shown as having dual inputs 62 and 64. This indicates that the entire system deals with a differential signal set but the remainder of the circuit is shown with single ended schematic indications in order to simplify the drawing. In operation to initialize the calibration mode, control circuit 60 commands mux 40 to deliver a signal from RF source 42 to quadrature mixers 14 and 16 instead of the normal wanted RF signal from low noise amplifier 12. Command/request for calibration can come from an external source or it can be self timed in control circuit 60. The signal from RF source 42 is in the same frequency range as the image and wanted RF signals. With this signal close to the frequency of the wanted RF signal and the image RF signal delivered to quadrature mixers 14 and 16, the quadrature signals at the output of the mixers 14 and 16 will contain a signal representing the image component at minus 100 kHz IF frequency. The output of filter 18 is monitored by analog power measurement circuit 50 to determine the power of that signal, which is a measurement of how well the image component at minus 100 kHz has been attenuated by the IF filter 18. The power is converted using an N bit ADC, in this case, to a seven bit digital code which is delivered to control circuit 60. Control circuit 60 using an optimization algorithm such as a modified successive approximation register (SAR) algorithm or a gradient estimation algorithm then applies a phase correction value to phase adjust circuit 48 and a gain correction value to gain adjust circuit 43. The process is iterative during the calibration mode so that the power output measured by power measurement circuit 50 is reduced over and over again toward a minimum which is typically 50 to 60 dB's down from the wanted RF signal. Control circuit 60 provides control signals to fractional-N synthesizer 20a, phase adjust circuit 48, RF source 42, and gain adjust circuit 43 over lines 61, 63, 65, 67, respectively. A further specific embodiment 10b, FIG. 6, shows low noise amplifier 12 including a shunting switch 70 across the input terminals 62, 64. During calibration mode this shunting transistor 70 is made to conduct so that no external signals at the receiver's antenna can be introduced through low noise amplifier 12 and in compliance with government regulators no stray transmissions can occur from the RF source 42b to the receiver's antenna. RF source 42b in this specific embodiment includes a digital divider 80 which may be a programmable digital divider that divides the input from crystal clock 82 by a programmable factor M, 84. RF source 42b also includes an inverter 85 and a high-pass filter 86 which attenuates low frequency components at the output of digital divider 80 and only permits high frequency harmonics of the output of digital divider 80 to pass through to mixer inputs 14 and 16. High pass filter 86 also includes an input for controlling the signal level of the RF source during calibration by changing the coupling capacitor in the high pass filter 86 or by changing the buffer drive strength in high pass filter 86 which may come from control circuit 60b which also may provide the enable signal to inverter 85. Calibration control circuit 60b also programs the digital divider 80 input from a programmable factor M, 84 so that a harmonic of the output of the programmable digital divider 80 frequency is close to the RF band of operation of the receiver. Calibration control circuit 60b also programs the fractional-N RF synthesizer using control signal 61 so that its output frequency is equal to the frequency of the RF source plus the receivers IF frequency. Input 65 actually includes an enable input 65a to turn on and off inverter 85 and an input 65b to vary the capacitance of variable filter 86. RF source 42b provides a stable high frequency RF signal for calibration purposes at very low power and at very low cost and this does not require the use of a dedicated RF synthesizer or require the use an external RF source for the purposes of calibration. The gain may be controlled either by varying the capacitance of variable capacitor 86 or changing the drive strength on the input 69 driven by control circuit 60b. Inverter 85 may also be digital buffer. This approach derives the RF source by using the harmonics that are present in the square wave output from digital divider 80. For example, to calibrate at an RF frequency of 905 MHz and using a 10 MHz crystal reference 82, divider M, 84 is programmed to select a divide by two which results in a 5 MHz clock output from digital divider 80. The RF source 42 will have a low level spectral component at the 181st harmonic of this square wave 5 MHz output at 905 MHz which is applied to mixer inputs 14 and 16. Fractional-N RF synthesizer 20b is then adjusted to 905.1 MHz and the quadrature signals at the output of the mixers 14 and 16 will then contain a signal representing the image component at minus 100 kHz IF frequency and the output of filter 18 is monitored by analog power measurement circuit 50 to determine the power of that signal, which is a measurement of how well the image component at minus 100 kHz has been attenuated by the IF filter 18. In addition, to support different RF bands and different RF frequencies, the programmable divider factor M can be changed and an appropriate harmonic frequency can be selected for RF calibration source 42b that is close to the RF frequency of operation of the receiver. This permits a wide range of RF frequencies, located at integer multiples of the divided clock output 80 to be obtained during a calibration phase, at the output of RF source 42b and IR calibration can be implemented at discrete RF frequencies that typically range from a few tens of megahertz to several gigahertz on the same device. Also in FIG. 6, the phase adjust circuit 48b is shown as implemented with a conventional programmable delay line 48bb, gain adjust circuit 43b includes two channels 44b, 44bb and a digital to analog converter 94 and gain register 96. Phase adjust circuit 48b also includes a phase register 88 where the phase adjust value from control circuit 60b is held. Gain adjust circuit 43b includes gain register 96 which holds the gain adjust value from control circuit 60b. In gain adjust circuit 43b channels 44b and 44bb correspond to the I and Q quadrature channels. Channel 44b includes a variable impedance device 100b and an amplifier 102b with a feedback resistance 104b and series resistance 106b. Variable impedance 100b may include a fixed current source 108b and a field effect transistor such as CMOS transistor 110b, operating as a signal buffer. Channel 44bb contains all the same elements as indicated by the same reference numerals accompanied by a second b. Power measurement circuit 50 may include a received signal strength indicator (RSSI) or log amplifier 52 with attendant amplifiers 54, 56 or could be done in software or digital hardware. In operation when a gain adjust value is present in gain register 96, DAC 94 may sink current on line 112b and deliver current on line 112bb or it may sink current on line 112bb and deliver current on line 112b. The change in current at transistors 110b and 110bb changes their transconductance which changes their output impedance. Their change in output impedance effects the input resistance associated with the amplifier 102b, 102bb, which changes the amplifier gain. The gain is expressed as a function of RF/(RS+RV), where RV is the variable impedance 100b, 100bb and RF and RS are the feedback and input resistors of the amplifiers. A power measurement register or RSSI register 120 is included in power measurement circuit 50, FIG. 6, and control circuit 60b here is shown as employing a microprocessor or microcontroller unit. And, again, may or may not be on-chip 62 with the rest of the components. If it is on-chip it may be implemented as a dedicated hardware configuration. If control circuit 60b is off-chip registers such as 88, 96, 120 could be used on lines 61, 65 and 69 as well. If control circuit 60b is on-chip the lines could be direct as are lines 61, 65, 69 and registers such as 88, 96, 120 need not be provided. The signal level of the RF calibration source at the output of circuit 42b can also be adjusted by the control circuit 60b during the calibration process by gain control signals 69 and 65b. This ensures that signal levels at the outputs of the quadrature mixers 14, 16 and IF filter 18 are not saturated during the calibration process. In addition, the gain control circuit also permits IR calibration to be implemented over a wide range of signal levels such that the receiver's IR performance can be optimized over the maximum and minimum power level of the external interfering image signal. The image rejection performance of such a system in accordance with this invention is depicted in FIG. 7, where the image rejection or change in IR in dB is plotted on the Y axis while the necessary quadrature gain correction is depicted on the X axis and the quadrature phase correction on the Z axis. In this specific instance it can be seen that a gain correction of −6 accompanied by a phase correction of +3 give the optimum change in image rejection in dB at 130. The method according to this invention depicted in FIG. 8 is a general algorithm of the calibration procedure. It begins with the initiation of the calibration mode 140 after which the RF source in the frequency range of the wanted RF and image signals are applied to the quadrature mixers 142 and using a control signal, the local oscillator frequency is set to be an IF frequency above the image frequency of the RF source 42. The power level of the RF source is adjusted to a predetermined level using gain control signals. The power output from the poly-phase IF filter is then sensed 144 and the controller circuit then computes correction values 146 to adjust phase and gain of quadrature signals delivered to the poly-phase IF filter 148. The measured IF filter output power is then compared to a pre-determined minimum value 150. If the IF filter output power is greater than the pre-determined minimum value, the controller iterates procedures 144, 146, 148 and 150 until the measured IF filter output power is below the pre-determined minimum value, after which, the optimum values of quadrature gain and phase are stored 152 and used in normal operation of the receiver. The calibration procedure improves the overall receiver's image rejection to typically 50-60 dB. FIG. 9 shows a slope or gradient estimation algorithm 198, for updating the quadrature gain and phase correction values. A gradient estimation algorithm develops gain and phase correction values through an iterative search where each iteration calculates the localized slope or gradient of power output measurements about a point A, and each iteration moves the point A closer to the optimum gain and phase adjustment values. It is based on measuring the incremental gradient or slope of the 2-dimensional array of poly-phase filter output power versus quadrature gain and phase values. The complete array of phase adjustment and gain adjustment values comprise a 2-dimensional field, where each unique set of gain and phase adjustment values represents a point in that field. This field is drawn as the X axis 412 and Z axis 414 of the 3-dimensional plot 400 on FIG. 10. Each unique set of gain and phase adjustment values may be applied to the poly-phase filter, causing the poly-phase filter to offer a level of image rejection specific to that pair of adjustment values. The power of a signal at the image frequency may be plotted on a Y axis 410 against the full array of gain and phase adjustment values, to give a 3-dimensional plot in isometric view 400. The point of maximum image rejection is the point of minimum power from the image calibration source, and may be observed as minimum 416 on the 3-D plot 400. The gain and phase adjustment values for maximum image rejection correspond to the X and Z axis coordinates on plot 400 which result in the minimum Y axis value. In each iteration the algorithm operates on a small subset of the total surface shown as the box 401. The box 401 is drawn as a square 402 in the 2 dimensional diagram 403 which is a vertical projection of 400. The X axis 412 and Z axis 414 of 3-D plot 400 are drawn as X and Y axes of 2-D plot 403, and used as array coordinates where each point in the array 403 contains the value plotted on the Z axis 410 of the 3-D plot 400. As the algorithm iterates, the box 402 may be centered on any coordinate in the array of gain and phase adjustment values, as the point A 405 is moved closer to the optimum point 416. The algorithm of FIG. 9 begins by setting the poly-phase filter gain and phase adjustment values to the centre of their range to set up the initial conditions 200 before iteratively searching for optimum adjustment values. The gain and phase adjustment values set in 200 or 210 represent a point A 405 in the array of all possible adjustment values. The power output from the poly-phase filter is measured and stored in a variable PA 202 using gain and phase values set in 200 or 210. The gain adjustment value of the poly-phase filter is then incremented by 1 unit to represent point B 406 in the array of adjustment values, the power output from the poly-phase filter is measured and stored in variable PB 204. Next, the phase adjustment value of the poly-phase filter is incremented by 1 unit to represent point C 404 in the array of adjustment values, the power output from the poly-phase filter is measured and the power stored in variable PC 206. The localized slope of the array of adjustment values is then calculated in 208 based on the powers measured at points A, B and C. The slope of the array is stored in 2 dimensional Cartesian form in the variables ΔGain and ΔPhase. The slope ΔGain is used to determine if the poly-phase gain adjustment should be increased or decreased by 1 or more units. Similarly, the slope ΔPhase is used to determine if the poly-phase phase adjustment should be increased or decreased by 1 or more units 210. Based on these decisions the gain and phase adjustment values are set to any point within the box 402, which will become the point A in the next iteration of the algorithm. The adjustments 210 should give an incremental improvement in the image rejection of the poly-phase filter, and move point A 405 incrementally closer to optimum 416. The steps 202 to 210 represent the body of an iteration of this algorithm. If the number of iterations completed exceeds a threshold then no more iterations are performed 212. If the number of previous iterations of 202 to 210 which have not yielded any improvement in PA exceeds a threshold, then no more iterations are performed 214. If neither limit 212, 214 is exceeded the algorithm loops back to measure power at a new point A 202. Before completion, the poly-phase gain and phase adjustment values are set to those with resulted in the lowest measured PA. The location of points B 406 and C 404 within box 402 is not critical. As long as they are placed orthogonally to each other then the localized slope may be calculated. Points B and C may be placed more than one unit away from point A to allow more accurate calculation of the slope. The adjustment of the gain and phase adjustment values may be performed in increments greater than one unit to effectively reduce the search space and allow faster convergence of the algorithm toward the minimum 416. Averaging of successive measurements may also be used in steps 202, 204, 206 to improve the accuracy of the image power measurement in the presence of noise. FIG. 11 shows another algorithm 160 for updating the quadrature gain and phase correction values. The algorithm is based on a Successive Approximation Register (SAR) algorithm, operating on two variables; the quadrature phase and quadrature gain correction registers. In general, the 2-D SAR algorithm, performs “bit-trials” by setting logic bits of the gain or the phase registers to logic 1 and then examining the effect of setting this bit on the IF filter's output power during IR calibration. The algorithm operates on the gain and the phase registers in two dimensions by interleaving the gain and the phase register bit trials. In step 162, a variable Pi is defined and is used to represent the minimum IF filter output power measured during the calibration procedure. In this step 162, Pi is initialized to zero. The suffix i indicates the index number of the logic bit of the gain or phase registers where i=0, 1, 2, up to the maximum of M and N. In the next step 164, bit number m of the gain register is set to logic 1 and the IF filter's output power is measured and stored in variable Pm. The suffix m is the index number for the bit in the gain register that is being tested. Initially m is set equal to M and m has a numeric range: M, M−1, M−2 . . . 1, 0. In step 166, the IF filter power measured in step 164 is compared to the power stored in the variable Pi. If the condition that Pm<Pi is true, bit m of the gain register is kept as logic 1. If the condition Pm<Pi is false then bit m of the gain register is reset to logic 0. In step 168, bit number n of the phase register is set to logic 1 and the IF filter's output power is measured and stored in variable Pn. The suffix n is the index number for the bit in the phase register that is being tested. Initially n is set equal to N. n has a numeric range: N, N−1, N−2 . . . 1, 0. In step 178, the power of the image signal Pn is compared to the power stored in the variable Pi. If the condition that Pn<Pi is true, bit n of the phase register is kept at logic 1. If the condition Pn<Pi is false then bit n of the phase register is reset to logic 0. In step 180, the variable Pi is assigned the minimum of the two power measurements Pm and Pn. Pi=min (Pm, Pn). In step 182, if all the bits of the gain register and all the bits of the phase register, have been tested, i.e., the variables m and n are both zero, the algorithm terminates, otherwise, the algorithm moves to step 184. In step 184, the variables m and n are both decremented by 1, indexing the next gain and phase register bits to be tested. After step 184, the algorithm returns to step 164 and the algorithm is repeated again until all the bits of the gain and phase registers have been tested. When all bits of the gain and phase registers have been tested the algorithm terminates and the values obtained in quadrature gain and phase registers represent the optimum values that provide maximum Image Rejection. These settings are stored and used during normal operation of the device. Although specific features of the invention are shown in some drawings and not in others, this is for convenience only as each feature may be combined with any or all of the other features in accordance with the invention. The words “including”, “comprising”, “having”, and “with” as used herein are to be interpreted broadly and comprehensively and are not limited to any physical interconnection. Moreover, any embodiments disclosed in the subject application are not to be taken as the only possible embodiments. In addition, any amendment presented during the prosecution of the patent application for this patent is not a disclaimer of any claim element presented in the application as filed: those skilled in the art cannot reasonably be expected to draft a claim that would literally encompass all possible equivalents, many equivalents will be unforeseeable at the time of the amendment and are beyond a fair interpretation of what is to be surrendered (if anything), the rationale underlying the amendment may bear no more than a tangential relation to many equivalents, and/or there are many other reasons the applicant can not be expected to describe certain insubstantial substitutes for any claim element amended. Other embodiments will occur to those skilled in the art and are within the following claims.	H	H04	H04B	1	10
11619470	US20080161213A1-20080703	NANOPARTICLE ADDITIVES AND LUBRICANT FORMULATIONS CONTAINING THE NANOPARTICLE ADDITIVES	ACCEPTED	20080619	20080703		[]	C10M10306	["C10M10306", "C01F1700"]	8741821	20070103	20140603	508	165000	70672.0	HINES	LATOSHA	[{"inventor_name_last": "Jao", "inventor_name_first": "Tze-Chi", "inventor_city": "Glen Allen", "inventor_state": "VA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Devlin", "inventor_name_first": "Mark T.", "inventor_city": "Richmond", "inventor_state": "VA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Aradi", "inventor_name_first": "Allen A.", "inventor_city": "Glen Allen", "inventor_state": "VA", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A method for reducing a friction coefficient adjacent a lubricated surface, and a lubricant composition for reducing a friction coefficient between lubricated surfaces. The method includes providing an amount of metal-containing dispersed in a fully formulated lubricant composition containing a base oil of lubricating viscosity, wherein the nanoparticles have an average particles size ranging from about 1 to about 10 nanometers. The lubricant composition containing the metal-containing nanoparticles is applied to a surface to be lubricated.	1. A method for reducing a friction coefficient adjacent a lubricated surface, comprising providing an amount of metal-containing nanoparticles dispersed in a fully formulated lubricant composition containing a base oil of lubricating viscosity, and applying the lubricant composition containing the metal-containing nanoparticles to a surface to be lubricated, wherein the nanoparticles are represented by the formula (Aa)m(Bb)nXx, wherein each of A, B is selected from a metal, X is selected from the group consisting of oxygen and sulfur, subscripts a, b, and x represent compositional stoichiometry, and each of m and n is greater than or equal to zero with the proviso that at least one of m and n is greater than zero, and wherein the nanoparticles have an average particles size ranging from about 1 to about 10 nanometers. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the lubricated surface comprises an engine drive train. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the lubricated surface comprises an internal surface or component of an internal combustion engine. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the lubricated surface comprises an internal surface or component of a compression ignition engine. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the amount of metal-containing nanoparticles in the fully formulated lubricant composition ranges up to about 5 percent by weight. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the amount of metal-containing nanoparticles in the fully formulated lubricant composition ranges from about 0.1 to about 2 percent by weight. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein each of A and B is selected from the group consisting of metals from Groups 1A, 2A, 3A, 4A, 5A, and 6A of the Periodic Table, transition metals, lanthanides, actinides, and mixtures thereof. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the metal-containing nanoparticles comprise cerium oxide nanoparticles having a spherical shape. 9. A method of reducing a friction coefficient of an engine lubricant composition during operation of an engine containing the lubricant composition, comprising contacting the engine parts with a fully formulated lubricant composition comprising a base oil of lubricating viscosity and an amount of metal-containing nanoparticles sufficient to reduce the friction coefficient to below a friction coefficient of a lubricant composition devoid of the metal-containing nanoparticles, wherein the nanoparticles have an average particle size ranging from about 1 to about 10 nanometers, and wherein the nanoparticles are represented by the formula (Aa)m(Bb)nXx, wherein each of A, B is selected from a metal, X is selected from the group consisting of oxygen and sulfur, subscripts a, b, and x represent compositional stoichiometry, and each of m and n is greater than or equal to zero with the proviso that at least one of m and n is greater than zero. 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the engine comprises a heavy duty diesel engine. 11. The method of claim 9, wherein the amount of cerium oxide nanoparticles in the fully formulated lubricant composition ranges up to about 5 percent by weight. 12. The method of claim 9, wherein the amount of cerium oxide nanoparticles in the fully formulated lubricant composition ranges from about 0.1 to about 2 percent by weight. 13. The method of claim 9, wherein each of A and B is selected from the group consisting of metals from Groups 1A, 2A, 3A, 4A, 5A, and 6A of the Periodic Table, transition metals, lanthanides, actinides, and mixtures thereof. 14. A method of for reducing wear between moving parts using a lubricating oil, the method comprising using as the lubricating oil for one or more moving parts a lubricant composition containing a base oil, and an oil additive package including a wear reducing agent, wherein the wear reducing agent comprises dispersed metal-containing nanoparticles represented by the formula (Aa)m(Bb)nXx, wherein each of A, B is selected from a metal, X is selected from the group consisting of oxygen and sulfur, subscripts a, b, and x represent compositional stoichiometry, and each of m and n is greater than or equal to zero with the proviso that at least one of m and n is greater than zero, and wherein the amount of nanoparticles in the lubricant composition ranges up to about 5 percent by weight of the total lubricant composition. 15. The method of claim 14, wherein the moving parts comprise moving parts of an engine. 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the engine is selected from the group consisting of a compression ignition engine and a spark ignition engine. 17. The method of claim 15, wherein the engine includes an internal combustion engine having a crankcase and wherein the lubricating oil comprises a crankcase oil present in the crankcase of the engine. 18. The method of claim 14, wherein the lubricating oil comprises a drive train lubricant present in a drive train of a vehicle containing the engine. 19. The method of claim 14, wherein the wear reducing agent is present in the lubricant composition in an amount ranging from about 0.1 to about 5 percent by weight. 20. The method of claim 14, wherein the wear reducing agent has an average particle size ranging from about 1 to about 10 nanometers. 21. A lubricant composition comprising: a base oil of lubricating viscosity; and a boundary friction reducing amount of self-dispersing metal-containing nanoparticles dspersed in the base oil, wherein the nanoparticles have an average particles size ranging from about 1 to about 10 nanometers and are represented by the formula (Aa)m(Bb)nXx, wherein each of A, B is selected from a metal, X is selected from the group consisting of oxygen and sulfur, subscripts a, b, and x represent compositional stoichiometry, and each of m and n is greater than or equal to zero with the proviso that at least one of m and n is greater than zero, and wherein the metal-containing nanoparticles are effective to reduce a boundary friction coefficient between lubricated metal surfaces to below a boundary friction coefficient between the lubricated metal surfaces of a lubricant composition devoid of the metal-containing nanoparticles. 22. The lubricant composition of claim 21, wherein the amount of metal-containing nanoparticles dispersed in the base oil ranges up to about 5 percent by weight. 23. The lubricant composition of claim 21, wherein the amount of metal-containing nanoparticles dispersed in the base oil ranges from about 0.1 to about 2 percent by weight. 24. The lubricant composition of claim 21, wherein the metal-containing nanoparticles comprises cerium-oxide nanoparticles having a spherical shape. 25. Oil dispersible cerium oxide nanoparticles derived from a cerium acetate solution of amine and organic acid, wherein the solution is irradiated by a high frequency electromagnetic radiation source to provide oil dispersible nanoparticles having a substantially uniform particle size ranging from about 1 to about 10 nanometers. 26. The oil dispersible cerium oxide nanoparticles of claim 25, wherein the nanoparticles have a shape selected from the group consisting of square plates and spherical nanoparticles. 27. The oil dispersible cerium oxide nanoparticles of claim 25, wherein the organic acid comprises an unsaturated fatty acid containing from about 10 to about 26 carbon atoms. 28. The oil dispersible cerium oxide nanoparticles of claim 25, wherein the amine comprises an unsaturated hydrocarbyl amine containing from about 3 to about 24 carbon atoms. 29. The oil dispersible cerium oxide nanoparticles of claim 25, wherein a mole ratio of amine to organic acid in the cerium acetate solution ranges from about 1:1 to about 3:1. 30. The oil soluble cerium oxide nanoparticles of claim 29, wherein a mole ratio of amine to cerium acetate in the cerium acetate solution ranges from about 5:1 to about 10:1.	<SOH> BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY <EOH>A lubricant may be a liquid, a paste, or a solid with liquid lubricants being the most used. Lubricating oils may be used in automobile engines, transmissions, bearings, gears, industrial gears and other machinery to reduce friction and wear and to increase fuel economy. A number of components including, but not limited to dispersants, detergents, friction modifiers, antiwear agents, antioxidants, and anti-corrosion additives are typically present in fully formulated lubricating oils. For many lubricant applications, a viscosity index improver may also be included as a major component. With the energy resources depleting and more stringent environmental regulations being adopted, there exists a greater demand to increase a fuel economy of vehicles and to decrease emissions in vehicle exhausts. Currently, organic friction modifiers are added to the lubricating oils to increase fuel economy. However, the level of the fuel economy achievable by organic friction modifiers is limited. Hence, there is a need for alternate methods for achieving improvements in fuel economy. One method for increasing fuel economy is to provide lower viscosity grade lubricating oils. While providing lower viscosity lubricating oils may dramatically increase fuel economy, such lubricating oils may also increase wear. Wear may be partially reduced by using antiwear agents such as zinc dialkyldithiolphosphate (ZDTP). However, ZDDP contains phosphorus and its decomposition products may have deleterious effects on automotive catalyst systems for emission control. Accordingly, there remains an increasing need for methods for reducing friction and wear without adversely affecting emission control systems and without further depleting scarce natural resources. With regard to the above, exemplary embodiments described herein provide methods for reducing friction coefficients and wear between lubricated surfaces. The method includes providing an amount of metal-containing nanoparticles dispersed in a fully formulated lubricant composition containing a base oil of lubricating viscosity. The nanoparticles have a formula of (A a ) m (B b ) n X x , wherein each of A, B is selected from a metal, X is selected from the group consisting of oxygen and sulfur, subscripts a, b, and x represent compositional stoichiometry, and each of m and n is greater than or equal to zero with the proviso that at least one of m and n is greater than zero, wherein the nanoparticles have an average particles size ranging from about 1 to about 10 nanometers. The lubricant composition containing the metal-containing nanoparticles is applied to a surface to be lubricated. In another embodiment, there is provided a method of reducing a friction coefficient of an engine lubricant composition during operation of an engine containing the lubricant composition. The method includes contacting the engine parts with a fully formulated lubricant composition that contains a base oil of lubricating viscosity and an amount of metal-containing nanoparticles sufficient to reduce the friction coefficient to below a friction coefficient of a lubricant composition devoid of the metal-containing nanoparticles. The nanoparticles have a formula of (A a ) m (B b ) n X x , wherein each of A, B is selected from a metal, X is selected from the group consisting of oxygen and sulfur, subscripts a, b, and x represent compositional stoichiometry, and each of m and n is greater than or equal to zero with the proviso that at least one of m and n is greater than zero. The nanoparticles in the lubricant composition have an average particle size ranging from about 1 to about 10 nanometers. A further embodiment of the disclosure provides a method for reducing wear between moving parts using a lubricating oil. The method includes using as the lubricating oil for one or more moving parts a lubricant composition containing a base oil, and an oil additive package including a wear reducing agent. The wear reducing agent is made of dispersed metal-containing nanoparticles, wherein the amount of nanoparticles in the lubricant composition ranges up to about 5 percent by weight of the total lubricant composition. The metal-containing nanoparticles have a formula of (A a ) m (B b ) n X x , wherein each of A, B is selected from a metal, X is selected from the group consisting of oxygen and sulfur, subscripts a, b, and x represent compositional stoichiometry, and each of m and n is greater than or equal to zero with the proviso that at least one of m and n is greater than zero. Another embodiment of the disclosure provides a lubricant composition containing a base oil of lubricating viscosity and a boundary friction reducing amount of metal-containing nanoparticles dspersed in the base oil. The metal-containing nanoparticles have a formula of (A a ) m (B b ) n X x , wherein each of A, B is selected from a metal, X is selected from the group consisting of oxygen and sulfur, subscripts a, b, and x represent compositional stoichiometry, and each of m and n is greater than or equal to zero with the proviso that at least one of m and n is greater than zero. The nanoparticles have an average particles size ranging from about 1 to about 10 nanometers, and are effective to reduce a boundary friction coefficient between lubricated metal surfaces to below a boundary friction coefficient between the lubricated metal surfaces of a lubricant composition devoid of the metal-containing nanoparticles. Yet another embodiment of the disclosure provides oil dispersible cerium oxide nanoparticles derived from a cerium acetate solution of amine and organic acid. The cerium acetate solution is irradiated by a high frequency electromagnetic radiation source to provide oil dispersible nanoparticles having a substantially uniform particle size ranging from about 1 to about 10 nanometers. As set forth briefly above, embodiments of the disclosure provide unique finished lubricant compositions that may significantly improve the coefficient of friction of the lubricant composition and may reduce wear for relatively low viscosity lubricant compositions. An additive package containing the metal-containing nanoparticales may be mixed with an oleaginous fluid that is applied to a surface between moving parts. In other applications, an additive package containing the metal-containing nanoparticles may be provided in a fully formulated lubricant composition. The methods and compositions described herein may also be suitable for reducing emissions of CO and hydrocarbons (HC) from engines lubricated with the lubricant compositions described herein. It is well known that certain metals may be useful for improving the burning efficiency of fuels. For example, metal-containing nanoparticles from the lubricants may enter the combustion chamber by leaking around the piston rings thereby providing a catalytic source suitable for improving fuel combustion without directly adding metal compounds to the fuel. Other features and advantages of the methods described herein may be evident by reference to the following detailed description which is intended to exemplify aspects of the exemplary embodiments without intending to limit the embodiments described herein. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are intended to provide further explanation of the embodiments disclosed and claimed. The phrases “having the formula” or “have the formula” are intended to be non-limiting with respect to nanoparticles or nanoalloy particles described herein. The formula is given for the purposes of simplification and is intended to represent mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, and polymetallic nanoparticles.	<SOH> BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY <EOH>A lubricant may be a liquid, a paste, or a solid with liquid lubricants being the most used. Lubricating oils may be used in automobile engines, transmissions, bearings, gears, industrial gears and other machinery to reduce friction and wear and to increase fuel economy. A number of components including, but not limited to dispersants, detergents, friction modifiers, antiwear agents, antioxidants, and anti-corrosion additives are typically present in fully formulated lubricating oils. For many lubricant applications, a viscosity index improver may also be included as a major component. With the energy resources depleting and more stringent environmental regulations being adopted, there exists a greater demand to increase a fuel economy of vehicles and to decrease emissions in vehicle exhausts. Currently, organic friction modifiers are added to the lubricating oils to increase fuel economy. However, the level of the fuel economy achievable by organic friction modifiers is limited. Hence, there is a need for alternate methods for achieving improvements in fuel economy. One method for increasing fuel economy is to provide lower viscosity grade lubricating oils. While providing lower viscosity lubricating oils may dramatically increase fuel economy, such lubricating oils may also increase wear. Wear may be partially reduced by using antiwear agents such as zinc dialkyldithiolphosphate (ZDTP). However, ZDDP contains phosphorus and its decomposition products may have deleterious effects on automotive catalyst systems for emission control. Accordingly, there remains an increasing need for methods for reducing friction and wear without adversely affecting emission control systems and without further depleting scarce natural resources. With regard to the above, exemplary embodiments described herein provide methods for reducing friction coefficients and wear between lubricated surfaces. The method includes providing an amount of metal-containing nanoparticles dispersed in a fully formulated lubricant composition containing a base oil of lubricating viscosity. The nanoparticles have a formula of (A a ) m (B b ) n X x , wherein each of A, B is selected from a metal, X is selected from the group consisting of oxygen and sulfur, subscripts a, b, and x represent compositional stoichiometry, and each of m and n is greater than or equal to zero with the proviso that at least one of m and n is greater than zero, wherein the nanoparticles have an average particles size ranging from about 1 to about 10 nanometers. The lubricant composition containing the metal-containing nanoparticles is applied to a surface to be lubricated. In another embodiment, there is provided a method of reducing a friction coefficient of an engine lubricant composition during operation of an engine containing the lubricant composition. The method includes contacting the engine parts with a fully formulated lubricant composition that contains a base oil of lubricating viscosity and an amount of metal-containing nanoparticles sufficient to reduce the friction coefficient to below a friction coefficient of a lubricant composition devoid of the metal-containing nanoparticles. The nanoparticles have a formula of (A a ) m (B b ) n X x , wherein each of A, B is selected from a metal, X is selected from the group consisting of oxygen and sulfur, subscripts a, b, and x represent compositional stoichiometry, and each of m and n is greater than or equal to zero with the proviso that at least one of m and n is greater than zero. The nanoparticles in the lubricant composition have an average particle size ranging from about 1 to about 10 nanometers. A further embodiment of the disclosure provides a method for reducing wear between moving parts using a lubricating oil. The method includes using as the lubricating oil for one or more moving parts a lubricant composition containing a base oil, and an oil additive package including a wear reducing agent. The wear reducing agent is made of dispersed metal-containing nanoparticles, wherein the amount of nanoparticles in the lubricant composition ranges up to about 5 percent by weight of the total lubricant composition. The metal-containing nanoparticles have a formula of (A a ) m (B b ) n X x , wherein each of A, B is selected from a metal, X is selected from the group consisting of oxygen and sulfur, subscripts a, b, and x represent compositional stoichiometry, and each of m and n is greater than or equal to zero with the proviso that at least one of m and n is greater than zero. Another embodiment of the disclosure provides a lubricant composition containing a base oil of lubricating viscosity and a boundary friction reducing amount of metal-containing nanoparticles dspersed in the base oil. The metal-containing nanoparticles have a formula of (A a ) m (B b ) n X x , wherein each of A, B is selected from a metal, X is selected from the group consisting of oxygen and sulfur, subscripts a, b, and x represent compositional stoichiometry, and each of m and n is greater than or equal to zero with the proviso that at least one of m and n is greater than zero. The nanoparticles have an average particles size ranging from about 1 to about 10 nanometers, and are effective to reduce a boundary friction coefficient between lubricated metal surfaces to below a boundary friction coefficient between the lubricated metal surfaces of a lubricant composition devoid of the metal-containing nanoparticles. Yet another embodiment of the disclosure provides oil dispersible cerium oxide nanoparticles derived from a cerium acetate solution of amine and organic acid. The cerium acetate solution is irradiated by a high frequency electromagnetic radiation source to provide oil dispersible nanoparticles having a substantially uniform particle size ranging from about 1 to about 10 nanometers. As set forth briefly above, embodiments of the disclosure provide unique finished lubricant compositions that may significantly improve the coefficient of friction of the lubricant composition and may reduce wear for relatively low viscosity lubricant compositions. An additive package containing the metal-containing nanoparticales may be mixed with an oleaginous fluid that is applied to a surface between moving parts. In other applications, an additive package containing the metal-containing nanoparticles may be provided in a fully formulated lubricant composition. The methods and compositions described herein may also be suitable for reducing emissions of CO and hydrocarbons (HC) from engines lubricated with the lubricant compositions described herein. It is well known that certain metals may be useful for improving the burning efficiency of fuels. For example, metal-containing nanoparticles from the lubricants may enter the combustion chamber by leaking around the piston rings thereby providing a catalytic source suitable for improving fuel combustion without directly adding metal compounds to the fuel. Other features and advantages of the methods described herein may be evident by reference to the following detailed description which is intended to exemplify aspects of the exemplary embodiments without intending to limit the embodiments described herein. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are intended to provide further explanation of the embodiments disclosed and claimed. The phrases “having the formula” or “have the formula” are intended to be non-limiting with respect to nanoparticles or nanoalloy particles described herein. The formula is given for the purposes of simplification and is intended to represent mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, and polymetallic nanoparticles.	TECHNICAL FIELD The embodiments described herein relate to methods for friction modification and wear reduction using fully formulated lubricants containing nanoparticles. In particular, oil-soluble nanospherical components are used in lubricant formulations to reduce friction coefficients thereof and as wear reducing agents therefor. BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY A lubricant may be a liquid, a paste, or a solid with liquid lubricants being the most used. Lubricating oils may be used in automobile engines, transmissions, bearings, gears, industrial gears and other machinery to reduce friction and wear and to increase fuel economy. A number of components including, but not limited to dispersants, detergents, friction modifiers, antiwear agents, antioxidants, and anti-corrosion additives are typically present in fully formulated lubricating oils. For many lubricant applications, a viscosity index improver may also be included as a major component. With the energy resources depleting and more stringent environmental regulations being adopted, there exists a greater demand to increase a fuel economy of vehicles and to decrease emissions in vehicle exhausts. Currently, organic friction modifiers are added to the lubricating oils to increase fuel economy. However, the level of the fuel economy achievable by organic friction modifiers is limited. Hence, there is a need for alternate methods for achieving improvements in fuel economy. One method for increasing fuel economy is to provide lower viscosity grade lubricating oils. While providing lower viscosity lubricating oils may dramatically increase fuel economy, such lubricating oils may also increase wear. Wear may be partially reduced by using antiwear agents such as zinc dialkyldithiolphosphate (ZDTP). However, ZDDP contains phosphorus and its decomposition products may have deleterious effects on automotive catalyst systems for emission control. Accordingly, there remains an increasing need for methods for reducing friction and wear without adversely affecting emission control systems and without further depleting scarce natural resources. With regard to the above, exemplary embodiments described herein provide methods for reducing friction coefficients and wear between lubricated surfaces. The method includes providing an amount of metal-containing nanoparticles dispersed in a fully formulated lubricant composition containing a base oil of lubricating viscosity. The nanoparticles have a formula of (Aa)m(Bb)nXx, wherein each of A, B is selected from a metal, X is selected from the group consisting of oxygen and sulfur, subscripts a, b, and x represent compositional stoichiometry, and each of m and n is greater than or equal to zero with the proviso that at least one of m and n is greater than zero, wherein the nanoparticles have an average particles size ranging from about 1 to about 10 nanometers. The lubricant composition containing the metal-containing nanoparticles is applied to a surface to be lubricated. In another embodiment, there is provided a method of reducing a friction coefficient of an engine lubricant composition during operation of an engine containing the lubricant composition. The method includes contacting the engine parts with a fully formulated lubricant composition that contains a base oil of lubricating viscosity and an amount of metal-containing nanoparticles sufficient to reduce the friction coefficient to below a friction coefficient of a lubricant composition devoid of the metal-containing nanoparticles. The nanoparticles have a formula of (Aa)m(Bb)nXx, wherein each of A, B is selected from a metal, X is selected from the group consisting of oxygen and sulfur, subscripts a, b, and x represent compositional stoichiometry, and each of m and n is greater than or equal to zero with the proviso that at least one of m and n is greater than zero. The nanoparticles in the lubricant composition have an average particle size ranging from about 1 to about 10 nanometers. A further embodiment of the disclosure provides a method for reducing wear between moving parts using a lubricating oil. The method includes using as the lubricating oil for one or more moving parts a lubricant composition containing a base oil, and an oil additive package including a wear reducing agent. The wear reducing agent is made of dispersed metal-containing nanoparticles, wherein the amount of nanoparticles in the lubricant composition ranges up to about 5 percent by weight of the total lubricant composition. The metal-containing nanoparticles have a formula of (Aa)m(Bb)nXx, wherein each of A, B is selected from a metal, X is selected from the group consisting of oxygen and sulfur, subscripts a, b, and x represent compositional stoichiometry, and each of m and n is greater than or equal to zero with the proviso that at least one of m and n is greater than zero. Another embodiment of the disclosure provides a lubricant composition containing a base oil of lubricating viscosity and a boundary friction reducing amount of metal-containing nanoparticles dspersed in the base oil. The metal-containing nanoparticles have a formula of (Aa)m(Bb)nXx, wherein each of A, B is selected from a metal, X is selected from the group consisting of oxygen and sulfur, subscripts a, b, and x represent compositional stoichiometry, and each of m and n is greater than or equal to zero with the proviso that at least one of m and n is greater than zero. The nanoparticles have an average particles size ranging from about 1 to about 10 nanometers, and are effective to reduce a boundary friction coefficient between lubricated metal surfaces to below a boundary friction coefficient between the lubricated metal surfaces of a lubricant composition devoid of the metal-containing nanoparticles. Yet another embodiment of the disclosure provides oil dispersible cerium oxide nanoparticles derived from a cerium acetate solution of amine and organic acid. The cerium acetate solution is irradiated by a high frequency electromagnetic radiation source to provide oil dispersible nanoparticles having a substantially uniform particle size ranging from about 1 to about 10 nanometers. As set forth briefly above, embodiments of the disclosure provide unique finished lubricant compositions that may significantly improve the coefficient of friction of the lubricant composition and may reduce wear for relatively low viscosity lubricant compositions. An additive package containing the metal-containing nanoparticales may be mixed with an oleaginous fluid that is applied to a surface between moving parts. In other applications, an additive package containing the metal-containing nanoparticles may be provided in a fully formulated lubricant composition. The methods and compositions described herein may also be suitable for reducing emissions of CO and hydrocarbons (HC) from engines lubricated with the lubricant compositions described herein. It is well known that certain metals may be useful for improving the burning efficiency of fuels. For example, metal-containing nanoparticles from the lubricants may enter the combustion chamber by leaking around the piston rings thereby providing a catalytic source suitable for improving fuel combustion without directly adding metal compounds to the fuel. Other features and advantages of the methods described herein may be evident by reference to the following detailed description which is intended to exemplify aspects of the exemplary embodiments without intending to limit the embodiments described herein. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are intended to provide further explanation of the embodiments disclosed and claimed. The phrases “having the formula” or “have the formula” are intended to be non-limiting with respect to nanoparticles or nanoalloy particles described herein. The formula is given for the purposes of simplification and is intended to represent mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, and polymetallic nanoparticles. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is an x-ray diffraction pattern of nanoalloy particles according to a first embodiment of the disclosure; FIG. 2 is photomicrograph of the nanoalloy particles according to the first embodiment of the disclosure; FIG. 3 is an x-ray diffraction pattern of nanoalloy particles according to a second embodiment of the disclosure; FIG. 4 is photomicrograph of the nanoalloy particles according to the second embodiment of the disclosure; FIG. 5 is an x-ray diffraction pattern of nanoalloy particles according to a third embodiment of the disclosure; and FIG. 6 is photomicrograph of the nanoalloy particles according to the third embodiment of the disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS For the purposes of this disclosure, the terms “hydrocarbon soluble,” “oil soluble,” or “dispersable” are not intended to indicate that the compounds are soluble, dissolvable, miscible, or capable of being suspended in a hydrocarbon compound or oil in all proportions. These do mean, however, that they are, for instance, soluble or stably dispersible in oil to an extent sufficient to exert their intended effect in the environment in which the oil is employed. Moreover, the additional incorporation of other additives may also permit incorporation of higher levels of a particular additive, if desired. The terms “self-dispersing” or “self-dispersible” mean the particles may be dispersed in a hydrocarbon material without the use of additional dispersing agents. As used herein, “hydrocarbon” means any of a vast number of compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and/or oxygen in various combinations. The term “hydrocarbyl” refers to a group having a carbon atom directly attached to the remainder of the molecule and having predominantly hydrocarbon character. Examples of hydrocarbyl groups include: (1) hydrocarbon substituents, that is, aliphatic (e.g., alkyl or alkenyl), alicyclic (e.g., cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl) substituents, and aromatic-, aliphatic-, and alicyclic-substituted aromatic substituents, as well as cyclic substituents wherein the ring is completed through another portion of the molecule (e.g., two substituents together form an alicyclic radical); (2) substituted hydrocarbon substituents, that is, substituents containing non-hydrocarbon groups which, in the context of the description herein, do not alter the predominantly hydrocarbon substituent (e.g., halo (especially chloro and fluoro), hydroxy, alkoxy, mercapto, alkylmercapto, nitro, nitroso, and sulfoxy); (3) hetero-substituents, that is, substituents which, while having a predominantly hydrocarbon character, in the context of this description, contain other than carbon in a ring or chain otherwise composed of carbon atoms. Hetero-atoms include sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen, and encompass substituents such as pyridyl, furyl, thienyl and imidazolyl. In general, no more than two, preferably no more than one, non-hydrocarbon substituent will be present for every ten carbon atoms in the hydrocarbyl group; typically, there will be no non-hydrocarbon substituents in the hydrocarbyl group. The metal-containing nanoparticles described herein have a substantially uniform size and shape, and may be represented by the formula (Aa)m(Bb)nXx, wherein each of A and B is selected from a metal, X is selected from the group consisting of oxygen and sulfur, subscripts a, b, and x represent compositional stoichiometry, and each of m and n is greater than or equal to zero with the proviso that at least one of m and n is greater than zero. The metal nanoparticles described herein are not limited to one or two metal sulfides or oxides, but may include additional metals as alloying or doping agents in the formula. In the foregoing formula, A and B of the metal-containing nanoparticles may be selected from Groups 1A, 2A, 3A, 4A, 5A, and 6A of the Periodic Table, transition metals, lanthanides, actinides, and mixtures thereof. Representative metals include, but are not limited to, titanium, zirconium, hafnium, thorium, germanium, tin, niobium, tantalum, molybdenum, tungsten, uranium, cerium, the rare earth metals, copper, beryllium, zinc, cadmium, mercury, aluminum, yttrium, gallium, indium, lanthanum, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, calcium, magnesium, strontium, and barium. The metal-containing nanoparticles described herein may be uniformly spherical, plate-like, or rod-like and will typically have a substantially uniform particle size of less than 50 nanometers. For example, the nanoparticles may have a uniform size ranging from about 1 to about 30 nanometers. Other uniform particle sizes may range from about 2 to about 10 nanometers. Still other uniform particle sizes may range from about 3 to about 6 nanometers. According to the exemplary embodiments described herein, the metal-containing nanoparticles may be made by a relatively simple process. The process is primarily a two step process that includes combining one or more metal organic compounds with a hydrocarbyl component to provide a solution of metal organic compound in the hydrocarbyl component. The solution of metal organic compound is then irradiated by a high frequency electromagnetic radiation source to provide stabilized metal-containing nanoparticles. In some embodiments, the nanoparticles are self-dispersing nanoparticles. In the first step of the process, one or more metal-organic compounds are dissolved in a hydrocarbyl component that is compatible with oils and hydrocarbon solvents. A suitable hydrocarbyl component is an amine or a mixture of amine and organic acid. The amine may be a saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbyl amine having from about 3 to about 24 carbon atoms. Suitable hydrocarbyl amines include, but are not limited to amines of the formula RNH2 in which R is an unsaturated hydrocarbyl radical having from 3 to 24 carbon atoms. A suitable range for R is from 10 to 20 carbon atoms. R may be an aliphatic or a cycloaliphatic, saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon radical. Typical unsaturated hydrocarbyl amines which can be employed include hexadecylamine, oleylamine, allylamine, furfurylamine, and the like. When used, the organic acid may be selected from unsaturated fatty acids containing from about 10 to about 26 carbon atoms. Suitable organic acids include, but are not limited to, oleic acid, erucic acid, palmitoleic acid, myristoleic acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, elaeosteric acid, arachidonic acid and/or ricinoleic acid. Fatty acid mixtures and fractions obtained from natural fats and oils, for example peanut oil fatty acid, fish oil fatty acid, linseed oil fatty acid, palm oil fatty acid, rapeseed oil fatty acid, ricinoleic oil fatty acid, castor oil fatty acid, colza oil fatty acid, soya oil fatty acid, sunflower oil fatty acid, safflower oil fatty acid and tall oil fatty acid, may also be used. The metal organic compound solution may contain a molar ratio of amine to organic acid ranging from about 1:1 to about 3:1 amine to acid. Likewise, the solution may contain a molar ratio of amine to metal organic compound ranging from about 5:1 to about 10:1. After forming the solution of metal organic compound in the hydrocarbyl component, the solution may be heated for a period of time at elevated temperature to remove any water or crystallization and/or to form a clear solution. Accordingly, the solution may be heated and held at a temperature ranging from about 50° to about 150° C. for a period of time ranging from about 1 minute to about 50 minutes depending on the scale of the reaction mixture. A large volume of metal organic compound solution may require a longer heating time, while a smaller volume may require a shorter heating time. Upon heating the solution, a substantially clear solution of metal organic compound in the hydrocarbyl component is obtained. The clear solution is then irradiated for a period of time using a high frequency electromagnetic radiation source to provide stabilized metal-containing nanoparticles in the hydrocarbyl component. A suitable high frequency electromagnetic radiation source is a microwave radiation source providing electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from about 1 millimeter to about 1 meter corresponding to frequencies from about 300 GHz to about 300 MHz, respectively. A more suitable frequency range for the electromagnetic radiation ranges from about 0.4 GHz to about 40 GHz. A particularly suitable frequency range is from about 0.7 GHz to about 24 GHz. The irradiation step may be conducted for a period of time ranging from about 10 seconds to about 50 minutes depending on the volume of reactants present in the reaction mixture. Without being bound by theoretical considerations, it is believed that irradiation of the solution rapidly decomposes the metal-organic compound to produce metal ions which are then coordinated with the hydrocarbyl component to form uniformly dispersed metal-containing nanoparticles that are stabilized or coated by the hydrocarbyl component. It is also believed that the use of microwave radiation leads to selective dielectric heating due to differences in the solvent and reactant dielectric constants that provides enhanced reaction rates. Thus formation of metal-containing nanoparticles by the foregoing process is extremely rapid enabling large scale production of nanoparticles in a short period of time. Since microwave radiation is used, thermal gradients in the reaction mixture are minimized thereby producing a generally uniform heating effect and reducing the complexity required for scale-up to commercial quantities of nanoparticle products. Microwave heating is able to heat the target compounds without heating the entire reaction container or oil bath, thereby saving time and energy. Excitation with microwave radiation results in the molecules aligning their dipoles within the external electrical field. Strong agitation, provided by the reorientation of molecules, in phase with electrical field excitation, causes an intense internal heating. After the irradiation step, the stabilized dispersion may be washed with an alcohol to remove any free acid or amine remaining in the stabilized dispersion of nanoparticles. Alcohols that may be used to wash the stabilized metal-containing nanoparticles may be selected from C1 to C4 alcohols. A particularly suitable alcohol is ethanol. The size and shape of metal-containing nanoparticles produced by the foregoing process depends on the amount of hydrocarbyl component, and heating time used to provide dispersible metal-containing nanoparticles. The particle size of the metal-containing nanoparticles may be determined by examining a sample of the particles using TEM (transmission electron microscopy), visually evaluating the grain size and calculating an average grain size therefrom. The particles may have varying particle size due to the very fine grains aggregating or cohering together. However, the particles produced by the foregoing process are typically crystalline nanoparticles having a uniform particle size that is substantially in the range of from 1 to 10 nanometers. In one exemplary embodiment, cerium oxide nanoparticles having spherical or plate-like shapes and an average size ranging from about 1 to about 10 nanometers may be made. The nanoparticles may be dispersed in a base oil by reacting cerium acetate and/or zinc acetylacetonate with a fatty acid and a fatty acid amine with heat to provide nanoparticle sized cerium oxide crystals that are dispersible in a hydrocarbons solvent. In order to form the cerium oxide nanoparticles, a reaction mixture of cerium acetate, fatty acid and fatty acid amine are heated to a temperature in the range of from about 100° to about 120° C. for about 10 minutes to provide a clear solution devoid of water. Next the solution is microwaved for about 10 to about 15 minutes to provide a stabilized mixture of cerium oxide nanoparticles, fatty acid amine and fatty acid. The stabilized mixture may be washed with alcohol to remove any free amine and dried in a vacuum to provide dispersible nanoparticles of cerium oxide. In another embodiment, the metal-containing nanoparticles contain a sufficient amount of coating material to provide solubility of the particles in a hydrocarbon solvent. The coating material is believed to be bound or otherwise associated with the surface of the metal-containing nanoparticles such that it takes a significant amount of energy to decompose the nanoparticles. The amount of coating material on the nanoparticles may range from about 5 to about 20 percent by weight of the total weight of the nanoparticles made by the above described process as determined by thermogravimetric analysis techniques. The metal-containing nanoparticles described above are advantageously incorporated into fuels and lubricating compositions. Accordingly, the metal-containing nanoparticles may be added directly to a finished fuel or lubricating oil composition. In one embodiment, however, the metal-containing nanoparticles are diluted with a substantially inert, normally liquid organic diluent such as mineral oil, synthetic oil (e.g., ester of dicarboxylic acid), naptha, alkylated (e.g., C10-C13 alkyl) benzene, toluene or xylene to form an additive concentrate. The additive concentrates may contain from about 0% to about 99% by weight diluent oil and the metal-containing nanoparticles. In the preparation of lubricating oil formulations it is common practice to introduce the additive concentrate in the form of 1 to 99 wt. % active ingredient concentrates in hydrocarbon oil, e.g. mineral lubricating oil, or other suitable solvent. Usually these concentrates may be added to a lubricating oil with a dispersant/inhibitor (DI) additive package and viscosity index (VI) improvers containing 0.01 to 50 parts by weight of lubricating oil per part by weight of the DI package to form finished lubricants, e.g. crankcase motor oils. Suitable DI packages are described for example in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,204,012 and 6,034,040 for example. Among the types of additives included in the DI additive package are detergents, dispersants, antiwear agents, friction modifiers, seal swell agents, antioxidants, foam inhibitors, lubricity agents, rust inhibitors, corrosion inhibitors, demulsifiers, viscosity index improvers, and the like. Several of these components are well known to those skilled in the art and are used in conventional amounts with the additives and compositions described herein. Lubricant compositions made with the metal-containing nanoparticles described above are used in a wide variety of applications. For compression ignition engines and spark ignition engines, it is preferred that the lubricant compositions meet or exceed published API-CI-4 or GF-4 standards. Lubricant compositions according to the foregoing API-CI-4 or GF-4 standards include a base oil, the DI additive package, and/or a VI improver to provide a fully formulated lubricant. The base oil for lubricants according to the disclosure is an oil of lubricating viscosity selected from natural lubricating oils, synthetic lubricating oils and mixtures thereof. Such base oils include those conventionally employed as crankcase lubricating oils for spark-ignited and compression-ignited internal combustion engines, such as automobile and truck engines, marine and railroad diesel engines, and the like. The metal-containing nanoparticles described above may be used in fully formulated automatic transmission fluids, fully formulated crankcase fluids, fully formulated heavy duty gear fluids, and the like. Such nanoparticles may be effective to reduce friction coefficient and wear. The nanoparticles may be present in an amount of up to about 5 wt % in a fully formulated lubricant composition. As another example, the nanoparticles may be present in an amount of about 0.1 to about 5 wt % in a fully formulated lubricant composition. As an even further example, the nanoparticles may be present in an amount of about 0.5 to about 2 wt % in a fully formulated lubricant composition. Dispersant Components Dispersants contained in the DI package include, but are not limited to, an oil soluble polymeric hydrocarbon backbone having functional groups that are capable of associating with metal-containing nanoparticles to be dispersed. Typically, the dispersants comprise amine, alcohol, amide, or ester polar moieties attached to the polymer backbone often via a bridging group. Dispersants may be selected from Mannich dispersants as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,697,574 and 3,736,357; ashless succcinimide dispersants as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,234,435 and 4,636,322; amine dispersants as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,219,666, 3,565,804, and 5,633,326; Koch dispersants as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,936,041, 5,643,859, and 5,627,259, and polyalkylene succinimide dispersants as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,851,965; 5,853,434; and 5,792,729. Oxidation Inhibitor Components Oxidation inhibitors or antioxidants reduce the tendency of base stocks to deteriorate in service which deterioration can be evidenced by the products of oxidation such as sludge and varnish-like deposits that deposit on metal surfaces and by viscosity growth of the finished lubricant. Such oxidation inhibitors include hindered phenols, sulfurized hindered phenols, alkaline earth metal salts of alkylphenolthioesters having C5 to C12 alkyl side chains, sulfurized alkylphenols, metal salts of either sulfurized or nonsulfurized alkylphenols, for example calcium nonylphenol sulfide, ashless oil soluble phenates and sulfurized phenates, phosphosulfurized or sulfurized hydrocarbons, phosphorus esters, metal thiocarbamates, and oil soluble copper compounds as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,867,890. Other antioxidants that may be used include sterically hindered phenols and diarylamines, alkylated phenothiazines, sulfurized compounds, and ashless dialkyldithiocarbamates. Non-limiting examples of sterically hindered phenols include, but are not limited to, 2,6-di-tertiary butylphenol, 2,6 di-tertiary butyl methylphenol, 4-ethyl-2,6-di-tertiary butylphenol, 4-propyl-2,6-di-tertiary butylphenol, 4-butyl-2,6-di-tertiary butylphenol, 4-pentyl-2,6-di-tertiary butylphenol, 4-hexyl-2,6-di-tertiary butylphenol, 4-heptyl-2,6-di-tertiary butylphenol, 4-(2-ethylhexyl)-2,6-di-tertiary butylphenol, 4-octyl-2,6-di-tertiary butylphenol, 4-nonyl-2,6-di-tertiary butylphenol, 4-decyl-2,6-di-tertiary butylphenol, 4-undecyl-2,6-di-tertiary butylphenol, 4-dodecyl-2,6-di-tertiary butylphenol, methylene bridged sterically hindered phenols including but not limited to 4,4-methylenebis(6-tert-butyl-o-cresol), 4,4-methylenebis(2-tert-amyl-o-cresol), 2,2-methylenebis(4-methyl-6 tert-butylphenol, 4,4-methylene-bis(2,6-di-tert-butylphenol) and mixtures thereof as described in U.S Publication No. 2004/0266630. Diarylamine antioxidants include, but are not limited to diarylamines having the formula: wherein R′ and R″ each independently represents a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having from 6 to 30 carbon atoms. Illustrative of substituents for the aryl group include aliphatic hydrocarbon groups such as alkyl having from 1 to 30 carbon atoms, hydroxy groups, halogen radicals, carboxylic acid or ester groups, or nitro groups. The aryl group is preferably substituted or unsubstituted phenyl or naphthyl, particularly wherein one or both of the aryl groups are substituted with at least one alkyl having from 4 to 30 carbon atoms, preferably from 4 to 18 carbon atoms, most preferably from 4 to 9 carbon atoms. It is desirable that one or both aryl groups be substituted, e.g. mono-alkylated diphenylamine, di-alkylated diphenylamine, or mixtures of mono- and di-alkylated diphenylamines. The diarylamines may be of a structure containing more than one nitrogen atom in the molecule. Thus the diarylamine may contain at least two nitrogen atoms wherein at least one nitrogen atom has two aryl groups attached thereto, e.g. as in the case of various diamines having a secondary nitrogen atom as well as two aryls on one of the nitrogen atoms. Examples of diarylamines that may be used include, but are not limited to: diphenylamine; various alkylated diphenylamines; 3-hydroxydiphenylamine; N-phenyl-1,2-phenylenediamine; N-phenyl-1,4-phenylenediamine; monobutyldiphenyl-amine; dibutyldiphenylamine; monooctyldiphenylamine; dioctyldiphenylamine; monononyldiphenylamine; dinonyldiphenylamine; monotetradecyldiphenylamine; ditetradecyldiphenylamine, phenyl-alpha-naphthylamine; monooctyl phenyl-alpha-naphthylamine; phenyl-beta-naphthylamine; monoheptyldiphenylamine; diheptyl-diphenylamine; p-oriented styrenated diphenylamine; mixed butyloctyldiphenylamine; and mixed octylstyryldiphenylamine. Another class of aminic antioxidants includes phenothiazine or alkylated phenothiazine having the chemical formula: wherein R1 is a linear or branched C1 to C24 alkyl, aryl, heteroalkyl or alkylaryl group and R2 is hydrogen or a linear or branched C1-C24 alkyl, heteroalkyl, or alkylaryl group. Alkylated phenothiazine may be selected from the group consisting of monotetradecylphenothiazine, ditetradecylphenothiazine, monodecylphenothiazine, didecylphenothiazine, monononylphenothiazine, dinonylphenothiazine, monoctylphenothiazine, dioctylphenothiazine, monobutylphenothiazine, dibutylphenothiazine, monostyrylphenothiazine, distyrylphenothiazine, butyloctylphenothiazine, and styryloctylphenothiazine. The sulfur containing antioxidants include, but are not limited to, sulfurized olefins that are characterized by the type of olefin used in their production and the final sulfur content of the antioxidant. High molecular weight olefins, i.e. those olefins having an average molecular weight of 168 to 351 g/mole, are preferred. Examples of olefins that may be used include alpha-olefins, isomerized alpha-olefins, branched olefins, cyclic olefins, and combinations of these. Alpha-olefins include, but are not limited to, any C4 to C25 alpha-olefins. Alpha-olefins may be isomerized before the sulfurization reaction or during the sulfurization reaction. Structural and/or conformational isomers of the alpha olefin that contain internal double bonds and/or branching may also be used. For example, isobutylene is a branched olefin counterpart of the alpha-olefin 1-butene. Sulfur sources that may be used in the sulfurization reaction of olefins include: elemental sulfur, sulfur monochloride, sulfur dichloride, sodium sulfide, sodium polysulfide, and mixtures of these added together or at different stages of the sulfurization process. Unsaturated oils, because of their unsaturation, may also be sulfurized and used as an antioxidant. Examples of oils or fats that may be used include corn oil, canola oil, cottonseed oil, grapeseed oil, olive oil, palm oil, peanut oil, coconut oil, rapeseed oil, safflower seed oil, sesame seed oil, soyabean oil, sunflower seed oil, tallow, and combinations of these. The amount of sulfurized olefin or sulfurized fatty oil delivered to the finished lubricant is based on the sulfur content of the sulfurized olefin or fatty oil and the desired level of sulfur to be delivered to the finished lubricant. For example, a sulfurized fatty oil or olefin containing 20 weight % sulfur, when added to the finished lubricant at a 1.0 weight % treat level, will deliver 2000 ppm of sulfur to the finished lubricant. A sulfurized fatty oil or olefin containing 10 weight % sulfur, when added to the finished lubricant at a 1.0 weight % treat level, will deliver 1000 ppm sulfur to the finished lubricant. It is desirable to add the sulfurized olefin or sulfurized fatty oil to deliver between 200 ppm and 2000 ppm sulfur to the finished lubricant. The foregoing aminic, phenothiazine, and sulfur containing antioxidants are described for example in U.S. Pat. No. 6,599,865. The ashless dialkyldithiocarbamates which may be used as antioxidant additives include compounds that are soluble or dispersable in the additive package. It is also desired that the ashless dialkyldithiocarbamate be of low volatility, with a molecular weight greater than 250 daltons, desirably, a molecular weight greater than 400 daltons. Examples of ashless dithiocarbamates that may be used include, but are not limited to, methylenebis(dialkyldithiocarbamate), ethylenebis(dialkyldithiocarbamate), isobutyl disulfide-2,2′-bis(dialkyldithiocarbamate), hydroxyalkyl substituted dialkyldithio-carbamates, dithiocarbamates prepared from unsaturated compounds, dithiocarbamates prepared from norbornylene, and dithiocarbamates prepared from epoxides, where the alkyl groups of the dialkyldithiocarbamate can preferably have from 1 to 16 carbons. Examples of dialkyldithiocarbamates that may be used are disclosed in the following patents: U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,693,598; 4,876,375; 4,927,552; 4,957,643; 4,885,365; 5,789,357; 5,686,397; 5,902,776; 2,786,866; 2,710,872; 2,384,577; 2,897,152; 3,407,222; 3,867,359; and 4,758,362. Examples of ashless dithiocarbamates are: Methylenebis-(dibutyldithiocarbamate), Ethylenebis(dibutyldithiocarbamate), Isobutyl disulfide-2,2′-bis(dibutyldithiocarbamate), Dibutyl-N,N-dibutyl-(dithiocarbamyl)succinate, 2-hydroxypropyl dibutyldithiocarbamate, Butyl(dibutyldithiocarbamyl)acetate, and S-carbomethoxy-ethyl-N,N-dibutyl dithiocarbamate. The most desirable ashless dithiocarbamate is methylenebis(dibutyldithiocarbamate). Zinc dialkyl dithiophosphates (“Zn DDPs”) may also be used in lubricating oils in addition to the nanospherical components. Zn DDPs have good antiwear and antioxidant properties and have been used to pass cam wear tests, such as the Seq. IVA and TU3 Wear Test. Many patents address the manufacture and use of Zn DDPs including U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,904,401; 4,957,649; and 6,114,288. Non-limiting general Zn DDP types are primary, secondary and mixtures of primary and secondary Zn DDPs Likewise, organomolybdenum containing compounds used as friction modifiers may also exhibit antioxidant functionality. U.S. Pat. No. 6,797,677 describes a combination of organomolybdenum compound, alkylphenothizine and alkyldiphenylamines for use in finished lubricant formulations. Examples of suitable molybdenum containing friction modifiers are described below under friction modifiers. The metal-containing nanoparticles described herein may be used with any or all of the foregoing antioxidants in any and all combinations and ratios. It is understood that various combinations of phenolic, aminic, sulfur containing and molybdenum containing additives may be optimized for the finished lubricant formulation based on bench or engine tests or modifications of the dispersant, VI improver, base oil, or any other additive. Friction Modifier Components A sulfur- and phosphorus-free organomolybdenum compound that may be used as an additional friction modifier may be prepared by reacting a sulfur- and phosphorus-free molybdenum source with an organic compound containing amino and/or alcohol groups. Examples of sulfur- and phosphorus-free molybdenum sources include molybdenum trioxide, ammonium molybdate, sodium molybdate and potassium molybdate. The amino groups may be monoamines, diamines, or polyamines. The alcohol groups may be mono-substituted alcohols, diols or bis-alcohols, or polyalcohols. As an example, the reaction of diamines with fatty oils produces a product containing both amino and alcohol groups that can react with the sulfur- and phosphorus-free molybdenum source. Examples of sulfur- and phosphorus-free organomolybdenum compounds include the following: (1) Compounds prepared by reacting certain basic nitrogen compounds with a molybdenum source as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,259,195 and 4,261,843. (2) Compounds prepared by reacting a hydrocarbyl substituted hydroxy alkylated amine with a molybdenum source as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,164,473. (3) Compounds prepared by reacting a phenol aldehyde condensation product, a mono-alkylated alkylene diamine, and a molybdenum source as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,266,945. (4) Compounds prepared by reacting a fatty oil, diethanolamine, and a molybdenum source as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,889,647. (5) Compounds prepared by reacting a fatty oil or acid with 2-(2-aminoethyl)aminoethanol, and a molybdenum source as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,137,647. (6) Compounds prepared by reacting a secondary amine with a molybdenum source as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,692,256. (7) Compounds prepared by reacting a diol, diamino, or amino-alcohol compound with a molybdenum source as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,412,130. (8) Compounds prepared by reacting a fatty oil, mono-alkylated alkylene diamine, and a molybdenum source as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,509,303. (9) Compounds prepared by reacting a fatty acid, mono-alkylated alkylene diamine, glycerides, and a molybdenum source as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,528,463. Molybdenum compounds prepared by reacting a fatty oil, diethanolamine, and a molybdenum source as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,889,647 are sometimes illustrated with the following structure, where R is a fatty alkyl chain, although the exact chemical composition of these materials is not fully known and may in fact be multi-component mixtures of several organomolybdenum compounds. Sulfur-containing organomolybdenum compounds may be used and may be prepared by a variety of methods. One method involves reacting a sulfur and phosphorus-free molybdenum source with an amino group and one or more sulfur sources. Sulfur sources can include for example, but are not limited to, carbon disulfide, hydrogen sulfide, sodium sulfide and elemental sulfur. Alternatively, the sulfur-containing molybdenum compound may be prepared by reacting a sulfur-containing molybdenum source with an amino group or thiuram group and optionally a second sulfur source. Examples of sulfur- and phosphorus-free molybdenum sources include molybdenum trioxide, ammonium molybdate, sodium molybdate, potassium molybdate, and molybdenum halides. The amino groups may be monoamines, diamines, or polyamines. As an example, the reaction of molybdenum trioxide with a secondary amine and carbon disulfide produces molybdenum dithiocarbamates. Alternatively, the reaction of (NH4)2Mo3S13n(H2O) where n varies between 0 and 2, with a tetralkylthiuram disulfide, produces a trinuclear sulfur-containing molybdenum dithiocarbamate. Examples of sulfur-containing organomolybdenum compounds appearing in patents and patent applications include the following: (1) Compounds prepared by reacting molybdenum trioxide with a secondary amine and carbon disulfide as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,509,051 and 3,356,702. (2) Compounds prepared by reacting a sulfur-free molybdenum source with a secondary amine, carbon disulfide, and an additional sulfur source as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,098,705. (3) Compounds prepared by reacting a molybdenum halide with a secondary amine and carbon disulfide as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,178,258. (4) Compounds prepared by reacting a molybdenum source with a basic nitrogen compound and a sulfur source as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,263,152, 4,265,773, 4,272,387, 4,285,822, 4,369,119, and 4,395,343. (5) Compounds prepared by reacting ammonium tetrathiomolybdate with a basic nitrogen compound as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,283,295. (6) Compounds prepared by reacting an olefin, sulfur, an amine and a molybdenum source as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,362,633. (7) Compounds prepared by reacting ammonium tetrathiomolybdate with a basic nitrogen compound and an organic sulfur source as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,402,840. (8) Compounds prepared by reacting a phenolic compound, an amine and a molybdenum source with a sulfur source as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,466,901. (9) Compounds prepared by reacting a triglyceride, a basic nitrogen compound, a molybdenum source, and a sulfur source as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,765,918. (10) Compounds prepared by reacting alkali metal alkylthioxanthate salts with molybdenum halides as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,966,719. (11) Compounds prepared by reacting a tetralkylthiuram disulfide with molybdenum hexacarbonyl as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,978,464. (12) Compounds prepared by reacting an alkyl dixanthogen with molybdenum hexacarbonyl as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,990,271. (13) Compounds prepared by reacting alkali metal alkylxanthate salts with dimolybdenum tetra-acetate as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,995,996. (14) Compounds prepared by reacting (NH4)2 Mo3S132H2O with an alkali metal dialkyldithiocarbamate or tetralkyl thiuram disulfide as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,232,276. (15) Compounds prepared by reacting an ester or acid with a diamine, a molybdenum source and carbon disulfide as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,103,674. (16) Compounds prepared by reacting an alkali metal dialkyldithiocarbamate with 3-chloropropionic acid, followed by molybdenum trioxide, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,117,826. Molybdenum dithiocarbamates may be illustrated by the following structure, where R is an alkyl group containing 4 to 18 carbons or H, and X is O or S. Glycerides may also be used alone or in combination with other friction modifiers. Suitable glycerides include glycerides of the formula: wherein each R is independently selected from the group consisting of H and C(O)R′ where R′ may be a saturated or an unsaturated alkyl group having from 3 to 23 carbon atoms. Examples of glycerides that may be used include glycerol monolaurate, glycerol monomyristate, glycerol monopalmitate, glycerol monostearate, and mono-glycerides derived from coconut acid, tallow acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, and linolenic acids. Typical commercial monoglycerides contain substantial amounts of the corresponding diglycerides and triglycerides. These materials are not detrimental to the production of the molybdenum compounds, and may in fact be more active. Any ratio of mono- to di-glyceride may be used, however, it is preferred that from 30 to 70% of the available sites contain free hydroxyl groups (i.e., 30 to 70% of the total R groups of the glycerides represented by the above formula are hydrogen). A preferred glyceride is glycerol monooleate, which is generally a mixture of mono, di, and tri-glycerides derived from oleic acid, and glycerol. Additional Additives Rust inhibitors selected from the group consisting of nonionic polyoxyalkylene polyols and esters thereof, polyoxyalkylene phenols, and anionic alkyl sulfonic acids may be used. A small amount of a demulsifying component may be used. A suitable demulsifying component is described in EP 330,522. Such demulsifying component may be obtained by reacting an alkylene oxide with an adduct obtained by reacting a bis-epoxide with a polyhydric alcohol. The demulsifier should be used at a level not exceeding 0.1 mass % active ingredient. A treat rate of 0.001 to 0.05 mass % active ingredient is convenient. Pour point depressants, otherwise known as lube oil flow improvers, lower the minimum temperature at which the fluid will flow or can be poured. Such additives are well known. Typical of those additives which improve the low temperature fluidity of the fluid are C8 to C18 dialkyl fumarate/vinyl acetate copolymers, polyalkylmethacrylates and the like. Foam control can be provided by many compounds including an antifoamant of the polysiloxane type, for example, silicone oil or polydimethyl siloxane. Seal swell agents, as described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,794,081 and 4,029,587, may also be used. Viscosity modifiers (VM) function to impart high and low temperature operability to a lubricating oil. The VM used may have that sole function, or may be multifunctional, that is, the VM may also function as dispersants. Suitable viscosity modifiers are polyisobutylene, copolymers of ethylene and propylene and higher alpha-olefins, polymethacrylates, polyalkylmethacrylates, methacrylate copolymers, copolymers of an unsaturated dicarboxylic acid and a vinyl compound, interpolymers of styrene and acrylic esters, and partially hydrogenated copolymers of styrene/isoprene, styrene/butadiene, and isoprene/butadiene, as well as the partially hydrogenated homopolymers of butadiene and isoprene and isoprene/divinylbenzene. Functionalized olefin copolymers that may be used include interpolymers of ethylene and propylene which are grafted with an active monomer such as maleic anhydride and then derivatized with an alcohol or amine. Other such copolymers are copolymers of ethylene and propylene which are grafted with nitrogen compounds. Each of the foregoing additives, when used, is used at a functionally effective amount to impart the desired properties to the lubricant. Thus, for example, if an additive is a corrosion inhibitor, a functionally effective amount of this corrosion inhibitor would be an amount sufficient to impart the desired corrosion inhibition characteristics to the lubricant. Generally, the concentration of each of these additives, when used, ranges up to about 20% by weight based on the weight of the lubricating oil composition, and in one embodiment from about 0.001% to about 20% by weight, and in one embodiment about 0.01% to about 10% by weight based on the weight of the lubricating oil composition. The metal-containing nanoparticles may be added directly to the lubricating oil composition. In one embodiment, however, the nanoparticles are diluted with a substantially inert, normally liquid organic diluent such as mineral oil, synthetic oil, naphtha, alkylated (e.g. C10 to C13 alkyl) benzene, toluene or xylene to form an additive concentrate. These concentrates usually contain from about 1% to about 100% by weight and in one embodiment about 10% to about 90% by weight of the nanospherical components. Base Oils Base oils suitable for use in formulating the compositions, additives and concentrates described herein may be selected from any of the synthetic or natural oils or mixtures thereof. The synthetic base oils include alkyl esters of dicarboxylic acids, polyglycols and alcohols, poly-alpha-olefins, including polybutenes, alkyl benzenes, organic esters of phosphoric acids, polysilicone oils, and alkylene oxide polymers, interpolymers, copolymers and derivatives thereof where the terminal hydroxyl groups have been modified by esterification, etherification, and the like. The synthetic oils may also include the gas to liquid synthetic oils. Natural base oils include animal oils and vegetable oils (e.g., castor oil, lard oil), liquid petroleum oils and hydrorefined, solvent-treated or acid-treated mineral lubricating oils of the paraffinic, naphthenic and mixed paraffinic-naphthenic types. Oils of lubricating viscosity derived from coal or shale are also useful base oils. The base oil typically has a viscosity of about 2.5 to about 15 cSt and preferably about 2.5 to about 11 cSt at 100° C. Representative effective amounts of the metal-containing nanoparticles and additives, when used in crankcase lubricants, are listed in Table 1 below. All the values listed are stated as weight percent active ingredient. TABLE 1 Wt. % Wt. % Component (Broad) (Typical) Dispersant 0.5–5.0 1.0–2.5 Antioxidant system 0–5.0 0.01–3.0 Metal Detergents 0.1–15.0 0.2–8.0 Corrosion Inhibitor 0–5.0 0–2.0 Metal dihydrocarbyl dithiophosphate 0.1–6.0 0.1–4.0 Metal-containing nanoparticles 0.1–5.0 0.1–3.0 Antifoaming agent 0–5.0 0.001–0.15 Friction Modifier 0–5.0 0–2.0 Supplemental antiwear agents 0–1.0 0–0.8 Pour point depressant 0.01–5.0 0.01–1.5 Viscosity modifier 0.01–10.00 0.25–7.0 Base oil balance balance Total 100 100 The following examples are given for the purpose of exemplifying aspects of the embodiments and are not intended to limit the embodiments in any way. EXAMPLE 1 Production of CeO2 Nanoparticles The following procedure was used to produce cerium oxide nanoparticles having a particle size of less than 5 nanometers. Cerium acetate (1 gram, 0.00315 mols) was mixed with 7.5 mL of oleylamine (0.2279 mols) and 4.33 mL of oleic acid (0.13 mols) in a suitable vessel. The mixture was heated to 110° C. and held at that temperature for 10 minutes to provide a clear solution of cerium acetate without crystalline water in the solution. Next, the cerium acetate solution was irradiated with microwave irradiation for 10 to 15 minutes to produce a stable dispersion of cerium oxide in the amine and acid. The stabilized dispersion was washed 2-3 times with ethanol to remove any free amine or acid remaining in the dispersion. Finally, the stabilized cerium oxide product was dried overnight under a vacuum to provide the particles have a size of less than 5 nanometers. X-ray diffraction confirmed that nanoparticles of crystalline cerium oxide were produced. UV absorption of the product showed a peak at 300 nanometers which from extrapolation of the absorption edge indicated a band gap of 3.6 eV confirming that the nanoparticles have a diameter of less than 5 nanometers. EXAMPLE 2 Production of Mg0.3Mn0.7O Nanoalloy Particles (Cubes+Spheres) The following procedure was used to produce an alloy of magnesium and manganese oxide nanoparticles. Oleylamine (4.25 mL, 0.129 mols) and 1.36 mL of oleic acid (0.04 mols) was mixed in a suitable vessel that was stirred and heated in a hot oil bath to 120° C. and held at that temperature for 10 minutes. A mixture of magnesium acetate (0.14 grams) and manganese acetyl acetonate (0.34 grams) powder was added under vigorous stirring to the amine and acid to provide a clear solution. The solution was then microwaved for 15 minutes. After microwaving the solution, synthesized nanoparticles of magnesium/manganese oxide were flocculated with ethanol, centrifuged, and redispersed in toluene. The Mg0.3Mn0.7O nanoparticles made by the foregoing process had an x-ray diffraction pattern as shown in FIG. 1 that indicated that traces of manganese oxide were included in the Mg0.3Mn0.7O alloy. The photomicrograph of the nanoparticles 10 (FIG. 2) showed that the nanoparticles had cube-like structures similar to manganese oxide particles. EXAMPLE 3 Production of CoFe2O4 Nanoalloy Particles (Spheres) The following procedure was used to produce an alloy of cobalt and iron oxide nanoparticles having a particle size of less than 5 nanometers. Oleylamine (3.75 mL, 0.114 mols) and 3.6 mL of oleic acid (0.11 mols) was mixed in a suitable vessel that was stirred and heated in a hot oil bath to 120° C. and held at that temperature for 15 minutes. A mixture of iron acetyl acetonate (0.45 grams) and cobalt acetyl acetonate (0.16 grams) powder was added under vigorous stirring to the amine and acid to provide a clear solution. The solution was then microwaved for 10 minutes. After the solution was cooled, 300 μL hydrogen tetrachloroaurate (30 wt. % solution in hydrochloric acid) were injected into the alloyed particle solution under vigorous stirring for 10 minutes. The synthesized nanoparticles of cobalt/iron oxide were flocculated with ethanol, centrifuged, and redispersed in toluene. The CoFe2O4 nanoparticles made by the foregoing process had an x-ray diffraction pattern as shown in FIG. 3 that included metallic gold particles with no evidence of mixed oxides. The photomicrograph of the nanoparticles 12 (FIG. 4) showed monodispersed spherical particles of CoFe2O4 doped with gold particles 14. EXAMPLE 4 Production of CuZnS Nanoalloy Particles (Rods+Spheres) The following procedure was used to produce an alloy of copper and zinc sulfide nanoparticles having a particle size of less than 5 nanometers. A mixture of copper xanthate (0.17 grams) and zinc xanthate (0.17 grams) was added to 3 grams of hexadecylamine (0.012 mols) that was preheated in a hot oil bath to 80-110° C. and held at that temperature for 15 minutes to form a clear solution. The solution was then microwaved for 2 minutes with 30 second cycles (10 seconds off and 20 seconds on). After microwaving the solution, synthesized nanoparticles of copper/zinc sulfide were flocculated with methanol, centrifuged, and redispersed in toluene or dichloromethane. The CuS and ZnS nanoparticles made by the foregoing process had an x-ray diffraction pattern as shown in FIG. 5 that included sulfur atoms. The photomicrograph of the nanoparticles 16 (FIG. 6) showed the formation of ordered aligned rod-like structures arranged in long belts 18. There were also randomly orders small spherical particles 20 next to the belts. EXAMPLE 5 Boundary Friction Coefficients of Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles In the following example, the boundary friction coefficients were determined for a Group II base oil and a Group II base oil containing various friction modifiers or nanoparticles. The boundary friction coefficients were measured in a high frequency reciprocating test rig (HFRR) at a temperature of 130° C. The boundary friction coefficients determined on the HFRR are shown in Table 2. TABLE 2 Boundary % Reduction in Friction Friction versus Sample Coefficient at Group II Base No. 130° C. Oil 1 Group II Base Oil 0.154 +/− 0.004 0% 2 Group II Base Oil + 1 wt. % glycerol 0.096 +/− 0.010 37.7% monooleate 3 Group II Base Oil + 1 wt. % ZnS 0.105 +/− 0.009 31.8% spheres 4 Group II Base Oil + 1 wt. % ZnS 0.106 +/− 0.003 31.2% rods 5 Group II Base Oil + 1 wt. % CeO2 0.103 +/− 0.001 33.1% spheres 6 Group II Base Oil + 1 wt. % CeO2 0.089 +/− 0.009 42.2% plates 7 Group II Base Oil + 0.1 wt. % 0.122 +/− 0.006 20.8% glycerol monooleate 8 Group II Base Oil + 0.1 wt. % ZnS spheres 0.138 +/− 0.001 10.4% 9 Group II Base Oil + 0.1 wt. % ZnS 0.146 +/− 0.011 5.2% rods 10 Group II Base Oil + 0.1 wt. % CeO2 0.099 +/− 0.002 35.7% spheres 11 Group II Base Oil + 2.0 wt. % 1:2 0.112 +/− 0.003 27.3% mixture of CeO2:ZnS 12 Group II Base Oil + 2.0 wt. % 1:1 0.108 +/− 0.002 29.9% mixture of CeO2:ZnS 13 Group II Base Oil + 2.0 wt. % 4:1 0.092 +/− 0.003 40.3% mixture of CeO2:ZnS As shown in Table 2, the cerium oxide particles at 1 wt. % in the base oil (Samples 5-6) reduce boundary friction coefficients at least as well as glycerol monooleate and ZnS nanoparticles (Samples 2-4). At lower concentrations, the cerium oxide nanoparticles (Sample 10) are substantially more effective at reducing boundary friction coefficients than glycerol monooleate and ZnS nanoparticles (Samples 7-9). Samples 11-13 show the effects on boundary friction coefficients for mixtures of nanoparticles. The results of Samples 11-13 indicate that as the concentration of the cerium oxide nanoparticles is increased in the mixtures, the boundary friction coefficients decrease. EXAMPLE 6 Boundary Friction Coefficients of Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles in a PCMO The effectiveness of a reduction in the boundary friction coefficients for a fully formulated passenger car motor oil (PCMO) containing dispersants, detergents, antioxidants, viscosity modifiers, pour point depressants, and antifoam agents according to Table 1 is provided in the following Table. The fully formulated PCMO did not contain additional metal free or metal-containing friction modifiers other than as indicated in the following table. TABLE 3 Boundary % Reduction in Friction Friction versus Sample Coefficient at Group II Base No. 130° C. Oil 1 PCMO 0.126 +/− 0.002 0% 2 PCMO + 0.25 wt. % 0.078 +/− 0.002 38.1% glycerol monooleate 3 PCMO + 0.1 wt. % 0.116 +/− 0.004 7.9% ZnS spheres 4 PCMO + 0.1 wt. % 0.104 +/− 0.005 17.5% ZnS rods 5 PCMO + 0.1 wt. % CeO2 0.086 +/− 0.010 31.7% spheres As shown by the foregoing results, the cerium oxide nanoparticles are statistically as effective at reducing boundary friction at 0.1 wt. % as glycerol monooleate at 0.25 wt. %. Further the results show that 0.1 wt. % cerium oxide nanoparticles are more effective for reducing boundary friction coefficients than ZnS nanoparticles at the same concentration in the PCMO. It is expected that formulations containing from about 0.1 to about 5.0 wt. % or more cerium oxide nanoparticles will enable a reduction in the amount of conventional antiwear agents, such as sulfur and/or phosphorus containing compounds, needed thereby improving the performance of pollution control equipment on vehicles while achieving a similar or improved friction coefficient performance or benefit and little or no adverse effect on the corrosiveness of the oil. At numerous places throughout this specification has been made to a number of U.S. Patents. All such cited documents are expressly incorporated in full into this disclosure as if fully set forth herein. The foregoing embodiments are susceptible to considerable variation in its practice. Accordingly, the embodiments are not intended to be limited to the specific exemplifications set forth hereinabove. Rather, the foregoing embodiments are within the spirit and scope of the appended claims, including the equivalents thereof available as a matter of law. The patentees do not intend to dedicate any disclosed embodiments to the public, and to the extent any disclosed modifications or alterations may not literally fall within the scope of the claims, they are considered to be part hereof under the doctrine of equivalents.	C	C10	C10M	103	06
11913265	US20080200562A1-20080821	Polymer Conjugate Enhanced Bioassays	ACCEPTED	20080805	20080821		[]	A61K4730	["A61K4730", "C08F2052", "C08G6500", "G01N3353", "C08G6910"]	8563329	20071031	20131022	436	518000	75885.0	CHIN	CHRISTOPHER	[{"inventor_name_last": "Yin", "inventor_name_first": "Ray", "inventor_city": "Newark", "inventor_state": "DE", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Qin", "inventor_name_first": "Dujie", "inventor_city": "Abingdon", "inventor_state": "MD", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Pan", "inventor_name_first": "Jing", "inventor_city": "Newark", "inventor_state": "DE", "inventor_country": "US"}]	Modified branched polymers are combined with bioactive agents which are one member of a binding pair for use in an assay.	1. A modified branched polymer conjugate which comprises at least one modified branched polymer associated with at least one bioactive agent 2. The conjugate of claim 1, wherein said polymer is symmetric. 3. The conjugate of claim 1, wherein said polymer is asymmetric. 4. The conjugate of claim 1, wherein said bioactive agent is a diagnostic agent, therapeutic agent, or a combination of diagnostic and therapeutic agent. 5. The conjugate of claim 1, wherein said modified branched polymer connects with another bioactive agent through either covalent or non-covalent linkages. 6. The conjugate of claim 1, wherein said modified branched polymer is either a terminal or a chain branched polymer or a combination thereof. 7. The conjugate of claim 1, wherein said modified branched polymer is derived from a dendrimer, a dendrigraft, a star shaped, or a comb-shaped polymer, or a combination thereof. 8. The conjugate of claim 1, wherein said modified branched polymer is derived from a polyethyleneimine or a polypropyleneimine dendrimer. 9. The conjugate of claim 1, wherein said modified branched polymer is derived from a polyethyleneimine or a polypropyleneimine dendrigrafts. 10. The conjugate of claim 3, wherein said asymmetrically branched polymer is a random or regular asymmetrically branched polymer. 11. The conjugate of claim 10, wherein said random asymmetrically branched polymer is polyethyleneimine or a modified polyethyleneimine. 12. The conjugate of claim 10 wherein said random asymmetrically branched polymer is polyoxazoline or modified polyoxazoline. 13. The conjugate of claim 10, wherein said random asymmetrically branched polyoxazoline is poly (2-methyoxazoline) or poly (2-ethyloxazoline). 14. The conjugate of claim 10, wherein said random asymmetrically branched polyoxazoline is modified poly (2-methyoxazoline) or modified poly (2-ethyloxazoline). 15. The conjugate of claim 10, wherein said regular asymmetrically branched polymer is polylysine or a modified polylysine. 16. The conjugate of claim 1, wherein said bioactive agent is a metal. 17. The conjugate of claim 16, wherein said metal is a transition metal, an alkali metal, an alkaline-earth metal, a Lanthanide series element or an Actinide series element. 18. The conjugate of claim 1, wherein said conjugate can be used as a diagnostic agent, a therapeutic agent or both. 19. The conjugate of claim 1, wherein said conjugate can be used in conjunction with a nano and/or microparticle as a medical diagnostic agent, a therapeutic agent or both. 20. The conjugate of claim 19, wherein said nano and/or microparticle is biodegradable or non-biodegradable. 21. The conjugate of claim 1 or 19, wherein said conjugate is used for radiotherapy, immunotherapy, cell therapy, gene therapy or drug delivery. 22. An assay kit comprising the conjugate of claim 1 and a reporter molecule. 23. The kit of claim 22, wherein said bioactive agent is a member of a binding pair. 24. The kit of claim 23, wherein said binding pair comprises an antibody, an antigen binding portion thereof, an antigen or an epitope-containing portion thereof. 25. The kit of claim 22, wherein said reporter molecule comprises a colored, luminescent or fluorescent particulate or moiety, an enzyme, or a combination thereof. 26. The kit of claim 25, wherein said fluorescent or luminescent particulate or moiety comprises quantum dots, nanocrystals, up-converting phosphorescent particles or fluorophore containing latex beads. 27. The kit of claim 25, wherein said colored particulate comprises colloidal metals, comprising gold or silver, colored latex beads or colored dyes. 28. The kit of claim 22, wherein said reporter comprises at least one modified branched polymer. 29. The kit of clam 22, wherein said kit comprises a solid phase comprising said conjugate and said reporter molecule. 30. The kit of claim 29, wherein said solid phase comprises a flat surface or a membrane. 31. The kit of claim 29, wherein said flat surface comprises a silicon wafer, quartz, glass, a metal, or a plastic. 32. The kit of claim 30, wherein said membrane comprises a paper, a plastic membrane, a nylon membrane or nitrocellulose. 33. The kit of claim 29, wherein said solid phase and said conjugate comprise a microarray or a bead array. 34. The kit of claim 22, wherein said reporter molecule yields a product which is detectable by color or by light. 35. The kit of claim 29, wherein said solid phase comprises a dipstick, a lateral flow immunoassay or a microarray. 36. The kit of claim 23, wherein said member of a binding pair is an antibody that binds to a detector that binds to a ligand or analyte in a sample. 37. The kit of claim 23, wherein said member of a binding pair is a molecule that binds biotin, fluorescein, nucleic acid, albumin, a hapten or a combination thereof. 38. The kit of claim 29, wherein said conjugate is bound to said solid phase. 39. The kit of claim 29, wherein said conjugate is reversibly bound to said solid phase. 40. The kit of claim 22, further comprising a detector molecule that binds to a ligand or analyte in a sample. 41. The kit of claim 40, wherein said detector molecule is an antibody or antigen-binding portion thereof. 42. The kit of claim 41, wherein said antibody or antigen binding portion thereof comprises a member of a binding pair. 43. The kit of claim 42, where said member of a binding pair is biotin, fluorescein, nucleic acid, albumin, a hapten or a combination thereof. 44. The kit of claim 29, further comprising a detector molecule that binds to a ligand or analyte in a sample reversibly bound to said solid phase. 45. The kit of claim 44. wherein said detector molecule is an antibody or antigen-binding portion thereof. 46. The kit of claim 45, wherein said antibody or antigen binding portion thereof comprises a member of a binding pair. 47. The kit of claim 46, wherein said member of a binding pair is biotin fluorescein, nucleic acid, albumin, a hapten or a combination thereof. 48. A method for detecting a target molecule, comprising, obtaining a sample suspected of containing said target molecule, exposing said sample to the conjugate of claim 1 and a detector molecule that specifically binds said target molecule, and determining whether complexes of said conjugate, detector molecule and target molecule are formed. 49. The method of claim 48, wherein said determining step comprises a reporter molecule. 50. The method of claim 49, wherein presence of said reporter molecule is determined visually. 51. The method of claim 49, wherein presence of said reporter molecule is detected with a mechanical means. 52. The method of claim 51, wherein said mechanical means comprises a detecting means. 53. The method of claim 51, wherein said mechanical means comprises a sensing means that digitizes data and a data storage means. 54. The method of claim 51, wherein said mechanical means comprises a display means. 55. The method of claim 51, wherein said mechanical means is a hand held device. 56. The method of claim 51, further comprising a data communication means. 57. The method of claim 51, wherein said mechanical means is portable. 58. The method of claim 51, wherein said mechanical means comprises a detection signal quantifying means. 59. The method of claim 56, wherein said communication means is a wireless means. 60. The kit of claim 22, further comprising a housing. 61. The method of claim 48, wherein said target molecule is immobilized on a surface prior to reacting with said detector molecule. 62. The method of claim 61, wherein said immobilizing comprises a binding molecule which specifically binds said target affixed to said surface.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In recent years, a new class of polymers called dendritic polymers, including both Starburst dendrimers (or Dense Star polymers) and Combburst dendrigrafts (or hyper comb-branched polymers), have been developed and extensively studied in industrial and academic laboratories. These polymers often exhibit: (a) a well-defined core molecule, (b) at least two concentric dendritic layers (generations) with symmetrical (equal) branch junctures, and (c) exterior surface groups, as described in Tomalia's U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,435,548; 4,507,466; 4,568,737; 4,587,329; 5,338,532; 5,527,524; and 5,714,166. Examples include polyethyleneimine dendrimers such as those disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,631,337; polypropyleneimine dendrimers such as those disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,530,092; 5,610,268; and 5,698,662; Frechet-type polyether and polyester dendrimers, core-shell tecto-dendrimers, and others as described in “Dendritic Molecules”, edited by G R Newkome et al., VCH Weinheim, 1996, and “Dendrimers and Other Dendritic Polymers”, edited by J M J Frechet and D A Tomalia, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2001. Similar to dendrimers, Combburst dendrigrafts are also constructed with a core molecule and concentric layers with symmetrical branches through a stepwise synthetic method. In contrast to dendrimers, Combburst dendrigrafts or polymers are generated with monodisperse linear polymeric building blocks (Tomalia's U.S. Pat. No. 5,773,527 and Yin's U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,631,329 and 5,919,442). Moreover, the branch pattern is also very different from that of dendrimers. For example, Combburst dendrigrafts form branch junctures along the polymeric backbones (chain branches), while Starburst dendrimers often branch at the termini (terminal branches). Due to the utilization of living polymerization techniques, the molecular weight distributions (Mw/Mn) of these polymeric building blocks (core and branches) are often very narrow. As a result, Combburst dendrigrafts, produced through a graft-upon-graft process, are rather well defined with molecular weight distributions (Mw/n) often less than 1.2. Dendrimers and dendrigrafts have been shown to possess unique carrier properties for bioactive molecules, as described in Tomalia's U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,338,532; 5,527,524; and 5,714,166 for Dense Star Polymers, and Yin's U.S. Pat. No. 5,919,442 for Hyper Comb-Branched Polymers. These unique properties (i.e., surface functional groups and interior void spaces) have been primarily attributed to the well-controlled, symmetrical dendritic architecture with predictable branching patterns (either symmetrical termini or polymeric chain branching) and molecular weights. Other symmetrically branched polymers (SBP) could include symmetrical star- or comb-shaped polymers such as symmetrical star or comb-shaped polyethyleneoxide, polyethyleneglycol, polyethyleneimine, polypropyleneimine, polymethyloxazoline, polyethyloxazoline, polystyrene, polymethylmethacrylate, polydimethylsiloxane, and/or a combination thereof. So far, none of the existing prior art has utilized modified symmetrically branched polymers for target recognition purposes, particularly for assay and microarray related applications, wherein transporting, anchoring, and orienting biologically active materials from a solution onto a solid surface are required. These symmetrically branched dendrimers are different from asymmetrically branched (ABP) dendrimers (Denkewalter's U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,289,872; 4,360,646; and 4,410,688). The latter possess asymmetrical (unequal) branch junctures. A random ABP (ran-ABP) possesses: a) no core, b) functional groups both at the exterior and in the interior, c) variable branch lengths and patterns (i.e., termini and chain branches), and d) unevenly distributed interior void spaces. Although a regular ABP (reg-ABP) possesses a core, the functional groups are both at the exterior and in the interior. Therefore, both ran-ABP and reg-ABP are generally considered to be unsuitable for carrying bioactive molecules. The preparation of reg-ABP made of polylysine has been described, as illustrated in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,289,872; 4,360,646; and 4,410,688. The synthesis and mechanisms of ran-ABPs, such as made of polyethyleneimine (PEI), have been studied (see G D Jones et al., J. Org. Chem. 9, 125 (1944), G D Jones et al., J. Org. Chem. 30, 1994 (1965), and C R Dick et al., J. Macromol. Sci. Chem., A4 (6), 1301-1314, (1970)). Ran-ABP, such as made of polyoxazoline, i.e., poly(2-methyloxazoline) and/or poly(2-ethyloxazoline), have been studied by Litt (J. Macromol. Sci. Chem. A9(5), pp. 703-727 (1975)) and Waralomski (J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Chem. 28, 3551 (1990)). Most of the prior art involved the utilization of polyethyleneimine polymers as coating materials to alter the characteristics of solid surfaces (i.e. changing charges, charge densities and hydrophobicity). The coating aspects of polyethyleneimine polymers have been described in J Ness's U.S. Pat. No. 6,150,103 and K Moynihan's U.S. Pat. No. 6,365,349. Polyethyleneimines have also been tested as to carrying DNA molecules for gene transfection studies. However, the polymers were found to be cytotoxic. Randomly branched poly(2-ethyloxazoline) has also been utilized to physically encapsulate protein molecules (U.S. Pat. No. 6,716,450). However, such an approach was not designed for the direct, covalent linking of ABP with bioactive materials for bioassay applications. So far, none of the existing prior art has utilized modified ran-ABP and reg-ABP for target recognition purposes, particularly for assay and microarray related applications, wherein transporting, anchoring, and orienting biologically active materials from a solution onto a solid surface is required. Such dendrimers can be produced by repetitive protecting and deprotecting procedures through either a divergent or a convergent synthetic approach. Since both symmetric and asymmetric dendrimers utilize small molecules as molecular building blocks for the cores and the branches, the molecular weights of these dendrimers are often precisely defined. In the case of lower generations, a single molecular weight dendrimer is often obtained. Since the completion of the human genome project, more and more researchers have realized that the elucidation of biological pathways and mechanisms at the protein level is actually far more important than at the genetic level. This is because the former is more closely related to different diseases and disease stages. With this strong demand push, a new forum called proteomics has recently become a major research focus for both industrial and academic researchers. Currently, three major research tools have been employed in the proteomics research arena, primarily for the discovery, high throughput screening, and validation of new protein targets and drug leads. These tools include two dimensional (2-D) gel electrophoresis, mass spectrometry, and more recently, protein microarrays. In contrast to the lengthy 2-D gel procedures and tedious sample preparation (primarily separations) involved in mass spectrometry analysis, protein microarrays provide a fast, easy, and low-cost method to screen large numbers of proteins, as well as their functions. Therefore, microarrays are highly desired by proteomics researchers. However, the protein-based microarray technology is far less developed than gene microarrays. The construction of a protein/antibody chip presents daunting challenges not encountered in the development of classical immunoassays or of DNA chips. In general, proteins are more sensitive to their environment than nucleic acids. The hydrophobicity of many membrane, glass, and plastic surfaces can cause protein denaturation, rendering the capture molecules inactive and resulting in lower sensitivity and higher noise-to-signal ratios. In other words, to construct a protein microarray, one must be able to overcome at least three major problems, protein denaturation, immobilization, and orientation. For example, a protein molecule often folds into a three-dimensional structure in solution for and to maintain biological activity. On interaction with different solid surfaces, for example, during immobilization of proteins onto membranes, glass slides, or micro/nanoparticles, the three-dimensional structure of the protein molecule often collapses, thus losing biological activity. In addition, proteins often do not have the ability to adhere onto different surfaces. To immobilize the protein molecule on a surface, a direct covalent linking reaction or an electrostatic interaction (physical adsorption) often has to be employed. Heterogeneous chemical reactions often are incomplete, yielding undesired side products (i.e. incomplete modification of surfaces), and in some cases, also partially denatured proteins during different reaction stages. The electrostatic interaction relies heavily on the isoelectric point of the proteins, as well as the pH of the buffer solutions. While pH is manipulable, the efficacy of reaction of some proteins is low. Both approaches tend to give irreproducible results due to the complexity involved in these procedures. The lot-to-lot reproducibility is, therefore, very poor. As a result, there is a great interest in modifying solid substrates, but not the protein molecule itself. A variety of polymers, including polyethyleneimine polymers, have been utilized as coating materials to alter the characteristics of solid surfaces for the construction of protein arrays, as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,406,921 and 6,773,928. So far, none of the prior art approaches utilizes modified branched polymers as carriers for bioactive materials, particularly for the construction of assays and microarrays.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one aspect, the present invention is directed to polymer labeling conjugate materials comprising modified branched polymers (MBP) associated with desired materials, processes for preparing these polymers and conjugates, compositions containing the conjugates, and methods of using the conjugates and compositions. Branched polymers include symmetrical and asymmetrical polymers, random or regular. Also included is a modified branched polymer associated with multiple units of carried material, and each with the same or different properties and activities. Such conjugates may be formulated with acceptable carriers, diluents, and additives for use, for example, in biodetection, diagnostics, agriculture and pharmaceuticals. The modified branched polymer labeling conjugates are suitable for use in a variety of applications where specific delivery of bioactive materials is desired. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the modified branched polymer conjugates are comprised of one or more modified branched polymers associated with one or more bioactive materials. In another aspect of the invention, the modified symmetrically branched polymer has regular symmetrical branch junctures within the polymer. In another aspect of the invention, the asymmetrically branched polymer has either random or regular, asymmetrical branch junctures with a mixture of terminal and chain branching patterns. In another aspect of the invention, the modified symmetrically branched polymer has functional groups predominantly at the exterior. In another aspect of the invention, the asymmetrically branched polymer has functional groups both at the exterior and in the interior. In yet another aspect of the invention, the modified symmetrically branched polymer has an interior void space. In a further aspect of the invention, the asymmetrically branched polymer has unevenly distributed void spaces. In another aspect of the invention, the symmetrically branched polymer, as defined above, including, but not limited to polyethyleneimine dendrimers, polypropyleneimine dendrimers, polyether dendrimers, polyester dendrimers, combbranched/starbranched polymers such as polyethyleneoxide, polyethyleneglycol, polymethyloxazoline, polyethyloxazoline, polymethylmethacrylate, polystyrene, polybutadiene, polyisoprene, polydimethylsiloxane, combbranched dendrigrafts such as polyethyloxazoline, polyethyleneimine, and polystyrene, and so on is modified with at least one monomer capable of forming new functional groups and/or additional branches at a given time so that new material properties is achieved. The modified symmetrically branched polymers can be either obtained through chemically linked functional groups on, for example, symmetrically branched polypropyleneimine dendrimers (commercially available from Aldrich), polyether dendrimers, polyester dendrimers, combbranched/starbranched polymers such as polyethyleneoxide, polyethyleneglycol, polymethyloxazoline or polyethyloxazoline, polystyrene, and combbranched dendrigrafts such as polyethyloxazoline, polyethyleneimine, and polystyrene. The synthetic procedures for these symmetrically branched polymers/dendrimers are known (see “Dendrimers and Other Dendritic Polymers”, edited by J M J Frechet and D A Tomalia, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2001). In another aspect of the invention, the asymmetrically branched polymer is modified with at least one monomer capable of forming additional branches at a given time so that new material properties can be achieved, wherein the said modified polymer is defined as a modified asymmetrically branched polymer. The modified asymmetrically branched polymers can be either obtained, for example, through chemically linked functional groups on regular asymmetrically branched polylysines or on random asymmetrically branched polyethyleneimines (commercially available from Aldrich, Polysciences, or BASF under the trade name, Luposal™). The random asymmetrically branched polyoxazoline polymers can be prepared according to procedures described by M Litt (J. Macromol. Sci. Chem. A9(5), pp. 703-727 (1975)). In another aspect of the invention, the branched polymers/dendrimers are further modified with functional groups, such as, but not limited to an —NH 2 , —NHR, —NR 2 , —NR 3 + , —COOR, —COOH, —COO—, —OH, —C(O)R, —C(O)NH 2 , —C(O)NHR, or —C(O)NR 2 group, an aliphatic group, which can be branched, contain one or more double and/or triple bonds and/or may be substituted, an aromatic group, which may contain a plurality of rings, which may be fused or separated, the rings may be of varying size and/or may contain substituents, perfluorocarbon chains, saccharides, which may be of varying ring sizes, the rings may contain a heteroatom, such as a sulfur or nitrogen atom, and/or may be substituted, polysaccharides, containing two or more monomers, may be branched and/or may be substituted, and polyethylene glycols, wherein R can be any aliphatic or aromatic group, or a combination thereof. The molecular weight of the non-modified and modified branched polymers can range from about 500 to over 5,000,000; preferably from about 500 to about 1,000,000; more preferably from about 1,000 to about 500,000; and more preferably from about 2,000 to about 100,000. The preferred labeling conjugates of the present invention include those where a branched polymer labeling conjugate comprises at least one modified branched polymer associated with at least one unit of at least one biologically active (bioactive) material. Some examples of biologically active materials are molecules with a binding activity, but not a molecule used in assays as mobile elements to bind target molecules, such as a primary antibody. Thus, the conjugates of interest are usable in what are known as “indirect” immunoassays. Suitable such binding molecules include hormones and receptors therefor; lectins and the cognate carbohydrate; avidin, streptavidin, or neutravidin and biotin; antigen and antibody, such as fluorescein and anti-fluorescein; enzyme and co-factor or substrate; antibody and anti-antibody and so on. In one aspect of the invention, the modified branched polymer-bioactive material conjugates can be utilized, for example, for the rapid detection of target molecules of interest, such as environmental pollutants, chemical and biological warfare agents, as well as for screening for drug targets and leads, and therapeutic drug and therapeutic effect monitoring. In another aspect of the invention, the modified asymmetrically or symmetrically branched polymer-bioactive material conjugates can be utilized, for example, for the rapid diagnosis of different cancers, tumors, pathological states and diseases, as well as for monitoring biomarker changes and protein profiling during clinical trials and therapeutic treatments. In another aspect of the invention, the modified branched polymer-bioactive material conjugates can be utilized, for example, for the construction of, for example, indirect sandwich and sequential assays, using a labeling reagent that does not bind directly to the target analyte. In another aspect of the invention, the modified branched polymer-bioactive material conjugates can be utilized, for example, for the construction of, for example, nucleic acid, DNA, or RNA based assays, using a labeling reagent that directly or indirectly bind to the target analyte. In another aspect of the invention, the modified branched polymer-bioactive material conjugates are capable of carrying a variety of metal ions for both in vitro/in vivo imaging and radiotherapy related applications. Such conjugates could also be used in conjunction with a nano/microparticle so that it could serve as a better drug delivery and therapeutic vehicles for certain disease treatment. These nano/microparticles can either be biodegradable or non-biodegradable. In yet another aspect of the invention, at least one modified branched polymer can be utilized to carry at least one biologically active molecule to various solid surfaces, generating virtually no denaturation of the at least one biologically active molecule at the surface. These surfaces include labeling or reporter molecules, such as latex beads, metal sols and so on. The branched polymers can be used to affix capture molecules to a solid phase, such as a membrane, a plastic surface and the like. The modified branched polymer labeling conjugates may be further used in applications related to agriculture, food safety assurance, as well as in vitro and in vivo diagnostics and targeting. Such conjugates may be utilized as key sensing components in various sensor platforms including, but not limited to, optical, electrical, piezoelectric devices, as well as microfluidics and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS). Additional features and advantages of the present invention are described in, and will be apparent from, the following Detailed Description of the Invention and the figures.	FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention concerns the use of branched polymers (BP) in composite materials, such as conjugates, which can be employed, for example, in assay applications related to use in agriculture, environmental studies, diagnostics, drug monitoring, drug target screening, lead optimization, therapeutics and so on. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In recent years, a new class of polymers called dendritic polymers, including both Starburst dendrimers (or Dense Star polymers) and Combburst dendrigrafts (or hyper comb-branched polymers), have been developed and extensively studied in industrial and academic laboratories. These polymers often exhibit: (a) a well-defined core molecule, (b) at least two concentric dendritic layers (generations) with symmetrical (equal) branch junctures, and (c) exterior surface groups, as described in Tomalia's U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,435,548; 4,507,466; 4,568,737; 4,587,329; 5,338,532; 5,527,524; and 5,714,166. Examples include polyethyleneimine dendrimers such as those disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,631,337; polypropyleneimine dendrimers such as those disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,530,092; 5,610,268; and 5,698,662; Frechet-type polyether and polyester dendrimers, core-shell tecto-dendrimers, and others as described in “Dendritic Molecules”, edited by G R Newkome et al., VCH Weinheim, 1996, and “Dendrimers and Other Dendritic Polymers”, edited by J M J Frechet and D A Tomalia, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2001. Similar to dendrimers, Combburst dendrigrafts are also constructed with a core molecule and concentric layers with symmetrical branches through a stepwise synthetic method. In contrast to dendrimers, Combburst dendrigrafts or polymers are generated with monodisperse linear polymeric building blocks (Tomalia's U.S. Pat. No. 5,773,527 and Yin's U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,631,329 and 5,919,442). Moreover, the branch pattern is also very different from that of dendrimers. For example, Combburst dendrigrafts form branch junctures along the polymeric backbones (chain branches), while Starburst dendrimers often branch at the termini (terminal branches). Due to the utilization of living polymerization techniques, the molecular weight distributions (Mw/Mn) of these polymeric building blocks (core and branches) are often very narrow. As a result, Combburst dendrigrafts, produced through a graft-upon-graft process, are rather well defined with molecular weight distributions (Mw/n) often less than 1.2. Dendrimers and dendrigrafts have been shown to possess unique carrier properties for bioactive molecules, as described in Tomalia's U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,338,532; 5,527,524; and 5,714,166 for Dense Star Polymers, and Yin's U.S. Pat. No. 5,919,442 for Hyper Comb-Branched Polymers. These unique properties (i.e., surface functional groups and interior void spaces) have been primarily attributed to the well-controlled, symmetrical dendritic architecture with predictable branching patterns (either symmetrical termini or polymeric chain branching) and molecular weights. Other symmetrically branched polymers (SBP) could include symmetrical star- or comb-shaped polymers such as symmetrical star or comb-shaped polyethyleneoxide, polyethyleneglycol, polyethyleneimine, polypropyleneimine, polymethyloxazoline, polyethyloxazoline, polystyrene, polymethylmethacrylate, polydimethylsiloxane, and/or a combination thereof. So far, none of the existing prior art has utilized modified symmetrically branched polymers for target recognition purposes, particularly for assay and microarray related applications, wherein transporting, anchoring, and orienting biologically active materials from a solution onto a solid surface are required. These symmetrically branched dendrimers are different from asymmetrically branched (ABP) dendrimers (Denkewalter's U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,289,872; 4,360,646; and 4,410,688). The latter possess asymmetrical (unequal) branch junctures. A random ABP (ran-ABP) possesses: a) no core, b) functional groups both at the exterior and in the interior, c) variable branch lengths and patterns (i.e., termini and chain branches), and d) unevenly distributed interior void spaces. Although a regular ABP (reg-ABP) possesses a core, the functional groups are both at the exterior and in the interior. Therefore, both ran-ABP and reg-ABP are generally considered to be unsuitable for carrying bioactive molecules. The preparation of reg-ABP made of polylysine has been described, as illustrated in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,289,872; 4,360,646; and 4,410,688. The synthesis and mechanisms of ran-ABPs, such as made of polyethyleneimine (PEI), have been studied (see G D Jones et al., J. Org. Chem. 9, 125 (1944), G D Jones et al., J. Org. Chem. 30, 1994 (1965), and C R Dick et al., J. Macromol. Sci. Chem., A4 (6), 1301-1314, (1970)). Ran-ABP, such as made of polyoxazoline, i.e., poly(2-methyloxazoline) and/or poly(2-ethyloxazoline), have been studied by Litt (J. Macromol. Sci. Chem. A9(5), pp. 703-727 (1975)) and Waralomski (J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Chem. 28, 3551 (1990)). Most of the prior art involved the utilization of polyethyleneimine polymers as coating materials to alter the characteristics of solid surfaces (i.e. changing charges, charge densities and hydrophobicity). The coating aspects of polyethyleneimine polymers have been described in J Ness's U.S. Pat. No. 6,150,103 and K Moynihan's U.S. Pat. No. 6,365,349. Polyethyleneimines have also been tested as to carrying DNA molecules for gene transfection studies. However, the polymers were found to be cytotoxic. Randomly branched poly(2-ethyloxazoline) has also been utilized to physically encapsulate protein molecules (U.S. Pat. No. 6,716,450). However, such an approach was not designed for the direct, covalent linking of ABP with bioactive materials for bioassay applications. So far, none of the existing prior art has utilized modified ran-ABP and reg-ABP for target recognition purposes, particularly for assay and microarray related applications, wherein transporting, anchoring, and orienting biologically active materials from a solution onto a solid surface is required. Such dendrimers can be produced by repetitive protecting and deprotecting procedures through either a divergent or a convergent synthetic approach. Since both symmetric and asymmetric dendrimers utilize small molecules as molecular building blocks for the cores and the branches, the molecular weights of these dendrimers are often precisely defined. In the case of lower generations, a single molecular weight dendrimer is often obtained. Since the completion of the human genome project, more and more researchers have realized that the elucidation of biological pathways and mechanisms at the protein level is actually far more important than at the genetic level. This is because the former is more closely related to different diseases and disease stages. With this strong demand push, a new forum called proteomics has recently become a major research focus for both industrial and academic researchers. Currently, three major research tools have been employed in the proteomics research arena, primarily for the discovery, high throughput screening, and validation of new protein targets and drug leads. These tools include two dimensional (2-D) gel electrophoresis, mass spectrometry, and more recently, protein microarrays. In contrast to the lengthy 2-D gel procedures and tedious sample preparation (primarily separations) involved in mass spectrometry analysis, protein microarrays provide a fast, easy, and low-cost method to screen large numbers of proteins, as well as their functions. Therefore, microarrays are highly desired by proteomics researchers. However, the protein-based microarray technology is far less developed than gene microarrays. The construction of a protein/antibody chip presents daunting challenges not encountered in the development of classical immunoassays or of DNA chips. In general, proteins are more sensitive to their environment than nucleic acids. The hydrophobicity of many membrane, glass, and plastic surfaces can cause protein denaturation, rendering the capture molecules inactive and resulting in lower sensitivity and higher noise-to-signal ratios. In other words, to construct a protein microarray, one must be able to overcome at least three major problems, protein denaturation, immobilization, and orientation. For example, a protein molecule often folds into a three-dimensional structure in solution for and to maintain biological activity. On interaction with different solid surfaces, for example, during immobilization of proteins onto membranes, glass slides, or micro/nanoparticles, the three-dimensional structure of the protein molecule often collapses, thus losing biological activity. In addition, proteins often do not have the ability to adhere onto different surfaces. To immobilize the protein molecule on a surface, a direct covalent linking reaction or an electrostatic interaction (physical adsorption) often has to be employed. Heterogeneous chemical reactions often are incomplete, yielding undesired side products (i.e. incomplete modification of surfaces), and in some cases, also partially denatured proteins during different reaction stages. The electrostatic interaction relies heavily on the isoelectric point of the proteins, as well as the pH of the buffer solutions. While pH is manipulable, the efficacy of reaction of some proteins is low. Both approaches tend to give irreproducible results due to the complexity involved in these procedures. The lot-to-lot reproducibility is, therefore, very poor. As a result, there is a great interest in modifying solid substrates, but not the protein molecule itself. A variety of polymers, including polyethyleneimine polymers, have been utilized as coating materials to alter the characteristics of solid surfaces for the construction of protein arrays, as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,406,921 and 6,773,928. So far, none of the prior art approaches utilizes modified branched polymers as carriers for bioactive materials, particularly for the construction of assays and microarrays. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one aspect, the present invention is directed to polymer labeling conjugate materials comprising modified branched polymers (MBP) associated with desired materials, processes for preparing these polymers and conjugates, compositions containing the conjugates, and methods of using the conjugates and compositions. Branched polymers include symmetrical and asymmetrical polymers, random or regular. Also included is a modified branched polymer associated with multiple units of carried material, and each with the same or different properties and activities. Such conjugates may be formulated with acceptable carriers, diluents, and additives for use, for example, in biodetection, diagnostics, agriculture and pharmaceuticals. The modified branched polymer labeling conjugates are suitable for use in a variety of applications where specific delivery of bioactive materials is desired. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the modified branched polymer conjugates are comprised of one or more modified branched polymers associated with one or more bioactive materials. In another aspect of the invention, the modified symmetrically branched polymer has regular symmetrical branch junctures within the polymer. In another aspect of the invention, the asymmetrically branched polymer has either random or regular, asymmetrical branch junctures with a mixture of terminal and chain branching patterns. In another aspect of the invention, the modified symmetrically branched polymer has functional groups predominantly at the exterior. In another aspect of the invention, the asymmetrically branched polymer has functional groups both at the exterior and in the interior. In yet another aspect of the invention, the modified symmetrically branched polymer has an interior void space. In a further aspect of the invention, the asymmetrically branched polymer has unevenly distributed void spaces. In another aspect of the invention, the symmetrically branched polymer, as defined above, including, but not limited to polyethyleneimine dendrimers, polypropyleneimine dendrimers, polyether dendrimers, polyester dendrimers, combbranched/starbranched polymers such as polyethyleneoxide, polyethyleneglycol, polymethyloxazoline, polyethyloxazoline, polymethylmethacrylate, polystyrene, polybutadiene, polyisoprene, polydimethylsiloxane, combbranched dendrigrafts such as polyethyloxazoline, polyethyleneimine, and polystyrene, and so on is modified with at least one monomer capable of forming new functional groups and/or additional branches at a given time so that new material properties is achieved. The modified symmetrically branched polymers can be either obtained through chemically linked functional groups on, for example, symmetrically branched polypropyleneimine dendrimers (commercially available from Aldrich), polyether dendrimers, polyester dendrimers, combbranched/starbranched polymers such as polyethyleneoxide, polyethyleneglycol, polymethyloxazoline or polyethyloxazoline, polystyrene, and combbranched dendrigrafts such as polyethyloxazoline, polyethyleneimine, and polystyrene. The synthetic procedures for these symmetrically branched polymers/dendrimers are known (see “Dendrimers and Other Dendritic Polymers”, edited by J M J Frechet and D A Tomalia, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2001). In another aspect of the invention, the asymmetrically branched polymer is modified with at least one monomer capable of forming additional branches at a given time so that new material properties can be achieved, wherein the said modified polymer is defined as a modified asymmetrically branched polymer. The modified asymmetrically branched polymers can be either obtained, for example, through chemically linked functional groups on regular asymmetrically branched polylysines or on random asymmetrically branched polyethyleneimines (commercially available from Aldrich, Polysciences, or BASF under the trade name, Luposal™). The random asymmetrically branched polyoxazoline polymers can be prepared according to procedures described by M Litt (J. Macromol. Sci. Chem. A9(5), pp. 703-727 (1975)). In another aspect of the invention, the branched polymers/dendrimers are further modified with functional groups, such as, but not limited to an —NH2, —NHR, —NR2, —NR3+, —COOR, —COOH, —COO—, —OH, —C(O)R, —C(O)NH2, —C(O)NHR, or —C(O)NR2 group, an aliphatic group, which can be branched, contain one or more double and/or triple bonds and/or may be substituted, an aromatic group, which may contain a plurality of rings, which may be fused or separated, the rings may be of varying size and/or may contain substituents, perfluorocarbon chains, saccharides, which may be of varying ring sizes, the rings may contain a heteroatom, such as a sulfur or nitrogen atom, and/or may be substituted, polysaccharides, containing two or more monomers, may be branched and/or may be substituted, and polyethylene glycols, wherein R can be any aliphatic or aromatic group, or a combination thereof. The molecular weight of the non-modified and modified branched polymers can range from about 500 to over 5,000,000; preferably from about 500 to about 1,000,000; more preferably from about 1,000 to about 500,000; and more preferably from about 2,000 to about 100,000. The preferred labeling conjugates of the present invention include those where a branched polymer labeling conjugate comprises at least one modified branched polymer associated with at least one unit of at least one biologically active (bioactive) material. Some examples of biologically active materials are molecules with a binding activity, but not a molecule used in assays as mobile elements to bind target molecules, such as a primary antibody. Thus, the conjugates of interest are usable in what are known as “indirect” immunoassays. Suitable such binding molecules include hormones and receptors therefor; lectins and the cognate carbohydrate; avidin, streptavidin, or neutravidin and biotin; antigen and antibody, such as fluorescein and anti-fluorescein; enzyme and co-factor or substrate; antibody and anti-antibody and so on. In one aspect of the invention, the modified branched polymer-bioactive material conjugates can be utilized, for example, for the rapid detection of target molecules of interest, such as environmental pollutants, chemical and biological warfare agents, as well as for screening for drug targets and leads, and therapeutic drug and therapeutic effect monitoring. In another aspect of the invention, the modified asymmetrically or symmetrically branched polymer-bioactive material conjugates can be utilized, for example, for the rapid diagnosis of different cancers, tumors, pathological states and diseases, as well as for monitoring biomarker changes and protein profiling during clinical trials and therapeutic treatments. In another aspect of the invention, the modified branched polymer-bioactive material conjugates can be utilized, for example, for the construction of, for example, indirect sandwich and sequential assays, using a labeling reagent that does not bind directly to the target analyte. In another aspect of the invention, the modified branched polymer-bioactive material conjugates can be utilized, for example, for the construction of, for example, nucleic acid, DNA, or RNA based assays, using a labeling reagent that directly or indirectly bind to the target analyte. In another aspect of the invention, the modified branched polymer-bioactive material conjugates are capable of carrying a variety of metal ions for both in vitro/in vivo imaging and radiotherapy related applications. Such conjugates could also be used in conjunction with a nano/microparticle so that it could serve as a better drug delivery and therapeutic vehicles for certain disease treatment. These nano/microparticles can either be biodegradable or non-biodegradable. In yet another aspect of the invention, at least one modified branched polymer can be utilized to carry at least one biologically active molecule to various solid surfaces, generating virtually no denaturation of the at least one biologically active molecule at the surface. These surfaces include labeling or reporter molecules, such as latex beads, metal sols and so on. The branched polymers can be used to affix capture molecules to a solid phase, such as a membrane, a plastic surface and the like. The modified branched polymer labeling conjugates may be further used in applications related to agriculture, food safety assurance, as well as in vitro and in vivo diagnostics and targeting. Such conjugates may be utilized as key sensing components in various sensor platforms including, but not limited to, optical, electrical, piezoelectric devices, as well as microfluidics and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS). Additional features and advantages of the present invention are described in, and will be apparent from, the following Detailed Description of the Invention and the figures. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES The following description of the figures and the respective drawings are non-limiting examples that depict various embodiments that exemplify the present invention. FIG. 1 depicts symmetrically branched polymers including a dendrimer, a dendrigraft, a star-shaped polymer, a comb-shaped polymer. FIG. 2 depicts the chemical structure of symmetrically branched polypropyleneimine dendrimers. FIG. 3 depicts chemical modification reactions of symmetrically branched polypropyleneimine dendrimers. The numbers, 8, 16, 32, . . . , indicate the number of reactive groups at the surface of the dendrimer. FIG. 4 depicts random (A) and regular (B) asymmetrically branched polymers with asymmetrical branch junctures and patterns. FIG. 5 depicts the chemical structure of a random asymmetrically branched polyethyleneimine polymer. FIG. 6 depicts chemical modification reactions of random asymmetrically branched polyethyleneimine polymers. FIG. 7 illustrates an image of a positive microarray test for detecting multiple targets simultaneously. FIGS. 8A-8H illustrate lateral flow-based immunoassay configurations. FIG. 8A provides a configuration of an immunoassay ticket without a plastic cover; FIG. 8B provides another configuration of an immunoassay ticket without a plastic cover; FIG. 8C provides yet another configuration of an immunoassay ticket without a plastic cover; FIG. 8D provides another configuration of an immunoassay ticket without a plastic cover; FIG. 8E provides a configuration of an immunoassay ticket without a plastic cover where all of the elements except for the liquid receiving pad are on the same membrane; FIG. 8F provides another configuration of an immunoassay ticket without a plastic cover; and FIGS. 5G and 8H provide a configuration of an immunoassay where all of the elements except for the liquid receiving pad are on the same membrane. The dipstick and lateral flow assays, with or without a cover, work in a similar manner. FIG. 9 illustrates results of a comparison test between non-polymer and polymer based lateral flow sandwich assays. FIG. 10 illustrates results of a comparison test between non-polymer and polymer based lateral flow direct immunoassays. FIG. 11 presents a comparison of testing results between sandwich immunoassays with colloidal gold and detector antibody incorporated separately vs. those combined together, using the assay formats provided in FIG. 8. MSBP is mixed symmetric branched polymer. MABP is mixed asymmetric branched polymer. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Symmetrically branched (SB) polymers are depicted in FIG. 1, with symmetric branches, wherein all the polymers of interest possess a core and exhibit symmetrical branch junctures consisting of either terminal or chain branches throughout the entire polymer. The functional groups are present predominantly at the exterior. Such polymers exhibit a number of unique advantages. First, a number of symmetrically branched polymers are commercially available (i.e. various generations of polypropyleneimine dendrimers, FIG. 2) or can be produced readily with commercially available monomers using synthetic procedures (see “Dendrimers and Other Dendritic Polymers”, edited by J M J Frechet and D A Tomalia, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2001). The synthesis of combbranched and combburst polymers is known (see Tomalia's U.S. Pat. No. 5,773,527 and Yin's U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,631,329 and 5,919,442). Second, due to higher branching densities, symmetrically branched polymers are often more molecularly compact. Third, the well defined interior void space also made them ideal as a carrier for entities, such as reporter molecules entrapped or encased therein. The symmetrically branched polymers often can be modified for biological and medical related applications. As new and more biofriendly monomers are added, the properties of the resulting modified symmetrically branched polymers also change significantly. For example, on modification, a water insoluble SBP can become completely water soluble, while a SBP with a high charge density can be modified to carry very low or no charges on the polymer. In one embodiment of this invention, the symmetrically branched polymer (for example, either a symmetrically branched polyethyleneimine (PEI) dendrimer, polypropyleneimine (PPI) dendrimer or a symmetrically branched PEI dendrigrafts) was modified with different kinds of primary amine groups through, for example, Michael addition or an addition of acrylic esters onto amines of the polymer. Thus, for example, through a Michael addition reaction, methyl acrylate can be introduced onto the primary and/or secondary amino groups of polyethyleneimine and polylysine polymers. The ester groups then can be further derivitized, for example, by an amidation reaction. Thus, for example, such an amidation reaction with, for example, ethylenediamine, can yield the addition of an amino group at the terminus of the newly formed branch. Other modifications to the polymer can be made using known chemistries, for example, as provided in “Poly(amines) and Poly(ammonium salts)” in Handbook of Polymer Synthesis (Part A) Edited by HR Kricheldorf, New York, Marcel Dekker, 1994 and “Dendrimers and Other Dendritic Polymers”, edited by J M J Frechet and D A Tomalia, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2001. On such addition, a modified symmetrically branched polymer, such as, a modified PEI, PPI dendrimer, or PEI dendrigraft, is formed. As an extension of the symmetrically branched polymer, such as PPI and PEI, the resulting modified SBP is also symmetrically branched. Depending on the solvent environment (i.e. pH or polarity), the surface functional groups can carry different charges and charge densities. The molecular shape and functional group locations (i.e., functional group back folding) can then be further tuned, based on these characteristic properties. In another embodiment of this invention, the modified symmetrically branched polymers can be produced using any of a variety of synthetic schemes that, for example, are known to be amenable to reaction with a suitable site on the polymer. Moreover, any of a variety of reagents can be used in a synthetic scheme of choice to yield any of a variety of modifications, or additions to the polymer backbone. Thus, for example, in the case of the Michael addition reaction to an amine described above, the addition of any of a variety of monomers can be used at the alkylation stage with a C1-C22 acrylate. Preferred reactants, include methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, heptyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl acrylate and mixtures thereof. Similarly, at the amidation stage in the example exemplified above, any of a variety of amines can be used. For example, ethylenediamine, monoethanolamine, tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane, alkyl amine, allyl amine, or any amino modified polymers including polyethylene glycol (PEG), perfluoropolymers, polystyrene, polyethylene, polydimethylsilixane, polyacrylate, polymethylmethacrylate, and the like, and mixtures thereof, can be used. That synthetic strategy would allow not only symmetric growth of the molecule, where more branches with different chemical compositions can be readily introduced, but also the addition of multiple functional groups at the exterior of the structure. Obviously, one can continuously modify the precursor polymer using the same or a different synthetic process until the desired symmetrically branched polymers with appropriate molecular weights and functional groups are attained. In addition, the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties, as well as charge densities of such polymers, can be readily tailored to fit specific application needs using appropriate monomers for constructing the polymer, and suitable modification reactions. In another embodiment of the invention, if a divergent synthetic procedure is used, the chain end of symmetrically star- or comb-branched polyoxazoline, polyethyleneimine, polyethyleneoxide/glycol, or polystyrene can be modified with another small molecule to generate various functional groups at the polymeric chain ends including primary, secondary or tertiary amines and carboxylate, hydroxyl, alkyl, fluoroalkyl, aryl, PEG, acetate, amide, and/or ester groups. Alternatively, various initiators can also be utilized so that the same type of functional groups can be introduced at the chain end, if a convergent synthetic approach is utilized (Dendritic Molecules, edited by G R Newkome et al., VCH, Weinheim, 1996, Dendrimers and Other Dendritic Polymers, edited by J M J Frechet and D A Tomalia, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2001, J. Macromol. Sci. Chem. A9(5), pp. 703-727 (1975)) and “Dendrimers and Other Dendritic Polymers”, edited by J M J Frechet and D A Tomalia, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2001. Asymmetrically branched polymers are depicted in FIG. 4, with asymmetric branches, wherein some of the polymers of interest possess no core and exhibit asymmetrical branch junctures consisting of both chain and terminal branches throughout the entire polymer. The functional groups are present both at the exterior and in the interior. Such polymers exhibit a number of unique advantages. First, a variety of known starting materials can be employed. Such monomers and polymers are low-cost and very easy to manufacture in large quantities. For example, one such precursor polymer that can be used to synthesize a polymer of interest is PEI. The synthesis of random asymmetrically branched polyethyleneimines is known (G D Jones et al., J. Org. Chem. 9, 125 (1944)) and the synthetic procedures for these precursor polymers are well established. Polyethyleneimines with various molecular weights are commercially available from different sources such as Aldrich, Polysciences, and BASF (under the trade name Luposal™). The random asymmetrically branched polyethyleneimines are primarily produced through cationic ring-opening polymerization of ring-strained cyclic imine monomers, such as aziridines (ethyleneimine) and azetidines (propyleneimine), with Lewis or Bronsted acids as initiators. (O C Dermer et al., “Ethylenediamine and Other Aziridines”, Academic Press, New York, (1969), and A S Pell, J. Chem. Soc. 71 (1959)). Since it is a one-pot process, large quantities of random asymmetrically branched polymers can be readily produced. The randomly branched poly(2-substituted oxazoline) polymers can be prepared according to procedures described by M Litt (J. Macromol. Sci. Chem. A9(5), pp. 703-727 (1975)). Second, the prior art synthetic processes often generate various branch junctures within the macromolecule. In other words, a mixture of terminal and chain branch junctures is distributed throughout the entire molecular structure. The branching densities of these random asymmetrically branched polymers are lower, and the molecular structure is more open when compared with dendrimers and dendrigrafts. Although the branch pattern is random, the average ratio of primary, secondary, and tertiary amine groups is relatively consistent, with a ratio of about 1:2:1, as described by C R Dick et al., J. Macromol. Sci. Chem., A4 (6), 1301-1314 (1970) and G M Lukovkin, Eur. Polym. J. 9, 559 (1973). Due to the presence of these branch junctures, the random asymmetrically branched polyethyleneimines are still considered spherical macromolecules. Within the globular structure, there are various sizes of pockets formed from the imperfect branch junctures at the interior of the macromolecule. Unlike dendrimers and dendrigrafts where interior pockets are always located around the center core of the molecule, the pockets of random asymmetrically branched polymers are spread unevenly throughout the entire molecule. As a result, random asymmetrically branched polymers possess both exterior and unevenly distributed interior functional groups that can be further reacted with a variety of molecules, thus forming new macromolecular architectures, defined as modified random asymmetrically branched polymers. Although having a core, the functional groups of the regular asymmetrically branched polymer are also distributed both at the exterior and in the interior, which is very similar to the random ABP. Again, a variety of precursor polymers can be used to construct such polymers of interest. One such precursor polymer is polylysine. The best example of making such polymers is regular asymmetrically branched polylysine polymers as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,289,872; 4,360,646; and 4,410,688. As a result, such polymers can also be modified in a similar manner as for the random ABPs. In one embodiment of this invention, the asymmetrically branched polymer (for example, either a random asymmetrically branched polyethyleneimine (PEI) or a regular asymmetrically branched polylysine) was modified with different kinds of primary amine groups through, for example, Michael addition or an addition of acrylic esters onto amines of the polymer. Thus, for example, through a Michael addition reaction, methyl acrylate can be introduced onto the primary and/or secondary amino groups of polyethyleneimine and polylysine polymers. The ester groups then can be further derivitized, for example, by an amidation reaction. Thus, for example, such an amidation reaction with, for example, ethylenediamine, can yield the addition of an amino group at the terminus of the newly formed branch. Other modifications to the polymer can be made using known chemistries, for example, as provided in “Poly(amines) and Poly (ammonium salts)” in Handbook of Polymer Synthesis (Part A) Edited by HR Kricheldorf, New York, Marcel Dekker, 1994. On such addition, a modified asymmetrically branched polymer, such as, a modified PEI or polylysine polymer, is formed. As an extension of the asymmetrically branched polymer, such as PEI and polylysine, the resulting modified ABP is also asymmetrically branched. Depending on the solvent environment (i.e. pH or polarity), the surface functional groups can carry different charges and charge densities. The molecular shape and functional group locations (i.e., functional group back folding) can then be further tuned, based on these characteristic properties. In another embodiment of this invention, the modified asymmetrically branched polymers can be produced using any of a variety of synthetic schemes that, for example, are known to be amenable to reaction with a suitable site on the polymer. Moreover, any of a variety of reagents can be used in a synthetic scheme of choice to yield any of a variety of modifications, or additions to the polymer backbone. Thus, for example, in the case of the Michael addition reaction to an amine described above, the addition of any of a variety of monomers can be used at the alkylation stage with a C1-C22 acrylate. Preferred reactants, include methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, heptyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl acrylate and mixtures thereof. Similarly, at the amidation stage in the example exemplified above, any of a variety of amines can be used. For example, ethylenediamine, monoethanolamine, tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane, alkyl amine, allyl amine, or any amino modified polymers including polyethylene glycol (PEG), perfluoropolymers, polystyrene, polyethylene, polydimethylsilixane, polyacrylate, polymethylmethacrylate, and the like, and mixtures thereof, can be used. This synthetic strategy would allow not only asymmetric growth of the molecule, where more pockets can be readily introduced, but also the addition of multiple functional groups at both the interior and the exterior of the structure. Obviously, one can continuously modify the precursor polymer using the same or a different synthetic process until the desired asymmetrically branched polymers with appropriate molecular weights and functional groups are attained. In addition, the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties, as well as charge densities of such polymers, can be readily tailored to fit specific application needs using appropriate monomers for constructing the polymer, and suitable modification reactions. In another embodiment of the invention, the chain end of random asymmetrically branched polyoxazoline can be terminated or reacted with another small molecule to generate various functional groups at the polymeric chain ends including primary, secondary or tertiary amines and carboxylate, hydroxyl, alkyl, fluoroalkyl, aryl, PEG, acetate, amide, and/or ester groups. Alternatively, various initiators can also be utilized so that the same type of functional groups can be introduced at the chain end (J. Macromol. Sci. Chem. A9(5), pp. 703-727 (1975)). Therefore, an alkyl modified, random asymmetrically branched poly(2-ethyloxazoline) with primary amine chain ends can be prepared using M Litt's procedure, supra. In another embodiment of this invention, modified branched polymers can be utilized to carry bioactive materials for both in vitro and in vivo related applications. The bioactive materials comprise a variety of molecules, particularly those with the ability to bind another molecule, such as a biological polymer, such as a polypeptide, or a polysaccharide, an enzyme, a receptor, a vitamin, a lectin, metals, metal ions and so on. Metals and metal ions that can be carried by a polymer of interest may include, but are not limited to, transition metals and others, such as Sc, Y, Ti, Zr, Hf, V, Nb, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, Mn, Tc, Re, Fe, Ru, Os, Co, Rh, Ir, Ni, Pd, Pt, Cu, Ag, Au, Zn, Cd Hg, Ga, In, Tl, alkali metals, alkaline-earth metals, Lanthanide series elements, such as Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb and Lu, and Actinide series elements, such as Th, Pa, U, Np, Pu, Am, Cm, Bk, Cf, Es, Fm, Md, No, and Lr. With the attachment of one or more chelating groups, including, but not limited to, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA), diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA), 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecanetetraacetic acid (DOTA), 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7-triacetic acid (DO3A), 1-oxa-4,7,10-triazacyclododecane-triacetic acid (DOXA), 1,4,7-triazacyclononanetriacetic acid (NOTA), 1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecanetetraacetic acid (TETA), DOTA-N(2-aminoethyl)amide and DOTA-N-(2-aminophenethyl)amide on a modified branched polymer, metal ions, such as those selected from Sc, Y, Ti, Zr, Hf; V, Nb, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, Mn, Tc, Re, Fe, Ru, Os, Co, Rh, Ir, Ni, Pd, Pt, Cu, Ag, Au, Zn, Cd Hg, Ga, In, Tl, alkali metals, alkaline-earth metals, Lanthanide series elements, such as Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb and Lu, and Actinide series elements, such as Th, Pa, U, Np, Pu, Am, Cm, Bk, Cf, Es, Fm, Md, No, and Lr, can be chelated onto the polymer. Such metal loaded polymer can then be covalently or non-covalently attached onto a nano or microparticle prepared from both inorganic and organic/polymeric materials. The nano/microparticles either can be biodegradable or non-biodegradable. Alternatively, the chelating groups can be linked with an intermediate linker such as a biotin, while the modified branched polymer is covalently attached to a streptavidin, avidin, or neutravidin. The nano/microparticle can first be functionalized with a polymer-streptavidin conjugate, followed by reaction with either biotinylated chelating groups or metal ion loaded biotinylated chelating groups. The nano/microparticle-polymer-chelating-metal ion conjugates can be used for both in vitro and in vivo diagnostic/imaging purposes, as well as in vivo medical treatment applications, including, but not limited to radiotherapy, immunotherapy, gene, cell therapy, or a combination thereof, and so on. For in vivo imaging purposes, a conjugate of interest comprises a reporter molecule that can be detected by an external device, such as a gamma camera. Thus, a conjugate is configured to comprise a radioisotope that will emit detectable radiation. The conjugate is placed into a format suitable for consumption or placement in a body, employing reagents suitable therefor as known in the art. The conjugate composition is administered as known in the art, such as orally, rectally, intravenously and so on, and the conjugate is configured in a composition suitable for the route of administration. The labeled molecule of interest can serve as a diagnostic agent. By “diagnostic agent” is meant a molecule which can be used as a marker for a particular disease, physiological state or stage, a pathological stage or state, and so on. Albumin, mineral level, microorganism, specific antibody, specific antigen, toxin and so on are examples of diagnostic agents. Therapeutic agents are those that confer a beneficial effect, such as a drug, a nutrient, a protein, a medical device consisting of a drug, a nutrient, and/or a protein, and so on. For the purposes of the instant invention, a “detector molecule” is a molecule with a binding activity. The detector molecule is used in an assay herein for binding to a target molecule or analyte. A purpose of an assay of interest is to determine the presence, and optionally the amount of, said target molecule or said analyte in a sample. Examples of detector molecules include antibodies, and antigen binding portions thereof, receptors and so on. Any molecule taught herein and known in the art as binding to another entity can be used as a detector molecule. The detector molecule is not labeled with a detectable reporter molecule, or as used equivalently herein, a detectable label. The detectable reporter molecule is meant to be a molecule that provides a detector molecule that can be traced without further intervention, such as chemical intervention, such as exposing the detector reporter which is an enzyme to an enzyme substrate. Thus, a detector molecule of interest is not one which is directly labeled, such as an antibody conjugated to a gold sol. Preferably, the detector molecule is not manipulated or conjugated in any way, and is used as a native reagent or molecule. However, in some embodiments, the detector molecule can be tagged with a member of a binding pair, such as, for example, a biotin molecule. Thus, the detector molecule carrying the member of a binding pair can be bound by the other member of a binding pair, for example, in the case of biotin, avidin, which can in turn be bound to the detectable label. The biologically active material is one that has a recognition or binding ability. For the purposes of the instant invention, those molecules of interest that have a recognition or binding ability are identified as binding pairs, or individually as one of or one member of a binding pair. Thus, examples of binding pairs include an antibody and an anti-antibody; the Fc portion of an antibody and an Fc receptor; avidin, streptavidin, neutral avidin, NeutraLite avidin or other avidin derivatives and analogs, and biotin; antigen and antibody, such as albumin and anti-albumin, a hapten, such as dinitrophenol (DNP) and antibody to the hapten, such as, anti-DNP and so on, hormone receptor and hormone; nucleic acid binding moiety, such as a protein and a target nucleic acid, such as a restriction enzyme; enzyme and substrate; enzyme and cofactor; one strand of a nucleic acid and the complementary strand of nucleic acid; enzyme and nucleic acid recognition site, as with restriction enzymes; lectin and the cognate saccharide; and so on. Any set of molecules that exhibit a specific binding reaction where the binding therebetween can be exploited for detecting presence or one or the other can be used in the practice of the instant invention. The joining of a polymer of interest with another molecule of interest, such as a bioactive molecule, such as a protein, such as streptavidin, colloidal gold and the like, is carried out using known methods, such as, chemical synthetic methods using the chemical characteristics of the modified branched polymer (MBP) and of the molecule to be bound thereto. Thus, the modified branched polymer can contain, for example, amine groups that can be used as the reactive site to which a molecule of interest can be bound through covalent linkages. Alternatively, the joining may occur by mere mixing of the polymer and molecule to be bound through non-covalent linkages therebetween. The linking of another entity to the polymer of interest can also be achieved through a combination of both. For example, a polymer of interest can be covalently linked to a bioactive material, followed by physical adsorption of a reporter particle through non-covalent linkages to form a bioactive material-polymer-reporter particle conjugate, which can be readily used for bioassays. One form of an antibody-based “sandwich” assay consists of four components: a capture antibody, an antigen, a detector antibody for binding the target and a labeled reporter molecule of interest which binds to the detector antibody. The reporter can be an enzyme, a fluorophore, a colored particle, a dyed particle or a particle containing a dye, a stained particle, a radioactive label, quantum dots, nanocrystals, up-converting phosphorescent particles, metal sols, fluorophore or dye-containing polymer or latex beads that are detectable visually and/or with mechanical assistance and so on. Such an assay often requires three separate experimental steps. The first step involves immobilization of the capture antibody and reversibly binding the detector antibody on a solid surface, followed by a subsequent addition of an antigen solution to form an antibody-antigen complex. The last step is to add a reporter group comprising a labeled detector molecule or structure to generate a capture antibody-antigen-detector antibody reporter complex. In the case of a one-step assay, such as a lateral flow or capillary assay, the reporter is reversibly affixed to the solid surface in a region either before or after where detector antibody contacts antigen and a region before where the immobilized capture antibody is located. As a result of this “sandwich” assay, the unknown antigen can be identified, as well as the quantity and concentration of the antigen, which can be quantified, for example, with an optical reader. If the antigen is not present in the sample solution, no “sandwich” complex will be formed, and thus no signal will be observed. The capture antibody can be affixed to a solid surface using an MBP of interest. Any binding molecule used to separate free from bound in an assay of interest can be bound to a solid phase using an MBP of interest. The actual structure of “sandwich” complexes is highly dependent on the binding reagents and reporter moieties. The various assay formats can be exemplified using, for example, colloidal gold as the reporter molecule. It is well known in the art that the formation of capture antibody-antigen-detector antibody-gold particle complexes results in a discernable positive test. Alternatively, the detector antibody can be replaced with another non-antibody binding molecule suitable for binding the target. The modified branched polymer (MBP) based assays of interest generate a clean immunocomplex: capture antibody-antigen-detector antibody-MBP-particle; MBP-capture antibody-antigen-detector antibody-particle; or MBP-capture antibody-antigen-detector antibody-MBP-particle. In this case, only a clean immunocomplex is formed, and precrosslinked products contributing to background are eliminated. As a result, the assay sensitivity is significantly enhanced, and false positive readings are dramatically reduced. In addition, much smaller amounts of reagents are utilized when compared with standard direct-labeled antibody-based assays that do not employ the polymers of interest. This approach is independent of dipole moment and isoelectric point of proteins, thus greatly simplifying assay construction processes and all the while maintaining the protein of interest in native configuration or at the least, in a configuration that maintains particular binding sites and epitopes of interest. Another assay configuration is based on a sequential assay format for the detection of antibodies in unknown samples. In this case, an antigen or fragment thereof carrying an epitope is applied to the solid surface. During the test, the antigen will bind with the detector antibody, which subsequently reacts with another generic anti-species antibody which is either directly or indirectly labeled with a reporter, for example, comprising colloidal gold. Therefore, the characteristic red color indicates a positive test, while no color change indicates a negative test. A polymer of interest also can be used to affix the antigen to the solid phase, as well as used to label an antibody of interest as described hereinabove. Yet another assay configuration is another sandwich assay format. A capture antibody is applied to the membrane surface, optionally via an MBP. During the test, the capture antibody will bind with the targeted antigen, previously linked with an intermediate linker molecule, for example, a biotin or a fluorescein, which subsequently reacts with streptavidin or anti-fluorescein antibody labeled with colloidal gold or with unlabeled antigen present in a test sample. Therefore, the red color indicates a negative test, while no color change indicates a positive test. Again, a polymer of interest is used to attach proteins of interest to a solid phase and to mediate the labeling of proteins with a label, such as an additional reactant, such as the biotin or streptavidin, and the like. Alternatively, the capture antibody can bind a complex which consists of antigen-detector antibody previously linked with an intermediate linker molecule, for example, a biotin, followed by reaction with streptavidin labeled with colloidal gold. A red color again indicates a positive test, while no color change indicates a negative test. The capture antibody also can bind target antigen, followed by subsequent reaction with an antibody that detects or binds the capture antibody-antigen complex, previously linked with one member of a binding pair not specific for the target of the assay, for example, a biotin, which then reacts with a detectable label, whether direct or indirect, such as colloidal gold or an enzyme, respectively, labeled with the other member of the non-target binding pair, such as avidin or streptavidin. Additionally, the capture antibody can bind a complex which consists of antigen-detector antibody, where the detecting antibody is previously linked with one member of a non-target binding pair, for example, a biotin, followed by reaction with a detectable label conjugated with the other member of the binding pair. A red color when using colloidal gold as the detectable label indicates a positive test, while no color change indicates a negative test. Signal intensity and assay sensitivity can be enhanced by increasing the number of the one of the binding pairs attached to the detecting antibody. This can be achieved by incorporating, for example, multiple biotin or fluorescein molecules to the detecting antibody either directly or through a carrier molecule. That signal amplification also can be obtained, for example, by labeling with a plurality of reporter molecules or adding plural reporter molecules to a carrier which in turn is attached to the antibody, for example. The carrier molecule could be a small multi-functional molecule, a polymer, biomolecule such as protein, peptide, polysaccharide, DNA, RNA or a nanoparticle. Then, the carrier molecule loaded with a plurality of binding partner molecules is bound to a detecting antibody using standard methods. Alternatively, plural binding partner molecules, for example, a detector antibody carrying plural biotin moieties and a detectable label or reporter molecule, such as an enzyme or colloidal gold particle, carrying plural avidin or streptavidin molecules, can be aggregated or polymerized and multiple molecules are attached to a multi-functional carrier molecule and the like to increase the number binding partner molecules bound to a single detecting antibody. Other means to obtain amplification of the signal apparatus can be used, as known in the art, the goal being to increase the signal of the complex at the capture site. That will increase assay sensitivity. The separation of detecting antibody and detectable label can improve assay performance. Assay sensitivity is enhanced, fewer and lower amounts of reagents are needed, and manufacturing is simplified. That assay configuration overcomes the need to treat the detecting antibody to bind the detectable label which can lead to labeled antibody of poor yield, antibody with few bound label molecules, antibody with impacted specificity and so on. The separation of detecting antibody and detectable label may be farther achieved by introducing a physical barrier between the reagents during detectable device construction. In another embodiment, the reporter molecule is attached, optionally via an MBP, to a molecule that binds to the detector molecule, such as an antibody or antigen-binding portion thereof, that binds to the target or analyte to be determined in a sample. The reporter molecule can be, for example, a gold sol, optionally via an MBP, bound to, for example, an antibody that binds the detector molecule. Thus, for example, the detector antibody can be of a particular species and the report antibody can be one that binds antibodies of that particular species. Alternatively, the molecule that binds the detector molecule can be bound, optionally via an MBP, to one of a binding pair, such as a biotin. The other of the binding pair, such as avidin, is bound, optionally via an MBP, to a reporter molecule, such as a gold sol. Such configurations avoid the need to label or manipulate the detector molecule that binds the target or analyte in a sample. Several molecules that bind to a range of detector molecules can be optimized by conjugation as disclosed herein for use with any of a variety of primary detector molecules. The instant assay can be configured as a qualitative assay, such as the commercially available pregnancy assay kits that yield a “yes/no” visible reaction. The instant assay also can yield quantitative results by providing graded amounts of reactants, suitable controls and a set of control reactions using known reagents to provide a “standard curve” to serve as a reference. Configuring an assay to provide quantitative results is known in the art with guidance obtainable in any of a variety of texts and publications. In one aspect of this invention, the modified branched polymer is covalently linked with a bioactive molecule (i.e. avidin or streptavidin). The resulting conjugate is allowed to react with colloidal gold particles. The resulting antibody-MBP-gold conjugate can be incorporated into a lateral flow immunoassay as depicted in FIGS. 7 and 8. The modified branched polymer provides three unique features. First, the branched polymer serves as a spacer molecule between the reporter or binding pair and the solid surface or particle surface. Second, the branched polymer acts as a carrier to transport the bioactive molecules, as well as acting as an anchor to adhere those molecules onto a solid surface from a solution with only the branched polymer portion of the conjugate touching the surface. Third, during this anchoring process, the branched polymer-bioactive molecule conjugate also self-orients the complex at the solid surface. As shown in FIGS. 9 and 10, the sensitivity of the polymer based lateral flow based sandwich and direct immunoassays are significantly enhanced over that of non-polymer based assays. In addition to the significant enhancement in sensitivities, the MBP-based lateral flow assays are also more amenable for medical diagnostics, target discovery, as well as monitoring biomarker changes and protein profiles during clinical trials and therapeutic treatments. The MBP-mediated fixation preserves biological structure and thus enhances stability and shelf life. The conjugates of interest comprising one of a binding pair, a polymer of interest and a reporter molecule can be configured into a number of different assay formats, wherein one, two, three, four or more targets can be monitored simultaneously. Such simultaneous assays can be conducted using one or more devices that carry the conjugates on a suitable solid phase, as described herein and as known in the art, such as plastic, such as a microtiter plate, or a membrane, such as nitrocellulose, glass fiber, polyethylene, other bibulous or non-bibulous paper and so on. A single device can contain a plurality of conjugates to detect a plurality of targets. Such a multiplex device can detect two, three, four or more targets. Once the above assay configuration is incorporated, it can be seen that the number of molecules or markers detected can be single or plural in an assay or on a device. Thus, a chip microarray can also be constructed. Using the same principle, a high-density microarray can also be developed for the simultaneous identification of multiple targets including proteins, toxins, viruses, bacteria, bacterial spores, drugs, chemical agents, pollutants and/or any other target of interest. The resulting microarrays can be constructed using a lateral flow assay format. Another assay format is a plate microarray and/or a bead array, as offered by BD, Illumina and Luminex, or a combination thereof. Such assays can be configured to contain a plurality of biomarkers that are diagnostic for a desired purpose. Thus, such a multiplex device, which can be a nanoarray or microarray, can be diagnostic for a pathologic state, reveal reaction to stimulus, such as a food or drug, and so on. The number of biomarkers used will depend on the endpoint and generally will be the minimal number of markers needed to demonstrate whether the endpoint exists. Thus, as known in the art, determining exposure of a host to a pathogen can rely on a single diagnostic antibody that binds said pathogen. Reactivity to a drug may require a larger number of biomarkers as the impact of a drug on a host may trigger reaction in a number of cellular functions. Moreover, the biomarkers used may need to be optimized to operate on a majority of a randomly breeding population or a plurality of assays may be required using different sets of biomarkers in each assay. The biomarkers detected can be any target molecule for which binders or a binder, should the target molecule have plural, and perhaps many, copies of the epitope, determinant, ligand, binding partner and the like for binding to the capture binding partner as well as the detector binding partner with which the reporter does interact, are available. Thus, any of the known diagnostic antigens now detected for diagnostic purposes can be a target molecule for use in an assay of interest, such as cancer antigens, such as PSA and CEA, albumin, tissue proteins, such as those with are diagnostic of state of health or disease, such as proteins indicative of cardiac damage, thyroid function and the like, troponins, myoglobin, BNP'S, myeloperoxidase, microbes, including viruses, such as hepatitis viruses, influenza viruses, herpes viruses and HPV, and bacteria, such as chlamydia, staphylococci and streptococci, hormones, such as hCG, estrogens, progestins, peptide hormones, such as FSH and LH, and androgens, CKMB, pharmaceuticals, such as barbiturates, anti-HIV drugs, cocaine, THC, amphetamines, morphine and other opiates, biologics, such as interferons, cytokines and the like for detecting infection, a circulating antibody generated to a non-self or self antigen, and so on. The target can be protein, carbohydrate or lipid, for example, but generally is a molecule in solution when used in a lateral flow format. Thus, suitable samples which can be added directly to the device of interest include body fluids, such as blood, serum, saliva, urine, tears, vaginal secretions, semen, tissue extracts and the like. The sample can be diluted as needed, using a suitable diluent. In other formats of assay using a reagent of interest, the target can be a cell, a tissue sample, an organ sample and other larger entities not necessarily amenable to a flow format. The preferred conjugates of the present invention include those where a modified branched polymer conjugate comprises at least one modified branched polymer associated with at least one unit of at least one biologically active material or biological response indicator. The polymer of interest can include those that do not contain a core or those that contain a core and asymmetrical or symmetrical branches, such as those disclosed in Tomalia's polyamidoamine dendrimers such as those disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,435,548; 4,507,466; 4,568,737; 4,587,329; 5,338,532; 5,527,524; 5,714,166, polyethyleneimine dendrimers such as those disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,631,337, polypropyleneimine dendrimers such as those disclosed in 5,530,092; 5,610,268; 5,698,662, dendrigrafts such as those disclosed in Tomalia's U.S. Pat. No. 5,773,527 and Yin's U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,631,329 and 5,919,442, as well as random asymmetrically branched polyethyleneimine and regular asymmetrically branched polylysine. As taught hereinabove, the surfaces to which the modified branched polymer conjugate may be bound are varied and may include glass, nitrocellulose, paper, quartz, plastic, metal, colloidal particles including colloidal gold, colloidal silver and colloidal platinum, polymer or latex beads, inorganic particles, silicon wafers, colored latex particles, particles containing fluorescent or colored materials, clay, ceramic, silicon-based or ceramic semiconductor particles, silicon or ceramic semiconductor chips, nanocrystals, quantum dots, and up-converting phosphorescent particles. Quantum dots are inorganic nanoparticles (often less than 5 nm in diameter) capable of emitting different colors of light by controlling the composition and size of the material contained within the particle. Up-converting phosphors are submicron ceramic microparticles that emit visible light on excitation with near-infrared light. Such particles have sizes ranging from 100 nm to 500 nm and comprise rare earth ions, e.g., ytterbium, which are capable of absorbing two photons of infrared light. Due to the absence of autofluorescence in the background, these microparticles are often utilized as a tagging moiety for biological assays. The reagents enable a number of different assay designs and the assays showed a number of advantages over the traditional lateral flow assays. First, the conjugates of interest in an assay allow rapid replacement of various detector antibodies without the need for colloidal gold conjugation. The traditional lateral flow assay requires the detector moiety (i.e., an antibody) to be directly linked with the label moiety, the current embodiments do not. The current approach significantly decreases the assay development time and production costs. Second, the assay design allows the control spot(s) to be located anywhere in the detection area, while the control line in the traditional lateral flow assays is always located after the test line. Third, due to the density of microarray design enabled by the conjugates of interest, many targets can be detected simultaneously on a single strip. FIG. 7 illustrates an image of a positive microarray test with the capability to detect multiple targets simultaneously. Fourth, an internal positive control or standard can be readily introduced into the array of interest so that more accurate and quantitative observations can be achieved. Fifth, due to the high density of spots on a single strip, an accurate visual detection, particularly with the unaided eye is no longer possible. The instant assays are amenable to interfacing with an optical reader having automated spot location and quantification software. The reader can not only minimize subjectivity and human error during detection, but more importantly provide quantitative results, along with data storage and data management capabilities which have never been achieved in the traditional lateral flow assay art. Those capabilities are key requirements for the near patient care/diagnostics of the future. In addition to the above advantages, the MBP based lateral flow assays have also shown significantly improved sensitivity over the traditional lateral flow assays. FIG. 9 illustrates a comparison test between non-polymer and polymer based lateral flow sandwich assays, while FIG. 10 illustrates a comparison between non-polymer and polymer based lateral flow direct immunoassays. In both sandwich and direct immunoassay formats, MBP-based assays are much more sensitive than non-MBP-based assays. Even when directly comparing polymer based sandwich assays, for example, one which involves the direct linking of a detector antibody to colloidal gold (FIG. 11, samples (7) and (8)) with assays that do not use a detector antibody that is directly labeled (FIG. 11, samples (1-6)), significantly enhanced sensitivity was seen in the latter assays. Finally, due to the simple, yet flexible assay design of interest, one can substitute antibodies with, for example, receptor, ligand or nucleic acid moieties so that the same assay format can also be used for the detection of nucleic acids, carbohydrates and any ligand from an unknown sample. The above assay strip can be placed in any plastic case or device as known to the skill of the art, and such assay kits can be readily used for field or home detection/diagnostic related applications. The total weight of this strip or ticket can be about 4.5 g, and the dimensions can be about 2 cm (width)×7 cm (length)×0.5 cm (thickness). The casing will contain and support the strip. The casing will have a means for introducing the liquid sample and a means for visualizing the result of the assay. The casing also will contain various membranes, absorbent pads, voids and the like to capture and retain liquids introduced into the casing. Once the sample solution, including but not limited to, environmental samples such as water samples, potential pollutants and the like; and medical samples such as whole blood, plasma, serum, urine and tissue; is applied on the adsorbent pad through either a sample well or applied using a dipstick, the sample carrying the target or ligand of interest will move rapidly along the membrane and be captured by, for example, the capture antibody (in a sandwich assay format), followed by reaction with, for example, a biotinylated detector antibody, and subsequently, in the case of biotin, a streptavidin gold conjugate, to show color change (positive test). In the absence of antigen, no color will appear in the test zone, since no immunocomplex can be formed. The time required for detection is about 15 minutes. The assay can be configured to be qualitative, that is, the results will be presented in a form and manner that yields in a robust fashion either a positive or a negative result for what the assay is intended to provide with results visually discernable. On the other hand, the assay format is amenable to yielding quantifiable results. Thus, the ticket can be scanned by a device that provides a measure for the level of reaction. Also, the assay can be associated with a form of calibration, either internal, external or both. For external calibration, one approach, as known in the art, is to use serial dilutions of reagents to obtain a graded level of reaction depending on the amount of reactant present. The relationship can be used to develop a “standard curve” or a mathematical formula describing the relationship between amount and reaction level. The reaction level of an “unknown” sample can be use to extrapolate an amount of target present in the sample using the mathematical correlation or standard curve. Other means of external calibration are known and can be employed as a design choice. For internal calibration, a known reactant, generally unrelated to the target of interest and one which will not generate a cross reaction, can be applied to the solid phase. The reactant can be one that is recognized by the existing labeling reagents on the solid phase or the solid phase can be supplemented to include additional reagent(s) that will react with the internal calibration reactant to yield a detectable signal. The amounts of the internal calibration reagents are adjusted to ensure a consistent signal, independent of the target, from assay to assay. Other means of internal calibration are known and can be employed as a design choice. According to the same assay design, a microarray-based assays can be constructed in a similar manner. In this case, for example, capture antibodies are spotted on a solid surface through commercially available microarray robots. Detector antibodies can be mixed together. On the addition of an unknown sample in a direct, indirect, or sequential sandwich assay format, positive tests show red color changes in the corresponding capture antibody locations predetermined on the surface, while the negative tests exhibit no color changes. Alternatively, in a competition assay format, the reverse is true. Again, the polymer of interest can be utilized to affix the antibodies or antigens to the solid surface. The instant invention contemplates kits comprising storable, shelf-stable reagents that comprise an assay, such as those described hereinabove. Shelf stability can be gauged by storage time at room temperature, at refrigerator temperatures and so. The kits can comprise a plurality of vials comprising liquid reagents or desiccated reagents to be reconstituted with an appropriate diluent, such as sterile water or a buffer. The kit can comprise a device housing the various reagents, such as a known pregnancy test kit, a lateral flow immunoassay kit and so on. Thus, the assay format for the kit can be in the form or shape of a dipstick, a wand, a slide and the like. Generally such devices comprise a plastic holder with appropriate solid phases, such as a plastic, a membrane, a paper and the like. When such kits are configured, and when practicing an assay using an MBP of interest, the various reagents of the assay can be placed onto a solid surface, a surface of a device, a surface of a kit and so on, and stored in preparation of use. As used herein, “bound” as used in the context of attachment of a molecule to a solid phase indicates that the molecule is affixed to the surface in a permanent fashion. Thus, the molecule can be covalently bound to the solid phase. That is in distinction from “reversibly bound” which is meant to indicate that a molecule can be placed onto the solid phase at particular sites for storage purposes, such as, spotting a reagent onto a solid phase and allowing the mixture to dry or be desiccated in situ. However, when the sample, generally in a liquid form, is applied to the solid phase, as well as any other liquid phase, when the liquid contacts the molecule that is reversibly bound, that reversibly found molecule is mobilized from the solid phase and joins the liquid phase, that is, is suspended in the liquid phase. The results of the assays of the instant invention can be ascertained by a mechanical means. The mechanical means can be any physical device that senses or detects the particular physical characteristics of the reporter molecule or a product of the reporter molecule. The mechanical device can be one that is situated in a laboratory setting, or may be situated in a movable setting for point of use applications, such as a hand held device. The device can be made into smaller, portable formats for more directed point of use applications, such as in a hospital room, physician's office, in the field and the like. Examples of portable devices and hand-held devices that can be used to detect spectrophotometric, luminescent, chemiluminescent, fluorescent or calorimetric reporter molecules are provided, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,083,868; H1563; 6,480,115; 6,394,952; 5,900,379; 6,663,833; 6,656,745; 6,267,722; 6,706,539; 5,646,735; 6,346,984; 6,002,488; 5,962,838; 4,917,495; 6,575,368; and 6,583,880. Such a mechanical device is one that has a detecting or sensing means for ascertaining, particularly the reporter molecule. A detecting means is one that is suitable for determining the presence of a particular reporter molecule. A radioactive reporter molecule is detectable with, for example, a scintillation counter or a Geiger-Muller counter. A light-emitting, fluorescent or luminescent reporter molecule is detectable with, for example, a colorimeter, a refractometer, a reflectometer, a photosensing device comprising, for example, a photomultiplier tube, a scanner, a charge coupled device (CCD) image sensor, a complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) image sensor and the like. The device also can comprise a data processing means whereby the detected signal is processed and digitized. The processing means often is termed a central processing unit, a CPU, or a microprocessor, such as a semiconductor chip where data processing and analysis occurs. The digitized information either is stored in a self-contained data storage device, such as a tape, diskette, hard drive and the like or is communicated via data communication means, such as wired computer communication means or by wireless means using appropriate means, such as infrared, radiowave, microwave and the like, to a remote data storage means or a data processing means wherein the information is analyzed. The device can contain a data input means. For example, the device can include a keyboard, a scanner and the like to provide commands for implementation by the device or to associate identifying information with data. The scanner can be one that obtains and stores an image, or can be one that interprets a code, such as a bar code, see for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,885,530 and 6,099,469. Thus, the remote detecting device can contain data processing means, such as a circuit board having an integrated circuit thereon, see for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,494,798 and 6,480,115, with software to control operation of the device. The remote device can comprise a data storage means, which may be removable, such as a diskette, “stick” and other data storage forms. If not removable, the stored data can be accessible via a data communication means. Such communication means can be a hard wire for direct download of data, or such communication can take an alternative form as known in the art, such as wireless signal, for example, shortwave signals, such as radio frequencies, microwaves and infrared. Such wireless signals can be transmitted via antennae or by satellite. For example, the information can be analyzed to compare experimental and control runs. Alternatively, the experimental run, either as a raw figure or as a figure corrected by the control is compared to population mean values. The data reduction and analyzing can be accomplished using any of a variety of available algorithms or which can be developed to yield software means for obtaining the appropriate analysis of data and to obtain a suitable output of results. The device can contain a display means, such as a CRT or liquid crystal display, wherein the detected and/or analyzed data is appropriately processed, for example, compared with control data relating to previously obtained population data, and the data is provided to the device operator. The data can be presented as desired, for example as provided hereinabove, the raw data, relative data once adjusted for control values, or both, can be displayed on the remote device, see for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,885,530 for point of use results. Alternatively, the digitized information can be communicated to a data storage means, the data storage means being contained within the device or separate from the device. The digitized information can be communicated to the external storage means using known communication means. The data contained in the storage means then can be communicated with a CPU for appropriate data analysis. Examples of such devices with data processing interfaces and means include U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,543,920; 5,589,932; and 6,362,886. In another embodiment of this invention, asymmetrically branched polymers can be utilized to carry bioactive materials for both in vitro and in vivo related applications. The bioactive materials comprise a variety of molecules, particularly those with the ability to bind another molecule, such as a biological polymer, such as a polypeptide, a polynucleotide, a lipid, a polysaccharide, an enzyme, a receptor, an antibody, a vitamin, a lectin and so on. The target may be a pathogen, such as a parasite, a bacterium, a virus, or a toxin, such as venom. The bioactive materials can be used for a variety of uses, including as a diagnostic agent, a therapeutic agent and so on. By “diagnostic agent” is meant a molecule which can be used as a marker for a particular disease, physiological state or stage, a pathological stage or state, and so on. Albumin, mineral level, microorganism, specific antibody, specific antigen, toxin and so on are examples of diagnostic agents. Therapeutic agents are those that confer a beneficial effect, such as a drug, a nutrient, a protein and so on. It is not uncommon for a particular target to be both a diagnostic agent and a therapeutic agent. Due to the ability to produce unevenly distributed pocket sizes and various functional groups either in the interior or at the exterior, these asymmetrically branched polymers, on proper modification, are capable of carrying a variety of materials ranging from small molecules, such as metal ions and drugs, to other large bioactive materials, such as proteins and DNA. A polymer of interest may be used to encapsulate a bioactive molecule, particularly pharmaceuticals. The “microcapsule” can be made as taught herein and as known in the art. The conjugate of interest also can be contained within a microcapsule or capsule, see, for example, Microencapsulation, Methods and Industrial Applications, Benita, ed., Dekker, 1996. The microcapsules can be made in a dry state mixture or reaction, or can be made in a liquid state mixture or reaction. Microcapsules can be administered to a host in a variety of ways including oral, IM, SC, IV, rectal, topical and so on, as known in the art. The instant microcapsules can be used in topical applications, such as creams, ointments, lotions, unguents, other cosmetics and the like. Pharmaceuticals and other bioactive or inert compounds can be encapsulated such as emollients, bleaching agents, antiperspirants, pharmaceuticals, moisturizers, scents, colorants, pigments, dyes, antioxidants, oils, fatty acids, lipids, inorganic salts, organic molecules, opacifiers, vitamins, pharmaceuticals, keratolytic agents, UV blocking agents, tanning accelerators, depigmenting agents, deodorants, perfumes, insect repellants and the like. Drugs that can be carried by a polymer of interest include, but are not limited to, anesthetics, antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, analgesics, antihypertensives, antiinflammatories, antidotes, antihistamines, chemotherapeutic agents, hormones, antidepressants, depressants, stimulants, tranquilizers, urinary antiinfectives, vasoconstrictors, vitamins, cardioactive drugs, immunosuppressives, nutritional supplements, and the like. Specific examples are lidocaine, bupivacaine, hydrocortisone, chlorpheniramine, triprolidine, dextromethorphan, codeine, methidizine, trimeprizine, atropine, 2-PAM chloride, homatropine, levodopa, cyclizine, meclizine, scopolamine, acetaminophen, amphotericin B, amphetamine, methamphetamine, dextroamphetamine, propanolol, procainamide, disopyraminide, quinidine, encamide, milrinone, aminone, dobutamine, enalapril, colnidine, hydralazine, guanadrel, ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, tetracycline, erythromycin and quinolone drugs. Large bioactive materials that can be carried by a polymer of interest may include, but are not limited to, proteins, recombinant proteins, antibodies, Fab antibody fragments, other antibody fragments that bind antigen, enzymes, DNA, recombinant DNA, DNA fragments, RNA, RNAi, recombinant RNA, RNA fragments, nucleotides, viruses, virus fragments and so on. A conjugate of interest can be incorporated into pharmaceutical compositions suitable for administration, for example for diagnostic imaging. Such compositions typically comprise the active ingredient and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. As used herein, the language “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” is intended to include any and all solvents, dispersion media, coatings, antibacterial and antifungal agents, isotonic and absorption delaying agents and the like, compatible with pharmaceutical administration. The use of such media and agents for pharmaceutically active substances is well known in the art. Except insofar as any conventional media or agent is incompatible with the active compound, use thereof in the compositions is contemplated. Supplementary active compounds also can be incorporated into the compositions. A pharmaceutical composition of the invention for use as disclosed herein is formulated to be compatible with the intended route of administration. Examples of routes of administration include parenteral, e.g., intravenous, intradermal, subcutaneous, oral (e.g., inhalation), transdermal (topical), transmucosal and rectal administration. Solutions or suspensions used for parenteral, intradermal or subcutaneous application can include the following components: a sterile diluent such as water for injection, saline solution, fixed oils, polyethylene glycols, glycerine, propylene glycol or other synthetic solvents; antibacterial agents such as benzyl alcohol or methyl parabens; antioxidants such as ascorbic acid or sodium bisulfite; chelating agents such as EDTA; buffers such as acetates, citrates or phosphates and agents for the adjustment of tonicity such as sodium chloride or dextrose. pH can be adjusted with acids or bases, such as HCl or NaOH. The parenteral preparation can be enclosed in ampoules, disposable syringes or multiple dose vials made of glass or plastic. Generally, an in vivo diagnostic agent will be administered orally, rectally, intravenously, intraperitoneally and so on. Pharmaceutical compositions suitable for injectable use include sterile aqueous solutions (where water soluble) or dispersions and sterile powders for the extemporaneous preparation of sterile injectable solutions or dispersions. For intravenous administration, suitable carriers include physiological saline, bacteriostatic water, Cremophor EL® (BASF; Parsippany, N.J.) or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). In all cases, the composition must be sterile and should be fluid to the extent that easy syringability exists. The composition must be stable under the conditions of manufacture and storage and must be preserved against the contaminating action of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. The carrier can be a solvent or dispersion medium containing, for example, water, ethanol, polyol (for example, glycerol, propylene glycol and liquid polyethylene glycol and the like) and suitable mixtures thereof. The proper fluidity can be maintained, for example, by the use of a coating such as lecithin, by the maintenance of the required particle size in the case of dispersion and by the use of surfactants. Prevention of the action of microorganisms can be achieved by various antibacterial and antifungal agents, for example, parabens, chlorobutanol, phenol, ascorbic acid, thimerosal and the like. In many cases, it will be preferable to include isotonic agents, for example, sugars, polyalcohols such as mannitol, sorbitol or sodium chloride in the composition. Prolonged absorption of the injectable compositions can be brought about by including in the composition an agent that delays absorption, for example, aluminum monostearate and gelatin. Sterile injectable solutions can be prepared by incorporating the active compound in the required amount in an appropriate solvent with one or a combination of ingredients enumerated above, as required, followed by filtered sterilization. Generally, dispersions are prepared by incorporating the active compound into a sterile vehicle that contains a basic dispersion medium and the required other ingredients from those enumerated above. In the case of sterile powders for the preparation of sterile injectable solutions, the preferred methods of preparation are vacuum drying and freeze drying that yield a powder of the active ingredient plus any additional desired ingredient from a previously sterile-filtered solution thereof. Oral compositions generally include an inert diluent or an edible carrier. The composition can be enclosed in gelatin capsules or compressed into tablets. For the purpose of oral therapeutic administration, the active compound can be incorporated with excipients and used in the form of tablets, troches or capsules. Oral compositions also can be prepared using a fluid carrier to yield a syrup or liquid formulation, or for use as a mouthwash, wherein the compound in the fluid carrier is applied orally and swished and expectorated or swallowed. Pharmaceutically compatible binding agents, and/or adjuvant materials can be included as part of the composition. The tablets, pills, capsules, troches and the like can contain any of the following ingredients or compounds of a similar nature: a binder such as microcrystalline cellulose, gum tragacanth or gelatin; an excipient such as starch or lactose, a disintegrating agent such as alginic acid, Primogel or corn starch; a lubricant such as magnesium stearate or Sterotes; a glidant such as colloidal silicon dioxide; a sweetening agent such as sucrose or saccharin; or a flavoring agent such as peppermint, methyl salicylate or orange flavoring. For administration by inhalation, the compound is delivered in the form of, for example, an aerosol spray from a pressurized container or dispenser that contains a suitable propellant, e.g., a gas such as carbon dioxide or a nebulizer, or a mist. Systemic administration also can be by transmucosal or transdermal means. For transmucosal or transdermal administration, penetrants appropriate to the barrier to be permeated are used in the formulation. Such penetrants generally are known in the art and include, for example, for transmucosal administration, detergents, bile salts and fusidic acid derivatives. Transmucosal administration can be accomplished through the use of nasal sprays or suppositories. For transdermal administration, the active compounds are formulated into ointments, salves, gels or creams as generally known in the art. The compound also can be prepared in the form of suppositories (e.g., with conventional suppository bases such as cocoa butter and other glycerides) or retention enemas for rectal delivery. In one embodiment, the active compound is prepared with carriers that will protect the compound against rapid elimination from the body, such as a controlled release formulation, including implants and microencapsulated delivery systems. Biodegradable, biocompatible polymers can be used, such as ethylene vinyl acetate, polyanhydrides, polyglycolic acid, collagen, polyorthoesters and polylactic acid. Methods for preparation of such formulations will be apparent to those skilled in the art. The materials also can be obtained commercially from Alza Corporation and Nova Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Liposomal suspensions (including liposomes targeted to infected cells with monoclonal antibodies) also can be used as pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. Those can be prepared according to methods known to those skilled in the art, for example, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,522,811. It is especially advantageous to formulate oral or parenteral compositions in dosage unit form for ease of administration and uniformity of dosage. Dosage unit form as used herein refers to physically discrete units suited as unitary dosages for the subject to be treated; each unit containing a predetermined quantity of active compound calculated to produce the desired therapeutic effect in association with the required pharmaceutical carrier. The dosages, for example, preferred route of administration and amounts, are obtainable based on empirical data obtained from preclinical and clinical studies, practicing methods known in the art. For repeated administrations over several days or longer, depending on the condition, the treatment is sustained until a desired suppression of disease symptoms occurs. However, other dosage regimens may be useful. The progress of the therapy is monitored easily by conventional techniques and assays. An exemplary dosing regimen is disclosed in WO 94/04188. The specification for the dosage unit forms of the invention is dictated by and directly dependent on the unique characteristics of the active compound and the particular therapeutic effect to be achieved and the limitations inherent in the art of compounding such an active compound for the treatment of individuals. The pharmaceutical compositions can be included in a container, pack or dispenser together with instructions for administration. Another method of administration comprises the addition of a compound of interest into or with a food or drink, as a food supplement or additive, or as a dosage form taken on a prophylactic basis, similar to a vitamin. The peptide of interest can be encapsulated into forms that will survive passage through the gastric environment. Such forms are commonly known as enteric-coated formulations. Alternatively, the peptide of interest can be modified to enhance half-life, such as chemical modification of the peptide bonds, to ensure stability for oral administration, as known in the art. The invention now will be exemplified in the following non-limiting examples. EXAMPLES Materials: Symmetrically branched polypropyleneimine dendrimers were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Symmetrically branched polyethyleneimine dendrimers and dendrigrafts were prepared according to procedures provided in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,631,337, 5,773,527, 5,631,329, and 5,919,442. Colloidal gold particles were prepared according to procedures published in the literature (G. Frens et al., Nature Physical Science, Vol. 241, Jan. 1, 1973, 20). All of the antibodies were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, Biodesign, or Fitzgerald. Synthesis of Modified Symmetrically Branched PPIs with Amino Functional Groups (m-SB-PPI-NH2-1.0) The following reagents including symmetrically branched polypropyleneimine (SB-PPI-4, 8, 16, 32, 64, MW 316, 773, 1687, 3514 and 7,168), methyl acrylate (MA, FW=86.09), propylenediamine (EDA, FW=60.10) and methanol were utilized in this synthesis. To a round bottom flask were added 1.0 g PPI-64 dendrimer (MW 7168) and 20 ml methanol (solution A). To a separate round bottom flask were added 2.4 g methylacrylate (MA) and 10 ml methanol (solution B). Solution A was then slowly dropped into solution B while stirring at room temperature. The resulting solution was allowed to react at 40° C. for 2 hours. On completion of the reaction, the solvent and unreacted MA monomer were removed by rotary evaporation, and the product, 2.5 g MA-functionalized PPI, was then redissolved in 20 ml of methanol. To a round bottom flask were added 160 g EDA and 50 ml of methanol, followed by a slow addition of MA-functionalized PPI at 0° C. The solution was then allowed to react at 4° C. for 48 hours. The solvent and the excess EDA were removed by rotary evaporation. The crude product was then precipitated out from an ethyl ether solution, and further purified by dialysis to give about 2.8 g of primary amine-functionalized symmetrically branched PPI (m-SB-PEI-NH2-1.0) with a molecular weight of about 21,760. The product was characterized by 1H and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and size exclusion chromatography (SEC). Other MA or primary amine-modified symmetrically branched PPI dendrimers and symmetrically branched PEI dendrigrafts with various molecular weights were prepared in a similar manner. Synthesis of Modified Symmetrically Branched PPIs with Mixed Hydroxyl and Amino Functional Groups (mix-m-SB-PPI-64-NH2/OH-2) The following reagents including amino-functionalized symmetrically branched polypropyleneimine (m-SB-PPI-64-NH2-1.0), MA, EDA, monoethanolamine (MEA, FW=61.08), and methanol were utilized in this synthesis. To a round bottom flask were added 1.0 g amino-modified PPI or m-SB-PPI-NH2-1.0 produced from the previous procedure and 20 ml of methanol (solution A). To a separate round bottom flask were added 2.4 g of MA and 10 ml methanol (solution B). Solution A was then slowly dropped into solution B while stirring at room temperature. The resulting solution was allowed to react at 40° C. for 2 hours. On completion of the reaction, the solvent and unreacted monomer MA were removed by rotary evaporation, and the product, 2.5 g MA-functionalized m-SB-PPI-64-MA-1.5, was then redissolved in 20 ml of methanol. To a round bottom flask were added 32 g EDA, 130 g MEA and 100 ml methanol (the mole ratio of EDA:MEA is 20:80), followed by slow addition of m-SB-PPI-64-MA-1.5 at 0° C. The solution was then allowed to react at 4° C. for 48 hours. The solvent and the excess EDA were removed by rotary evaporation. The crude product was then precipitated from an ethyl ether solution, and further purified by dialysis to give about 2.8 g of mixed hydroxyl and amino-functionalized (mix surface) SBP (mix-m-SB-PPI-64-NH2/OH-2.0, with an average of 20% NH2 and 80% OH groups and the molecular weight is about 21,862). Other modified random AB-PEI and regular AB polylysine polymers with various ratios of hydroxyl and amino groups, as well as different molecular weights were prepared in a similar manner. Random asymmetrically branched polyethyleneimines were purchased from Aldrich and Polysciences. Regular asymmetrically branched polymers were prepared according to procedures provided in U.S. Pat. No. 4,289,872. Colloidal gold particles were prepared according to procedures published in the literature (G. Frens et al., Nature Physical Science, Vol. 241, Jan. 1, 1973, 20). All of the antibodies were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, Biodesign or Fitzgerald. Synthesis of Modified Random Asymmetrically Branched PEIs with Amino Functional Groups (m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2-1.0) The following reagents including random asymmetrically branched polyethyleneimine (ran-AB-PEI, MW 2,000, 25,000, and 75,000), methyl acrylate (MA, FW=86.09), ethylenediamine (EDA, FW=60.10) and methanol were utilized in this synthesis. To a round bottom flask were added 1.0 g PEI (MW 2,000) and 20 ml methanol (solution A). To a separate round bottom flask were added 3.0 g methylacrylate (MA) and 10 ml methanol (solution B). Solution A was then slowly dropped into solution B while stirring at room temperature. The resulting solution was allowed to react at 40° C. for 2 hours. On completion of the reaction, the solvent and unreacted MA monomer were removed by rotary evaporation, and the product, MA-functionalized PEI, was then redissolved in 20 ml of methanol. To a round bottom flask were added 80 g EDA and 50 ml of methanol, followed by a slow addition of MA-functionalized PEI at 0° C. (1 g MA dissolved in 20 ml methanol). The solution was then allowed to react at 4° C. for 48 hours. The solvent and the excess EDA were removed by rotary evaporation. The crude product was then precipitated out from an ethyl ether solution, and further purified by dialysis to give about 3.0 g of primary amine-functionalized random asymmetrically branched PEI (m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2-1.0) with a molecular weight of about 7300. The product was characterized by 1H and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and size exclusion chromatography (SEC). Other MA or primary amine-modified random asymmetrically branched PEI and regular asymmetrically branched polylysine polymers with various molecular weights were prepared in a similar manner. Synthesis of Modified Random Asymmetrically Branched PEIs with Mixed Hydroxyl and Amino Functional Groups (m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2/OH-2) The following reagents including amino-functionalized random asymmetrically branched polyethyleneimine (m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2-1.0), MA, EDA, monoethanolamine (MEA, FW=61.08), and methanol were utilized in this synthesis. To a round bottom flask were added 1.0 g amino-modified PEI or m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2-1.0 produced from the previous procedure and 20 ml of methanol (solution A). To a separate round bottom flask were added 3.0 g of MA and 10 ml methanol (solution B). Solution A was then slowly dropped into solution B while stirring at room temperature. The resulting solution was allowed to react at 40° C. for 2 hours. On completion of the reaction, the solvent and unreacted monomer MA were removed by rotary evaporation, and the product, MA-functionalized m-ran-AB-PEI-MA-1.5, was then redissolved in 20 ml of methanol. To a round bottom flask were added 60 g EDA, 244 g MEA and 100 ml methanol (the mole ratio of EDA:MEA is 20:80), followed by slow addition of m-ran-AB-PEI-MA-1.5 at 0° C. (1 g MA dissolved in 20 ml of methanol). The solution was then allowed to react at 4° C. for 48 hours. The solvent and the excess EDA were removed by rotary evaporation. The crude product was then precipitated from an ethyl ether solution, and further purified by dialysis to give about 2.4 g of mixed hydroxyl and amino-functionalized random ABP (m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2/OH-2.0, with an average of 20% NH2 and 80% OH groups and the molecular weight is about 18,000). Other modified random AB-PEI and regular AB polylysine polymers with various ratios of hydroxyl and amino groups, as well as different molecular weights were prepared in a similar manner. Synthesis of Alkyl-Modified Random Asymmetrically Branched Poly(2-ethyloxazoline) (PEOX) with Primary Amine Chain End Group The synthesis of CH3—(CH2)18—PEOXABP100 (ABP100 is an arbitrary name to denote the ratio of monomer to initiator in the initial reaction) is provided as a general procedure for the preparation of core-shell nanocapsules. A mixture of CH3(CH2)18CH2—Br (3.36 g) in 500 ml of toluene was azeotroped to remove water with a distillation head under N2 for about 15 min. 2-Ethyloxazoline (100 g) was added dropwise through an addition funnel, and the mixture was allowed to reflux between 24 and 48 hours. On completion of the polymerization, 12.12 g of EDA were added to the reactive polymer solution (A) to introduce the amine function group. The molar ratio of polyoxazoline chain end to EDA is 1 to 20. Morpholine also can be added to terminate the reaction. Thus, morpholine was added to the reactive polymer solution (A) to terminate the reaction. The crude product was re-dissolved in methanol and then precipitated out from a large excess of diethyl ether. The bottom layer was re-dissolved in methanol and dried by rotary evaporation and vacuum to give an asymmetrically random core-shell hyper-branched PEOX polymer as a white solid (101 g). Other asymmetrically hyperrandom-branched polymers such as C6-PEOX ABP20, 50, 100, 200, 300, 500, C12-PEOX ABP20, 50, 200, 300, 500, C22-PEOX ABP20, 50, 100, 200, 300, 500, and polystyrene-PEOX etc. as well as non-modified and modified poly(2-substituted oxazoline) such as poly(2-methyl oxazoline) polymers were prepared in a similar manner. All the products were analyzed by SEC and NMR. Preparation of Mixed Surface Modified Symmetrical Branched Polymer-IgG Conjugates The preparation of mixed surface (OH/NH2 mix) modified symmetrically branched polypropyleneimine—IgG conjugates (mix-m-SB-PPI-64-NH2/OH-2—IgG conjugates) is provided as a general procedure for the preparation of polymer-antibody and polymer-streptavidin conjugates. Other conjugates such as m-SB-PPI-4-NH2-1-IgG, m-SB-PPI-8-NH2-1-IgG, m-SB-PPI-16-NH2-1-IgG, m-SB-PPI-32-NH2-1-IgG, m-SB-PPI-4-NH2-2-IgG, m-SB-PPI-8-NH2-2-IgG, m-SB-PPI-16-NH2-2-IgG, m-SB-PPI-32-NH2-2-IgG, m-SB-PPI-4-NH2-3-IgG, m-SB-PPI-8-NH2-3-IgG, m-SB-PPI-16-NH2-3-IgG, m-SB-PPI-32-NH2-3-IgG, and mix-m-SB-PPI-4-NH2/OH-1 (OH/NH2 mix)-IgG, mix-m-SB-PPI-8-NH2/OH-1 (OH/NH2 mix)-IgG, mix-m-SB-PPI-16-NH2/OH-1 (OH/NH2 mix)-IgG, mix-m-SB-PPI-32-NH2/OH-1 (OH/NH2 mix)-IgG, mix-m-SB-PPI-4-NH2/OH-2 (OH/NH2 mix)-IgG, mix-m-SB-PPI-8-NH2/OH-2 (OH/NH2 mix)-IgG, mix-m-SB-PPI-16-NH2/OH-2 (OH/NH2 mix)-IgG, mix-m-SB-PPI-32-NH2/OH-2 (OH/NH2 mix)-IgG, mix-m-SB-PPI-4-NH2/OH-3 (OH/NH2 mix)-IgG, mix-m-SB-PPI-8-NH2/OH-3 (OH/NH2 mix)-IgG, mix-m-SB-PPI-16-NH2/OH-3 (OH/NH2 mix)-IgG, mix-m-SB-PPI-32-NH2/OH-3 (OH/NH2 mix)-IgG, as well as primary amine and mix OH/NH2 modified Combburst PEI dendrigrafts (Generation 0-5) are also conducted in a similar manner. The synthesis of other protein with modified symmetrically branched polymers is also conducted in a similar manner. The biotinylated-IgG conjugates were synthesized as provided in Bioconjugate Techniques (G. Hermanson, Academic Press, 1996). LC-SPDP-mixed surface m-SB-PPI-64-NH2/OH-2: To the mixed surface randomly branched mix-m-SB-PPI-64-NH2/OH-2 (4×10−7 mol) in 400 μL of phosphate buffer (20 mM phosphate and 0.1 M NaCl, pH 7.5) were added 4.0×10−6 mol of sulfo-LC-SPDP (Pierce, Ill.) in 400 μl of water. This was vortexed and incubated at 30° C. for 30 minutes. The LC-SPDP-mix-m-SB-PPI-64-NH2/OH-2 was purified by gel filtration chromatography and equilibrated with buffer A (0.1 M phosphate, 0.1 M NaCl and 5 mM EDTA, pH 6.8). It was further concentrated to yield 465 μl of solution, with a concentration of approximately 0.77 nmol. Thiolated mix m-SB-PPI-64-NH2/OH-2 from LC-SPDP mix-m-SB-PPI-64-NH2/OH-2: The LC-SPDP mix-m-SB-PPI-64-NH2/OH-2 (50 nmol in 65 l of buffer A) was mixed with 100 μl of dithiothreitol (DTT) (50 mM in buffer A) and was incubated at room temperature for 15 minutes. Excess DTT and byproducts were removed by gel filtration with buffer A. It was concentrated in a 10 K Centricon Concentrator to yield 390 μl of the thiolated mix-m-SB-PPI-64-NH2/OH-2 that was used for conjugation with the activated antibody. Maleimide R (MAL-R)-activated Antibody: To the antibody in PBS (310 μL, 5.1 mg or 34 nmol) were added 20.4 μl of a MAL-R-NHS (N-hydroxysuccinimide) solution (10 mM in water). The mixture was vortexed and incubated at 30° C. for 15 minutes. It was purified by gel filtration with buffer A. The maleimide-R-activated antibody was used for conjugation with the thiolated mix-m-SB-PPI-64-NH2/OH-2. mix-m-SB-PPI-64-NH2/OH-2-Antibody Conjugate: To the thiolated mix-m-SB-PPI-64-NH2/OH-2 (310 μl or 35.7 mmol) was added the MAL-R-activated antibody (4.8 mL or 34 mmol). The reaction mixture was concentrated to approximately 800 μl, which was allowed to incubate overnight at 4° C., or at room temperature for about 1 hr. On completion, the reaction was quenched with 100 μL of ethyl maleimide (50 mmolar solution), and the conjugate was then fractionated on a carboxymethyl cellulose column (5 ml) with a sodium chloride step gradient in 20 mM phosphate buffer at pH 6. The conjugate was eluted with a sodium chloride gradient, and characterized by cationic exchange chromatography, UV spectroscopy, and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Conjugation via Reductive Coupling Reduction of Antibody: To the antibody, 2.1 mg or 14 nmol in 160 μL of buffer B (containing 0.1 M sodium phosphate, 5 mM EDTA, and 0.1 M NaCl, pH 6.0) were added 40 μL of DTT (50 mM in buffer B). The solution was allowed to stand at room temperature for 30 min. It was purified by gel filtration in a Sephadex G-25 column equilibrated with buffer B. The reduced antibody was concentrated to 220 μL, and was used for the following conjugation. MAL-R-Mixed surface modified SBP: To the mixed surface modified SBP in 400 μL (400×10−9 mols) at pH 7.4 were added 400 μL of MAL-R-NHS (10 mM in water). This was mixed and incubated at 30° C. for 15 min. On termination, it was purified on a Sephadex G-25 column equilibrated with buffer B. The MAL-R-mixed surface modified SBP was collected and stored in aliquots in the same buffer at −40° C. Mixed surface Modified SBP—Antibody Conjugate: To the reduced antibody (14 nmols in 220 μL) was added the MAL-R— mix-m-SB-PPI-64-NH2/OH-2 (154 μL, 16.6 mmols) with stirring. To this were added 12.5 μL of sodium carbonate (1.0 M solution) to bring the pH to ˜6.8. The reaction was continued for 1 hr at room temperature. It was terminated with the addition of 100 μL of cysteamine (0.4 mM solution). The conjugation mixture was purified on a CM cellulose column with a sodium chloride gradient elution. Preparation of IgG-Asymmetrical Randomly Branched Polymer Conjugates The preparation of randomly branched mixed surface (OH/NH2 mix) m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2/OH-2-IgG conjugates is provided as a general procedure for the preparation of polymer-antibody and polymer-streptavidin conjugates. Other conjugates such as PEI-IgG, m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2-1-IgG, m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2-2-IgG, m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2-3-IgG, m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2-4-IgG, as well as m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2/OH-1 (OH/NH2 mix)-IgG, m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2/OH-2 (OH/NH2 mix)-IgG, m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2/OH-3 (OH/NH2 mix)-IgG, regular polylysine polymer, alkyl-modified random branched poly(2-ethyloxazoline) with primary amine chain ends were all synthesized in a similar manner. The synthesis of various protein conjugates with asymmetrically random branched PEOX polymers is also conducted in a similar manner. The biotinylated-IgG conjugates were synthesized as provided in Bioconjugate Techniques (G. Hermanson, Academic Press, 1996). LC-SPDP-mixed surface m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2/OH-2: To the mixed surface randomly branched m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2/OH-2 (4×10−7 mol) in 400 μl of phosphate buffer (20 mM phosphate and 0.1 M NaCl, pH 7.5) were added 4.0×10−6 mol of sulfo-LC-SPDP (Pierce, Ill.) in 400 μl of water. This was vortexed and incubated at 30° C. for 30 minutes. The LC-SPDP-m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2/OH-2 was purified by gel filtration chromatography and equilibrated with buffer A (0.1 M phosphate, 0.1 M NaCl and 5 mM EDTA, pH 6.8). It was further concentrated to yield 465 μl of solution, with a concentration of approximately 0.77 nmol/μmol. Thiolated m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2/OH-2 from LC-SPDP m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2/OH-2: The LC-SPDP m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2/OH-2 (50 nmol in 65 ml of buffer A) was mixed with 100 μl of dithiothreitol (DTT) (50 mM in buffer A) and was allowed to incubate at room temperature for 15 minutes. Excess DTT and byproducts were removed by gel filtration with buffer A. It was concentrated in a 10 K Centricon Concentrator to yield 390 μl of the thiolated m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2/OH-2 that was used for conjugation with the activated antibody. Maleimide-R-activated antibody made as described above was used for conjugation with the thiolated m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2/OH-2. m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2/OH-2-Antibody Conjugate: To the thiolated m-ran-AB-PEI-NH2/OH-2 (310 μl or 35.7 nmol) was added the MAL-R-activated antibody (4.8 mL or 34 mmol). The reaction mixture was concentrated to approximately 800 μl, which was allowed to incubate overnight at 4° C., and at room temperature for about 1 hr. On completion, the reaction was quenched with 100 μL of ethyl maleimide (50 mmolar solution), and the conjugate was then fractionated on a carboxymethyl cellulose column (5 ml) with a sodium chloride step gradient in 20 mM phosphate buffer at pH 6. The conjugate was eluted with a sodium chloride gradient, and characterized by cationic exchange chromatography, UV spectroscopy, and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Colloidal Gold-Based Immunoassays Preparation of Gold-Ab Conjugates: To a 125 ml flask were added 60 ml of colloidal gold solution (20-80 nm in diameter as measured by TEM, O.D. 1.078 as measured by UV spectroscopy) (Frens et al., supra). The pH of the solution was adjusted to 8-11 by addition of a 0.2 M potassium carbonate solution. To this solution were added 600 μl of conjugated antibody solution (O.D. 0.1-1.5 in sodium borate buffer) while stirring, followed by subsequent addition of 600 μl of bovine serum albumin (20% with sodium azide stabilizer). The mixture was stirred at 20° C. for 20-240 more minutes. The solution remained purple in color and some foaminess was observed. On completion, the stir bar was removed, and the reaction mixture was transferred to two 50 ml conical tubes. The material was centrifuged until very little color was observed in the supernatant. The supernatant was removed and 600 μl of 25 mM sodium borate buffer were added in each tube. The contents were mixed thoroughly and the two tubes of material were combined and characterized by UV-Vis. The gold-modified branched polymer (MBP)-streptavidin conjugates were prepared in a similar manner. The gold-MBP-streptavidin-biotin-Ab conjugates were prepared through subsequent addition of biotinylated Ab to gold-SBP-streptavidin conjugates. Standard antibody biotinylation protocols can be found for example, in Bioconjugate Techniques (G. T. Hermanson, Academic Press, 1996). Other biologically active molecules, which can be used as reporters, such as horseradish peroxidase (HRP) or avidin and derivatives and analogs thereof can also be attached to gold in a similar manner. However, during the test, additional substrates have to be added to achieve signal enhancement. Lateral Flow or Dipstick Immunoassay Ticket Experiments An immunoassay device or “ticket” can consist of a strip of cellulose or other membrane in a membrane-retaining device, generally composed of an inert plastic, an adsorbent pad and a receiving pad at the ends of the membrane. FIG. 8 illustrates a number of lateral flow-based immunoassay configurations. For example, FIG. 8A represents the configuration of an immunoassay ticket without a plastic cover: a) absorbent pad, b) biotinylated Ab, either on a separate pad or on the adsorbent pad, c) streptavidin-gold conjugate, d-g) capture Abs for different targets, h) control Ab and i) liquid receiving pad. FIG. 8B represents the configuration of an immunoassay ticket without a plastic cover: a) absorbent pad, b) streptavidin-gold conjugate, either on a separate pad or on the adsorbent pad, c) biotinylated Ab, d-g) capture Abs for different targets, h) control Ab and i) liquid receiving pad. FIG. 8C represents the configuration of an immunoassay ticket without a plastic cover: a) absorbent pad, b) streptavidin-gold conjugate, either on a separate pad or on the absorbent pad, c) biotinylated Ab, (b and c are on top of each other), d-g) capture Abs for different targets, h) control Ab and i) liquid receiving pad. FIG. 8D represents the configuration of an immunoassay ticket without a plastic cover: a) absorbent pad, b) biotinylated Ab, either on a separate pad or on the absorbent pad, c) streptavidin-gold conjugate, (b and c are on top of each other), d-g) capture Abs for different targets, h) control Ab and i) liquid receiving pad. FIG. 8E represents the configuration of an immunoassay ticket without a plastic cover: a) absorbent pad, b) biotinylated Ab, c) streptavidin-gold conjugate, (a, b, c are on the same pad), d-g) capture Abs for different targets, h) control Ab and i) liquid receiving pad. FIG. 8F represents the configuration of an immunoassay ticket without a plastic cover: a) absorbent pad, b) streptavidin-gold conjugate, c) biotinylated Ab, (a, b, c are on the same pad), d-g) capture Abs for different targets, h) control Ab and i) liquid receiving pad. FIG. 8G represents the configuration of an immunoassay ticket without a plastic cover: a) absorbent pad, b) biotinylated Ab, c) streptavidin-gold conjugate, d-g) capture Abs for different targets, h) control Ab and i) liquid receiving pad. a-h) are on the same membrane. FIG. 8H represents configuration of an immunoassay ticket without a plastic cover: a) absorbent pad, b) streptavidin-gold conjugate, c) biotinylated Ab, d-g) capture Abs for different targets, h) control Ab and i) liquid receiving pad. a-h) are on the same membrane. The dipstick assays work in a similar manner. A number of different assays of varying formats were constructed and tested amongst similar such assays containing a conjugate of interest and also with assays not containing a conjugate of interest, for example, having a directly labeled detector molecule. The assays containing a conjugate of interest were superior. It will be apparent to one skilled in the art that various changes, alterations, and modifications of the present invention are possible in light of the above teachings. It is therefore to be understood that while the invention has been described in this specification with some particularity, it is not intended to limit the invention to the particular embodiments provided herein. On the contrary, it is intended to cover all alternatives, modifications, and equivalents as may be included within the spirit and scope of the invention. All references cited herein are herein incorporated by reference in entirety.	A	A61	A61K	47	30
11932612	US20080063367A1-20080313	RECORDING MEDIUM AND METHOD FOR REPRODUCING INFORMATION THEREFROM	ACCEPTED	20080227	20080313		[]	H04N591	["H04N591"]	7657158	20071031	20100202	386	095000	70535.0	SHIBRU	HELEN	[{"inventor_name_last": "SUGIMURA", "inventor_name_first": "Naozumi", "inventor_city": "Yokohama", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "OKAMOTO", "inventor_name_first": "Hiroo", "inventor_city": "Yokohama", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "SHIOKAWA", "inventor_name_first": "Junji", "inventor_city": "Chigasaki", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]	A recording medium having recorded thereon, a plurality of picture information sets, presentation time values each of which is associated with the corresponding one of the picture information sets, picture information record marks each of which is associated with the corresponding one of said presentation time values, clip information specifying what position on the recording medium is associated with each of said presentation time values, and reproducing order specifying information specifying in what order the picture information sets are to be reproduced.	1. A recording medium where the following are recorded: a plurality of picture information sets; presentation time values each of which is associated with the corresponding one of said picture information sets; picture information record marks each of which is associated with the corresponding one of said presentation time values; clip information specifying what position on the recording medium is associated with each of said presentation time values; and reproducing order specifying information specifying in what order said picture information sets are to be reproduced.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a technique for recording/reproducing picture information, in particular still picture information, on/from a recording medium. FIG. 2 shows an example of the conventional arrangement of information files that are stored on an optical disk, such as a DVD (Digital Versatile Disc), where moving picture information is recorded. In the information file structure shown in FIG. 2 , a directory DVR is formed on the optical disk. Each information file is recorded under this directory. In FIG. 2 , the info.dvr file 201 is a file where information such as the number and filenames of play lists under the DVR directory is written. The menu.tidx file 202 is a file where information such as the sizes and information amounts of thumbnails to be used in menus is recorded. The menu.tdat file 203 is a file where thumbnail picture information to be used in menus is recorded. The mark.tidx file 204 is a file where information such as the sizes and information amounts of thumbnails associated with mark positions are recorded. The mark.tdat file 205 is a file where thumbnail picture information to be used at mark positions is recorded. Play list files 206 are files where marks and other information specifying in what order and what parts of picture information are to be reproduced are recorded. Clip information files 207 are files where information such as play start points in stream files and their packet positions is recorded. Stream files 208 are files where such packets as picture information and sound information are recorded. With respect to the stream files 208 , picture information is compressed according to the MPEG2 standard, which is one of the standard picture information compressing techniques, and the compressed information is converted into a stream file before being recorded. MPEG2 provides an excellent ability to compress a large amount of information not only to NTSC-format picture information, but also to HD (High Density) picture information, such as Hi-Vision. The amount of information in original picture information can be compressed to about one tenth or one fiftieth. For example, picture information in the NTSC format is compressed to about 6 Mbps, while HD picture information is compressed to about 20 Mbps. In both cases, MPEG2 can attain a sufficiently high picture quality. Picture information compression by MPEG2 is widely used in such applications as accumulation of picture information on DVDs and digital broadcasting. With respect to the clip information files 207 , in the same manner as described above, picture information is compressed according to the MPEG2 format before being recorded. The MPEG2 system compresses picture information based on correlations between adjacent pictures. More specifically, if there are portions which do not change between adjacent pictures, information relating to these portions is not transmitted again, and the last picture information received is used as it is for these portions. However, this imposes a drawback in that not all picture information elements can be reproduced by decoding such picture information, only the changed portions of which were encoded. After such an operation as fast forward or skip, play can be restarted only from those pictures in which all picture information elements were encoded. Generally, when picture information compression is performed according to the MPEG2 standard, picture information is divided into groups, each comprising about fifteen pictures. Each of these groups is called a GOP (Group of Pictures). Play from the top of a GOP allows immediate reproduction of picture information. In the clip information file 207 , the packet position of the top of each GOP is recorded with the time (corresponding to the Presentation Time Stamp value) indicating when its picture information was encoded. This makes it possible to easily find a play start position when a search or skip operation is performed. Clip information files 207 are associated with stream files on a one-to-one basis. If a clip information file designated 01000.c1pi is recorded in association with a stream file designated 01000.m2ts, these files can easily be recognized as being associated with each other. With respect to the play list files 206 , information recorded in each play list file lists parts of stream files which are to be played in the specified order. FIG. 3 more specifically shows the information structure of the play list files. In a play list file, the version_number entry indicates the version of the play list. The PlayList_start_address entry indicates where the play list information is recorded in the play list file. The PlayListMark_start_address entry indicates where the play list mark information is recorded. The MakersPrivateData_start_address entry indicates where the maker's private information is recorded. Note that each play list contains information about one or more play items, indicating what parts of stream files are to be played. An example of, the play list mark information will be described in detail with reference to FIG. 7 . The length entry indicates the information length of the play list mark information. The number_of_PlayListMarks entry indicates the number of play list marks. The mark_type entry indicates the type of the play list mark. The mark_name_length entry indicates the length of the play list mark's name. The ref_to_PlayItem_id entry indicates the number of the play item associated with the play list mark. The mark_time_stamp entry indicates the time when the play list mark was marked. The Entry_ES_PID entry indicates the packet ID of the ES (Elementary Stream) of the play item associated with the play list mark. The ref_to_thumbnail_index entry indicates the number of the thumbnail associated with the play list mark. The mark_name entry stores a character string representing the name of the play list mark. An example of the stream management structure of moving picture information will be described with reference to FIG. 13 . As shown in FIG. 13 , a stream is composed of plural titles and a title is composed of plural chapters. Each chapter is composed of plural scenes. In many cases, each scene is constituted by moving picture information that has been recorded continuously until recording is stopped after having been started. With reference to FIG. 7 and FIG. 13 , the types of play list marks will be described. Each play list mark may have be any of one of several identifiable types; for example, a title mark indicates the top of a title, a chapter mark indicates the top of a chapter and a skip mark indicates the top of a scene. With reference to FIG. 8 , an example of how the play list information, play item information, clip information, stream files and play list mark information are mutually associated will be described. Each play list includes one or plural play items. In this example, two play items 802 and 803 are shown a part of play list 801 . Each play item specifies what part of what stream file is to be played by designating the corresponding clip information's filename, STC_sequence number, start time and stop time. More specifically, the play item 802 is associated with an area 804 of a stream file. Each play item may be associated with a different stream file. Reference numerals 806 and 807 respective indicate positions where play list marks are recorded. Actually, these play list marks are recorded in the play list information and are converted to packet positions in the actual stream file by using the clip information. (For example, see Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 2003-123389.) The above-mentioned technique assumes that moving picture information is recorded and reproduced using MPEG stream files. However, it is necessary to record/reproduce still picture information as well as moving picture information. In addition, unlike moving picture information, when still picture information is to be reproduced, it is desirable to allow each still picture to be accessed easily. When reproducing a plurality of still pictures from a recording medium, the user is required to perform operations for such purposes as to switch to the previous or next picture. Since the recording/reproducing of still picture information is not taken into consideration in the conventional recording and reproducing apparatus, however, the apparatus can not operate properly in response to the above-mentioned operations by the user. In addition, a method for displaying still picture information while outputting sound information continuously as BGM (Background Music) has not been taken into consideration. It is an object of the present invention to solve the above-mentioned problems, that is, to allow still picture information to be easily selected and reproduced and to provide a user-friendly reproducing technique.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>To solve the aforementioned problems, the present invention provides a recording medium on which the following information is recorded: a plurality of picture information sets; presentation time values, each of which is associated with a corresponding one of the picture information sets; picture information record marks, each of which is associated with a corresponding one of the presentation time values; and reproducing order specifying information which specifies in what order the picture information sets are to be reproduced. In addition, the present invention provides a technique for reproducing information from a recording medium on which the following items are recorded: a plurality of picture information sets; presentation time values, each of which is associated with a corresponding one of the picture information sets; picture information record marks, each of which is associated with a corresponding one of the presentation time values; clip information which specifies what position on the recording medium is associated with each of the presentation time values; and reproducing order specifying information which specifies in what order the picture information sets are to be reproduced. The picture information is reproduced through the following steps: detecting the presentation time value of a picture information set to be retrieved from the corresponding picture information record mark; using the clip information to detect the recording position on the recording medium which corresponds to the detected presentation time value; and reproducing picture information from the detected recording position.	CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a Continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/250,505, filed Oct. 17, 2005, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/664,901, filed Sep. 23, 2003, which claims priority from JP 2003-168591, filed Jun. 13, 2003, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a technique for recording/reproducing picture information, in particular still picture information, on/from a recording medium. FIG. 2 shows an example of the conventional arrangement of information files that are stored on an optical disk, such as a DVD (Digital Versatile Disc), where moving picture information is recorded. In the information file structure shown in FIG. 2, a directory DVR is formed on the optical disk. Each information file is recorded under this directory. In FIG. 2, the info.dvr file 201 is a file where information such as the number and filenames of play lists under the DVR directory is written. The menu.tidx file 202 is a file where information such as the sizes and information amounts of thumbnails to be used in menus is recorded. The menu.tdat file 203 is a file where thumbnail picture information to be used in menus is recorded. The mark.tidx file 204 is a file where information such as the sizes and information amounts of thumbnails associated with mark positions are recorded. The mark.tdat file 205 is a file where thumbnail picture information to be used at mark positions is recorded. Play list files 206 are files where marks and other information specifying in what order and what parts of picture information are to be reproduced are recorded. Clip information files 207 are files where information such as play start points in stream files and their packet positions is recorded. Stream files 208 are files where such packets as picture information and sound information are recorded. With respect to the stream files 208, picture information is compressed according to the MPEG2 standard, which is one of the standard picture information compressing techniques, and the compressed information is converted into a stream file before being recorded. MPEG2 provides an excellent ability to compress a large amount of information not only to NTSC-format picture information, but also to HD (High Density) picture information, such as Hi-Vision. The amount of information in original picture information can be compressed to about one tenth or one fiftieth. For example, picture information in the NTSC format is compressed to about 6 Mbps, while HD picture information is compressed to about 20 Mbps. In both cases, MPEG2 can attain a sufficiently high picture quality. Picture information compression by MPEG2 is widely used in such applications as accumulation of picture information on DVDs and digital broadcasting. With respect to the clip information files 207, in the same manner as described above, picture information is compressed according to the MPEG2 format before being recorded. The MPEG2 system compresses picture information based on correlations between adjacent pictures. More specifically, if there are portions which do not change between adjacent pictures, information relating to these portions is not transmitted again, and the last picture information received is used as it is for these portions. However, this imposes a drawback in that not all picture information elements can be reproduced by decoding such picture information, only the changed portions of which were encoded. After such an operation as fast forward or skip, play can be restarted only from those pictures in which all picture information elements were encoded. Generally, when picture information compression is performed according to the MPEG2 standard, picture information is divided into groups, each comprising about fifteen pictures. Each of these groups is called a GOP (Group of Pictures). Play from the top of a GOP allows immediate reproduction of picture information. In the clip information file 207, the packet position of the top of each GOP is recorded with the time (corresponding to the Presentation Time Stamp value) indicating when its picture information was encoded. This makes it possible to easily find a play start position when a search or skip operation is performed. Clip information files 207 are associated with stream files on a one-to-one basis. If a clip information file designated 01000.c1pi is recorded in association with a stream file designated 01000.m2ts, these files can easily be recognized as being associated with each other. With respect to the play list files 206, information recorded in each play list file lists parts of stream files which are to be played in the specified order. FIG. 3 more specifically shows the information structure of the play list files. In a play list file, the version_number entry indicates the version of the play list. The PlayList_start_address entry indicates where the play list information is recorded in the play list file. The PlayListMark_start_address entry indicates where the play list mark information is recorded. The MakersPrivateData_start_address entry indicates where the maker's private information is recorded. Note that each play list contains information about one or more play items, indicating what parts of stream files are to be played. An example of, the play list mark information will be described in detail with reference to FIG. 7. The length entry indicates the information length of the play list mark information. The number_of_PlayListMarks entry indicates the number of play list marks. The mark_type entry indicates the type of the play list mark. The mark_name_length entry indicates the length of the play list mark's name. The ref_to_PlayItem_id entry indicates the number of the play item associated with the play list mark. The mark_time_stamp entry indicates the time when the play list mark was marked. The Entry_ES_PID entry indicates the packet ID of the ES (Elementary Stream) of the play item associated with the play list mark. The ref_to_thumbnail_index entry indicates the number of the thumbnail associated with the play list mark. The mark_name entry stores a character string representing the name of the play list mark. An example of the stream management structure of moving picture information will be described with reference to FIG. 13. As shown in FIG. 13, a stream is composed of plural titles and a title is composed of plural chapters. Each chapter is composed of plural scenes. In many cases, each scene is constituted by moving picture information that has been recorded continuously until recording is stopped after having been started. With reference to FIG. 7 and FIG. 13, the types of play list marks will be described. Each play list mark may have be any of one of several identifiable types; for example, a title mark indicates the top of a title, a chapter mark indicates the top of a chapter and a skip mark indicates the top of a scene. With reference to FIG. 8, an example of how the play list information, play item information, clip information, stream files and play list mark information are mutually associated will be described. Each play list includes one or plural play items. In this example, two play items 802 and 803 are shown a part of play list 801. Each play item specifies what part of what stream file is to be played by designating the corresponding clip information's filename, STC_sequence number, start time and stop time. More specifically, the play item 802 is associated with an area 804 of a stream file. Each play item may be associated with a different stream file. Reference numerals 806 and 807 respective indicate positions where play list marks are recorded. Actually, these play list marks are recorded in the play list information and are converted to packet positions in the actual stream file by using the clip information. (For example, see Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 2003-123389.) The above-mentioned technique assumes that moving picture information is recorded and reproduced using MPEG stream files. However, it is necessary to record/reproduce still picture information as well as moving picture information. In addition, unlike moving picture information, when still picture information is to be reproduced, it is desirable to allow each still picture to be accessed easily. When reproducing a plurality of still pictures from a recording medium, the user is required to perform operations for such purposes as to switch to the previous or next picture. Since the recording/reproducing of still picture information is not taken into consideration in the conventional recording and reproducing apparatus, however, the apparatus can not operate properly in response to the above-mentioned operations by the user. In addition, a method for displaying still picture information while outputting sound information continuously as BGM (Background Music) has not been taken into consideration. It is an object of the present invention to solve the above-mentioned problems, that is, to allow still picture information to be easily selected and reproduced and to provide a user-friendly reproducing technique. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION To solve the aforementioned problems, the present invention provides a recording medium on which the following information is recorded: a plurality of picture information sets; presentation time values, each of which is associated with a corresponding one of the picture information sets; picture information record marks, each of which is associated with a corresponding one of the presentation time values; and reproducing order specifying information which specifies in what order the picture information sets are to be reproduced. In addition, the present invention provides a technique for reproducing information from a recording medium on which the following items are recorded: a plurality of picture information sets; presentation time values, each of which is associated with a corresponding one of the picture information sets; picture information record marks, each of which is associated with a corresponding one of the presentation time values; clip information which specifies what position on the recording medium is associated with each of the presentation time values; and reproducing order specifying information which specifies in what order the picture information sets are to be reproduced. The picture information is reproduced through the following steps: detecting the presentation time value of a picture information set to be retrieved from the corresponding picture information record mark; using the clip information to detect the recording position on the recording medium which corresponds to the detected presentation time value; and reproducing picture information from the detected recording position. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a reproducing apparatus with which the present invention is carried out; FIG. 2 is a diagram which shows an example of the structural arrangement of files on a recording medium; FIG. 3 is a diagram which shows an example of the data structure of a play list file; FIG. 4 is a diagram which shows an example of the data structure of play list information; FIG. 5 is a diagram illustrating the information provided by a type_of_presentation entry; FIG. 6 is a diagram which shows an example of the data structure of play item information; FIG. 7 is a diagram which shows an example of the data structure of play list mark information; FIG. 8 is a diagram which shows how information is mutually associated when moving picture information is recorded; FIG. 9 is a diagram which shows how information is mutually associated when still picture information is recorded; FIG. 10 is a diagram which shows how information is mutually associated when BGM-combined still picture information is recorded; FIG. 11 is a diagram which shows the format of a MPEG-TS; FIG. 12 is a block diagram of an output timing control circuit; and FIG. 13 is a diagram which conceptually shows an example of a stream management structure; FIG. 14 is a diagram which shows how information is mutually associated when still picture information is recorded; and FIG. 15 is a diagram which conceptually shows the content of a play list file. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The following description is direction to a first embodiment of the present invention. Although it is assumed in the description of this first embodiment that a DVD is being used as a recording medium, the present invention can also be applied to the use of a CD (Compact Disc), MD (Mini Disc) and various other information recording media. It is also assumed in the following description that intra frame compressed picture information (I pictures) is included in recorded MEPEG stream files (hereafter denoted simply as stream files) according to the MPEG2 standard. Needless to say, information can be encoded by another picture information compression method as well. Similar to picture information, sound information is compressed in terms of quantity by using a sound information compression technique in this first embodiment. The employed sound information compression technique is selectable from a variety of compression systems, such as the MPEG1 audio system and the AAC system that is used in BS digital broadcasting. In addition, since the amount of sound information is smaller than that of picture information, it can be recorded by a linear PCM method without compression. In addition, in this first embodiment, picture information and sound information, which are encoded as described above, are multiplexed into a stream file and recorded as a single file so as to facilitate transmission and accumulation. More specifically, each information unit is converted into a 188-byte packet, which is given a PID (Packet ID) to identify the packet. Giving a unique PID to each unit of information allows packets to be sorted easily when they are reproduced. In a first embodiment, not only picture and sound information, but also subtitle information, graphic information, control command information and other information packets can also be multiplexed into a stream file. Further, such packets as PMT (Program Map Table) and PAT (Program Allocation Table) packets, which define how PIDs are associated with each other, and a PCR (Program Clock Reference) packet indicating time information are also multiplexed. A stream file where information is multiplexed in this way is recorded on an optical disk as a stream file. A reproducing apparatus according to the present invention will be described with reference to FIG. 1. In FIG. 1, an optical disk 101 has information recorded thereon, and an optical pickup 102 reads out information from the optical disk 101 by using laser light. In a reproducing signal processing circuit 103, the signal that has been read out through the optical pickup 102 is subjected to prescribed decoding processing, and it is converted to a digital signal. In an output control circuit 104, the digital signal from the reproducing signal processing circuit, where decoding processing was performed, is packetized according to a prescribed format, and it is then subjected to output processing. A servo circuit 105 controls the rotating speed of the optical disk and the position of the optical pickup 102. A drive control circuit 106 controls the servo circuit 105 and the signal processing circuit 103. In an audio information decoder 107, a sound information signal is obtained by decoding sound information packets received from the output control circuit 104. An audio output terminal 108 outputs the sound information signal which was obtained through decoding by the audio information decoder 107. In a video information decoder 109, a picture information signal is obtained by decoding picture information packets received from the output control circuit 104. A video output terminal 110 outputs the picture information signal which was obtained through decoding by the video information decoder 109. On the optical disk 101, stream files are recorded, in which picture information and sound information signal packets are multiplexed. In addition, such information as play list information, which lists items to be reproduced in the listed order from streams, clip information, which locates characteristic points in each stream, mark position information, which indicates skip positions and chapter start positions, and menu information, that is used to select a play list, are recorded as files in a prescribed format. Each play list information file has information about one or plural play items, indicating what parts of what stream files are to be reproduced. FIG. 4 shows an example of the data structure of the play item information in the first embodiment. In the play item information, the length entry indicates the length of the play items. The type_of_presentation entry indicates how the items are to be presented. The number_of_PlayItems entry indicates the number of play items in the play item information. The number_of_SubPlayItems entry indicates the number of sub play items (Sub play items will be described later in connection with a third embodiment. FIG. 5 shows the meaning of the values which the type_of_presentation can have. More specifically, if type_of_presentation entry is 0, the play items are reproduced as ordinary moving or still picture information. If the type_of_presentation entry is 1, they are reproduced as still picture information with BGM. Note that still picture information with BGM will be described in detail later in connection with a third embodiment. FIG. 6 shows an example of the data structure of the play item information. The length entry indicates the information length of the play item. The still_flag entry is a flag indicating whether the presentation is to be frozen at the end of the play item reproduced. If the stil_flag entry is set, the still_duration entry specifies in seconds how long the presentation is to be frozen at the end of the play item being reproduced. When the entry still_duration=0, this specifies that the presentation is to be frozen infinitely. The Clip_Information_file_name entry represents the file identifier of the corresponding clip information file and stream file. The ref_to_STC_id entry indicates the sequence number of the STC in the stream file. The IN_time entry specifies where the play item begins in the stream file by designating the corresponding PTS in the picture information. The OUT_time entry specifies where the play item ends in the stream file by designating the corresponding PTS in the picture information. In the first embodiment, play items are respectively associated with individual still pictures, as shown in FIG. 14. On the other hand, as described with the conventional technique, in the case of moving picture information, it is not feasible to associate every I picture with a play item since this tremendously enlarges the size of the play list file. Thus, play list mark information is recorded at the top of each chapter, as shown in FIG. 8. By using such marks, it is possible to realize various functions, such as to start reproduction from the next chapter and to go back to the top of the current chapter and start reproduction therefrom. In the case of still picture information, however, it is desirable to associate each still picture with a play item. When switching to the previous or next still picture, this allows the still picture to be detected easily. As described, in connection with the first embodiment, a plurality of still pictures can be recorded in such a manner that such operations as switching to the next or previous picture can be implemented easily. Now, a second embodiment of the present invention will be described. Although the description thereof is based on some assumptions, these assumptions will not be specifically mentioned, since they are the same as those made in the description of the first embodiment. The second embodiment is characterized in that each still picture is associated with a mark. That is, in the second embodiment, a still picture mark, which indicates the top of a still picture, is added as another type of play list mark to the syntax shown in FIG. 7. Accordingly, each play list mark is recognizable, for example, as either a chapter mark indicating the top of a chapter, a still picture mark indicating the top of a still picture or a skip mark indicating the skip position of a scene. The meaning of each mark can be recognized if the mark is given prescribed numbers assigned to the type of mark. This allows plural marks of the same type to be used selectively. Needless to say, it is possible not only to give any meanings to marks, but also to use only one mark type. In the second embodiment, if the position of each still picture is recorded as a play list mark, it is possible to easily detect the position of the objective still picture when switching to the previous or next still picture is to be performed. For reference, FIG. 15 conceptually shows the play list management structure in the second embodiment. With reference to FIG. 9, an example of how each item of information is associated when still picture information is recorded will be described. When still picture information is recorded, it is recorded as picture information instead of moving picture information. In the case of still picture information, picture information is not recorded continuously, but only where still picture information is to be reproduced. Meanwhile, such information as sound information and subtitle information is recorded continuously on a stream whether the information is associated with still picture information or moving picture information. Similar to moving picture information, the still picture information to be recorded is picture information that has been compressed according to the MPEG2 format and is recorded as a file in the form of a MPEG transport packet. Unlike moving picture information, however, only one intra frame compressed picture (I picture) is recorded as still picture information. Since the information is terminated at the end of the picture information, adding a sequence end code to the picture information allows the decoder to display and hold one picture. FIG. 11 conceptually shows a MPEG transport packet. The stream from the output control circuit 104 is output in the form of this MPEG transport packet. In FIG. 11, reference numeral 1101 designates a packet header and 1102 designates a MPEG transport packet. The MPEG transport packet is 188 bytes long. Plural consecutive packets, each with a 4-byte packet header, are recorded as a stream file. Of the packet header, 30 bits are used as a time stamp and the remaining 2 bits are used as an area to record additional information. The time stamp is used to control the output timing of the packet. Its value is determined by counting based on a 27 MHz clock. FIG. 12 shows a specific example of a portion of the output control circuit 104 that is configured to control the packet output timing. The circuit portion includes an input terminal 1201, a buffer 1202, a time stamp pickup circuit 1203, an oscillator 1204, a counter 1205, a coincidence detector 1206 and an output terminal 1207. The signal retrieved from an optical disk is supplied to the input terminal 1201 of the output timing control circuit as a MPEG transport packet. As shown in FIG. 11, this incoming MPEG transport packet has a 4-byte packet header. The time stamp pickup circuit 1203 extracts a 30-bit time stamp from the packet header of the MPEG transport packet and supplies it to the coincidence detector 1206. Concurrently, the packet is stored in the buffer 1202. Meanwhile, the oscillator 1204, which generates a clock signal having a frequency of 27 MHz, supplies this clock signal to the counter 1205. The counter 1205 is 30 bits long, the same as the time stamp, and it counts the 27 MHz clock pulses. The result of the counting by the counter is supplied into the coincidence detector 1206. An example of how reproduction is performed in a reproducing apparatus according to the second embodiment will now be described with reference to FIG. 1. On an optical disk 101, picture information streams, play list information, clip information, etc. are recorded in the aforementioned formats. Initially, the user sets the optical disk 101 into the reproducing apparatus. Once the optical disk is inserted, the drive control circuit 106 detects the presence of the inserted disk and, by sending a signal, notifies the system control circuit 111 that a disk has been inserted. Upon receiving the disk insertion signal, the system control circuit 111 reads out file management information from the optical disk 101. More specifically, the system control circuit 111 instructs the drive control circuit 106 to read out information from a prescribed sector of the optical disk 101. According to the instruction received from the system control circuit 111, the drive control circuit 106 controls the servo circuit 105 to control the rotating speed and phase of the optical disk and the position of the optical pickup 102. Accordingly, the optical pickup 102 seeks out the specified sector and reads out information therefrom by laser light. The laser light received by the optical pickup 102 is converted to an electrical signal by a photoreceptive circuit, and the electrical signal is sent to the reproducing signal processing circuit 103. The reproducing signal processing circuit 103 converts the electric signal to digital information by performing decoding, error correction and the like on the signal. The information read out in this manner from the prescribed sector is sent back to the system control circuit 111 via the drive control circuit 106. Based on the information received from the drive control circuit 106, the system control circuit 111 analyzes the file management information and the contents of the read out files. The recorded file management information includes the directory, identifier, size and location of each file recorded on the optical disk 101. Using the file management information, the system control circuit 111 reads out the necessary files. Then, the user instructs the reproducing apparatus to start playing the optical disk 101. More specifically, the user pushes the play start button on a remote controller (not shown). The signal transmitted from the remote controller is received by the remote control receiver 112 and supplied to the system control circuit 111. Recognizing the signal as the play start command from the user, the system control circuit 111 reads out a file info.dvr 201 to acquire the number, filenames, etc., of play list files recorded on the disk. The system control circuit 111 displays the acquired play list information on the picture information screen, urging the user to select a play list. The embodiment may also be configured in such a manner that menu picture information is displayed with thumbnails. The user selects a desired play list from the play lists displayed on the TV picture information screen. This selection is effected by pushing a button, such as the upward, downward, rightward or leftward buttons on the remote controller. Via the remote control receiver, the system control circuit is notified as to which button has been pressed. Of course, this play list selecting operation is not necessary if the user intends to play the top play list. Once a play list is selected, the system control circuit 111 reads out the selected play list information from the optical disk. Each play list includes a type_of_presentation entry, representing information indicating how play is to be performed. It also includes play item information indicating what parts of what stream files are to be played by designating the corresponding filenames and play start and end times. In addition, play list mark information is also written. The play list mark information includes the numbers given respectively to the play item and thumbnail associated with each marked time. As example of how the reproducing apparatus operates when the type_of_presentation entry is 0, that is, when ordinary play is to be performed, will be described. If the type_of_presentation entry is 0, files specified as play items will be played sequentially. More specifically, the system control circuit 111 reads out the top play item information and reads out a clip information file 207 associated with the Clip_information_file entry written there. Then, by using the clip information, the times designated in the IN_time and OUT_time entries that are written for the play item are converted to the corresponding packet start number and end number. Then, a stream file associated with the Clip_information_file entry is read out so as to replay it from the packet associated with the packet start number. Retrieved stream packets are output from the output control circuit 104 to the audio decoder 107 and video decoder 109 at the prescribed timings according to the time stamps written on the packets. In the audio decoder 107, sound information is decoded and output to the sound information output terminal 108. Similarly, in the video decoder 109, picture information is decoded and output to the picture information output terminal 110. In addition, subtitle information, graphic information and the like are decoded in prescribed decoders (not shown) and superimposed on the picture information signal to be output. Commands multiplexed into the stream are supplied from the output control circuit 104 to the system control circuit 111 where the commands are interpreted. The stream file is replayed until the packet which is given an end packet number associated with the OUT_time entry for the play item 902 is reached. After the end packet is replayed, the next play item 903 begins to be replayed similarly. Once the play items listed in the play list 901 all have been played, the reproducing apparatus goes back to the play list selection stage. Needless to say, the system control circuit 111 may also be modified in such a manner that, in this case, the next play list begins to be played continuously. An example of how the skip operation is treated while picture information is being reproduced will be described. As described earlier, play list mark information is included in the play list 901. Each play list mark is associated with a play item and indicates the time when the mark was recorded. While the play item 901 is being replayed, if the next chapter button on the remote controller is pushed by the user to replay the next chapter, the play list mark information associated with the current play item is read and a chapter mark 910 which exists later than the current replay time is retrieved as a skip mark. In the description of the second embodiment, it is assumed that each play item corresponds to a chapter and that the top still picture mark of each chapter serves also as a chapter mark, although this should not be construed to limit the scope of the present invention. The present invention may also be implemented in such a manner that an arbitrary picture group is associated with a play item and still picture marks are set separately from chapter marks. In addition, if another skip mark is not found in the play list mark information associated with the current play item, the play list mark information associated with the next play item may be searched. The time of the chapter mark 910 that is retrieved in this manner is acquired from its mark_time_stamp entry and the corresponding play start packet number is determined from the clip information. Then still picture information 905 begins to be reproduced from that packet. This allows the next chapter to be played in response to actuation of the next chapter button. Similarly, if the previous chapter button is pushed to restart replay from the next previous chapter, the play list mark information associated with the currently replayed item is read to find a skip mark which is older than the current replay time. If there is no older skip mark in that play list mark information, the play list mark information associated with the next previous play item may be searched. The time of the skip mark retrieved in this manner is acquired from its mark_time_stamp entry, and the corresponding play start packet number is determined from the clip information. Then the stream file begins to be replayed from that packet. This allows the next previous chapter to be replayed in response to actuation of the chapter button. In this way, a stream can be replayed from before and after a play list mark position. An example of picture information switching operations (skip, etc.) will be described. In FIG. 9, the play list 901 includes two play items 902 and 903. If the play list 901 begins to be replayed, still picture information 904 and its accompanying information 907, such as sound information, included in the play item 902, are replayed at first. The still picture information 904 is immediately displayed if the stream begins to be replayed. Meanwhile, the accompanying information 907 is a stream having a predetermined length, and it is displayed over a predetermined period of time (for example, 5 seconds). This replay period was determined when the information was prepared. After the play item 902 is replayed, the play item 903 is replayed. The play item 903 includes two still pictures 905 and 906, along with accompanying sound and other information 908. If the play item 903 begins to be replayed, the still picture information 905 is immediately displayed, and, after expiration of a predetermined period of time, the still picture information 906 is displayed. During this time, the accompanying information 908 continues to be output. When the accompanying information 908 reaches to its end time, replaying the play item 904 is completed. If the next picture button is pushed to display the next still picture information while the still picture information 905 is being replayed, the system control circuit retrieves the next picture mark 911 from the play list mark information and begins to replay the stream from the position given by the mark 911, that is, the still picture information 906. The accompanying sound and other information 908 is multiplexed with the still picture information stream. If the displayed still picture information changes, the accompanying information being output also changes. Accordingly, replay of the accompanying information 908 is restarted from the position associated with the still picture information 906, that is, the still picture mark 911 so that the remaining part of the accompanying information 908 is replayed. Similarly, if the previous picture button is pushed to display the previous still picture information while the still picture information 905 is being replayed, the system control circuit picks up the next previous picture mark 909 from the play list mark information and begins to replay the stream from the position given by the mark 909, that is, the still picture information 904 and accompanying information 907. As described so far, the user can easily switch the displayed picture information. In addition, the still_flag and still_duration entries can be set to play items. They are used to freeze picture information for a certain period of time at the end of a play item that is being replayed. For example, the play item 902 will be frozen for 10 seconds at its end if the still_flag entry is set and the value 10 is assigned to the still_duration entry. The system control circuit recognizes that the still_flag entry is set for the play item 902 after the play item 902 is replayed, and freezes the display. More specifically, the system control circuit stops the output of the sound information and continues to display the last picture information. Then, the system control circuit starts replaying the next play item after 10 seconds have passed. Thus, the display can be frozen for an arbitrary period after play item replay. If the next picture button is pushed while the display is frozen, replay may be restarted from the position of the next still picture flag. If the still_duration entry is set to 0, replay is controlled so as to freeze the display until some operation is performed by the user. This processing, combined with command processing, can be applied to, for example, menu selection by the user. As shown in FIG. 6, since the stil_flag entry is set on an each play list basis in the play list information structure of this embodiment, only the last picture information of each play item can be frozen. To allow picture information during a play item replay to be frozen, the play item must be divided into separate play items or the syntax must be modified so that the still_flag and still_duration entry information can be set more than once for each play item. Note that, although the stream associated with the play list 912 in the example of FIG. 6 has only still picture information and does not contain sound and other accompanying information, the play list 912 also allows the same replay and skip operations as the play list 901. In addition, if every I picture of moving picture information is associated with a mark in the same manner as still picture information, switching to another I picture can be performed easily when moving picture information is displayed as still picture information. As described so far, plural still pictures recorded in the second embodiment can be easily switched to either display the next picture or a previous picture. Also, when moving picture information is displayed as still picture information, switching to either the next or the previous picture can be performed easily. A third embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to FIG. 10. In the second embodiment described above, if the displayed still picture information is switched due to a skip operation or the like, the accompanying sound information is switched as well. However, it is preferable to continuously output sound information without a break, for example, while a menu is being displayed for selection or while still picture information is being displayed like a photo album. Accordingly, as shown in FIG. 10, BGM sound information is recorded as a sub play item separately from the ordinary play items. FIG. 10 shows how information is mutually associated when BGM-combined still picture information is replayed. If still picture information has been multiplexed with sound and other information before being recorded, as shown in FIG. 9, switching the displayed picture information to another picture as instructed by the user results in switching not only the picture information, but also the associated sound and other accompanying information. This is not always desirable, for example, when a menu screen is to be displayed using still picture information. Accordingly, the third embodiment is configured in such a manner that even when picture information is switched, sound information can be replayed continuously without a break. More specifically, as shown in FIG. 10, a play list includes not only a plurality of still pictures specified as ordinary play items, but also sound information specified as a sub play item. Since this allows the sound information to be replayed independently of the still picture information, the sound information can be replayed continuously even when the displayed still picture is switched. In view of the information syntax, a play item can be defined as BGM-combined still picture information by specifying type_of_presentation=1 in the play list information. An example of how BGM-included information, as shown in FIG. 10, is replayed will be described. To replay still picture information with BGM, the entry type_of_presentation is set to 1. In a play list 1001, a sub play item 1010 is included with two play items 1002 and 1003. More specifically, the audio stream 1011 is specified as SubPlayItem( ) according to the information syntax in FIG. 6. Here, the stream corresponding to the play items includes subtitle information, graphic information and control commands, as well as picture information, but does not contain sound information. Meanwhile, the sub play item stream 1011 contains only sound information. When the play list 1001 is to be replayed, information about the play items (1002 and 1003) and the sub play item 1010 is acquired from the play list (FIG. 4). Then, a clip information file is read out according to the Clip_information_file_name entry in the play item (FIG. 6). Using this clip file information, the stream replay start packet number associated with the time specified in the IN_time entry is obtained. Further, the stream file associated with the clip information file is read in to output and decode picture information starting from the packet having the replay start packet number. The streams 1004, 1005 and 1006 replayed here as play items include picture information and subtitle information, but they do not contain sound information. Or, even if sound information is included, control is carried out so as to abort the sound information without outputting it. The play items in the play list 1001 are replayed through this processing procedure. Meanwhile, the sub play item 1010 is also specified in the play list 1001. If the type_of_presentation entry is specified as 1 in the play list information, the system control circuit in the reproducing apparatus judges that this play list includes the replay of still picture information with BGM. In this case, the sub play item is to be treated as BGM sound information. More specifically, a stream 1011 corresponding to the sub play item 1010 is read in and control is performed so as to repeatedly replay this stream. Of course, this control may be modified so as to replay the sub play item stream only once. It is also possible to allow the number of times replay is repeated to be specified/recorded for the sub play item. Note that the sub play item must be replayed concurrently with a play item. For example, time division processing makes it possible to read in and replay/output both stream files concurrently. Of course, the same result can be obtained by reading the whole sub play item into a prepared large capacity buffer memory in advance. Then, on the assumption that the recorded information is structured as shown in FIG. 10, an example of how the replayed still picture information is switched when instructed by the user will be described. As described earlier, if the play list 1001 is selected, the play items 1002 and 1003 will be replayed sequentially to output still picture information. Concurrently, the sub play item 1010 will also be replayed to output sound information from the stream 1011. If the next picture button is pushed by the user to display the next still picture while the stream 1005 is being replayed, the system control circuit retrieves the next still picture mark 1009 from the play item marks and restarts replay at that position. Thus, the replayed still picture information is switched to display the still picture information contained in stream 1006. Meanwhile, the sub play item 1010 continues to be replayed independent of the user's still picture switching operation. Thus, the stream 1011 can be replayed to continuously output sound information without a break even when the replayed picture information is switched as instructed by the user. The information structure shown in FIG. 10 also allows the still_picture_flag and still_duration entry to be used to freeze the display of each picture information for an arbitrary period after being replayed. Also, in this case, it is possible to prevent sound information from breaking if control is carried out so as to continuously output the sub play item 1010, i.e., the BGM sound information. In the third embodiment, as described so far, by using a sub play item as BGM sound information, it is possible to continuously output sound information even when the replayed image information is switched by the user. Note that, although in the specific example mentioned above, two types of play list marks (chapter marks and still picture marks) are selectively used, this should not be construed to limit the implementation of the present invention. It is also possible to use play list marks of the same type. In this case, it is possible to perform appropriate processing based on the result of judging whether the picture information being replayed is ordinary moving picture information or still picture information. As described, in accordance with the third embodiment, a plurality of recorded still pictures can be easily switched to display either the next picture or a previous picture. In addition, it is possible to continuously output sound information as BGM while still picture information is displayed. More particularly, the present invention makes it possible to easily switch reproduced still picture information and provides a user-friendly reproducing technique. Although the present invention has been described in terms of particular embodiments, other embodiments can also be implemented without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. The particular embodiments as described herein are merely examples and are not to be construed as limiting, in any way, the scope of the present invention. The scope of the present invention should be assessed in accordance with the appended claims. Further, the scope of the present invention encompasses all changes and modifications which are equivalent to the subject matter of the appended claims.	H	H04	H04N	5	91
11968099	US20090166769A1-20090702	METHODS FOR FABRICATING PMOS METAL GATE STRUCTURES	ACCEPTED	20090617	20090702		[]	H01L2900	["H01L2900", "H01L21336"]	8021940	20071231	20110920	438	199000	67292.0	PHAM	THANHHA	[{"inventor_name_last": "Metz", "inventor_name_first": "Matthew V.", "inventor_city": "Hillsboro", "inventor_state": "OR", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Doczy", "inventor_name_first": "Mark L.", "inventor_city": "Meridian", "inventor_state": "ID", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Dewey", "inventor_name_first": "Gilbert", "inventor_city": "Hillsboro", "inventor_state": "OR", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Kavalieros", "inventor_name_first": "Jack", "inventor_city": "Portland", "inventor_state": "OR", "inventor_country": "US"}]	Methods of forming a microelectronic structure are described. Those methods may include forming a gate dielectric layer on a substrate, forming a metal gate layer on the gate dielectric layer, and then forming a polysilicon layer on the metal gate layer in situ, wherein the metal gate layer is not exposed to air.	1. A method comprising: forming a gate dielectric layer on a substrate; forming a metal gate layer on the gate dielectric layer; and forming a polysilicon layer on the metal gate layer in situ, wherein the metal gate layer is not exposed to air. 2. The method of claim 1 further comprising wherein the substrate comprises source/drain regions, and wherein the metal gate layer comprises a work function from about 4.8 electron volts to about 5.1 electron volts. 3. The method of claim 1 further comprising wherein the metal gate layer comprises at least one of tantalum nitride, titanium nitride, zirconium nitride, hafnium nitride, tantalum carbide, hafnium carbide and zirconium carbide. 4. The method of claim 1 further comprising wherein the polysilicon layer comprises a substantially amorphous polysilicon layer. 5. The method of claim 5 further comprising wherein the amorphous polysilicon layer comprises less than about 20 percent oxygen. 6. The method of claim 1 further comprising annealing source/drain regions disposed within the substrate at a temperature of about 800 to about 1100 degrees Celsius. 7. The method of claim 1 wherein forming the metal gate layer comprises forming a layer of TiN using an ALD process. 8. The method of claim 7 wherein the TiN layer is formed using TMAT and NH3 gases at a temperature of about 150 to about 300 degrees Celsius. 9. The method of claim 1 further comprising wherein the metal gate layer comprises a thickness of at least about 75 angstroms. 10. The method of claim 1 further comprising wherein the polysilicon layer is formed at a temperature of about 500 to about 600 degrees Celsius. 11. A method comprising; forming a high k gate dielectric layer on a substrate; forming a PMOS metal gate electrode on the high k gate dielectric layer; and forming an amorphous polysilicon layer on the PMOS metal gate electrode, wherein the PMOS metal gate electrode comprises a melting point greater than about 800 degrees Celsius. 12. The method of claim 11 further comprising wherein the PMOS metal gate electrode comprises at least one of tantalum nitride, titanium nitride, zirconium nitride, hafnium nitride, tantalum carbide, hafnium carbide and zirconium carbide. 13. The method of claim 11 further comprising wherein an inversion thin oxide formed beneath the high k gate oxide is below about 14 angstroms. 14. The method of claim 11 further comprising wherein the amorphous polysilicon layer and the PMOS metal gate electrode are formed in a cluster tool, and wherein there is no breaking of vacuum between the formation of the PMOS metal gate electrode and the formation of the amorphous polysilicon layer. 15. The method of claim 11 further comprising wherein the substrate comprises doped source/drain regions, and wherein the source drain regions are annealed at a temperature above about 800 degrees Celsius. 16. A structure comprising: a gate dielectric layer on a substrate; a metal gate layer disposed on the gate dielectric layer; and a polysilicon layer disposed on the metal gate layer, wherein the polysilicon layer comprises less than about 20 percent oxygen. 17. The structure of claim 16 further comprising wherein the metal gate layer comprises a PMOS metal gate electrode, wherein the melting point of the PMOS metal gate electrode is greater than about 800 degrees Celsius. 18. The structure of claim 16 wherein the gate dielectric layer comprises at least one of hafnium oxide, zirconium oxide, titanium oxide, and aluminum oxide and combinations thereof. 19. The structure of claim 16 wherein the metal gate layer comprises at least one of tantalum nitride, titanium nitride, zirconium nitride, hafnium nitride, tantalum carbide, hafnium carbide and zirconium carbide. 20. A structure comprising: a high k gate dielectric layer disposed on a substrate, wherein the substrate comprises source/drain regions; a PMOS metal gate electrode disposed on the high k gate dielectric layer, wherein the PMOS metal gate electrode comprises a melting point greater than about 800 degrees Celsius; and an amorphous polysilicon layer disposed on the PMOS metal gate electrode. 21. The structure of claim 20 wherein the amorphous polysilicon layer comprises a thickness greater than about 200 angstroms, and comprises an oxygen percentage of less than about 15 percent. 22. The structure of claim 20 wherein the PMOS metal gate electrode comprises at least one of tantalum nitride, titanium nitride, zirconium nitride, tantalum carbide, hafnium carbide and zirconium carbide and hafnium nitride, and wherein the PMOS metal gate electrode comprises a thickness of greater then about 75 angstroms. 23. The structure of claim 20 further comprising an electrical thin oxide that is below about 13 angstroms in thickness. 24. The structure of claim 20 further comprising wherein the metal gate layer comprises an oxygen percentage of below about 1 percent. 25. The structure of claim 20 wherein the structure comprises a portion of transistor structure, wherein the transistor structure comprises a flatband voltage of greater than about zero.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Microelectronic devices are often manufactured in and on silicon wafers and on other types other substrates. Such integrated circuits may include millions of transistors, such as metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) field effect transistors, as are well known in the art. The MOSFET may comprise a gate structure, such as a metal and/or a polysilicon gate structure, as are known in the art.	<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>While the specification concludes with claims particularly pointing out and distinctly claiming that which is regarded as the present invention, the advantages of this invention can be more readily ascertained from the following description of the invention when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings in which: FIGS. 1 a - 1 f represent structures according to embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 2 represents a flow chart according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 represents a system according to embodiments of the present invention. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Microelectronic devices are often manufactured in and on silicon wafers and on other types other substrates. Such integrated circuits may include millions of transistors, such as metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) field effect transistors, as are well known in the art. The MOSFET may comprise a gate structure, such as a metal and/or a polysilicon gate structure, as are known in the art. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS While the specification concludes with claims particularly pointing out and distinctly claiming that which is regarded as the present invention, the advantages of this invention can be more readily ascertained from the following description of the invention when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings in which: FIGS. 1a-1f represent structures according to embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 2 represents a flow chart according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 represents a system according to embodiments of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESENT INVENTION In the following detailed description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings that show, by way of illustration, specific embodiments in which the invention may be practiced. These embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice the invention. It is to be understood that the various embodiments of the invention, although different, are not necessarily mutually exclusive. For example, a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described herein, in connection with one embodiment, may be implemented within other embodiments without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. In addition, it is to be understood that the location or arrangement of individual elements within each disclosed embodiment may be modified without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. The following detailed description is, therefore, not to be taken in a limiting sense, and the scope of the present invention is defined only by the appended claims, appropriately interpreted, along with the full range of equivalents to which the claims are entitled. In the drawings, like numerals refer to the same or similar functionality throughout the several views. Methods and associated structures of forming a microelectronic device are described. Those methods may include forming a gate oxide on a substrate, forming a metal gate layer on the gate oxide, and then forming a polysilicon layer on the metal gate layer in situ, wherein the metal gate layer is not exposed to air. Methods of the present invention enable simpler integration with high temperature metal PMOS metal gates. FIGS. 1a-1f illustrate embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 1a illustrates a cross-section of a portion of a substrate 100 that may comprise a P type silicon substrate 100 in some embodiments, and may comprise a portion of a P channel for a metal oxide semiconductor (MOS). The silicon substrate 100 may be comprised of materials such as, but not limited to, silicon, silicon-on-insulator, germanium, indium antimonide, lead telluride, indium arsenide, indium phosphide, gallium arsenide, gallium antimonide, or combinations thereof. The substrate 100 may further comprise source drain regions 104 and a channel region 106. A gate dielectric layer 102 may be disposed on the substrate 100. The gate dielectric layer 102 may comprises a high-k gate dielectric layer 102. Some of the materials that may be used to make high-k gate dielectric layer 102 may include: hafnium oxide, zirconium oxide, titanium oxide, and aluminum oxide. Although a few examples of materials that may comprise the gate dielectric layer 102 are described here, that layer may be made from other high-k gate dielectric materials according to the particular application. A metal gate layer 108 may be formed on the gate dielectric layer 102 (FIG. 1b). In one embodiment, the metal gate layer 108 may comprise at least one of tantalum nitride, titanium nitride, zirconium nitride, and hafnium nitride, tantalum carbide, hafnium carbide and zirconium carbide. The metal gate layer 108 may comprise a material that possesses a melting point greater than about 800 degrees Celsius. In one embodiment, the metal gate layer 108 may be formed using an ALD (Atomic Layer Deposition) process. In one embodiment, the ALD process may be performed in a multi-chamber tool system, as are known in the art, which may comprise a metal gate layer formation chamber and a polysilicon formation chamber, for example. In one embodiment, the metal gate layer 108 may be formed at a pressure of about 0.5 to about 1.5 Torr, a temperature of about 150 to about 300 degrees Celsius, a nitrogen flow rate of about 1.5 to about 2.5 SLM, an NH3 flow rate of about 350 to about 450 sccm, and a TDMAT (please spell out) flow rate of about 75 to about 150 sccm. In one embodiment, the TDMAT may be pulsed with nitrogen followed by a nitrogen purge, and then NH3 and nitrogen may be pulsed, followed by a nitrogen purge. Such a cycle may be repeated according to the particular application. In one embodiment, the metal gate layer 108 that is disposed on the substrate 100 may be kept in the ALD deposition tool under vacuum after the formation of the metal gate layer 108, and may not be exposed to air (i.e. may not be exposed to a pressure greater than about 50 Torr). The metal gate layer 108 may comprise a thickness 110 of about 75 angstroms or greater in some applications. The metal gate layer 108 may preferably comprise a PMOS metal gate layer 108, that is, the metal gate layer 108 may comprise a suitable work function value for operation in a PMOS portion of microelectronic device. For example, the metal gate layer 106 may preferably comprise a work function value that is compatible with a PMOS gate electrode (which typically comprises a work function value of about 4.8-5.1 electron volts). A substantially amorphous polysilicon layer 112 may be formed on the metal gate layer 108 in situ, without exposing the metal gate layer 108 to air, to form a portion of a transistor structure, such as a portion of a PMOS transistor structure 116 (FIG. 1c). In one embodiment, the metal gate layer 108 disposed on the substrate 100 (that may comprise a silicon wafer in some embodiments) may be moved from the metal gate layer formation chamber within the multi-chamber deposition tool to the polysilicon formation chamber while maintaining a pressure in the deposition tool below about 30 Torr). The amorphous polysilicon layer 112 may provide a cap for the metal gate layer 108, wherein the metal gate layer 108 may comprise less moisture, oxygen, and hydrogen than the metal gate layer 108 may comprise if not so capped by the amorphous polysilicon layer 112. In one embodiment, about 1 percent to about 0 percent oxygen may be present in the metal gate layer with the use of the amorphous polysilicon layer 112. In one embodiment, the amorphous polysilicon layer 112 may be formed at a pressure of about 10-20 Torr, a temperature of about 500 to about 600 degrees Celsius, a flow rate of about 300 to about 500 sccm of disilane, and a flow rate of about 1- to about 20 sccm of nitrogen gas. The particular process parameters will vary depending upon the particular application. In one embodiment, the amorphous polysilicon layer 112 may comprise less than about 20 percent oxygen. By forming the amorphous polysilicon layer 112 on the metal gate layer 108 in situ, much less oxygen will be formed within the amorphous polysilicon layer 112 than if the amorphous polysilicon layer 112 was formed ex situ (formed after the metal gate layer 108 is exposed to air. For example, an ex situ polysilicon film may contain greater than about 25 percent oxygen. In one embodiment, the amorphous polysilicon layer 112 may comprise a thickness 114 of about 100 angstroms or greater. In one embodiment, the portion of the PMOS transistor structure 116 may be exposed to an anneal process 118 (FIG. 1d). The anneal process 118 may comprise any type of process that provides sufficient energy to activate the source/drain regions 112, and may comprise a temperature of about 800 degrees to about 1100 degrees Celsius. The particular process parameters will vary depending upon the particular application. Because the metal gate layer 108 may comprises a relatively high melting point (greater than about 800 degrees Celsius) the metal gate layer 108 may withstand the anneal process 188 without melting and/or exhibiting degradation of device performance of the transistor structure 116. A transition layer oxide 120 may be formed beneath the high k gate oxide during the anneal, and may comprise a thickness 122 of about 3-9 angstroms in some embodiments. In one embodiment, a total electrical oxide thickness 121 may comprise the transition layer oxide 120, the high K gate oxide thickness plus a quantum mechanical oxide portion (not shown), and may comprise a total electrical thickness of about 14 angstrom or less. The thickness 122 of the transition layer oxide 120 may comprise a lower thickness (which may be about 3-5 angstroms lower in some embodiments) than a transition layer oxide that may form with an ex-situ polysilicon layer formed on the metal gate layer 108. Thus, the in-situ capping of the metal gate layer 108 by the amorphous polysilicon layer 112 may reduce the thickness of the transition layer oxide 120 and consequently the total electrical oxide thickness 121. FIG. 1e depicts a flat band voltage 124 for a transistor structure (such as the PMOS transistor structure 116 of FIG. 1d, for example) as a function of an electrical oxide thickness 126 for in situ polysilicon 128 and ex-situ polysilicon 130. The flatband voltage 124 for the in situ polysilicon 128 is about 0.25 volts at about 12 angstroms inversion thin oxide thickness 126, whereas the flatband voltage 124 for the ex situ polysilicon 130 is about 0.20 volts at about 14 angstroms inversion thin oxide thickness 126. Thus, the flatband voltage 124 for the in situ polysilicon 126 is greater than about 0 volts relative to P type silicon with an inversion thin oxide thickness 126 of about 12 angstroms, less than that for the ex situ polysilicon 130. FIG. 1f depicts a portion of a trigate transistor structure 132, comprising a trigate source region 134, a trigate drain region 136 and trigate gate regions 138. Some features of the trigate transistor structure 132, such as, for example, a sidewall region 140 wherein the trigate source region 134 and a trigate gate region 138 may meet, may be more easily filled/covered with a metal gate material by using embodiments of the present invention (such as ALD deposition as compared with sputtering process, for example) than with prior art processes utilizing replacement metal gate process, for example. FIG. 2 depicts a flow chart according to an embodiment of the present invention. At step 201, a high k gate oxide may be formed on a substrate. At step 203, a PMOS metal gate layer may be formed on the high k gate oxide. At step 205, a polysilicon layer may be formed on the PMOS metal gate layer in situ, wherein the PMOS metal gate layer is not exposed to air. FIG. 3 depicts a diagram illustrating an exemplary system 300 capable of being operated with methods for fabricating a microelectronic structure, such as the transistor structure 116 of FIG. 1d, for example. It will be understood that the present embodiment is but one of many possible systems in which the transistor structures of the present invention may be used. In the system 300, the transistor structure 324 may be communicatively coupled to a printed circuit board (PCB) 318 by way of an I/O bus 308. The communicative coupling of the transistor structure 324 may be established by physical means, such as through the use of a package and/or a socket connection to mount the transistor structure 324 to the PCB 318 (for example by the use of a chip package, interposer and/or a land grid array socket). The transistor structure 324 may also be communicatively coupled to the PCB 318 through various wireless means (for example, without the use of a physical connection to the PCB), as are well known in the art. The system 300 may include a computing device 302, such as a processor, and a cache memory 304 communicatively coupled to each other through a processor bus 305. In one embodiment, the computing device 302 may comprise at least one transistor structure. The processor bus 305 and the I/O bus 308 may be bridged by a host bridge 306. Communicatively coupled to the I/O bus 308 and also to the transistor structure 324 may be a main memory 312. Examples of the main memory 312 may include, but are not limited to, static random access memory (SRAM) and/or dynamic random access memory (DRAM), and/or some other state preserving mediums. In one embodiment, the main memory 312 may comprise at least one transistor structure. The system 300 may also include a graphics coprocessor 313, however incorporation of the graphics coprocessor 313 into the system 300 is not necessary to the operation of the system 300. Coupled to the I/O bus 308 may also, for example, be a display device 314, a mass storage device 320, and keyboard and pointing devices 322. In one embodiment, the mass storage device 320 may comprise at least one transistor structure. These elements perform their conventional functions well known in the art. In particular, mass storage 320 may be used to provide long-term storage for the executable instructions for a method for forming and/or utilizing transistor structures in accordance with embodiments of the present invention, whereas main memory 312 may be used to store on a shorter term basis the executable instructions of a method for forming and/or utilizing transistor structures in accordance with embodiments of the present invention during execution by computing device 302. In addition, the instructions may be stored, or otherwise associated with, machine accessible mediums communicatively coupled with the system, such as compact disk read only memories (CD-ROMs), digital versatile disks (DVDs), and floppy disks, carrier waves, and/or other propagated signals, for example. In one embodiment, main memory 312 may supply the computing device 302 (which may be a processor, for example) with the executable instructions for execution. Thus, the methods of the present invention enable the formation of high temperature PMOS metal gates for use with high-K dielectrics that may survive high temperature processing. Benefits of the present invention include enabling of device scaling and metal gate fabrication without the use of a replacement metal gate process for PMOS channel structures. The subtractive (high-temperature compliant) based integration of metal gate electrodes is enabled. Complex tri-gate integration is achieved without the need for replacement metal gate processes. The novel in-situ stack of the present invention significantly reduces oxidation below the high-K layer. This enables high temperature PMOS metal gate with concomitant electrical inversion oxide thickness (Toxe) of below about 14 Å. Replacement metal gate process flow has been used in prior art processes to achieve below 14 Å Tox, but this requires avoidance of placing the metal on the gate stack prior to anneal, thus increasing process complexity. Although the foregoing description has specified certain steps and materials that may be used in the method of the present invention, those skilled in the art will appreciate that many modifications and substitutions may be made. Accordingly, it is intended that all such modifications, alterations, substitutions and additions be considered to fall within the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. In addition, it is appreciated that a microelectronic device, such as a transistor is well known in the art. Therefore, it is appreciated that the Figures provided herein illustrate only portions of an exemplary microelectronic device that pertains to the practice of the present invention. Thus the present invention is not limited to the structures described herein.	H	H01	H01L	29	00
11834367	US20080035998A1-20080214	PSEUDO SOI SUBSTRATE AND ASSOCIATED SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES	ACCEPTED	20080130	20080214		[]	H01L29786	["H01L29786", "H01L2900"]	7538392	20070806	20090526	257	347000	67400.0	BOOTH	RICHARD	[{"inventor_name_last": "Ramaswamy", "inventor_name_first": "Nirmal", "inventor_city": "Boise", "inventor_state": "ID", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Blomiley", "inventor_name_first": "Eric", "inventor_city": "Boise", "inventor_state": "ID", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Drewes", "inventor_name_first": "Joel", "inventor_city": "Boise", "inventor_state": "ID", "inventor_country": "US"}]	The present invention is generally directed to a method of forming a pseudo SOI substrate and semiconductor devices. In one illustrative embodiment, the method comprises forming a plurality of trenches in a semiconducting substrate comprised of silicon, each of the trenches having a depth, forming a layer of insulating material within each of the plurality of trenches, the layer of insulating material having a thickness that is less than the depth of the trenches, and performing an anneal process on the substrate in a hydrogen environment to cause the silicon substrate material to merge above the layer of insulating material within the plurality of trenches to thereby define a pseudo SOI substrate.	1.-34. (canceled) 35. A device, comprising: a substrate comprised of a semiconductor material; and a plurality of spaced apart dielectric layers encapsulated within the substrate. 36. The device of claim 1, wherein each of the plurality of spaced apart dielectric layers are surrounded by the semiconductor material. 37. The device of claim 1, wherein each of the plurality of spaced apart dielectric layers has a substantially planar upper surface, wherein the substrate has a substantially planar upper surface, and wherein the substantially planar upper surface of the substrate is spaced apart from the substantially planar upper surface of each of the plurality of spaced apart dielectric layers by a substantially uniform distance. 38. The device of claim 37, wherein the distance ranges from 100-1000 Å. 39. The device of claim 38, wherein each of the spaced apart dielectric layers has the same approximate thickness. 40. The device of claim 39, wherein the thickness of the spaced apart dielectric layers is approximately 200-3000 Å. 41. The device of claim 35, wherein each of the plurality of spaced apart dielectric layers is a portion of a deposited layer of dielectric material. 42. The device of claim 35, wherein each of the plurality of spaced apart dielectric layers is a portion of a thermally grown layer of dielectric material. 43. The device of claim 35, further comprising a plurality of transistors, wherein, for each transistor, a gate insulation layer and a gate electrode of the transistor is positioned above one of the spaced apart dielectric layers. 44. The device of claim 35, further comprising a plurality of transistors, wherein, for each transistor, a gate insulation layer and a gate electrode of the transistor is positioned above and between adjacent spaced apart dielectric layers. 45. The device of claim 37, further comprising a plurality of isolation structures, each of which extends from the upper surface of the substrate and terminates proximate one of the plurality of spaced apart dielectric layers. 46. The device of claim 35, wherein the spaced apart dielectric layers are comprised of silicon dioxide, silicon nitride or silicon oxynitride. 47. The device of claim 35, wherein each of the plurality of spaced apart dielectric layers has a substantially trapezoidal configuration. 48. The device of claim 35, wherein each of the plurality of dielectric layers has an upper surface and a lower surface, wherein a length of the upper surface is greater than a length of the lower surface. 49. The device of claim 48, wherein each of the plurality of spaced apart dielectric layers has sloped sidewalls that extend from the upper surface to the lower surface. 50. A device, comprising: a substrate comprised of a semiconductor material, the substrate having a substantially planar upper surface; and a plurality of spaced apart dielectric layers, wherein each of the plurality of spaced apart dielectric layers are surrounded by the semiconductor material, and wherein each of the plurality of spaced apart dielectric layers has a substantially planar upper surface and a substantially planar lower surface, and wherein the substantially planar upper surface of the substrate is spaced apart from the substantially planar upper surface of each of the plurality of spaced apart dielectric layers by a substantially uniform distance, wherein a length of the upper surface of the dielectric layer is greater than a length of the substantially planar lower surface of the dielectric layer. 51. The device of claim 50, wherein the substantially uniform distance ranges from 100-1000 Å. 52. The device of claim 50, wherein each of the spaced apart dielectric layers has the same approximate thickness. 53. The device of claim 52, wherein the thickness of the spaced apart dielectric layers is approximately 200-3000 Å. 54. The device of claim 50, wherein each of the plurality of spaced apart dielectric layers is a portion of a deposited layer of dielectric material. 55. The device of claim 50, wherein each of the plurality of spaced apart dielectric layers is a portion of a thermally grown layer of dielectric material. 56. The device of claim 50, further comprising a plurality of transistors, wherein, for each transistor, a gate insulation layer and a gate electrode of the transistor is positioned above one of the spaced apart dielectric layers. 57. The device of claim 50, further comprising a plurality of transistors, wherein, for each transistor, a gate insulation layer and a gate electrode of the transistor is positioned above and between adjacent spaced apart dielectric layers. 58. The device of claim 50, further comprising a plurality of isolation structures, each of which extends from the upper surface of the substrate and terminates proximate one of the plurality of spaced apart dielectric layers. 59. The device of claim 50, wherein the spaced apart dielectric layers are comprised of silicon dioxide, silicon nitride or silicon oxynitride. 60. The device of claim 50, wherein each of the plurality of spaced apart dielectric layers has a substantially trapezoidal configuration. 61. The device of claim 50, wherein each of the plurality of spaced apart dielectric layers has sloped sidewalls that extend from the upper surface of the dielectric layer to the lower surface of the dielectric layer.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention is generally related to the field of manufacturing integrated circuit devices, and, more particularly, to a method of forming a pseudo SOI substrate and integrated circuit devices thereabove. 2. Description of the Related Art There is a constant drive within the semiconductor industry to increase the operating speed of integrated circuit devices, e.g., microprocessors, memory devices, and the like. This drive is fueled by consumer demands for computers and electronic devices that operate at increasingly greater speeds. This demand for increased speed has resulted in a continual reduction in the size of semiconductor devices, e.g., transistors. That is, many components of a typical field effect transistor (FET), e.g., channel length, junction depths, gate insulation thickness, and the like, are reduced. For example, all other things being equal, the smaller the channel length of the transistor, the faster the transistor will operate. Thus, there is a constant drive to reduce the size, or scale, of the components of a typical transistor to increase the overall speed of the transistor, as well as integrated circuit devices incorporating such transistors. As transistors are continually scaled in keeping with the requirements of advancing technology, device reliability dictates an associated reduction in the power supply voltage. Hence, every successive technology generation is often accompanied by a reduction in the operating voltage of the transistor. It is known that transistor devices fabricated on silicon-on-insulator (SOI) substrates exhibit better performance at low operating voltages than do transistors of similar dimensions fabricated in bulk silicon substrates. The superior performance of SOI devices at low operating voltage is related to the relatively lower junction capacitances obtained on an SOI device as compared to a bulk silicon device of similar dimensions. The buried oxide layer in an SOI device separates active transistor regions from the bulk silicon substrate, thus reducing junction capacitance. Transistors fabricated in SOI substrates offer several performance advantages over transistors fabricated in bulk silicon substrates. For example, complementary-metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) devices fabricated in SOI substrates are less prone to disabling capacitive coupling, known as latch-up. In addition, transistors fabricated in SOI substrates, in general, have large drive currents and high transconductance values. Also, the sub-micron SOI transistors have improved immunity to short-channel effects when compared with bulk transistors fabricated to similar dimensions. However, SOI substrates are expensive as compared to bulk silicon substrates and thus tend to increase the cost of manufacturing. Moreover, some of the techniques for forming SOI substrates, e.g., epitaxial growth of silicon on a previously formed oxide layer, can result in defects being present in the silicon layer where elements of the integrated circuit device will be formed. The present invention is directed to a device and various methods that may solve, or at least reduce, some or all of the aforementioned problems.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The following presents a simplified summary of the invention in order to provide a basic understanding of some aspects of the invention. This summary is not an exhaustive overview of the invention. It is not intended to identify key or critical elements of the invention or to delineate the scope of the invention. Its sole purpose is to present some concepts in a simplified form as a prelude to the more detailed description that is discussed later. The present invention is generally directed to a method of forming a pseudo SOI substrate and semiconductor devices. In one illustrative embodiment, the method comprises forming a plurality of trenches in a semiconducting substrate comprised of silicon, each of the trenches having a depth, forming a layer of insulating material within each of the plurality of trenches, the layer of insulating material having a thickness that is less than the depth of the trenches, and performing an anneal process on the substrate in a hydrogen environment to cause the silicon substrate material to merge above the layer of insulating material within the plurality of trenches to thereby define a pseudo SOI substrate. In another illustrative embodiment, the method comprises forming a plurality of trenches in a semiconducting substrate comprised of silicon, each of the trenches having a depth, forming a layer of insulating material within each of the plurality of trenches, the layer of insulating material having a thickness that is less than the depth of the trenches, and performing an anneal process on the substrate in a hydrogen environment to cause the silicon substrate material to merge above and encapsulate the layer of insulating material within the plurality of trenches to thereby define a pseudo SOI substrate. In yet another illustrative embodiment, the method comprises forming a plurality of trenches in a semiconducting substrate comprised of silicon, each of the trenches having a depth, forming a layer of insulating material within each of the plurality of trenches, the layer of insulating material having a thickness that is less than the depth of the trenches, and performing an anneal process on the substrate in a hydrogen environment having a partial pressure of 1-200 Torr to cause the silicon substrate material to merge above the layer of insulating material within the plurality of trenches to thereby define a pseudo SOI substrate, wherein the anneal process is performed at a temperature ranging from approximately 800-1200° C.	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention is generally related to the field of manufacturing integrated circuit devices, and, more particularly, to a method of forming a pseudo SOI substrate and integrated circuit devices thereabove. 2. Description of the Related Art There is a constant drive within the semiconductor industry to increase the operating speed of integrated circuit devices, e.g., microprocessors, memory devices, and the like. This drive is fueled by consumer demands for computers and electronic devices that operate at increasingly greater speeds. This demand for increased speed has resulted in a continual reduction in the size of semiconductor devices, e.g., transistors. That is, many components of a typical field effect transistor (FET), e.g., channel length, junction depths, gate insulation thickness, and the like, are reduced. For example, all other things being equal, the smaller the channel length of the transistor, the faster the transistor will operate. Thus, there is a constant drive to reduce the size, or scale, of the components of a typical transistor to increase the overall speed of the transistor, as well as integrated circuit devices incorporating such transistors. As transistors are continually scaled in keeping with the requirements of advancing technology, device reliability dictates an associated reduction in the power supply voltage. Hence, every successive technology generation is often accompanied by a reduction in the operating voltage of the transistor. It is known that transistor devices fabricated on silicon-on-insulator (SOI) substrates exhibit better performance at low operating voltages than do transistors of similar dimensions fabricated in bulk silicon substrates. The superior performance of SOI devices at low operating voltage is related to the relatively lower junction capacitances obtained on an SOI device as compared to a bulk silicon device of similar dimensions. The buried oxide layer in an SOI device separates active transistor regions from the bulk silicon substrate, thus reducing junction capacitance. Transistors fabricated in SOI substrates offer several performance advantages over transistors fabricated in bulk silicon substrates. For example, complementary-metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) devices fabricated in SOI substrates are less prone to disabling capacitive coupling, known as latch-up. In addition, transistors fabricated in SOI substrates, in general, have large drive currents and high transconductance values. Also, the sub-micron SOI transistors have improved immunity to short-channel effects when compared with bulk transistors fabricated to similar dimensions. However, SOI substrates are expensive as compared to bulk silicon substrates and thus tend to increase the cost of manufacturing. Moreover, some of the techniques for forming SOI substrates, e.g., epitaxial growth of silicon on a previously formed oxide layer, can result in defects being present in the silicon layer where elements of the integrated circuit device will be formed. The present invention is directed to a device and various methods that may solve, or at least reduce, some or all of the aforementioned problems. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The following presents a simplified summary of the invention in order to provide a basic understanding of some aspects of the invention. This summary is not an exhaustive overview of the invention. It is not intended to identify key or critical elements of the invention or to delineate the scope of the invention. Its sole purpose is to present some concepts in a simplified form as a prelude to the more detailed description that is discussed later. The present invention is generally directed to a method of forming a pseudo SOI substrate and semiconductor devices. In one illustrative embodiment, the method comprises forming a plurality of trenches in a semiconducting substrate comprised of silicon, each of the trenches having a depth, forming a layer of insulating material within each of the plurality of trenches, the layer of insulating material having a thickness that is less than the depth of the trenches, and performing an anneal process on the substrate in a hydrogen environment to cause the silicon substrate material to merge above the layer of insulating material within the plurality of trenches to thereby define a pseudo SOI substrate. In another illustrative embodiment, the method comprises forming a plurality of trenches in a semiconducting substrate comprised of silicon, each of the trenches having a depth, forming a layer of insulating material within each of the plurality of trenches, the layer of insulating material having a thickness that is less than the depth of the trenches, and performing an anneal process on the substrate in a hydrogen environment to cause the silicon substrate material to merge above and encapsulate the layer of insulating material within the plurality of trenches to thereby define a pseudo SOI substrate. In yet another illustrative embodiment, the method comprises forming a plurality of trenches in a semiconducting substrate comprised of silicon, each of the trenches having a depth, forming a layer of insulating material within each of the plurality of trenches, the layer of insulating material having a thickness that is less than the depth of the trenches, and performing an anneal process on the substrate in a hydrogen environment having a partial pressure of 1-200 Torr to cause the silicon substrate material to merge above the layer of insulating material within the plurality of trenches to thereby define a pseudo SOI substrate, wherein the anneal process is performed at a temperature ranging from approximately 800-1200° C. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention may be understood by reference to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which like reference numerals identify like elements, and in which: FIGS. 1A-1C are cross-sectional views depicting one illustrative process flow for forming a pseudo SOI substrate in accordance with the present invention; FIGS. 2A-2C depict an illustrative example of forming an insulating layer in accordance with the present invention; FIGS. 3A-3C depict yet another illustrative example of forming a layer of insulating material in accordance with one aspect of the present invention; FIG. 4 depicts an illustrative transistor device formed above the pseudo SOI substrate depicted in FIG. 1C; FIG. 5 depicts an illustrative capacitor device formed above the pseudo SOI substrate depicted in FIG. 1C; FIG. 6 depicts an illustrative structure wherein the source/drain regions of the illustrative transistors are body tied to the substrate; and FIG. 7 depicts an illustrative example wherein the gates of the transistors are body tied to the substrate. While the invention is susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments thereof have been shown by way of example in the drawings and are herein described in detail. It should be understood, however, that the description herein of specific embodiments is not intended to limit the invention to the particular forms disclosed, but on the contrary, the intention is to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Illustrative embodiments of the invention are described below. In the interest of clarity, not all features of an actual implementation are described in this specification. It will of course be appreciated that in the development of any such actual embodiment, numerous implementation-specific decisions must be made to achieve the developers' specific goals, such as compliance with system-related and business-related constraints, which will vary from one implementation to another. Moreover, it will be appreciated that such a development effort might be complex and time-consuming, but would nevertheless be a routine undertaking for those of ordinary skill in the art having the benefit of this disclosure. The present invention will now be described with reference to the attached figures. Although the various regions and structures of a semiconductor device are depicted in the drawings as having very precise, sharp configurations and profiles, those skilled in the art recognize that, in reality, these regions and structures are not as precise as indicated in the drawings. Additionally, the relative sizes of the various features and doped regions depicted in the drawings may be exaggerated or reduced as compared to the size of those features or regions on fabricated devices. Nevertheless, the attached drawings are included to describe and explain illustrative examples of the present invention. The words and phrases used herein should be understood and interpreted to have a meaning consistent with the understanding of those words and phrases by those skilled in the relevant art. No special definition of a term or phrase, i.e., a definition that is different from the ordinary and customary meaning as understood by those skilled in the art, is intended to be implied by consistent usage of the term or phrase herein. To the extent that a term or phrase is intended to have a special meaning, i.e., a meaning other than that understood by skilled artisans, such a special definition will be expressly set forth in the specification in a definitional manner that directly and unequivocally provides the special definition for the term or phrase. FIGS. 1A-1C depict one illustrative embodiment of a method of forming pseudo SOI substrates in accordance with the present invention. As will be recognized by those skilled in the art after a complete reading of the present application, the present invention has broad application and may be employed in manufacturing a variety of integrated circuit devices. Thus, the illustrative examples depicted herein should not be considered as limitations of the present invention. FIG. 1A depicts an illustrative semiconducting substrate 10 which may be employed as the starting material in manufacturing the pseudo SOI substrate disclosed herein. The semiconducting substrate 10 may be comprised of a variety of semiconducting materials such as doped or undoped silicon. In one illustrative embodiment, the substrate 10 is a bulk silicon substrate doped with an appropriate dopant material, i.e., an N-type or P-type dopant, depending on the particular application. Initially, as shown in FIG. 1A, a plurality of trenches 12 are formed in the substrate 10. The trenches 12 may be formed by performing known photolithography and etching processes, e.g., an anisotropic reactive ion etching process. The size and shape of the trenches 12 may vary depending upon the particular application. For example, the width 14 of the trenches 12 may vary from approximately 50-5000 nm, and the depth 16 may vary from approximately 500-5000 Å. The profile of the trenches 12, as defined by the sidewalls 13, may also vary. Moreover, the trenches 12 need not be formed over the entirety of the substrate 10, and the width and configuration of such trenches on a single substrate 10 may be varied if desired. As shown in FIG. 1B, after the trenches 12 are formed, a layer of insulating material 18 is formed within the trenches 12. The thickness 20 of the layer of insulating material 18, as well as its composition, may vary depending upon the particular application. For example, the layer of insulating material 18 may be comprised of a variety of insulating materials, e.g., silicon dioxide, silicon nitride or silicon oxynitride, and it may have a thickness 20 ranging from approximately 200-3000 Å. The layer of insulating material 18 may be formed by a variety of techniques. FIGS. 2A-2C depict an illustrative example of forming an insulating layer 18 comprised of silicon dioxide. As shown therein, a layer of silicon dioxide 18A is blanket-deposited across the substrate 10 and completely fills the trenches 12. The layer of silicon dioxide 18A may be formed by performing a variety of known deposition processes, e.g., a chemical vapor deposition process. As shown in FIG. 2B, a planarization step, such as, for example, a chemical mechanical polishing step, is performed to substantially planarize the surface 17A of the silicon dioxide layer 18A with the surface 12A of the trenches 12. Thereafter, as shown in FIG. 2C, a wet etching process may be performed to recess or reduce the thickness of the layer of insulating material 18A to the desired thickness 20 shown in FIG. 1B. Alternatively, the layer of insulating material 18 could be a thermally grown layer of silicon dioxide, as depicted in FIGS. 3A-3C. As shown in FIG. 3A, the layer of silicon dioxide 18A is initially formed by performing a well known thermal growth process. Thereafter, as indicated in FIG. 3B, a planarization step is performed to eliminate the portions of the thermally grown silicon dioxide positioned above the surface 12A of the trenches 12. At that point, a wet etching process may be performed to reduce the thickness of the layer of silicon dioxide 18A to the final desired thickness 20 depicted in FIG. 1C. As yet another alternative, the layer of insulating material 18 may be comprised of a material, such as well known silicon oxide or silicon oxynitride precursors, that may be applied by a spin coating technique. Next, the substrate 10 is subjected to an anneal process performed in a hydrogen ambient at a relatively high temperature. The anneal process increases the surface mobility of the silicon substrate 10 causing the portions of the substrate positioned above the insulating layer 18 to merge with adjacent silicon material to thereby result in the pseudo SOI structure 30 depicted in FIG. 1C. The pseudo SOI substrate 30 comprises a continuous region of silicon 22 positioned above the upper surfaces 24 of a plurality of regions 26 comprised of insulating material. In a sense, the anneal process causes the silicon material to merge above the insulating material 18 within the trenches 12 to thereby define the regions 26 of insulating material. The regions 26 of insulating material may be of any desired shape or configuration. For example, the regions 26 may take the shape of a line, a rectangular area, etc. In some applications, the trench 12 may be formed such that, after the anneal process is performed, the region 26 of insulating material is encapsulated by silicon. The thickness 24 of the layer of silicon 22 may vary depending upon the particular application. In one illustrative embodiment, the thickness 24 may range from approximately 100-1000 Å. The hydrogen anneal process described above may be performed in a traditional furnace, in an RTA chamber or any other tool capable of performing the anneal process described herein. The temperature of the anneal process may vary depending upon the particular application. In general, the anneal process may be performed at a temperature ranging from approximately 800-1000° C. if the insulating material 18 is comprised of silicon dioxide or other like materials. If the insulating material 18 is comprised of a material that can withstand higher temperatures, e.g., silicon nitride, then the anneal process may be performed at a slightly higher temperature, e.g., 800-1200° C. The duration of the anneal process may also vary depending on the particular application. In one illustrative embodiment, the anneal process may be performed for a duration ranging from approximately 10 seconds (for an RTA anneal) to 2 minutes. The partial pressure of hydrogen during the anneal process may range from approximately 1-200 Torr depending on the particular application. Performing the anneal process in the hydrogen environment increases the surface mobility of the silicon, thus allowing the portions of the silicon material to merge with one another as depicted in FIG. 1C. After the anneal process is performed, a planarization process, e.g., a chemical mechanical planarization process, may be performed on the surface 22A of the merged silicon material 22 if desired or needed. The substantially continuous layer of silicon 22 has a relatively low occurrence of defects and, in some cases, may be substantially defect free as the silicon material is allowed to merge together during the anneal process described above. That is, the present invention is fundamentally different from an epitaxial silicon growth process wherein defects in the resulting layer of epitaxial silicon are known to exist. After the pseudo SOI substrate 30 depicted in FIG. 1C is formed, traditional processing operations may be performed to form any of a variety of different integrated circuit devices on and above the pseudo SOI substrate 30. For example, FIG. 4 depicts an illustrative transistor 40 formed above the pseudo SOI substrate 30. The transistor 40 is comprised of a variety of known components and it may be manufacturing using a variety of known techniques. For example, the transistor 40 may comprise a gate insulation layer 41, a gate electrode 42, a sidewall spacer 43 and source/drain regions 44. A trench isolation region 45 may be formed in the layer of silicon material 22 to electrically isolate the transistor 40. Note that, in this illustrative example, the channel region of the transistor 40 is positioned above the region 26 of insulating material. The materials of construction of the various components of the transistor 40, as well as the manner in which such components are made, are well known to those skilled in the art and will not be described any further so as not to obscure the present invention. The illustrative transistor 40 may be part of a larger integrated circuit that is part of a semiconductor device, such as a memory chip, a logic chip and/or an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC). FIG. 5 depicts yet another illustrative semiconductor device that may be formed on the pseudo SOI substrate 30. As shown therein, portions of an illustrative capacitor 60 are schematically depicted. The capacitor 60 comprises a control transistor 61 having a gate insulation layer 62, a gate electrode 63, sidewall spacers 64 and source/drain regions 65. A plurality of capacitor contacts 66 formed above the surface of the silicon material 22 are also schematically depicted. An illustrative isolation region 67 is formed in the silicon material 22 to electrically isolate the capacitor 60. Again, the manner in which such devices are formed are well known to those skilled in the art. FIGS. 6 and 7 also depict illustrative structures wherein the present invention may be employed. FIG. 6 depicts an illustrative example wherein the channel regions of the illustrative transistors 40 are positioned approximately above a region 26 of insulating material. In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 6, those skilled in the art will understand that the source/drain regions (not shown in FIG. 6) are body tied to the substrate 10. FIG. 7 depicts an illustrative structure wherein the channel regions of the illustrative transistors 40 are positioned approximately over the gaps or space between the regions 26. Those skilled in the art will understand that this structure depicts the situation where the gate of the transistor is body tied to the substrate 10. The present invention is generally directed to a method of forming a pseudo SOI substrate and semiconductor devices. In one illustrative embodiment, the method comprises forming a plurality of trenches in a semiconducting substrate comprised of silicon, each of the trenches having a depth, forming a layer of insulating material within each of the plurality of trenches, the layer of insulating material having a thickness that is less than the depth of the trenches, and performing an anneal process on the substrate in a hydrogen environment to cause the silicon substrate material to merge above the layer of insulating material within the plurality of trenches to thereby define a pseudo SOI substrate. In another illustrative embodiment, the method comprises forming a plurality of trenches in a semiconducting substrate comprised of silicon, each of the trenches having a depth, forming a layer of insulating material within each of the plurality of trenches, the layer of insulating material having a thickness that is less than the depth of the trenches, and performing an anneal process on the substrate in a hydrogen environment having a partial pressure of 1-200 Torr to cause the silicon substrate material to merge above the layer of insulating material within the plurality of trenches to thereby define a pseudo SOI substrate, wherein the anneal process is performed at a temperature ranging from approximately 800-1200° C. The particular embodiments disclosed above are illustrative only, as the invention may be modified and practiced in different but equivalent manners apparent to those skilled in the art having the benefit of the teachings herein. For example, the process steps set forth above may be performed in a different order. Furthermore, no limitations are intended to the details of construction or design herein shown, other than as described in the claims below. It is therefore evident that the particular embodiments disclosed above may be altered or modified and all such variations are considered within the scope and spirit of the invention. Accordingly, the protection sought herein is as set forth in the claims below.	H	H01	H01L	297	86
11911009	US20090015076A1-20090115	CANNED LINEAR MOTOR ARMATURE AND CANNED LINEAR MOTOR	ACCEPTED	20081230	20090115		[]	H02K4103	["H02K4103"]	7939973	20071009	20110510	310	012230	63739.0	KENERLY	TERRANCE	[{"inventor_name_last": "Sadakane", "inventor_name_first": "Kenichi", "inventor_city": "Fukuoka", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Hamao", "inventor_name_first": "Toshikazu", "inventor_city": "Fukuoka", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Matsuzaki", "inventor_name_first": "Mitsuhiro", "inventor_city": "Fukuoka", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]	There are provided a canned linear motor armature and a canned linear motor capable of reducing an interface by reducing a number of parts of constituting members of an armature winding portion, capable of firmly carrying out injection molding and filling without involving air bubbles or the like by promoting an operability of the injection molding and filling by adopting a low viscosity resin and having a high long period insulation reliability of the armature winding against a refrigerant. In a canned linear motor armature, a coil group comprising a plurality of formed coils (71c) is interposed by a wiring board (71a) and a resin-made frame (71b) in a bath tub shape to be subjected to injection molding of a resin, further, a wiring portion (71e) is injection-molded or filled by a resin having a viscosity equal to or smaller than 30 Pa·s, a usable time period of 0.1 through 24 hours, and an elastic modulus equal to or smaller than 3,000 MPa.	1. A canned linear motor armature characterized in a canned linear motor armature including an armature winding constituted by a coil group comprising a plurality of formed coils formed in a flat plate shape, a metal-made casing provided to surround the armature winding by a frame-like shape, and a can hermetically closing two opening portions of the casing; wherein the coil group is constituted by being interposed by a wiring board and a resin-made frame of a bath tub shape and injection-molded by a mold or a potting resin. 2. The canned linear motor armature according to claim 1, characterized in that a wiring portion with a connector for connecting from the canned linear motor armature to outside of the armature as a power line or a signal line is constituted by being injection-molded by a mold or a potting resin having a viscosity at an operating temperature equal to or smaller than 30 Pa·s, a usable time period equal to 0.1 through 24 hours, and an elastic modulus equal to or smaller than 3,000 MPa. 3. The canned linear motor armature according to claim 1, characterized in that a wiring portion for connecting from the wiring board to outside of the wiring board as a power line or a signal line is constituted by being filled by a mold or a potting resin having a viscosity at an operating temperature equal to or smaller than 30 Pa·s, a usable time period equal to 0.1 through 24 hours, and an elastic modulus equal to or smaller than 3,000 MPa. 4. (canceled) 5. A canned linear motor comprising: a canned linear motor armature; and a field yoke arranged to be opposed to the armature by way of a magnetic air gap and arranged with a plurality of permanent magnets having different polarities contiguously aligned alternately, wherein one of the armature and the hermetic yoke is constituted as a stator, and the other is constituted as a moving piece, the hermetic yoke and the armature relatively travel, the canned linear motor armature includes: an armature winding constituted by a coil group including a plurality of formed coils formed in a flat plate shape; a metal-made chassis provided to surround the armature winding by a frame-like shape; and a can hermetically closing two opening portions of the chassis, and the coil group is interposed by a wiring board and a resin-made frame of a bath tub shape, and injection-molded by a mold or a potting resin. 6. The canned linear motor according to claim 5, wherein a wiring portion with a connector for connecting from the canned linear motor armature to an outside of the armature as a power line or a signal line is injection-molded by a mold or a potting resin having a viscosity at an operating temperature equal to or smaller than 30 Pa·s, a usable time period equal to 0.1 through 24 hours, and an elastic modulus equal to or smaller than 3,000 MPa. 7. The canned linear motor according to claim 5, wherein a wiring portion for connecting from the wiring board to an outside of the wiring board as a power line or a signal line is filled by a mold or a potting resin having a viscosity at an operating temperature equal to or smaller than 30 Pa·s, a usable time period equal to 0.1 through 24 hours, and an elastic modulus equal to or smaller than 3,000 MPa.	<SOH> BACKGROUND ART <EOH>FIG. 7 is a perspective view of a total of a general canned linear motor common to the invention and a background art. In FIG. 7 , numeral 1 designates a moving piece, numeral 2 designates a field yoke, numeral 3 designates a permanent magnet, numeral 4 designates a field yoke support, numeral 5 designates a stator, numeral 6 designates a can, numeral 7 designates an armature winding, numeral 8 designates a refrigerant supply port, numeral 9 designates a refrigerant discharge port, numeral 10 designates a casing, numeral 20 designates a bolt for fixing the can, numeral 12 designates a cover containing a lead wire, numeral 15 designates a connector. The moving piece 1 on one side is constituted by two of the field yokes 2 in a flat plate shape, the permanent magnets 3 attached to surfaces of the respective field yoke 2 , and a total of 4 pieces of the field yoke supports 4 as a whole inserted to between the two field yokes 2 , and is provided with a hollow space portion both ends of which are opened. Further, the permanent magnets 3 is constituted by arranging to align a plurality of magnets contiguously on the field yoke 2 such that polarities thereof alternately differ. Further, the moving piece 1 is supported by a linear guide comprising a slider and a guide rail, not illustrated, and using balls or a static pressure bearing guide or the like. A canned linear motor armature constituting the stator 5 on other side is constituted by the metal-made casing 10 having a frame-like shape inside of which is hollowed, the can 6 in a plate-like shape constituting an outer shape of the casing 10 for hermetically closing the two opening portions of the casing 10 , the bolt screw 20 for fixing the can 6 to the casing 10 , and the 3 phase armature winding 7 arranged at a hollow space of the casing 10 . Further, the armature winding 7 is unitized by molding a coil group comprising a plurality of formed coils and the background art will be specifically described later as follows. Further, the armature winding 7 is designated to differentiate as notation 72 in the background art and notation 71 in the invention. Next, an explanation will be given of a specific structure of the canned linear motor armature in reference to FIG. 4 through FIG. 6 . FIG. 4 is a side sectional view of the canned linear motor armature of the background art taken along a line A-A of FIG. 7 , FIG. 5 is a side sectional view of an armature winding portion of the background art shown in FIG. 4 . FIG. 6 is a side sectional view of the connector portion of the background art shown in FIG. 4 . First, the armature winding portion 72 of the background art will be explained in reference to FIG. 5 . A plurality of formed coils 72 c formed in a flat plate shape is soldered and fixedly arranged onto a wiring board 72 a for connecting to outside of the armature as a power line or a signal line, and a surrounding thereof is covered by a resin-made frame 72 b and a resin-made cover 72 d . An air gap portion at a periphery of the formed coil 72 c surrounded thereby is injection-molded by a mold 21 or a potting resin (not illustrated) with an object of promoting an insulation reliability of the formed coil 72 c against a refrigerant. Next, the connector of the background art will be explained in reference to FIG. 6 . A lead wire 15 c led out from the wiring board 72 a is soldered to a hermetic seal 15 a for connecting a power line or a signal line from the wiring board 72 a to outside of the armature, and a wiring portion 15 d thereof is injection-molded by a high viscosity resin 15 b with the object of promoting the insulation reliability of the formed coil 72 c against the refrigerant. An explanation will be given of integration of the armature using the armature winding portion 72 and the connector 15 in reference to FIG. 4 . The armature winding portion 72 is fixed to a main frame 11 by using a screw or the like, not illustrated and the connector 15 is fixed thereto by laser welding A high viscosity resin 19 is filled to an air gap portion at a periphery of a connecting portion 72 e of the armature winding portion 72 and the wiring portion 15 d of the connector 15 with the object of promoting the insulation reliability of the formed coil 72 c against the refrigerant. Further, a first cover 13 is fixed to the wiring portion 72 e of the armature winding portion 72 by using an adhering agent or the like, and the second cover 12 is fixed to the wiring portion 15 d of the connector 15 by laser welding. The can 6 is fixed to a position capable of ensuring the refrigerant paths for making the refrigerant flow at a surface and a rear face of the armature winding portion 72 by interposing an O ring 16 with an object of preventing leakage of the refrigerant to outside. By making three phase alternating currents in accordance with electric relative positions flow to the canned linear motor armature constituted in this way, a thrust is generated at the moving piece, not illustrated, by being operated with a magnetic field produced by the permanent magnet, not illustrated. At this occasion, the formed coil 72 c generating heat by a copper loss is cooled by the refrigerant flowing in the refrigerant paths 17 , and therefore, a temperature rise at the surface of the can 6 can be restrained (refer to, for example, Patent References 1 through 3). Patent Reference 1: Japanese Patent No. 3592292 Patent Reference 2: JP-A-2003-224961 Patent Reference 3: JP-A-2004-312977	<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 is a view of a canned linear motor armature showing an embodiment of the invention in correspondence with a side sectional view taken along a line A-A of FIG. 7 . FIG. 2 is a side sectional view of an armature winding portion according to the invention shown in FIG. 1 . FIG. 3 is a side sectional view of a connector portion of the invention shown in FIG. 1 . FIG. 4 is a side sectional view of a canned linear motor armature taken along the line A-A of FIG. 7 . FIG. 5 is a side sectional view of an armature winding portion of a background art shown in FIG. 4 . FIG. 6 is a side sectional view of a connector portion of the background art shown in FIG. 4 FIG. 7 is a perspective view of a total of a general canned linear motor common to the invention and the background art. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?	TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to a canned liner motor armature and a canned linear motor used for feeding a table of a semiconductor fabricating apparatus or a machine tool and requesting a reduction in a temperature rise and a long period insulation reliability of a linear motor main body. BACKGROUND ART FIG. 7 is a perspective view of a total of a general canned linear motor common to the invention and a background art. In FIG. 7, numeral 1 designates a moving piece, numeral 2 designates a field yoke, numeral 3 designates a permanent magnet, numeral 4 designates a field yoke support, numeral 5 designates a stator, numeral 6 designates a can, numeral 7 designates an armature winding, numeral 8 designates a refrigerant supply port, numeral 9 designates a refrigerant discharge port, numeral 10 designates a casing, numeral 20 designates a bolt for fixing the can, numeral 12 designates a cover containing a lead wire, numeral 15 designates a connector. The moving piece 1 on one side is constituted by two of the field yokes 2 in a flat plate shape, the permanent magnets 3 attached to surfaces of the respective field yoke 2, and a total of 4 pieces of the field yoke supports 4 as a whole inserted to between the two field yokes 2, and is provided with a hollow space portion both ends of which are opened. Further, the permanent magnets 3 is constituted by arranging to align a plurality of magnets contiguously on the field yoke 2 such that polarities thereof alternately differ. Further, the moving piece 1 is supported by a linear guide comprising a slider and a guide rail, not illustrated, and using balls or a static pressure bearing guide or the like. A canned linear motor armature constituting the stator 5 on other side is constituted by the metal-made casing 10 having a frame-like shape inside of which is hollowed, the can 6 in a plate-like shape constituting an outer shape of the casing 10 for hermetically closing the two opening portions of the casing 10, the bolt screw 20 for fixing the can 6 to the casing 10, and the 3 phase armature winding 7 arranged at a hollow space of the casing 10. Further, the armature winding 7 is unitized by molding a coil group comprising a plurality of formed coils and the background art will be specifically described later as follows. Further, the armature winding 7 is designated to differentiate as notation 72 in the background art and notation 71 in the invention. Next, an explanation will be given of a specific structure of the canned linear motor armature in reference to FIG. 4 through FIG. 6. FIG. 4 is a side sectional view of the canned linear motor armature of the background art taken along a line A-A of FIG. 7, FIG. 5 is a side sectional view of an armature winding portion of the background art shown in FIG. 4. FIG. 6 is a side sectional view of the connector portion of the background art shown in FIG. 4. First, the armature winding portion 72 of the background art will be explained in reference to FIG. 5. A plurality of formed coils 72c formed in a flat plate shape is soldered and fixedly arranged onto a wiring board 72a for connecting to outside of the armature as a power line or a signal line, and a surrounding thereof is covered by a resin-made frame 72b and a resin-made cover 72d. An air gap portion at a periphery of the formed coil 72c surrounded thereby is injection-molded by a mold 21 or a potting resin (not illustrated) with an object of promoting an insulation reliability of the formed coil 72c against a refrigerant. Next, the connector of the background art will be explained in reference to FIG. 6. A lead wire 15c led out from the wiring board 72a is soldered to a hermetic seal 15a for connecting a power line or a signal line from the wiring board 72a to outside of the armature, and a wiring portion 15d thereof is injection-molded by a high viscosity resin 15b with the object of promoting the insulation reliability of the formed coil 72c against the refrigerant. An explanation will be given of integration of the armature using the armature winding portion 72 and the connector 15 in reference to FIG. 4. The armature winding portion 72 is fixed to a main frame 11 by using a screw or the like, not illustrated and the connector 15 is fixed thereto by laser welding A high viscosity resin 19 is filled to an air gap portion at a periphery of a connecting portion 72e of the armature winding portion 72 and the wiring portion 15d of the connector 15 with the object of promoting the insulation reliability of the formed coil 72c against the refrigerant. Further, a first cover 13 is fixed to the wiring portion 72e of the armature winding portion 72 by using an adhering agent or the like, and the second cover 12 is fixed to the wiring portion 15d of the connector 15 by laser welding. The can 6 is fixed to a position capable of ensuring the refrigerant paths for making the refrigerant flow at a surface and a rear face of the armature winding portion 72 by interposing an O ring 16 with an object of preventing leakage of the refrigerant to outside. By making three phase alternating currents in accordance with electric relative positions flow to the canned linear motor armature constituted in this way, a thrust is generated at the moving piece, not illustrated, by being operated with a magnetic field produced by the permanent magnet, not illustrated. At this occasion, the formed coil 72c generating heat by a copper loss is cooled by the refrigerant flowing in the refrigerant paths 17, and therefore, a temperature rise at the surface of the can 6 can be restrained (refer to, for example, Patent References 1 through 3). Patent Reference 1: Japanese Patent No. 3592292 Patent Reference 2: JP-A-2003-224961 Patent Reference 3: JP-A-2004-312977 DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION Problems that the Invention is to Solve According to the canned linear motor armature of the background art, the following problems are posed. (1) Although at the armature winding portion 72, the wiring board 72a and the resin-made frame 72b and the resin-made cover 72d are fixed by using an adhering agent or the like, the air gap portion is ensured at the surrounding of the formed coil 72c, and the air gap portion is injection-molded by a mold or a potting resin, a positioning operation in adhering to fix the resin-made frame 72b and the resin-made cover 72d is difficult, further, there is a case in which insulation deterioration or insulation breakdown is brought about from an interface between constituting parts of the resin-made frame 72h and the resin-made cover 72d. (2) Although at the connector 15, the wiring portion 15d of the hermetic seal 15a is injection-molded by the high viscosity resin 15b, since the resin used is provided with the high viscosity, an operability in injection molding is deteriorated, air bubbles or the like are frequently involved, and therefore, there is a case in which insulation deterioration or insulation breakdown is brought about. (3) Although the air gap portion at the surrounding of the wiring portion 72e of the armature winding portion 72 and the wiring portion 15d of the connector 15 is filled with the high viscosity resin 19, since the resin used is provided with the high viscosity, the operability in tilling is deteriorated, air bubbles or the like are frequently involved, and therefore, there is a case in which insulation deterioration or insulation breakdown is brought about. The invention has been carried out in view of the problems and it is an object thereof to provide a canned linear motor armature and a canned linear motor reducing interfaces by reducing a number of parts of constituting members of an armature winding portion, further, capable of firmly carrying out injection molding and filling without involving air bubbles or the like by promoting an operability of injection molding and filling and having a high long period insulation reliability of an armature winding against a refrigerant. Means for Solving the Problems In order to resolve the above-described problems, the invention is constituted as follows. The invention of claim 1 is a canned linear motor armature including an armature winding constituted by a coil group comprising a plurality of formed coils formed in a flat plate shape, a metal-made casing provided to surround the armature winding by a frame-like shape, and a can hermetically closing two opening portions of the casing, wherein the coil group is constituted by being interposed by a wiring board and a resin-made frame of a bath tub shape and injection-molded by a mold or a potting resin. Further, the invention of claim 2 is the canned linear motor armature descried in claim 1, wherein a portion wired with a connector for connecting from the canned linear motor armature to outside of the armature as a power line or a signal line is constituted by being injection-molded by a mold or a potting resin having a viscosity at an operating temperature equal to or smaller than 30 Pa·s, a usable time period equal to 0.1 through 24 hours, and an elastic modulus equal to or smaller than 3,000 MPa. Further, the invention of claim 3 is the canned linear motor armature described in claim 1, wherein a wiring portion for connecting from the wiring board to outside of the wiring board as a power line or a signal line is constituted by being filled by a mold or a potting resin having a viscosity at an operating temperature equal to or smaller than 30 Pa·s, a usable time period equal to 0.1 through 24 hours, and an elastic modulus equal to or smaller than 3,000 MPa. Further, the invention of claim 4 relates to a canned linear motor including the canned linear motor armature according to any one of claim 1 through claim 3, and a field yoke arranged to be opposed to the armature by way of a magnetic air gap and arranged to align with contiguously a plurality of permanent magnets having different polarities alternately, and the hermetic yoke and the armature travel relative to each other by constituting either one of the armature and the field yoke as a stator and constituting other thereof as a moving piece. ADVANTAGE OF THE INVENTION According to the invention described in claim 1, the coil group is interposed by the wiring board and the resin-made frame having the bath tub shape and injection-molded by the mold or the potting resin, and therefore, interfaces can be reduced by reducing a number of parts of constituting members, an operability of the injection molding can be promoted, and therefore, an insulation reliability of the armature wiring against a refrigerant can be promoted. According to the invention described in claim 2, the portion wired with the connector for connecting from the canned linear motor armature to outside of the armature as the power line or the signal line is injection-molded by the mold or the potting resin having the viscosity at the operating temperature equal to or smaller than 30 Pa·s, the usable time period equal to 0.1 through 24 hours, and the elastic modulus equal to or smaller than 3,000 MPa, and therefore, by using the resin having a low viscosity, the wiring portion can be injection-molded firmly without involving air bubbles or the like by promoting an operability of injection molding, and the insulation reliability of the armature wiring against the refrigerant can be promoted. According to the invention described in claim 3, the wiring portion for connecting from the wiring board to outside of the wiring board as the power line or the signal line is filled by the mold or the potting resin having the viscosity at the operating temperature equal to or smaller than 30 Pa·s, the usable time period equal to 0.1 through 24 hours, and the elastic modulus equal to or smaller than 3,000 MPa, and therefore, by using the resin having the low viscosity, the wiring portion is firmly filled without involving air bubbles or the like by promoting the operability of filling and the insulation reliability of the armature winding against the refrigerant can be promoted. According to the invention described in claim 4, there can be provided the highly reliable canned linear motor in which an insulation resistance of the armature winding against the refrigerant is high, and which is highly reliable by using water having a high cooling function and arranging the armature and the field to be opposed to each other. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a view of a canned linear motor armature showing an embodiment of the invention in correspondence with a side sectional view taken along a line A-A of FIG. 7. FIG. 2 is a side sectional view of an armature winding portion according to the invention shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 3 is a side sectional view of a connector portion of the invention shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 4 is a side sectional view of a canned linear motor armature taken along the line A-A of FIG. 7. FIG. 5 is a side sectional view of an armature winding portion of a background art shown in FIG. 4. FIG. 6 is a side sectional view of a connector portion of the background art shown in FIG. 4 FIG. 7 is a perspective view of a total of a general canned linear motor common to the invention and the background art. DESCRIPTION OF REFERENCE NUMERALS AND SIGNS 1 moving piece 2 field yoke 3 permanent magnet 4 field yoke support 5 stator 6 can 7 armature winding 71 armature winding (the invention) 71a winding board 71b frame 71c formed coil 71e winding portion 72 armature winding (background art) 72a winding board 72b frame 72c formed coil 72d cover 72e winding portion 8 refrigerant supply port 9 refrigerant discharge port 10 casing 11 main frame 12 second cover 13 first cover 14 connector 14a hermetic seal 14b low viscosity resin 14c lead wire 14d winding portion 15 connector 15a hermetic seal 15b high viscosity resin 15c lead wire 15d winding portion 16 O ring 17 refrigerant path 18 low viscosity resin 19 high viscosity resin 20 bolt screw 21 mold BEST MODE FOR CARRYING CUT THE INVENTION An embodiment of the invention will be explained as follows in reference to the drawings. Embodiment 1 FIG. 1 shows a canned linear motor armature showing an embodiment of the invention in correspondence with the side sectional view taken along the line A-A of FIG. 7. FIG. 2 is a side sectional view of an armature winding portion of the invention shown in FIG. 1, FIG. 3 is a side sectional view of a connector portion of the invention shown in FIG. 1, and a characteristic of the invention is as follows. First, the armature winding portion 71 of the invention will be explained. In FIG. 2, a plurality of the formed coils 71c formed in a flat plate shape are soldered and fixedly arranged onto the wiring board 71a for connecting to outside of the armature as a power line or a signal line, and a surrounding thereof is covered by the resin-made frame 71b in a bath tub shape a surrounding of which is opened only at a face side of the wiring board 71a. The mold 21 or a potting resin (not illustrated) is injection-molded to an air gap portion at a periphery of the formed coil 71c surrounded by the wiring board 71a and the resin-made frame 71b in the bath tub shape with an object of promoting an insulation reliability of the formed coil 71c against a refrigerant. For example, With epoxy resin is injection-molded in vacuum, the air gap portion is completely replaced by the epoxy resin. Interfaces can be reduced by reducing a number of parts of constituting members, further, an operability of injection molding can be promoted, and therefore, the insulation reliability of the armature wiring against the refrigerant can be promoted. Next, the connector portion of the invention will be explained. In FIG. 3, the lead wire 14c led out from the wiring board 71a is soldered to the hermetic seal 14a for connecting a power line or a signal line from the wiring board 71a to outside of the armature and the wiring portion 14d is injection-molded by using a mold or a potting resin, particularly, the low viscosity resin 14b with an object of promoting the insulation reliabiity of the formed coil 71c against the refrigerant. For example, the injection molding is carried out by silicone of a viscosity at an operating temperature equal to or smaller than 30 Pa·s, a usable time period of 0.1 through 24 hours, an elastic modulus equal to or smaller than 3,000 MPa. Injection molding can firmly be carried out without involving air bubbles or the like by promoting an operability of injection molding by using the low viscosity resin and the insulation reliability of the armature winding against the refrigerant can be promoted. An explanation will be given of integration of an armature using the armature winding portion 71 and the connector 14 in reference to FIG. 1. The main frame 11 is fixed with the armature winding portion 71 by using a screw or the like, not illustrated, and the connector 14 by laser welding. The low viscosity resin 18 is filled to the air gap portion at a periphery of the wiring portion 71e of the armature wiring portion 71 and the wiring portion 14d of the connector 14 with the object of promoting the insulation reliability of the formed coil 71c against the refrigerant. For example, injection molding is carried out by silicone having the viscosity at the operating temperature equal to or smaller than 30 Pa·s, the usable time period of 0.1 through 24 hours, and the elastic modulus equal to or smaller than 3,000 MPa. By using the low viscosity resin, the air gap can firmly be filled without involving air bubbles or the like by promoting the operability of the injection molding and the insulation reliability of the armature winding against the refrigerant can be promoted. The first cover 13 is fixed to the wiring portion 71e of the armature wiring portion 71 by using an adhering agent or the like, further, the second cover 12 is fixed to the wiring portion 14d of the connector 14 by laser welding. It can be confirmed by a single or a plurality of holes provided at the first cover 13 that the low viscosity resin 18 is firmly filled to the air gap portion at inside of the canned linear motor armature at which the refrigerant does not pass, and the insulation reliability of the armature winding against the refrigerant can be promoted. The can 6 is fixed to a position capable of ensuring the refrigerant paths 17 for making the refrigerant flow at the surface and the rear face of the armature winding portion 7 by interposing the O ring 16 with an object of preventing leakage of the refrigerant to outside. In the canned linear motor armature constituted in this way, by making three phase alternating currents in accordance with electric relative positions flow to the formed coil 71c, a thrust is generated at a moving piece, not illustrated, by operating with a magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet, not illustrated. At this occasion, the formed coil 71c generating heat by a copper loss is cooled by the refrigerant flowing at the refrigerant paths 10, and therefore, a temperature rise at the surface of the can 6 can be restrained.	H	H02	H02K	41	03
11943856	US20080156213A1-20080703	HANDLING DEVICE OF A PRINTING PRESS	ACCEPTED	20080619	20080703		[]	B41F2700	["B41F2700"]	8087356	20071121	20120103	101	477000	58371.0	YAN	REN	[{"inventor_name_last": "Gsell", "inventor_name_first": "Thomas", "inventor_city": "Dillingen", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Stroh", "inventor_name_first": "Rudolf", "inventor_city": "Duernau", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}]	A handling device of a printing press, in particular for handling printing plates during an automated change of printing plates on a printing unit of a printing press, is disclosed. The handling device has a manipulator arm, where a manipulator head is allocated to one end of the manipulator arm, which head features a handling element, in particular a holding element for printing plates. The manipulator arm is of a multi-piece design of several segments, where a swivel axis is included on each end of each segment, around which axis at least the respective segment can be swiveled, and where a separate drive for providing the respective swivel motion is allocated to each swivel axis.	1. A handling device of a printing press for handling printing plates during an automated change of printing plates on a printing unit of a printing press, having a manipulator arm, wherein a manipulator head is allocated to one end of the manipulator arm, which head features a handling element, in particular a holding element for printing plates, wherein the manipulator arm is embodied in a multi-piece manner of several segments, wherein a swivel axis is embodied on each end of each segment, around which axis at least a respective segment is swivellable, and wherein a separate drive for providing the respective swivel motion is allocated to each swivel axis. 2. The handling device according to claim 1, wherein the manipulator arm has a first segment to connect the manipulator arm to a frame and/or to a wall of the printing press and a second segment to connect the manipulator head to the manipulator arm. 3. The handling device according to claim 2, wherein a swivel axis is embodied respectively on an end of the first segment, via which the manipulator arm is connected to the frame and/or to the wall of the printing press, as well as on an end of the second segment, via which the manipulator head is attached to the manipulator arm, wherein a drive is allocated respectively to each of these swivel axes. 4. The handling device according to claim 3, wherein the end of the first segment is stationary. 5. The handling device according to claim 2, wherein a third segment is connected between the first segment and the second segment and wherein the third segment connects the first segment and the second segment to each other. 6. The handling device according to claim 5, wherein a swivel axis is embodied respectively on an end of the segments, at which the first segment and the second segment are connected to the third segment, and wherein a drive is allocated to each swivel axis. 7. The handling device according to claim 1, wherein the handling element is embodied as a suction device including suction nozzles for handling printing plates, wherein there are two suction nozzles for each printing plate handled, the suction nozzles being positioned in a floating manner on a common support element in such a way that, when grasping and transporting a printing plate, a fixing device blocks the floating positioning of the respective suction nozzles and, when delivering a printing plate, the fixing device releases the floating positioning of the respective suction nozzles. 8. The handling device according to claim 1, wherein the handling element is replaceable. 9. The handling device according to claim 1, wherein a vibration device is allocated to the handling element. 10. The handling device according to claim 1, wherein the handling element extends over an entire axial extension of plate cylinders of the printing unit of the printing press. 11. A handling device of a printing press for handling a printing plate, comprising: a manipulator arm, including: a first segment including a first set of parallel braces; a second segment including a second set of parallel braces; and a third segment including a third set of parallel braces; a first swivel axis coupled to adjacent ends of the first set of parallel braces and the second set of parallel braces; a second swivel axis coupled to adjacent ends of the second set of parallel braces and the third set of parallel braces; a first drive coupled to the first swivel axis, wherein the first swivel axis is moveable by the first drive; a second drive coupled to the second swivel axis, wherein the second swivel axis is moveable by the second drive; wherein the first segment and the second segment are moveable relative to each other by movement of the first swivel axis; and wherein the second segment and the third segment are moveable relative to each other by movement of the second swivel axis; and a manipulator head coupled to the third segment, wherein the manipulator head includes a handling element engageable with the printing plate.	<SOH> BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The invention relates to a handling device of a printing press. A handling device of a printing press embodied as a printing plate manipulator is known from German Patent Document No. DE 10 2004 052 021 A1. This device is used to handle printing plates during an automated change of printing plates on a printing unit of a printing press. The printing plate manipulator disclosed there is comprised of a manipulator arm with a manipulator head being positioned on one end of the manipulator arm so that it can pivot. The manipulator head features a holding element for printing plates. On the end of the manipulator arm that is opposite from the end on which the manipulator head is pivoted, the manipulator arm of the printing plate manipulator is displaceably positioned in a guide of a frame of a printing unit so that the entire manipulator arm can be moved up and down in a vertical direction. In addition, an articulation is allocated to this end of the manipulator arm so that it can continue to swivel. Starting herefrom, the present invention is based on the objective of creating a novel handling device for a printing press. According to the invention, the manipulator arm is embodied in a multi-piece manner of several segments, wherein a swivel axis is embodied on each end of each segment, around which axis at least the respective segment can be swiveled, and wherein a separate drive for providing the respective swivel motion is allocated to each swivel axis. The handling device in accordance with the invention has a multi-piece manipulator arm, whereby a swivel axis is embodied on each end of each segment of the manipulator arm. A separate drive is allocated to each swivel axis. The handling device in accordance with the invention can be positioned and/or swiveled more flexibly and requires less space as compared with the handling device known from the prior art. The manipulator arm preferably has a first segment to connect the manipulator arm to a frame and/or to a wall of the printing press, a second segment to connect the manipulator head to the manipulator arm and at least one third segment via which the first segment and the second segment are connected to each other. The end of the first segment, which is used to connect the manipulator arm to the frame and/or to the wall is embodied to be stationary in particular. A swivel axis is embodied respectively on the end of the first segment, via which the manipulator arm is connected to the frame and/or to the wall of the printing press, as well as on the end of the second segment, via which the manipulator head is attached to the manipulator arm, as well as on the ends of the segments, at which the first segment and the second segment are connected to a third segment and, if applicable, third segments are connected among one another, wherein a drive is allocated respectively to each of these swivel axes. Preferred developments of the invention are yielded from the following description. Without being limited hereto, exemplary embodiments of the invention are explained in greater detail on the basis of the drawings.	<SOH> BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The invention relates to a handling device of a printing press. A handling device of a printing press embodied as a printing plate manipulator is known from German Patent Document No. DE 10 2004 052 021 A1. This device is used to handle printing plates during an automated change of printing plates on a printing unit of a printing press. The printing plate manipulator disclosed there is comprised of a manipulator arm with a manipulator head being positioned on one end of the manipulator arm so that it can pivot. The manipulator head features a holding element for printing plates. On the end of the manipulator arm that is opposite from the end on which the manipulator head is pivoted, the manipulator arm of the printing plate manipulator is displaceably positioned in a guide of a frame of a printing unit so that the entire manipulator arm can be moved up and down in a vertical direction. In addition, an articulation is allocated to this end of the manipulator arm so that it can continue to swivel. Starting herefrom, the present invention is based on the objective of creating a novel handling device for a printing press. According to the invention, the manipulator arm is embodied in a multi-piece manner of several segments, wherein a swivel axis is embodied on each end of each segment, around which axis at least the respective segment can be swiveled, and wherein a separate drive for providing the respective swivel motion is allocated to each swivel axis. The handling device in accordance with the invention has a multi-piece manipulator arm, whereby a swivel axis is embodied on each end of each segment of the manipulator arm. A separate drive is allocated to each swivel axis. The handling device in accordance with the invention can be positioned and/or swiveled more flexibly and requires less space as compared with the handling device known from the prior art. The manipulator arm preferably has a first segment to connect the manipulator arm to a frame and/or to a wall of the printing press, a second segment to connect the manipulator head to the manipulator arm and at least one third segment via which the first segment and the second segment are connected to each other. The end of the first segment, which is used to connect the manipulator arm to the frame and/or to the wall is embodied to be stationary in particular. A swivel axis is embodied respectively on the end of the first segment, via which the manipulator arm is connected to the frame and/or to the wall of the printing press, as well as on the end of the second segment, via which the manipulator head is attached to the manipulator arm, as well as on the ends of the segments, at which the first segment and the second segment are connected to a third segment and, if applicable, third segments are connected among one another, wherein a drive is allocated respectively to each of these swivel axes. Preferred developments of the invention are yielded from the following description. Without being limited hereto, exemplary embodiments of the invention are explained in greater detail on the basis of the drawings.	This application claims the priority of German Patent Document No. 10 2006 054 957.0, filed Nov. 22, 2006, the disclosure of which is expressly incorporated by reference herein. BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to a handling device of a printing press. A handling device of a printing press embodied as a printing plate manipulator is known from German Patent Document No. DE 10 2004 052 021 A1. This device is used to handle printing plates during an automated change of printing plates on a printing unit of a printing press. The printing plate manipulator disclosed there is comprised of a manipulator arm with a manipulator head being positioned on one end of the manipulator arm so that it can pivot. The manipulator head features a holding element for printing plates. On the end of the manipulator arm that is opposite from the end on which the manipulator head is pivoted, the manipulator arm of the printing plate manipulator is displaceably positioned in a guide of a frame of a printing unit so that the entire manipulator arm can be moved up and down in a vertical direction. In addition, an articulation is allocated to this end of the manipulator arm so that it can continue to swivel. Starting herefrom, the present invention is based on the objective of creating a novel handling device for a printing press. According to the invention, the manipulator arm is embodied in a multi-piece manner of several segments, wherein a swivel axis is embodied on each end of each segment, around which axis at least the respective segment can be swiveled, and wherein a separate drive for providing the respective swivel motion is allocated to each swivel axis. The handling device in accordance with the invention has a multi-piece manipulator arm, whereby a swivel axis is embodied on each end of each segment of the manipulator arm. A separate drive is allocated to each swivel axis. The handling device in accordance with the invention can be positioned and/or swiveled more flexibly and requires less space as compared with the handling device known from the prior art. The manipulator arm preferably has a first segment to connect the manipulator arm to a frame and/or to a wall of the printing press, a second segment to connect the manipulator head to the manipulator arm and at least one third segment via which the first segment and the second segment are connected to each other. The end of the first segment, which is used to connect the manipulator arm to the frame and/or to the wall is embodied to be stationary in particular. A swivel axis is embodied respectively on the end of the first segment, via which the manipulator arm is connected to the frame and/or to the wall of the printing press, as well as on the end of the second segment, via which the manipulator head is attached to the manipulator arm, as well as on the ends of the segments, at which the first segment and the second segment are connected to a third segment and, if applicable, third segments are connected among one another, wherein a drive is allocated respectively to each of these swivel axes. Preferred developments of the invention are yielded from the following description. Without being limited hereto, exemplary embodiments of the invention are explained in greater detail on the basis of the drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of a printing unit of a web-fed printing press together with a handling device in accordance with the invention; FIG. 2 is a perspective view of a schematic representation of an inventive handling device of a printing press; FIG. 3 is a side view of the handling device in FIG. 2; FIG. 4 is a front view of the handling device in FIG. 2; and FIG. 5 is a detail of the handling device in FIGS. 2 through 4. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows a schematic representation of an inventive handling device 10 of a printing press together with a printing unit 11 of a web-fed rotary press embodied as a satellite printing unit. The satellite printing unit in FIG. 1 has four printing couples 12, whereby only plate cylinders 13 as well as transfer cylinders 14 from each printing couple 12 are depicted. All transfer cylinders 14 of the printing couples 12 roll off one satellite cylinder 15. In the exemplary embodiment shown, the inventive handling device 10 is used to handle printing plates 16 during an automatic or automated change of printing plates on the printing couples 12 of the printing unit 11. FIG. 1 depicts the handling device 10 in a total of four different positions in order to show that this device can be positioned flexibly in the space. In two of the positions depicted, the handling device 10 is grasping printing plates 16 that are ready to be supplied at a web guide wall 17. In the two other positions depicted, on the other hand, the handling device 10 is delivering the printing plates 16 to the plate cylinders 13 of printing couples 12. FIGS. 2 through 4 show the inventive handling device 10 in greater detail. Thus, the handling device 10 is comprised of a manipulator arm 18 and a manipulator head 19, whereby the manipulator head 19 has a handling element 28. According to the invention, the manipulator arm 18 is embodied in a multi-piece manner of several segments, whereby the manipulator arm 18 has three segments 20, 21 and 22 in the depicted exemplary embodiment. A first segment 20 is used to connect the manipulator arm 18 to a frame and/or to a wall of the printing press, a second segment 22 is used, on the other hand, to connect the manipulator head 19 to the manipulator arm 18. A third segment 21 is used to connect the first segment 20 to the second segment 22, whereby, in contrast to the depicted exemplary embodiment, several third segments can also be arranged between the first segment 20 and the second segment 22. A swivel axis is embodied on each end of the segments 20, 21 and 22. Thus, a first swivel axis 23 is embodied on the end of the first segment 20, via which the manipulator arm 18 is connected to the frame and/or to the wall of the printing press. A second swivel axis 24 is embodied on the end of the second segment 22, which is used to connect the manipulator head 19 to the manipulator arm 18. Additional swivel axes 25 and 26 are embodied on the ends of the segments 20, 21 and 22, at which the first segment 20 is connected to the third segment 21 and the second segment 22 is connected to the third segment 21. The swivel axis 23, which is used to connect manipulator arm 18 to the frame and/or to the wall of the printing press, is preferably embodied to be stationary. A separate drive 27 is allocated to each swivel axis 23, 24, 25 and 26 in order to guarantee the swivel motion of the segments 20, 21 and 22 relative to one another and/or the swivel motion of the manipulator head 19 relative to the second segment 22 of the manipulator arm 18 and/or the swivel motion of the first segment 20 of the manipulator arm 18 relative to the frame and/or to the wall of the printing press. The drives 27 are electromotive drives. The drives 27 can be used to individually swivel each segment 20, 21 and 22 of the manipulator arm 18 as well as the manipulator head 19. In the depicted exemplary embodiment, each segment 20, 21 and 22 of the manipulator arm 18 is formed by two braces 29 that run parallel to each other. A swivel axis is allocated to each end of a brace 29 and therefore to each end of a segment 20, 21 and 22. In the depicted exemplary embodiment, the handling element 28 is embodied as a suction device featuring several suction nozzles 30. Reference is made at this point to the fact that the handling element 28 can be embodied to be replaceable so that it is possible to replace, for example, a suction device for handling printing plates with a blanket wash-up device or another handling element. The handling element 28, which is embodied as a suction device in the depicted exemplary embodiment, extends over the entire axial extension of the plate cylinders 13 of the printing couples 12 of the printing unit 11. As already stated, the handling element 28 in the depicted exemplary embodiment is embodied as a suction device featuring several suction nozzles 30. In this case, every two suction nozzles 30 are used to handle one printing plate 16 so that a total of four printing plates can be handled by the suction device depicted in FIGS. 2 through 4. Reference is made to the fact that the number of suction nozzles present is purely exemplary and will depend upon the number of printing plates to be handled by each plate cylinder. FIG. 5 shows a section of the handling element 28 of the manipulator head 19 that is embodied as a suction device in the region of two suction nozzles 30. The two section nozzles 30 are fastened to a support element 31 embodied as a plate, whereby the support element 31 and thus the two suction nozzles 30 are positioned in a floating manner in the handling element 28. As a result, FIG. 5 shows a total of four ball rollers 32, whereby two ball rollers 32 cooperate with an upper side of the support element 31 and two ball rollers 32 cooperate with a lower side of the support element 31. The ball rollers 32 cooperating with the lower side of the support element 31 are fastened to a cross bar 33 of the handling element 28, and the ball rollers 32 cooperating with the upper side of the support element 31 are fastened to a support plate 34, on the other hand. Cooperating with the ball rollers 32, are fixing bolts 35 of a fixation device, which are axially displaceable in the direction of the arrow 36. The fixing bolts 35 penetrate the support element 31 as well as the cross bar 33 and are fed into the guide elements 37 allocated to the cross bar 33. In the representation in FIG. 5, the fixing bolts 35 release the floating positioning of the two suction nozzles 30 so that, as a result, the support element 31 can be tilted to a certain extent together with the suction nozzles 30. To fix the support element 31 and therefore to block the floating positioning of the suction nozzles 30, the fixing bolts 35 are moved downward with respect to the position depicted in FIG. 5 so that phases 38 allocated to the fixing bolts 35 engage in corresponding phases of the support element 31. Then, when the printing plates 16 are supposed to be grasped and transported, the fixing bolts 35 block the floating positioning of the support element 31 and thus the suction nozzles 30. If, on the other hand, the printing plates are supposed to be transferred to a plate cylinder 13 and threaded into a lockup slot of the plate cylinder, then, on the other hand, the fixing bolts 35 release the floating positioning of the support element 31 and thus the suction nozzles 30. To aid in threading the printing plates into the lockup slot of a plate cylinder, a vibration device (not shown) can be allocated to the entire handling element 28 in order to make the printing plates vibrate. Instead of individual suction nozzles, the handling element 28 that is embodied as a suction device can also be designed as a continuous suction bar. A vacuum in the region of the suction nozzles is made available by compressed air elements 39. LIST OF REFERENCE NUMERALS 10 Handling device 11 Printing unit 12 Printing couple 13 Plate cylinder 14 Transfer cylinder 15 Satellite cylinder 16 Printing plate 17 Web guide wall 18 Manipulator arm 19 Manipulator head 20 Segment 21 Segment 22 Segment 23 Swivel axis 24 Swivel axis 25 Swivel axis 26 Swivel axis 27 Drive 28 Handling element 29 Brace 30 Suction nozzle 31 Support element 32 Ball rollers 33 Cross bar 34 Support plate 35 Fixing bolt 36 Direction of Movement 37 Guide element 38 Phase 39 Compressed air element The foregoing disclosure has been set forth merely to illustrate the invention and is not intended to be limiting. Since modifications of the disclosed embodiments incorporating the spirit and substance of the invention may occur to persons skilled in the art, the invention should be construed to include everything within the scope of the appended claims and equivalents thereof.	B	B41	B41F	27	00
11692145	US20080243960A1-20081002	DETERMINISTIC FILE CONTENT GENERATION OF SEED-BASED FILES	ACCEPTED	20080917	20081002		[]	G06F1730	["G06F1730"]	7685211	20070327	20100323	707	200000	94832.0	ORTIZ DITREN	BELIX	[{"inventor_name_last": "Bergauer", "inventor_name_first": "Ryan C.", "inventor_city": "Redmond", "inventor_state": "WA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Wohlgemuth", "inventor_name_first": "Sean C.", "inventor_city": "Duvall", "inventor_state": "WA", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A method for deterministic file content generation of seed based files is comprised of extracting a seed value from a seeded file signature, passing the seed value to a seeded content generating function to produce a set of generated content, and appending the set of generated content to the seed file signature to produce a seed-based file. A delta offset may also be included in the seeded file signature, the delta offset indicating where modified content is to be substituted within the generated content.	1. A method, comprising: extracting a seed value and a file length from a seeded file signature; initializing a seeded content generating function using the seed value to produce a set of blocks; and iteratively adding each block included in the set of blocks to produce generated file content. 2. The method of claim 2, further comprising: extracting a delta offset value and a delta length from the seeded file signature; and determining if the position of the current iteration is equivalent to or greater than the delta offset value and is less than or equal to the sum of the delta length and the delta offset value; in response to a positive determination, passing the block associated with the current iteration to a separate deterministic function to produce a new block; and adding the block to the generated file content in place of the block associated with the current iteration. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the seed content generating function is a pseudorandom number generating function. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the seed content generating function is a function that produces a set of data in a reproducible fashion using the seed value. 5. The method of claim 1, further comprising receiving the seeded file signature from a first client. 6. The method of claim 1, further comprising: appending the generated file content to the seeded file signature to produce a stream. 7. The method of claim 6, further comprising: sending the stream. 8. The method of claim 1, further comprising comparing the generated file content to a set of generated file content produced by another process using the seeded file signature. 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the seed value is an integer 4 bytes long. 10. A computer readable storage medium having stored thereon a data structure, comprising: a first data field containing data representing a seed value, the seed value being used to seed a seeded content generating function that produces a set of generated content; a second data field containing data representing a file length, the file length used to determine the size of the generated content; a third data field containing data representing a delta offset value, the delta offset value used to determine a location falling within the generated content to begin inserting modified content; and a fourth data field containing data representing a delta length, the delta length used to determine a location falling within the generated content to end inserting modified content. 11. The data structure of claim 10, further comprising a fifth data field with a length equal to the file length, the fifth data field containing the generated content. 12. The data structure of claim 10, wherein the first data field is 8 bytes long. 13. The data structure of claim 10, wherein the second data field is 8 bytes long. 14. The data structure of claim 10, wherein the third data field is 8 bytes long. 15. The data structure of claim 10, wherein the fourth data field is 8 bytes long. 16. The data structure of claim 10, wherein the modified content is determined by transforming a portion of the generated content using a deterministic integer function. 17. The data structure of claim 10, wherein the sum of the value contained in the third data field and the value contained in the fourth data field may not exceed the value contained in the second data field. 18. A system for deterministic file content generation of seed based files, comprising: a first client for producing a seeded file signature, the first client for producing a first set of seed based content based on the seeded file signature, the first client for sending the seeded file signature and the first seed based content; and a first server for receiving the seeded file signature and the first seed based content, the server for removing the seed based content to produce the seeded file signature. 19. The system of claim 19, further comprising: the first server producing a second set of seed based content based on the seeded file signature, the first server sending the seeded file signature and the second set of seed based content to a second client; and the second client for receiving the seeded file signature and the second set of seed based content, the second client for storing the seeded file signature and the second set of seed based content. 20. The system of claim 19, the first client further for applying a transform to a portion of the first set of seed based content to produce a region of modified content included in the seed based content.	<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The testing of network servers under load often requires the server to receive and store large amounts of test data in physical storage such as a hard drive. Clients creating the large amounts of test data must also create and store large amounts of data. Due to the finite amount of physical storage, each of the client and server may eventually run out of disk space and testing may not continue.	<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The following presents a simplified summary of the disclosure in order to provide a basic understanding to the reader. This summary is not an extensive overview of the disclosure and it does not identify key/critical elements of the invention or delineate the scope of the invention. Its sole purpose is to present some concepts disclosed herein in a simplified form as a prelude to the more detailed description that is presented later. The present example provides a data structure and methods for deterministic seeded file content generation of seed-based files. A seeded file may include a seed value, a file length value indicating the length of the content to be generated, a delta offset value indicating an area within the generated content to begin inserting modified content, and a delta length indicating the length of the modified content. Content is generated by passing the seed value to a deterministic function that produces a reproducible set of generated data using the seed value. The modified data is produced by passing the corresponding value from the set of generated data to a second deterministic function to produce the modified value. The modified value replaces the corresponding value in the set of generated data. Many of the attendant features will be more readily appreciated as the same becomes better understood by reference to the following detailed description considered in connection with the accompanying drawings.	BACKGROUND The testing of network servers under load often requires the server to receive and store large amounts of test data in physical storage such as a hard drive. Clients creating the large amounts of test data must also create and store large amounts of data. Due to the finite amount of physical storage, each of the client and server may eventually run out of disk space and testing may not continue. SUMMARY The following presents a simplified summary of the disclosure in order to provide a basic understanding to the reader. This summary is not an extensive overview of the disclosure and it does not identify key/critical elements of the invention or delineate the scope of the invention. Its sole purpose is to present some concepts disclosed herein in a simplified form as a prelude to the more detailed description that is presented later. The present example provides a data structure and methods for deterministic seeded file content generation of seed-based files. A seeded file may include a seed value, a file length value indicating the length of the content to be generated, a delta offset value indicating an area within the generated content to begin inserting modified content, and a delta length indicating the length of the modified content. Content is generated by passing the seed value to a deterministic function that produces a reproducible set of generated data using the seed value. The modified data is produced by passing the corresponding value from the set of generated data to a second deterministic function to produce the modified value. The modified value replaces the corresponding value in the set of generated data. Many of the attendant features will be more readily appreciated as the same becomes better understood by reference to the following detailed description considered in connection with the accompanying drawings. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present description will be better understood from the following detailed description read in light of the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 shows an example of a computing device 100 for implementing one or more embodiments of deterministic file content generation. FIG. 2 shows a block diagram of an example system for testing network file replication. FIG. 3 shows an example of a seeded file signature. FIG. 4 shows an example seed file expansion method. Like reference numerals are used to designate like parts in the accompanying drawings. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The detailed description provided below in connection with the appended drawings is intended as a description of the present examples and is not intended to represent the only forms in which the present example may be constructed or utilized. The description sets forth the functions of the example and the sequence of steps for constructing and operating the example. However, the same or equivalent functions and sequences may be accomplished by different examples. Although the present examples are described and illustrated herein as being implemented in a deterministic file content generation system, the system described is provided as an example and not a limitation. As those skilled in the art will appreciate, the present examples are suitable for application in a variety of different types of deterministic file content generation systems. FIG. 1 and the following discussion are intended to provide a brief, general description of a suitable computing environment to implement embodiments of the invention. The operating environment of FIG. 1 is only one example of a suitable operating environment and is not intended to suggest any limitation as to the scope of use or functionality of the operating environment. Other well known computing devices, environments, and/or configurations that may be suitable for use with embodiments described herein include, but are not limited to, personal computers, server computers, hand-held or laptop devices, mobile devices (such as mobile phones, Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), media players, and the like), multiprocessor systems, consumer electronics, mini computers, mainframe computers, distributed computing environments that include any of the above systems or devices, and the like. Although not required, embodiments of the invention will be described in the general context of “computer readable instructions” being executed by one or more computing devices. Computer readable instructions may be distributed via computer readable media (discussed below). Computer readable instructions may be implemented as program modules, such as functions, objects, Application Programming Interfaces (APIs), data structures, and the like, that perform particular tasks or implement particular abstract data types. Typically, the functionality of the computer readable instructions may be combined or distributed as desired in various environments. FIG. 1 shows an example of a computing device 100 for implementing one or more embodiments of deterministic file content generation. In one configuration, computing device 100 includes at least one processing unit 102 and memory 104. Depending on the exact configuration and type of computing device, memory 104 may be volatile (such as RAM), non-volatile (such as ROM, flash memory, etc.) or some combination of the two. This configuration is illustrated in FIG. 1 by dashed line 106. In other embodiments, device 100 may include additional features and/or functionality. For example, device 100 may also include additional storage (e.g., removable and/or non-removable) including, but not limited to, magnetic storage, optical storage, and the like. Such additional storage is illustrated in FIG. 1 by storage 108. In one embodiment, computer readable instructions to implement embodiments of the invention may be stored in storage 108. Storage 108 may also store other computer readable instructions to implement an operating system, an application program, and the like. The term “computer readable media” as used herein includes computer storage media. Computer storage media includes volatile and nonvolatile, removable and non-removable media implemented in any method or technology for storage of information such as computer readable instructions or other data. Memory 104 and storage 108 are examples of computer storage media. Computer storage media includes, but is not limited to, RAM, ROM, EEPROM, flash memory or other memory technology, CD-ROM, Digital Versatile Disks (DVDs) or other optical storage, magnetic cassettes, magnetic tape, magnetic disk storage or other magnetic storage devices, or any other medium which can be used to store the desired information and which can be accessed by device 100. Any such computer storage media may be part of device 100. Device 100 may also include communication connection(s) 112 that allow device 100 to communicate with other devices. Communication connection(s) 112 may include, but is not limited to, a modem, a Network Interface Card (NIC), or other interfaces for connecting computing device 100 to other computing devices. Communication connection(s) 112 may include a wired connection or a wireless connection. Communication connection(s) 112 may transmit and/or receive communication media. Communication media typically embodies computer readable instructions or other data in a “modulated data signal” such as a carrier wave or other transport mechanism and includes any information delivery media. The term “computer readable media” may include communication media. The term “modulated data signal” means a signal that has one or more of its characteristics set or changed in such a manner as to encode information in the signal. By way of example, and not limitation, communication media includes wired media such as a wired network or direct-wired connection, and wireless media such as acoustic, radio frequency, infrared, and other wireless media. Device 100 may include input device(s) 114 such as keyboard, mouse, pen, voice input device, touch input device, infra-red cameras, video input devices, and/or any other input device. Output device(s) 116 such as one or more displays, speakers, printers, and/or any other output device may also be included in device 100. Input device(s) 114 and output device(s) 116 may be connected to device 100 via a wired connection, wireless connection, or any combination thereof. In one embodiment, an input device or an output device from another computing device may be used as input device(s) 114 or output device(s) 116 for computing device 100. Components of computing device 100 may be connected by various interconnects, such as a bus. Such interconnects may include a Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI), such as PCI Express, a Universal Serial Bus (USB), firewire (IEEE 1394), an optical bus structure, and the like. In another embodiment, components of computing device 100 may be interconnected by a network. For example, memory 104 may be comprised of multiple physical memory units located in different physical locations interconnected by a network. Those skilled in the art will realize that storage devices utilized to store computer readable instructions may be distributed across a network. For example, a computing device 130 accessible via network 120 may store computer readable instructions to implement one or more embodiments of the invention. Computing device 100 may access computing device 130 and download a part or all of the computer readable instructions for execution. Alternatively, computing device 100 may download pieces of the computer readable instructions, as needed, or some instructions may be executed at computing device 100 and some at computing device 130. Those skilled in the art will also realize that all or a portion of the computer readable instructions may be carried out by a dedicated circuit, such as a Digital Signal Processor (DSP), programmable logic array, and the like. Turning now to FIG. 2, FIG. 2 shows a block diagram of an example system for testing network usage load 200. A system for testing network usage load 200 typically includes a first client 202 communicatively coupled to a server 206, and second client 204 also communicatively coupled to a server 206. Note that the first client 202 and the second client 204 are also communicatively coupled by virtue of the common communicative coupling to server 206. The process of load testing a server system, such as the server 206, typically involves creating a predetermined demand on a server system and monitoring the functioning of the server system in response to the predetermined demand. For example, a load test may involve a large number of clients connecting to a server. Each client may send a large amount of information to the server for the server to process. The ability of the server to respond to the large number of clients and process large amounts of information may be measured to determine the performance of the server when deployed. If a load test is intended to test the response of a server to network traffic, it may not be necessary for any or all of the clients or the server to actually store the received network traffic. However, in order to verify that the data was received at the server correctly the server may store the network traffic to examine the received data. In this case, the received data must either be stored on disk, or stored in memory. In the case where file system access is to be a part of the load test, a system for testing network usage load 200 may be used to load test a server 206. In the system for testing network usage load 200, the first client 202 may include an example seeded file signature 208 that will be described more fully in the discussion of FIG. 3. The server 206, first client 202, and second client 204 also include an example seeded file expansion method 210 that will be described more fully in the discussion of FIG. 4. However, for the purposes of discussion, the seeded file signature 208 may be comprised of numerical data including a seed value, a file length, a delta start block, and a delta length. The seed file expansion method 210 is configured to expand the seeded file signature 208 to an expanded file. The contents of the expanded file are determined by passing the seed value to a function configured to deterministically generate random data using the seed value. The seed file expansion method 210 uses the file length included in the seed file signature 208 to determine the size of the expanded file. The contents of the expanded file are then appended to the seeded file signature to create the complete expanded file. In this way, the first client 202 may store the smaller seeded file signature 208, then expand the seeded file signature 208 to create a network stream representing the expanded file that may be comprised of the. The first client 202 may then send the stream representing the expanded file over the network connection to the server 206. The server 206 may then strip off the appended file contents and store only the seeded file signature 208 because the server 206 may reproduce the expanded file using the seed file expansion method 210. Additionally or alternatively, the server 206 may store the streamed expanded file on disk and/or in memory. The server 206 may then send a stream representing the expanded file to the second client 204, and the second client 204 may also strip off the appended file and store only the seeded file signature 208. Additionally or alternatively, the second client 204 may store the stream representing the expanded file. The delta start block and the delta length of the seeded file signature 208 provide a method for deterministically modifying an expanded file. The delta length may correspond to an offset in the expanded file and the delta length may correspond to the length of the section to be modified. The method for determining the content of the delta section will be discussed in more detail in the discussion of FIG. 4. Turning now to FIG. 3, FIG. 3 shows an example of a seeded file signature 208. The seeded file signature is illustrated as part of an expanded seeded file 314 including generated content 310 and modified content 312. The seed file signature 208 is a data structure comprised of four data fields. The first data field includes a seed value 302. The second data field includes a file length value 304. The third data field includes a delta region offset value 306. The fourth data field includes a delta region length value 308. In an exemplary implementation, each of the four data fields, 302, 304, 306, and 308 are stored in computer readable media as a file. Each of the four data fields 302, 304, 306, and 308 are 8 bytes in size for a total of 32 bytes. Alternatively, each of the four data fields 302, 304, 306, and 308 may be of any size and may be stored in any order. The seed value 302 may be any value and of any type. In an exemplary implementation, the seed value 302 is used to seed a pseudorandom number generating function to produce a series of random values to act as the generated content 310 for the expanded seeded file 314. To that end, the file length value 304 may also be of any value of any type. In an exemplary implementation, the file length value 304 acts to determine the number of iterations to run the pseudorandom number generating function, and thus determine the length of the generated content 310 for an expanded seeded file 314. In an alternative implementation, the file length value 304 acts to determine the size of the data set that will be generated by the pseudorandom number generating function. The delta region offset value 306 may be of any value and of any type. In an exemplary implementation, the delta region offset value 306 in an integer representing the address or offset into the generated content 310 of an expanded seeded file 314. Such a delta region offset value 306 indicates that a separate deterministic function is to be applied to the result of subsequent iterations of the pseudorandom number generating function to produce modified content 312 within the generated content 310. To that end, the delta region length value 306 may be of any value of any type. In an exemplary implementation, the delta region length value 306 acts to determine the number of iterations to run the separate deterministic function to determine modified content 312 for the expanded seeded file 314. Note that the delta region offset 306 may not be smaller than the data representing the beginning of the generated content 310. Accordingly, the length represented by summing the delta region offset value 306 and the delta region length value 308 may not exceed the file length 304. Turning now to FIG. 4, FIG. 4 shows an example seed file expansion method 210. Block 410 refers to an operation in which the signature is extracted from a seeded file. Such a signature may be implemented in accordance with the seeded file signature 208 (from FIG. 3). In an exemplary implementation, the signature includes a seed value, a file length, a delta region offset, and a delta region length. Block 415 refers to an operation in which a pseudorandom number generator is seeded with the seed value. Such a pseudorandom number generator may be implemented such that when seeded with the seed value the pseudorandom number generator produces a reproducible set of random numbers. In an alternative implementation, any seeded content generating function that accepts a seed value and deterministically produces a set of reproducible data may be used. Block 420 refers to an operation in which a counter is initialized at zero and iteratively runs for a number of times equivalent to the file length value. Block 425 refers to an operation in which it is determined whether or not the current value of the counter is greater than the delta region offset value. In response to a positive determination, it has been determined that the counter is in the delta region of the generated contents and flow continues to Block 435. In response to a negative determination, it has been determined that the counter is not in the delta region of the generated contents and flow continues to Block 430. Block 430 refers to an operation in which the current output of the pseudorandom number generator is appended to the generated content. If there are more iterations remaining in the counter, flow returns to Block 420. If there are no more iterations remaining in the counter, the generated content has been created and flow ends. Block 435 refers to an operation in which the current output of the pseudorandom number generator is passed to a deterministic integer function to produce a modified value. An example of a deterministic integer function may be a function that accepts an integer parameter and adds another predetermined value to it. It is to be appreciated, however, that any deterministic integer function may be used. Once calculated, the modified value is appended to the generated content. If there are more iterations remaining in the counter, flow returns to Block 420. If there are no more iterations remaining in the counter, the generated content has been created and flow ends.	G	G06	G06F	17	30
11870285	US20080072823A1-20080327	SELF ALIGNING NON CONTACT SHADOW RING PROCESS KIT	ACCEPTED	20080312	20080327		[]	C23C16458	["C23C16458"]	8342119	20071010	20130101	118	500000	66062.0	MACARTHUR	SYLVIA	[{"inventor_name_last": "Yudovsky", "inventor_name_first": "Joseph", "inventor_city": "Campbell", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Lei", "inventor_name_first": "Lawrence", "inventor_city": "Milpitas", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Umotoy", "inventor_name_first": "Salvador", "inventor_city": "Antioch", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Madar", "inventor_name_first": "Tom", "inventor_city": "Sunnyvale", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Dixit", "inventor_name_first": "Girish", "inventor_city": "San Jose", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Tzu", "inventor_name_first": "Gwo-Chuan", "inventor_city": "Sunnyvale", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]	The invention provides a removable first edge ring configured for pin and recess/slot coupling with a second edge ring disposed on the substrate support. In one embodiment, a first edge ring includes a plurality of pins, and a second edge ring includes one or more alignment recesses and one or more alignment slots for mating engagement with the pins. Each of the alignment recesses and alignment slots are at least as wide as the corresponding pins, and each of the alignment slots extends in the radial direction a length that is sufficient to compensate for the difference in thermal expansion between the first edge ring and the second edge ring.	1. An apparatus comprising: a) a substrate support; b) a first edge ring contacting the substrate support, the first edge ring having one or more tapered recesses; and c) a second edge ring adjacent to an edge of the substrate support and having one or more matching tapered pins for mating engagement with the one or more tapered recesses of the first edge ring. 2. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein the first edge ring has one or more slots disposed for mating engagement with the one or more tapered pins on the second edge ring. 3. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein the first edge ring is a purge ring. 4. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein the second edge ring is a shadow ring. 5. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein the first edge ring has one tapered recess and one diametrically positioned tapered slot, and wherein the second edge ring has two tapered pins diametrically positioned for mating engagement with the recess and the slot. 6. The apparatus of claim 3 wherein a purge gas channel is formed adjacent to the purge ring. 7. An apparatus for processing substrates, comprising: a) a chamber; b) a substrate support disposed in the chamber; c) a first edge ring contacting the substrate support, the first edge ring having one or more tapered recesses; and d) a second edge ring adjacent to an edge of the substrate support and having one or more matching tapered pins for mating engagement with the one or more tapered recesses of the first edge ring. 8. The apparatus of claim 7, further comprising: e) a chamber body ring disposed on an interior surface of the chamber, the chamber body ring having one or more recesses for supporting engagement with the second edge ring. 9. The apparatus of claim 7 wherein the first edge ring has one or more slots disposed for mating engagement with the one or more tapered pins on the second edge ring. 10. The apparatus of claim 7 wherein the first edge ring is a purge ring. 11. The apparatus of claim 7 wherein the second edge ring is a shadow ring. 12. The apparatus of claim 7 wherein the first edge ring has one tapered recess and one diametrically positioned tapered slot, and wherein the second edge ring has two tapered pins diametrically positioned for mating engagement with the recess and the slot. 13. The apparatus of claim 10 wherein a purge gas channel is formed adjacent to the purge ring. 14. The apparatus of claim 7 wherein the one or more recesses on the chamber body ring have tapered side surfaces. 15. A method for supporting a substrate in a chamber, comprising: a) positioning the substrate on a substrate support having a first edge ring contacting a surface of the substrate support, the first edge ring having one or more recesses; and b) positioning a second edge ring above the first edge ring and adjacent to an edge of the substrate support, wherein the second edge ring has one or more pins for mating engagement with the one or more recesses on the first edge ring. 16. The method of claim 15 wherein the first edge ring has one or more slots disposed for mating engagement with the one or more tapered pins on the second edge ring. 17. The method of claim 15 wherein the first edge ring is a purge ring. 18. The method of claim 15 wherein the second edge ring is a shadow ring. 19. The method of claim 15 wherein the first edge ring has one tapered recess and one diametrically positioned tapered slot, and wherein the second edge ring has two tapered pins diametrically positioned for mating engagement with the recess and the slot. 20. The method of claim 15, further comprising: c) flowing a purge gas around the substrate during substrate processing.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an improved susceptor which inhibits the deposition of process gasses on the edge and backside of a substrate, and which may be easily removed and cleaned. 2. Description of the Related Art Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is one of a number of processes used to deposit thin films of material on semiconductor substrates. To process substrates using CVD, a vacuum chamber is provided with a susceptor configured to receive a substrate. In a typical CVD chamber, the substrate is placed into and removed from the chamber by a robot blade and is supported by a substrate support during processing. A precursor gas is charged into the vacuum chamber through a gas manifold plate situated above the substrate, where the substrate is heated to process temperatures, generally in the range of about 250° to 650° C. The precursor gas reacts on the heated substrate surface to deposit a thin layer thereon and to form volatile byproduct gases, which are pumped away through the chamber exhaust system. A primary goal of substrate processing is to obtain the largest useful surface area, and as a result the greatest number of chips, possible from each substrate. This is highlighted by the recent demands from semiconductor chip manufacturers to minimize edge exclusion on the substrates processed, so that as little of the substrate surface as possible, including the edge of the wafer, is wasted. Some important factors to consider include processing variables that affect the uniformity and thickness of the layer deposited on the substrate, and contaminants that may attach to the substrate and render all or a portion of the substrate defective or useless. Both of these factors should be controlled to maximize the useful surface area for each substrate processed. One source of particle contamination in the chamber is material deposited at the edge or on the backside of the substrate that flakes off or peels off during a subsequent process. Substrate edges are typically beveled, making deposition difficult to control over these surfaces. Thus, deposition at substrate edges is typically nonuniform and, where metal is deposited, tends to adhere differently to a dielectric than to silicon. If a wafer's dielectric layer does not extend to the bevel, metal may be deposited on a silicon bevel and eventually chip or flake, generating unwanted particles in the chamber. Additionally, chemical mechanical polishing is often used to smooth the surface of a substrate coated with tungsten or other metals. The act of polishing may cause any deposits on the edge and backside surfaces to flake and generate unwanted particles. A number of approaches have been employed to control the deposition on the edge of the substrate during processing. One approach employs a shadow ring which essentially masks a portion of the perimeter of the substrate from the process gasses. One disadvantage with the shadow ring approach is that, by masking a portion of the substrate's perimeter, the shadow ring reduces the overall useful surface area of the substrate. This problem is made worse if the shadow ring is not accurately aligned with the substrate, and alignment can be difficult to achieve. Another approach employs a purge ring near the edge of the substrate for delivering a purge gas along the substrate's edge to prevent edge deposition. The purge gas limits or prevents the deposition gas from reaching the substrate and thus limits or prevents deposition on the wafer's beveled edge. A third approach uses a shutter ring and a purge ring in combination to form a purge gas chamber having a purge gas inlet and outlet adjacent the substrate's edge so as to guide the purge gas across the wafer's edge. A wafer typically sits inside (radially) the purge ring, with a gap therebetween. Conventionally, purge rings are made of aluminum and are welded to the substrate support in an effort to prevent the ring from deforming during processing. However, during the thermal cycling which occurs within a CVD processing chamber, the aluminum rings nonetheless deform, losing the integrity of their shape and therefore compromise their ability to keep particles from depositing on the substrate's edge. This can change the size of the gap, leading to non-uniformity of deposition across the wafer's edge. As the aluminum rings expand and contract, material thereon can flake, and create particles which can contaminate the wafer. Further, in order for the rings to work effectively for shadowing and/or for purging, they must be frequently cleaned to remove deposition material which can alter the gap or flake off and contaminate the wafer. Such cleaning increases chamber downtime, reduces throughput and results in higher operating costs. Accordingly a need exists for an improved susceptor which can reliably prevent edge deposition, and which can be easily cleaned.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one aspect, the present invention overcomes the problems of the prior art by providing a substrate support having a removable edge ring, which may be made of a material having a lower coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) than that of the substrate support. The edge ring may be a shadow ring, a purge ring, or function as both edge ring and shadow ring. The edge ring and the substrate support are configured for pin and slot coupling. In one aspect, either the edge ring or the substrate support includes a plurality of pins, and the other of the edge ring or the substrate support includes a plurality of alignment slots in which the pins may be inserted. Each of the slots is at least as wide as a corresponding one of the plurality of pins and extends in the radial direction. a length that is sufficient to compensate for the difference in thermal expansion between the substrate support and the edge ring. In another aspect, the invention provides a removable first edge ring positioned above the substrate support and configured for pin and slot coupling with a second edge ring attached to the substrate support. Preferably, either the first edge ring or the second edge ring includes a plurality of pins, and the other of the first edge ring or second edge ring includes one or more alignment recesses and one or more alignment slots. The pins are inserted into the alignment recesses and alignment slots to couple the two edge rings in alignment. Each of the alignment recesses and alignment slots are at least as wide as the corresponding one of the plurality of pins, and each of the alignment slots extends in the radial direction a length that is sufficient to compensate for the difference in thermal expansion between the first edge ring and the second edge ring. Other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become more fully apparent from the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments, the appended claims and the accompanying drawings.	CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/614,992, filed Jul. 7, 2003, which is a continuation of co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/459,313, filed Dec. 10, 1999. Each of the aforementioned related patent applications is herein incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an improved susceptor which inhibits the deposition of process gasses on the edge and backside of a substrate, and which may be easily removed and cleaned. 2. Description of the Related Art Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is one of a number of processes used to deposit thin films of material on semiconductor substrates. To process substrates using CVD, a vacuum chamber is provided with a susceptor configured to receive a substrate. In a typical CVD chamber, the substrate is placed into and removed from the chamber by a robot blade and is supported by a substrate support during processing. A precursor gas is charged into the vacuum chamber through a gas manifold plate situated above the substrate, where the substrate is heated to process temperatures, generally in the range of about 250° to 650° C. The precursor gas reacts on the heated substrate surface to deposit a thin layer thereon and to form volatile byproduct gases, which are pumped away through the chamber exhaust system. A primary goal of substrate processing is to obtain the largest useful surface area, and as a result the greatest number of chips, possible from each substrate. This is highlighted by the recent demands from semiconductor chip manufacturers to minimize edge exclusion on the substrates processed, so that as little of the substrate surface as possible, including the edge of the wafer, is wasted. Some important factors to consider include processing variables that affect the uniformity and thickness of the layer deposited on the substrate, and contaminants that may attach to the substrate and render all or a portion of the substrate defective or useless. Both of these factors should be controlled to maximize the useful surface area for each substrate processed. One source of particle contamination in the chamber is material deposited at the edge or on the backside of the substrate that flakes off or peels off during a subsequent process. Substrate edges are typically beveled, making deposition difficult to control over these surfaces. Thus, deposition at substrate edges is typically nonuniform and, where metal is deposited, tends to adhere differently to a dielectric than to silicon. If a wafer's dielectric layer does not extend to the bevel, metal may be deposited on a silicon bevel and eventually chip or flake, generating unwanted particles in the chamber. Additionally, chemical mechanical polishing is often used to smooth the surface of a substrate coated with tungsten or other metals. The act of polishing may cause any deposits on the edge and backside surfaces to flake and generate unwanted particles. A number of approaches have been employed to control the deposition on the edge of the substrate during processing. One approach employs a shadow ring which essentially masks a portion of the perimeter of the substrate from the process gasses. One disadvantage with the shadow ring approach is that, by masking a portion of the substrate's perimeter, the shadow ring reduces the overall useful surface area of the substrate. This problem is made worse if the shadow ring is not accurately aligned with the substrate, and alignment can be difficult to achieve. Another approach employs a purge ring near the edge of the substrate for delivering a purge gas along the substrate's edge to prevent edge deposition. The purge gas limits or prevents the deposition gas from reaching the substrate and thus limits or prevents deposition on the wafer's beveled edge. A third approach uses a shutter ring and a purge ring in combination to form a purge gas chamber having a purge gas inlet and outlet adjacent the substrate's edge so as to guide the purge gas across the wafer's edge. A wafer typically sits inside (radially) the purge ring, with a gap therebetween. Conventionally, purge rings are made of aluminum and are welded to the substrate support in an effort to prevent the ring from deforming during processing. However, during the thermal cycling which occurs within a CVD processing chamber, the aluminum rings nonetheless deform, losing the integrity of their shape and therefore compromise their ability to keep particles from depositing on the substrate's edge. This can change the size of the gap, leading to non-uniformity of deposition across the wafer's edge. As the aluminum rings expand and contract, material thereon can flake, and create particles which can contaminate the wafer. Further, in order for the rings to work effectively for shadowing and/or for purging, they must be frequently cleaned to remove deposition material which can alter the gap or flake off and contaminate the wafer. Such cleaning increases chamber downtime, reduces throughput and results in higher operating costs. Accordingly a need exists for an improved susceptor which can reliably prevent edge deposition, and which can be easily cleaned. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one aspect, the present invention overcomes the problems of the prior art by providing a substrate support having a removable edge ring, which may be made of a material having a lower coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) than that of the substrate support. The edge ring may be a shadow ring, a purge ring, or function as both edge ring and shadow ring. The edge ring and the substrate support are configured for pin and slot coupling. In one aspect, either the edge ring or the substrate support includes a plurality of pins, and the other of the edge ring or the substrate support includes a plurality of alignment slots in which the pins may be inserted. Each of the slots is at least as wide as a corresponding one of the plurality of pins and extends in the radial direction. a length that is sufficient to compensate for the difference in thermal expansion between the substrate support and the edge ring. In another aspect, the invention provides a removable first edge ring positioned above the substrate support and configured for pin and slot coupling with a second edge ring attached to the substrate support. Preferably, either the first edge ring or the second edge ring includes a plurality of pins, and the other of the first edge ring or second edge ring includes one or more alignment recesses and one or more alignment slots. The pins are inserted into the alignment recesses and alignment slots to couple the two edge rings in alignment. Each of the alignment recesses and alignment slots are at least as wide as the corresponding one of the plurality of pins, and each of the alignment slots extends in the radial direction a length that is sufficient to compensate for the difference in thermal expansion between the first edge ring and the second edge ring. Other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become more fully apparent from the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments, the appended claims and the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS So that the manner in which the above recited features of the present invention can be understood in detail, a more particular description of the invention, briefly summarized above, may be had by reference to embodiments, some of which are illustrated in the appended drawings. It is to be noted, however, that the appended drawings illustrate only typical embodiments of this invention and are therefore not to be considered limiting of its scope, for the invention may admit to other equally effective embodiments. FIG. 1 is an exploded perspective view of a susceptor of the invention; FIG. 2 is a side view, in pertinent part, of a susceptor of the invention; FIG. 3 is a side view, in pertinent part, of a susceptor of the invention; FIG. 4 is a side view in pertinent part of a susceptor of the invention; FIGS. 5A and 5B are side views in pertinent part of a susceptor of the invention; FIG. 6 is a side view in pertinent part of a susceptor of the invention; FIG. 7 is a side view of a chamber showing a susceptor of the invention in a non-processing position. FIG. 8 is a top view of a shadow ring of the invention; FIG. 9 is a top view of a shadow ring supported on a chamber body ring of the invention; FIG. 10 is a side view of a chamber showing a susceptor of the invention in a processing position; and FIG. 11 is a side view of a chamber showing a susceptor of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT FIG. 1 is an exploded perspective view of a susceptor 11a. The susceptor 11 a comprises a substrate support 13, adapted for pin and slot coupling with an edge ring, such as purge ring 15. Specifically, the substrate support 13 comprises three pins 19a-c which extend upwardly from the top surface of substrate support 13. The bottom surface of the purge ring 15 comprises three alignment slots 17a-c positioned to interface with the three pins 19a-c. The substrate support 13 comprises a central wafer supporting surface 13a, and the three pins 19a-c are disposed substantially equally spaced around the substrate supporting surface 13a. Each of the slots 17a-c is at least as wide as the corresponding pin 19a-c, and extends radially outward from the center of the substrate supporting surface 13a, in the direction in which the substrate support 13 expands and contracts during thermal cycling. The substrate support 13 is preferably made of a metal such as aluminum, as is conventional. The purge ring 15 is generally made of a material having a lower coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) than the CTE of the substrate support 13 material. Preferably the purge ring 15 is made of a ceramic material. The slots 17a-c extend a length which is sufficient to compensate for the difference in thermal expansion between the substrate support 13 and the purge ring 15, over the range of process temperatures to which the susceptor 11a is exposed. This difference in thermal expansion may be due to the different CTE of the purge ring 15 material and the substrate support 13 material. Preferably each pin 19a-c is surrounded by a pad 21 made of a thermally insulating material, so as to achieve thermal insulation between the substrate support 13 and the purge ring 15, as further described below with reference to FIG. 2. The pads 21 are preferably made of a highly polished ceramic and therefore allow the purge ring 15 to slide easily therealong while minimizing particle generation. The purge ring 15 may further include a plurality of wafer guide pins 23 to facilitate accurate wafer placement, as is disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/103,462 filed Jun. 24, 1998 (incorporated herein in its entirety). FIG. 2 is a side view, in pertinent part, of a susceptor 11a, having a wafer W positioned thereon. As shown in FIG. 2 the substrate support 13, the purge ring 15 and the slots 17a-c are configured such that with use of the pad 21, no direct contact exists between the substrate support 13 and the purge ring 15. By thermally insulating the purge ring 15 from the metal substrate support 13, the purge ring 15 experiences less thermal stress then would otherwise result if the purge ring 15 were to directly contact the typically higher temperature substrate support 13. Also as shown in FIG. 2, the slot 17a has a depth greater than the length of the pin 19a to reduce thermal conduction from the substrate support 13 to the purge ring 15, via the pin 19a. The slots 17a-c extend radially outward relative to the center of the substrate support 13 and preferably are each just slightly wider than the respective pin 19a-c. This prevents the purge ring 15 movement laterally relative to the substrate support occuring as a result of thermal cycling induced expansion and contraction from being more than the maximum distance allowing clearance between the slot 17a and the pin 19a pair. The pins 19a-c also restrict rotational movement of the purge ring 15 relative to the substrate support 13, thereby providing rotational alignment. The substrate support 13 comprises a purge gas delivery channel 25 and a diffuser ring 13b which couples purge gas from the purge gas delivery channel 25 through a purge gas distribution channel 27 defined by an inner edge of the diffuser ring 13b and an outer edge of the substrate support 13, and then through a plurality of small orifices O formed in the diffuser ring 13b to a lower edge of the purge ring 15. In operation the wafer W is positioned on the wafer supporting surface 13a such that the edge of the wafer W is positioned adjacent the outlet of the purge slot 29. In this manner as purge gas flows upwardly through the purge slot 29 along the edge of the wafer W, deposition on the wafer's edge is prevented. During a deposition process, the susceptor 11a is typically heated to a temperature in the range of 350° to 475° C., typically by a heating coil embedded in or contacted with the underside of, the susceptor 11a. However, for chamber maintenance or cleaning, the susceptor 11a is typically allowed to cool back to ambient temperatures. This temperature change causes thermal expansion and contraction of the chamber elements, including the substrate support 13 and the purge ring 15. Despite thermal cycling which occurs during CVD processing, and the resulting expansion and contraction of the substrate support 13 and the diffuser ring 13b, thermally induced stresses are not imposed upon the purge ring 15, as it (and the pins 19a-c supporting it) can move radially as the temperature changes, due to the pin 19a-c and slot 17a-c coupling. Any thermally induced expansion of the gap between the purge ring 15 and the wafer W is insignificant. Accordingly edge deposition is more uniformly and reliably prevented. Moreover, the purge ring 15 may be easily lifted off the pins 19a-c for routine cleaning or replacement. Accordingly downtime is minimized. FIG. 3 is a side view, in pertinent part, of a susceptor 11b. The inventive susceptor 11b of FIG. 3 is similar to the susceptor 11a of FIG. 2, except the substrate support 13 of FIG. 2 does not comprise the diffuser ring 13b. Instead, the purge gas delivery channel 25 delivers purge gas to a purge gas distribution channel 27 which is defined by an inner edge of the purge ring 15 and an outer edge of the substrate support 13, as is the more narrowly defined purge gas slot 29. The embodiment of FIG. 3 requires fewer parts, and replaces the orifices O (of FIG. 1) with a restrictor gap R. The restrictor gap R is formed by a horizontal notch in the substrate support 13 and a corresponding horizontal protrusion in the purge ring 15. The size of the restrictor gap R is determined by the respective vertical dimensions of the substrate support 13 and the purge ring 15 to the horizontal notch or protrusion, and by the thickness of the pad 21. The embodiment of FIG. 3 reduces clogging because the restrictor gap R which expands radially around the substrate support 13 in a continuum is less likely to clog than are the plurality of orifices. By reducing the number of parts, the FIG. 3 embodiment also reduces the probability of differential expansion therebetween and the resultant particle generation. Note that, like the FIGS. 1 and 2 embodiment, the purge ring 15 rests on the insulator pads 21 and is aligned by the pins 19. FIG. 4 is a side view, in pertinent part, of a susceptor 11c. As shown in FIG. 4, the purge ring 15 of the inventive susceptor 11c has a plurality of pins 19 (only one shown) which extend downward from the bottom surface of the purge ring 15. The pins 19 are pressed into the purge ring 15 and the pads 21 are secured to the pins 19 in the same manner, or maybe integral to the pins 19. In operation, each pin 19 is inserted within a corresponding slot 17 located on the substrate support 13. In this example the slots 17 are formed in the diffuser ring portion 13b of the substrate support 13. Thus, FIG. 4 shows that the positions of the pins 19 and the slots 17 may be switched, and still achieve the advantages of pin and slot coupling. FIGS. 5A and 5B are side views, in pertinent part, of a susceptor 11d. The purge ring 15a of FIGS. 5A and 5B is configured such that the inner edge 15a overhangs the edge of the wafer W. Thus, the purge ring 15a functions as both a purge ring 15a and a shadow ring 4 (overhanging or shadowing the wafer's edge). The pin and slot coupling of FIGS. 5A and 5B allows the substrate support 13 to expand and contract without affecting the shape or position of the purge ring 15a, as described above with reference to FIGS. 2 and 3. FIG. 5A shows the purge ring 15a in a process position, and FIG. 5B shows the purge ring 15a in a wafer W transfer position. Because shadow rings 4 overlap the wafer's edge, they are conventionally supported in a wafer W transfer position above the substrate support 13 (e.g., by a hanger or lip which protrudes from the chamber wall) while a wafer W is placed on or extracted from the substrate support 13. After a wafer W is placed on the substrate support 13, the substrate support 13 elevates and engages the bottom of the shadow ring 4, transferring the shadow ring 4 from the lip to the substrate support 13 as further described below. Conventional substrate supports 13, whether to be used with a purge ring 15 and/or shadow ring 4, are initially lowered to a wafer W transfer position. A wafer handler then carries a wafer W into position above the substrate support 13 and the lift pins (not shown) lift the wafer W off the wafer handler. Thereafter, the wafer handler retracts, and the substrate support 13 is further elevated to engage the shadow ring 4. FIG. 6 is a side view in pertinent part of a susceptor 11e. The inventive susceptor 11e is configured to facilitate access to the purge gas distribution channel 25 for cleaning. Specifically, the surface of the substrate support 13 in which the pin 19 (or in an alternative embodiment, the slot 17) is located, is below the outlet of the purge gas distribution channel 25. Thus, when the purge ring 15 and/or shadow ring 4 is removed from the substrate support 13, the gas distribution channel's outlet is exposed. To further facilitate cleaning, the purge gas distribution channel 25 may be angled upwardly (preferably between 0° and 30°), as shown in FIG. 6. FIG. 7 is a side view of a chamber showing a susceptor 11f of the invention in a lowered non-processing position. The susceptor 11f comprises a removable first edge ring, such as a shadow ring 4, supported by a chamber body ring 200 disposed on the internal surface 102 of the processing chamber body 100 above the substrate support 13 and a second ring, such as a purge ring 15, disposed on the substrate support 13. The purge ring 15 may be attached to the substrate support 13 as described above relating to FIGS. 1-6. The substrate support may be made of various materials, such as aluminum and ceramic, and may include a heating element, such as a resistive heating coil. The shadow ring 4 comprises a plurality of tapered or frustoconically shaped pins 19 (two shown), equally spaced around the perimeter of the shadow ring 4 and extending downwardly therefrom. The purge ring 15 includes at least one tapered or frustoconically shaped alignment recess 5 and at least one tapered or frustoconically shaped alignment slot 6 formed therein. Although the invention is shown and described with a shadow ring having pins thereon and a purge ring having recess/slot thereon, it is understood that invention contemplates embodiments wherein the pin and recess/slot coupling may be disposed on either the shadow ring or the purge ring. The invention also contemplates embodiments wherein either the pins or the recesses/slots include tapered surfaces. The pins 19 are positioned to interface with the alignment recess 5 and the alignment slot 6. The alignment recess 5 and the alignment slot 6 are at least as wide as a corresponding one of the plurality of pins 19. In one aspect, the width is defined as the dimension perpendicular to the radial direction, relative to the center of the purge ring 15. Referring to FIG. 8, which is a top view of a purge ring 15 of the invention showing the alignment recess 5 and the alignment slot 6, line 800 represents the radial direction relative to the center of the purge ring 15, and line 802 represents the direction perpendicular to the radial direction relative to the center of the purge ring 15. The width of the alignment slot 6, being the dimension perpendicular to the radial direction relative to the center of the purge ring 15, is shown by segment 804. The radial dimension of the alignment slot 6 is shown by segment 806. The alignment slot 6 extends in a radial direction, relative to the center of the purge ring 15, a length that is sufficient to compensate for any difference in thermal expansion between the purge ring 15 and the shadow ring 4. The radial dimension (i.e., length) of the alignment slot 6 is up to about sixty mils greater, preferably up to about forty mils greater, than the radial dimension of the corresponding pin 19. The width of the alignment recess 5 and alignment slot 6 is between about three mils and about ten mils wider, preferably between about three mils and about eight mils wider, than the width of the corresponding pin 19. The coupling of the pins 19 with the alignment recess 5 and the alignment slot 6 restricts movement of the shadow ring 4 caused by thermal cycling induced expansion and contraction or other causes to less than the length of the alignment slot 6. The pins 19 also restrict rotational movement of the shadow ring 4 relative to the purge ring 15, thereby providing rotational alignment. The pins 19 as shown in FIG. 7 preferably have a frustoconical shape, tapering from a base portion to a top portion. The alignment recess 5 and the alignment slot 6 have matching tapering sidewalls forming a wider opening portion and a narrower bottom portion for receiving the tapered pins 19. This configuration allows for and corrects gross misalignment between the two rings because the narrower tip portion of the pins 19 can be inserted into the wider opening portion of the recess 5 and slot 6 with a greater margin of misalignment. Thus, with frustroconically shaped or tapered pins 19 instead of non-tapering (i.e., cylindrical) pins, recess 5, and slot 6, misalignment of the shadow ring 4 with the purge ring 15, due to thermal expansion or other causes can be corrected when the pins 19 are inserted into the recess 5 and slot 6 when the rings come together. As the pins 19 are inserted into the recess 5 and slot 6, misalignment between the shadow ring and the purge ring is corrected as the surface of the pin 19 slides along the surface defined by the recess 5 or slot 6. The two rings are aligned as the pins 19 are fully inserted into the recess 5 and slot 6. The pin 19 and recess 5/slot 6 coupling allows the shadow ring 4 to move with respect to the purge ring 15 due to different thermal expansions between the two rings without imposing stresses on either ring that could cause ring deformation, flaking or breakage of any of the components. The shadow ring 4 remains in pivotal alignment to the purge ring 15 at the location of the pin 19 and recess 5 coupling, while the pin 19 and slot 6 coupling allows the shadow ring to move slightly (i.e., restricted by the length of the slot 6) relative to each other due to different thermal expansions between the two rings. The invention provides consistent alignment of the shadow ring 4 with the purge ring 15 and the substrate. Moreover, the shadow ring 4 may be easily removed for cleaning or replacement. Down time is thereby minimized. FIG. 9 is a top view of a shadow ring 4 supported on a chamber body ring 200. A chamber body ring 200 is secured to the internal surface 102 of the chamber body 100. The chamber body ring 200 includes a plurality of recesses 202 formed in the upper portion of the internal surface 220 of the chamber body ring 200. The shadow ring 4 includes a plurality of projections 10 configured to rest on the surface of the chamber body ring 200 defined by the recesses 202. Preferably, four projections 10 are spaced equally along the perimeter of the shadow ring 4. When not coupled to the purge ring 15, the shadow ring 4 may be supported by the chamber body ring 200 via the projections 10 resting on the surface of the recesses 202. The recesses 202 are sized to allow for thermal expansion of the shadow ring 4, and yet keep the shadow ring 4 sufficiently aligned with the purge ring 15 so that the pins 19 stay within the capture range of the recess 5 and slot 6. The sidewall surfaces of the recess 202 may also be tapered to urge a shadow ring 4 into the desired aligned position on the chamber body ring 200. FIG. 10 is a side view of a chamber showing a susceptor 11f in a processing position. As shown, the purge ring 15 attached to the substrate support 13 contacts and lifts the shadow ring 4. The pins 19 of the shadow ring 4 are inserted into the recess 5 and slot 6 of the purge ring 15. The shadow ring 4 is thereby lifted off the chamber body ring 200, so that the projections 10 of the shadow ring 4 are lifted off the internal surface 220 of the chamber body ring 200 defined by the recesses 202. In this configuration, the shadow ring 4 is positioned about 3 to 5 millimeters above a wafer W and overhangs a portion of the perimeter, or edge, of the wafer W, preventing deposition thereon during CVD processing. In operation, the substrate support 13 is initially lowered to a wafer transfer position, as shown in FIG. 7. A wafer handler comprising a robot blade then carries a wafer into position above the substrate support 13. Lift pins (not shown) lift the wafer W off the robot blade, and the robot blade retracts. The substrate support 13 is elevated to position the substrate thereon, and then the substrate support 13 further elevates so that the purge ring 15 attached thereto lifts the shadow ring 4 off the chamber body ring 200, as shown in FIG. 10. As the purge ring 15 engages the shadow ring 4, the pins 19 are inserted into the alignment recess 5 and alignment slot 6. The tapered surfaces of the pins 19 slides along the tapered surfaces of the alignment recess 5 and alignment slot 6, urging the shadow ring 4 into desired alignment with the purge ring 15. FIG. 11 is a side view of a chamber showing a susceptor 11g in a non-processing configuration. In this aspect of the invention, the substrate support 13 includes a ceramic susceptor and a ceramic purge ring 15 disposed thereon. The purge ring 15 and the shadow ring 4 include the pin and slot/recess coupling of the invention as described above. As is apparent from the above description, a chamber such as the chamber described in commonly assigned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/103,462, filed Jun. 24, 1998 (incorporated in its entirety ), when employing the inventive susceptor of FIGS. 1 through 5, provides superior edge deposition prevention and increased throughput as compared to conventional deposition chambers (CVD, PVD, etc.). The foregoing description discloses only the preferred embodiments of the invention, modifications of the above disclosed apparatus and method which fall within the scope of the invention will be readily apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art. For instance, the inventive susceptor comprises pin and slot coupling between any type of edge ring (purge ring and/or shadow ring), whether the pins are located on the substrate support or the ring. Although each of the figures shows the use of thermally insulating pads these pads are optional. Further, it will be understood that a heating element may be included in the susceptor, as is conventionally known. Also as conventionally known, each of the purge gas delivery channels 25 of the various embodiments of the invention preferably open into a purge gas distribution channel 27 which also extends somewhat below the opening of the purge gas delivery channel 25 (as shown in each of the figures), so as to create a buffer channel which ensures more even distribution of the purge gas to the purge slots 29. The terms pin and slot are to be broadly interpreted to include shapes other than straight pins and slots 6 (e.g., rectangular keys, etc.). Further, purge ring or purge ring/shadow ring can be advantageously removably coupled to a substrate support, by mechanisms other than pin and slot coupling. Any removably coupled purge ring will benefit from the exposed outlet of the purge gas delivery channel and the upwardly angled purge gas delivery channel. Similarly a susceptor whether or not having a removably coupled purge ring, can benefit from the definition of a purge gas distribution channel having a restrictor gap between the substrate support and the purge ring. Thus, these aspects of the invention should not be respectively limited to pin and slot coupling or to removably coupled purge rings. While the present invention has been disclosed in connection with the preferred embodiments thereof, it should be understood that other embodiments may fall within the spirit and scope of the invention, as defined by the following claims.	C	C23	C23C	164	58
11762375	US20070295055A1-20071227	RHEOMETER TORQUE CALIBRATION FIXTURE	ACCEPTED	20071212	20071227		[]	G01N1114	["G01N1114", "G01L500", "G01L2500", "G01M110"]	7526941	20070613	20090505	73	001020	77009.0	BELLAMY	TAMIKO	[{"inventor_name_last": "Doe", "inventor_name_first": "Nigel", "inventor_city": "Horsham", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "GB"}]	A method of calibrating the torque outputs of a rheometer by using a calibrating object with a certified moment of inertia, measuring the moment of inertia of the calibrating object using the rheometer, and calculating the torque adjustment factor by dividing the certified moment of inertia value by the measured moment of inertia value. The torque adjustment factor is applied to correct subsequent measurements of rheological properties conducted using the rheometer. The torque adjustment factor may be double-checked for reproducibility by measuring the moment of inertia of the calibrating object, correcting it with the torque adjustment factor, and comparing it with its certified moment of inertia value.	1. A method of calibrating a rheometer comprising: obtaining a calibrating object with a certified moment of inertia calibrated by traceable means; recording the certified moment of inertia of the calibrating object; measuring a moment of inertia of the rheometer; recording the moment of inertia of the rheometer; fitting the calibrating object to one end of a drive shaft of the rheometer; measuring a total moment of inertia of the rheometer with the calibrating object fitted to the drive shaft; recording the total moment of inertia of the rheometer with the calibrating object fitted to the drive shaft; calculating a moment of inertia of the calibrating object by subtracting the moment of inertia of the rheometer from the total moment of inertia of the rheometer with the calibrating object fitted to the drive shaft; recording the moment of inertia of the calibrating object; calculating a torque adjustment factor by dividing the certified moment of inertia of the calibrating object by the moment of inertia of the first calibrating object; recording the torque adjustment factor; applying the torque adjustment factor to subsequent rheological values measured using the rheometer. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising cleaning the calibrating object and checking that the calibrating object is undamaged before fitting the calibrating object to the shaft. 3. The method of claim 1, further comprising inputting the calibrated moment of inertia of the calibrating object into an input device of a computer system. 4. The method of claim 1, further comprising displaying the torque adjustment factor in a display device of a computer system. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the ratio of the moment of inertia of the calibrating object to the moment of inertia of the rheometer is at least ten to one. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the calibrating object is a metal object. 7. The method of claim 7, wherein the metal object is a metal disk or cylinder. 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the metal object is a stainless steel disk or cylinder. 9. The method of claim 9, wherein the stainless steel disk has a diameter of about 70 to 100 mm and a thickness of about 8 to 12 mm. 10. The method of claim 1, further comprising repeating the method of calibrating the rheometer by using calibrating objects with moments of inertia in different ranges. 11. The method of 10, further comprising obtaining multiple torque adjustment factors for different moment of inertia ranges, selecting an appropriate torque adjustment factor from the multiple torque adjustment factors, and applying the torque adjustment factor to subsequent rheological values measured using the rheometer. 12. The method of claim 1, further comprising double-checking the reproducibility of the torque adjustment factor. 13. A method of calibrating a rheometer comprising: measuring a moment of inertia of the rheometer; fitting a calibrating object with a certified moment of inertia calibrated by traceable means to one end of a drive shaft of the rheometer; measuring a total moment of inertia of the rheometer with the calibrating object fitted to the drive shaft; calculating a moment of inertia of the calibrating object by subtracting the moment of inertia of the rheometer from the total moment of inertia of the rheometer with the calibrating object fitted to the drive shaft; calculating a torque adjustment factor by dividing the certified moment of inertia of the calibrating object by the moment of inertia of the calibrating object; and applying the torque adjustment factor to subsequent rheological values measured using the rheometer. 14. The method of claim 13, further comprising after applying the torque adjustment factor to subsequent rheological values measured using the rheometer, measuring the moment of inertia of the calibrating object, including applying the torque adjustment factor to the moment of inertia of the calibrating object; and comparing the measured moment of inertia of the calibrating object to the certified moment of inertia of the calibrating object. 15. The method of claim 14, further comprising cleaning the calibrating object and checking that the calibrating object is undamaged before measuring the moment of inertia of the calibrating object. 16. The method of claim 14, further comprising calculating a percentage error between the measured moment of inertia of the calibrating object and the certified moment of inertia of the calibrating object. 17. The method of claim 15, wherein the dimensions and shape of the calibrating object are selected so that the percentage error is less than one percent. 18. The method of claim 13, further comprising cleaning the calibrating object and checking that the calibrating object is undamaged before fitting the calibrating object to the shaft. 19. The method of claim 13, further comprising inserting the calibrated moment of inertia of the calibrating object to an input device of a computer system. 20. The method of claim 13, further comprising displaying the torque adjustment factor in a display device of a computer system. 21. The method of claim 13, wherein the ratio of the moment of inertia of the calibrating object to the moment of inertia of the rheometer is at least ten to one. 22. The method of claim 13, wherein the calibrating object is a metal object. 23. The method of claim 22, wherein the metal object is a metal disk or cylinder. 24. The method of claim 22, wherein the metal object is a stainless steel disk or cylinder. 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the stainless steel disk has a diameter of about 70 to 100 mm and a thickness of about 8 to 12 mm. 26. The method of claim 13, further comprising repeating the method of calibrating the rheometer by using calibrating objects with moments of inertia in different ranges. 27. The method of claim 26, further comprising obtaining multiple torque adjustment factors for different moment of inertia ranges, selecting an appropriate torque adjustment factor from the multiple torque adjustment factors, and applying the torque adjustment factor to subsequent rheological values measured using the rheometer. 28. A rheometer, comprising: a drive shaft; a drag cup motor to rotate the drive shaft; means for measuring the torque applied to the drive shaft; a calibrating object with a certified moment of inertia calibrated by traceable means attached to one end of the drive shaft; means for measuring the angular acceleration or the angular displacement of the drive shaft and the calibrating object; and means for calculating the moment of inertia of the rheometer and the calibrating object. 29. The rheometer of claim 28, wherein the calibrating object is a metal object. 30. The rheometer of claim 29, wherein the metal object is a metal disk or cylinder. 31. The rheometer of claim 28, wherein the metal object is a stainless steel disk or cylinder. 32. The rheometer of claim 31, wherein the stainless steel disk has a diameter of about 75 to 100 mm and a thickness of about 8 to 12 mm. 33. The rheometer of claim 28, further comprising a computer system. 34. The rheometer of claim 33, wherein the computer system comprises an input device. 35. The rheometer of claim 34, wherein the computer system comprises a displaying device. 36. An apparatus comprising: a drive shaft; a calibrating object with a certified moment of inertia calibrated by traceable means attached to one end of the drive shaft; a drag cup motor to apply torque to the drive shaft; means for measuring the torque applied to the drive shaft; an optical encoder capable of measuring the angular displacement or the angular acceleration of the calibrating object; and a computer system comprising an algorithm for calculating the moment of inertia of the calibrating object. 37. The apparatus of claim 36, wherein the calibrating object is a metal object. 38. The apparatus of claim 37, wherein the metal object is a metal disk or cylinder. 39. The apparatus of claim 37, wherein the metal object is a stainless steel disk or cylinder. 40. The apparatus of claim 39, wherein the stainless steel disk has a diameter of about 75 to 100 mm and a thickness of about 8 to 12 mm. 41. The apparatus of claim 36, wherein the computer system further comprises a displaying device capable of displaying values of rheological properties measured by the rheometer. 42. The apparatus of claim 36, wherein the computer system further comprises an input device for users to insert data.	<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to the calibration of rheometers, which are used to characterize materials by measuring the materials' viscosity, elasticity, shear thinning, yield stress, compliance and/or other material properties. More particularly, the invention relates to calibrating the torque output of a rheometer. 2. Background of the Invention Rheometers, viscometers or viscosimeters are typically used to measure fluid or other properties of materials, such as their viscosity, compliance, and modulus, by rotating, deflecting or oscillating a measuring geometry in a material, either by applying a torque and measuring the resultant velocity or displacement, or by applying a velocity or displacement and measuring the resultant torque. The torque and velocity/displacement are used in conjunction with measuring geometry factors to determine the properties of the material. As used herein, the term “rheometer” shall mean rheometers, viscometers, viscosimeters and similar instruments that are used to measure the properties of fluid or similar (see list below) materials. The term “measuring object” shall mean an object having any one of several geometries, including, for example, cones, discs, vanes, parallel plates, concentric cylinders and double concentric cylinders. The “materials” may be liquids, oils, dispersions, suspensions, emulsions, adhesives, biological fluids such as blood, polymers, gels, pastes, slurries, melts, resins, powders or mixtures thereof. Such materials shall all be referred to generically as “fluids” herein. More specific examples of materials include asphalt, chocolate, drilling mud, lubricants, oils, greases, photoresists, liquid cements, elastomers, thermoplastics, thermosets and coatings. As is known to one of ordinary skill in the art, many different geometries may be used for the measuring object in addition to the cylinders, cones, vanes and plates listed above. The measuring objects may be made of; for example, stainless steel, anodized aluminum or titanium. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,777,212 to Sekiguchi et al., 4,878,377 to Abel and 4,630,468 to Sweet describe various configurations, constructions and applications of rheometers. The term “calibration” refers to the process of standardizing the rheometer by determining the deviation from an established standard so as to ascertain the proper correction factors for subsequent measurements. Calibration of measuring instruments is vitally important to maintaining the constancy and integrity of the measurements. As known to one of ordinary skill in the art, calibration should be performed whenever possible and to a traceable standard. For rheometers, calibration can be performed to correct measurements of temperature, velocity, displacement, geometry dimensions, and torque, but the present invention is related particularly to the calibration of the torque. The calibration of the torque measurements determines the accuracy and precision of calculated rheological parameters including viscosity, storage modulus, and loss modulus, which are all critically sensitive to the torque value. Common methods of calibrating viscometers use calibration liquids with known viscosities to correct the measured torque outputs. U.S. Pat. No. 5,509,297 describes a calibration method that plots the viscosity against the measured torque over the range of expected viscosity of the test sample at a specified rotor speed to convert the measured torque into the true viscosity. Another method uses rotating spindles of various sizes depending on the expected viscosity range of the test sample, while taking into account the spindle size in calculating the corrected property value. Calibration methods that use various liquids to correct the viscosity measurements can be significantly and easily influenced by temperature, velocity/displacement, geometry, dimensions, as well as torque in addition to being acutely susceptible to filling errors and contamination. Other calibration approaches use weights of traceable mass together with either lines and pulleys or strain gauges to calibrate the torque values of rheometers. One proposal to the American Standard of Testing Materials (“ASTM”) for developing a standard for calibration or conformance demonstration for rheometers for the measurement of torque employs a variant form of the line and pulley technique. FIG. 1 is a schematic perspective view of a rotary rheometer 100 , showing torque measurement transducer 101 , weight of traceable mass 102 , line 103 connected to the weight 102 , pulley 104 , and test fixture 105 . The ASTM proposal mounts the test fixture 105 to the bottom of the torque measurement transducer 101 so that the line 103 connected to the weight of traceable mass 102 transmits the force of the mass 102 to the test fixture 105 and the torque measurement transducer 101 . The force thus applied produces a measurable torque value, which is then compared to the torque calculated from the applied force. The ratio between the torque output and the applied torque is used to calculate a calibration coefficient to correct subsequent torque measurements. Calibration methods that use lines, pulleys, or strain gauges tend to be susceptible to both operator errors and systematic errors. For example, the line and pulley method described above requires the operator to make sure that the mass is free hanging without obstruction and that it is not swinging from side to side. Consequently, the need for an experienced operator to perform calibrations increases the costs of operation. In addition, prior art methods are susceptible to various sources for friction that can undermine the accuracy of the calibration and hence the constancy of the instrument. For example, attaching a line to the drive shaft or the torque measurement transducer in rheometers can side-load the shaft bearings, thus creating undesirable interactions with other bearings to produce friction. Even though strain gauges have been used to calibrate torque of rheometers, they are relatively expensive and are therefore not readily available for many rheometer users. As seen by ASTM's recent interest in the torque calibration of rheometers, there exists a need to develop a simple yet accurate torque calibration technique for rheometers to increase the accuracy of the instrument while reducing sources of friction, costs of equipments, and level of skills required for calibration so that users of rheometers may afford and use their own calibration equipments whenever needed.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention utilizes a process of torque calibration for rheometers by using a calibrating object with a certified moment of inertia (“MOI”), measuring the MOI of the calibrating object using the rheometer, and calculating the torque adjustment factor by dividing the certified MOI value by the measured MOI value. The torque adjustment factor is then applied to correct subsequent rheological measurements taken using the rheometer. A preferred embodiment of the present invention is to double-check the reproducibility of the torque adjustment factor by measuring the MOI of the calibrating object again, applying the torque adjustment factor to correct the measured MOI, and comparing the corrected MOI with the certified MOI of the calibrating object. A preferred embodiment of the present invention is to calculate the percentage error between the measured MOI with the certified MOI. An exemplary embodiment is to select the dimensions and shape of the calibrating object so that the percentage error is less than one percent. An exemplary embodiment of the present invention consists of a computer system with a display device and/or an input device. The computer system may comprise of an algorithm to calculate different rheological properties such as the MOI and the viscosity. The display device shows the values of rheological properties measured or calculated by the rheometer, including the torque value and the MOI value. The input device permits the user to enter certain data, such as the certified MOI of the calibrating object. A preferred embodiment of the present invention is to clean the calibrating object and check that it is undamaged before using it for calibration. Another preferred embodiment is to repeat the method of calibrating the rheometer with calibrating objects of various moments of inertia to obtain multiple torque adjustment factors for a range of moments of inertia. A preferred embodiment of the present invention uses calibrating objects so that the ratio of the MOI of the calibrating object to the MOI of the rheometer is at least ten to one. A preferred embodiment is to have a ratio of at least twenty to one. Another preferred embodiment is to have a ratio of at least thirty to one. An exemplary embodiment of the present invention uses metal objects with moments of inertia calibrated by traceable means as the calibrating objects. A preferred embodiment uses a stainless steel disk or cylinder. Both the disk and the cylinder are advantageous over other shapes due to lower frictional resistance in air. Further preferred embodiment of the present invention uses a stainless steel disk that has a diameter of about 75 to 100 mm (for example, about 90 mm) and a thickness of about 8 to 12 mm (for example, about 10 mm). The calibration method and apparatus described herein have many advantages over existing art. Instead of calibrating a dependent property like viscosity, the present invention calibrates the rheometer's torque output, which can be used to calculate other dependent properties. Consequently, the torque values and all dependent properties are guaranteed a certain degree of accuracy and precision depending on the precision of the torque adjustment factor. Unlike calibration methods based on viscosity or other properties, which are often significantly dependent upon temperature and velocity/displacement, the MOI and torque can be more accurately measured to a traceable standard with the rheometer. The metal disk or cylinder used as the calibrating object is also less susceptible to contamination and filling errors than calibration liquids. Another advantage of the present invention is that it is not susceptible to various sources of friction that often produce significant errors in prior art calibration methods. The present invention also simplifies the calibration process so that owners of rheometers may purchase their own calibration equipment and perform calibrations whenever necessary, consequently reducing the cost of service engineers while improving the accuracy of the measured properties. The features and advantages of the present invention will be more fully appreciated upon a reading of the following detailed description.	This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60,815,566, filed Jun. 22, 2006, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to the calibration of rheometers, which are used to characterize materials by measuring the materials' viscosity, elasticity, shear thinning, yield stress, compliance and/or other material properties. More particularly, the invention relates to calibrating the torque output of a rheometer. 2. Background of the Invention Rheometers, viscometers or viscosimeters are typically used to measure fluid or other properties of materials, such as their viscosity, compliance, and modulus, by rotating, deflecting or oscillating a measuring geometry in a material, either by applying a torque and measuring the resultant velocity or displacement, or by applying a velocity or displacement and measuring the resultant torque. The torque and velocity/displacement are used in conjunction with measuring geometry factors to determine the properties of the material. As used herein, the term “rheometer” shall mean rheometers, viscometers, viscosimeters and similar instruments that are used to measure the properties of fluid or similar (see list below) materials. The term “measuring object” shall mean an object having any one of several geometries, including, for example, cones, discs, vanes, parallel plates, concentric cylinders and double concentric cylinders. The “materials” may be liquids, oils, dispersions, suspensions, emulsions, adhesives, biological fluids such as blood, polymers, gels, pastes, slurries, melts, resins, powders or mixtures thereof. Such materials shall all be referred to generically as “fluids” herein. More specific examples of materials include asphalt, chocolate, drilling mud, lubricants, oils, greases, photoresists, liquid cements, elastomers, thermoplastics, thermosets and coatings. As is known to one of ordinary skill in the art, many different geometries may be used for the measuring object in addition to the cylinders, cones, vanes and plates listed above. The measuring objects may be made of; for example, stainless steel, anodized aluminum or titanium. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,777,212 to Sekiguchi et al., 4,878,377 to Abel and 4,630,468 to Sweet describe various configurations, constructions and applications of rheometers. The term “calibration” refers to the process of standardizing the rheometer by determining the deviation from an established standard so as to ascertain the proper correction factors for subsequent measurements. Calibration of measuring instruments is vitally important to maintaining the constancy and integrity of the measurements. As known to one of ordinary skill in the art, calibration should be performed whenever possible and to a traceable standard. For rheometers, calibration can be performed to correct measurements of temperature, velocity, displacement, geometry dimensions, and torque, but the present invention is related particularly to the calibration of the torque. The calibration of the torque measurements determines the accuracy and precision of calculated rheological parameters including viscosity, storage modulus, and loss modulus, which are all critically sensitive to the torque value. Common methods of calibrating viscometers use calibration liquids with known viscosities to correct the measured torque outputs. U.S. Pat. No. 5,509,297 describes a calibration method that plots the viscosity against the measured torque over the range of expected viscosity of the test sample at a specified rotor speed to convert the measured torque into the true viscosity. Another method uses rotating spindles of various sizes depending on the expected viscosity range of the test sample, while taking into account the spindle size in calculating the corrected property value. Calibration methods that use various liquids to correct the viscosity measurements can be significantly and easily influenced by temperature, velocity/displacement, geometry, dimensions, as well as torque in addition to being acutely susceptible to filling errors and contamination. Other calibration approaches use weights of traceable mass together with either lines and pulleys or strain gauges to calibrate the torque values of rheometers. One proposal to the American Standard of Testing Materials (“ASTM”) for developing a standard for calibration or conformance demonstration for rheometers for the measurement of torque employs a variant form of the line and pulley technique. FIG. 1 is a schematic perspective view of a rotary rheometer 100, showing torque measurement transducer 101, weight of traceable mass 102, line 103 connected to the weight 102, pulley 104, and test fixture 105. The ASTM proposal mounts the test fixture 105 to the bottom of the torque measurement transducer 101 so that the line 103 connected to the weight of traceable mass 102 transmits the force of the mass 102 to the test fixture 105 and the torque measurement transducer 101. The force thus applied produces a measurable torque value, which is then compared to the torque calculated from the applied force. The ratio between the torque output and the applied torque is used to calculate a calibration coefficient to correct subsequent torque measurements. Calibration methods that use lines, pulleys, or strain gauges tend to be susceptible to both operator errors and systematic errors. For example, the line and pulley method described above requires the operator to make sure that the mass is free hanging without obstruction and that it is not swinging from side to side. Consequently, the need for an experienced operator to perform calibrations increases the costs of operation. In addition, prior art methods are susceptible to various sources for friction that can undermine the accuracy of the calibration and hence the constancy of the instrument. For example, attaching a line to the drive shaft or the torque measurement transducer in rheometers can side-load the shaft bearings, thus creating undesirable interactions with other bearings to produce friction. Even though strain gauges have been used to calibrate torque of rheometers, they are relatively expensive and are therefore not readily available for many rheometer users. As seen by ASTM's recent interest in the torque calibration of rheometers, there exists a need to develop a simple yet accurate torque calibration technique for rheometers to increase the accuracy of the instrument while reducing sources of friction, costs of equipments, and level of skills required for calibration so that users of rheometers may afford and use their own calibration equipments whenever needed. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention utilizes a process of torque calibration for rheometers by using a calibrating object with a certified moment of inertia (“MOI”), measuring the MOI of the calibrating object using the rheometer, and calculating the torque adjustment factor by dividing the certified MOI value by the measured MOI value. The torque adjustment factor is then applied to correct subsequent rheological measurements taken using the rheometer. A preferred embodiment of the present invention is to double-check the reproducibility of the torque adjustment factor by measuring the MOI of the calibrating object again, applying the torque adjustment factor to correct the measured MOI, and comparing the corrected MOI with the certified MOI of the calibrating object. A preferred embodiment of the present invention is to calculate the percentage error between the measured MOI with the certified MOI. An exemplary embodiment is to select the dimensions and shape of the calibrating object so that the percentage error is less than one percent. An exemplary embodiment of the present invention consists of a computer system with a display device and/or an input device. The computer system may comprise of an algorithm to calculate different rheological properties such as the MOI and the viscosity. The display device shows the values of rheological properties measured or calculated by the rheometer, including the torque value and the MOI value. The input device permits the user to enter certain data, such as the certified MOI of the calibrating object. A preferred embodiment of the present invention is to clean the calibrating object and check that it is undamaged before using it for calibration. Another preferred embodiment is to repeat the method of calibrating the rheometer with calibrating objects of various moments of inertia to obtain multiple torque adjustment factors for a range of moments of inertia. A preferred embodiment of the present invention uses calibrating objects so that the ratio of the MOI of the calibrating object to the MOI of the rheometer is at least ten to one. A preferred embodiment is to have a ratio of at least twenty to one. Another preferred embodiment is to have a ratio of at least thirty to one. An exemplary embodiment of the present invention uses metal objects with moments of inertia calibrated by traceable means as the calibrating objects. A preferred embodiment uses a stainless steel disk or cylinder. Both the disk and the cylinder are advantageous over other shapes due to lower frictional resistance in air. Further preferred embodiment of the present invention uses a stainless steel disk that has a diameter of about 75 to 100 mm (for example, about 90 mm) and a thickness of about 8 to 12 mm (for example, about 10 mm). The calibration method and apparatus described herein have many advantages over existing art. Instead of calibrating a dependent property like viscosity, the present invention calibrates the rheometer's torque output, which can be used to calculate other dependent properties. Consequently, the torque values and all dependent properties are guaranteed a certain degree of accuracy and precision depending on the precision of the torque adjustment factor. Unlike calibration methods based on viscosity or other properties, which are often significantly dependent upon temperature and velocity/displacement, the MOI and torque can be more accurately measured to a traceable standard with the rheometer. The metal disk or cylinder used as the calibrating object is also less susceptible to contamination and filling errors than calibration liquids. Another advantage of the present invention is that it is not susceptible to various sources of friction that often produce significant errors in prior art calibration methods. The present invention also simplifies the calibration process so that owners of rheometers may purchase their own calibration equipment and perform calibrations whenever necessary, consequently reducing the cost of service engineers while improving the accuracy of the measured properties. The features and advantages of the present invention will be more fully appreciated upon a reading of the following detailed description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a perspective view of a prior art rheometer with a line and pulley system set up for calibration. FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of a rotary rheometer with an attached computer system consisting of an input device and a displaying device. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION FIG. 2 is a schematic perspective view of a rotary rheometer 200, showing lead screw 201, draw rod 202, optical encoder 203, air bearing 204, drag cup motor 205, drive shaft 206, measuring object 207, surface 208, temperature sensor 209, heating/cooling assembly 210, normal force transducer 211, and auto gap set motor and encoder 212. The drag cup motor 205 contains a current in its coils to generate and apply a torque to the drive shaft 206. The torque in the drive shaft 206, in turn, applies torque to the measuring object 207. An exemplary embodiment of the invention has a computer system 213, which is herein used to mean any assembly of at least one type of device that is programmable or capable of receiving inputted data, storing data, performing calculations, or displaying data. The computer system 213 may be equipped with an algorithm to calculate different rheological properties such as the MOI and the viscosity. The computer system 213 may comprise a display device 215 such as a monitor that displays a moment of inertia (“MOI”) signal 216 and a torque signal 217 of the measuring object 207. The computer system 213 may also consist of an input device 214 such as a keyboard. The amount of torque applied depends on the current applied to the drag cup motor so the combined motor transducer rheometer 200 measures the motor torque from the energy input to the drag cup motor 205. The optical encoder 203 is capable of accurately measuring the angular displacement or angular acceleration of the measuring object 207. The rheometer 200, by using the equation: Torque=Moment of inertiaAngular Acceleration, is then capable of calculating the MOI of the measuring object 207 from the applied torque and the angular acceleration or the angular displacement of the calibrating object. The present invention facilitates the calibration of rheometers by using a measuring object, hereby identified as the calibrating object, with a certified MOI value to obtain a correction factor for torque outputs. The certified MOI value of the calibrating object can be recorded as Ic. Before fitting the calibrating object to the rheometer 200, the MOI of the rheometer is measured and recorded as Ir. The calibrating object is then attached to one end of the drive shaft 206 of the rheometer 200. The MOT of the rheometer with the attached calibrating object is measured and recorded as Itotal. Using the equation, MOI of Calibrating Object=Itotal−Ir, the MOI of the calibrating object is calculated and recorded as Id. The torque adjustment factor is then calculated as IoId, recorded as τc, and used to correct subsequent rheological measurements conducted by the rheometer 200. Various rheometers may benefit from the teachings of the present invention. Exemplary rheometers include, for example, those described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,588,254 and 6,952,950 to Foster et al., which are all incorporated by reference herein. Such exemplary rheometers and other kinds of combined motor and transducer (“CMT”) rheometers may benefit from incorporating the calibration technique of the present invention to simplify the need of service engineers, reduce the costs of calibration, and gain assurance of the accuracy and precision of the measurement of the output torque and its dependent properties. A preferred embodiment of the present invention comprises a step of double-checking the reproducibility of the torque adjustment factor after the torque adjustment factor has been applied to subsequent rheological values measured by the rheometer. The double-checking step comprises measuring the MOI of the calibrating object, including applying the torque adjustment factor to the MOI, and comparing the measured MOI with the certified MOI of the calibrating object. Another preferred embodiment of the present invention is to calculate the percentage error between the measured MOI with the certified MOI of the calibrating object. An exemplary embodiment is to select the dimensions and shape of the calibrating object so that the percentage error is less than one percent. Another exemplary embodiment of the present invention comprises an input device 214 that permits the user to enter the certified MOI of the calibrating object. The certified MOI of the calibrating object may be obtained through various methods or calculations. Certification companies such as Space Electronics LLC in Berlin, Connecticut utilize high precision MOI-measuring instruments to determine the MOI so that the value may be traceable to the standards of National Institute of Standards and Technology. Another method to determine MOI is to calculate the MOT from accurate measurements of the dimensions and the density of the object. Depending on the shape of the object and the axis it is rotating on, the equation for MOI differs. For example, a cylinder's MOI while rotating on the cylindrical or circular axis is obtained from the equation: MOI (cylinder)=(½)mr2, where r is the radius and m is the mass of the cylinder. For a rectangular section spoke rotating on the same axis, MOI (rectangle)=(⅓)m(L20.25W2), where m is the mass, L is the length, and W is the width of the rectangular spoke. For a circular ring rotating on the cylindrical or circular axis, MOI (circular ring)=(½)rph(r04−ri4), where π is a mathematical constant, p is the density of the material, h is the height of the ring, r0 is the radius of the outer ring and ri is the radius of the inner ring. If this method is employed to determine the MOI, the density of the object must be homogeneous throughout. One of ordinary skill in the art would readily b able to write computer programs to calculate the MOI of various objects, including the calibrating object of the present invention, from these equations. The discrepancy between the moments of inertia calculated from the geometric equations and from certification agencies are usually less than one percent. Therefore, the present invention can be implemented using either method to certify the moments of inertia of the calibrating object. A preferred embodiment of the present invention further includes cleaning the calibrating object and checking that it is undamaged before attaching it to the shaft. Another preferred embodiment is to repeat the method of calibrating the rheometer by using calibrating objects with moments of inertia in different ranges to obtain multiple torque adjustment factors so that the proper τc can be used to correct measurements of materials within a specific MOI range. In a preferred implementation of the present invention, the calibrating object is selected so that the ratio of the MOI of the calibrating object to the MOI of the rheometer is at least ten to one. In another implementation, a ratio of at least twenty to one is employed. In still another preferred implementation, a ratio of at least thirty to one is employed. Preferred embodiments of the present invention use metal objects that have had their moments of inertia calibrated by traceable means as the calibrating object. For example, stainless steel disks and cylinders may be used. A disk is preferable because of its constant thickness and the relative ease of fitting a disk to the end of the drive shaft 206. Both cylinders and disks have the advantage over other shapes of reduced air friction that may affect the measurement of the MOI. Stainless steel is preferable because its hardness prevents the disk from being deformed. Also, stainless steel can be polished to have highly precise dimensions, compared to softer materials such as brass or aluminum. A preferred embodiment of the present invention uses stainless steel disks that have diameters of about 75 to 100 mm and thicknesses of about 8 to 12 mm. The calibration method and apparatus described herein have many advantages over existing art. One advantage is that the present invention reduces the sources of friction and the costs of equipment that tend to produce calibration errors in prior art forms of calibration. The method disclosed herein also simplifies the calibration process so that owners of rheometers may purchase their own calibration equipments and perform calibrations easily and whenever necessary. The foregoing disclosure of the preferred embodiments of the present invention has been presented for purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise forms disclosed. Many variations and modifications of the embodiments described herein will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art in light of the above disclosure. The scope of the invention is to be defined only by the claims appended hereto, and by their equivalents.	G	G01	G01N	11	14
11830602	US20080015167A1-20080117	SYNERGISTIC AND RESIDUAL PESTICIDAL COMPOSITIONS CONTAINING PLANT ESSENTIAL OILS	ACCEPTED	20080102	20080117		[]	A01N6500	["A01N6500", "A01P704"]	7618645	20070730	20091117	424	406000	63356.0	LEVY	NEIL	[{"inventor_name_last": "BESSETTE", "inventor_name_first": "Steven", "inventor_city": "Brentwood", "inventor_state": "TN", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "BEIGLER", "inventor_name_first": "Myron", "inventor_city": "Santa Rosa", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]	Synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions containing synergistic and residual mixtures of plant essential oils and/or their constituents, plant essential oils and/or their constituents in admixture with known active pesticidal compounds or plant essential oils and/or their constituents in admixture with other compounds not previously used as active ingredients in pesticidal formulations, such as, for example, so called signal transduction modulators. In addition, the present invention is directed to a method for controlling pests by applying a pesticidally effective amount of the above synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions to a locus where pest control is desired.	1-15. (canceled) 16. A method for controlling pests, the method comprising: applying to a locus where control of pests is desired a pesticidally-effective amount of a pesticidal composition comprising: a pesticidally-acceptable carrier and a pesticidally-active agent consisting of (1) pyrethrum and (2) at least one plant essential oil compound selected from the group consisting of α-terpineol, amyl cinnamic aldehyde, amyl salicylate, anisic aldehyde, benzyl alcohol, benzyl acetate, cinnamaldehyde, cinnamic alcohol, carvacrol, carveol, citral, citronellal, citronellol, dimethyl salicylate, eucalyptol (cineole), eugenol, iso-eugenol, galaxolide, geraniol, guaiacol, ionone, d-limonene, menthol, methyl anthranilate, methyl ionone, methyl salicylate, alpha-phellandrene, pennyroyal oil perillaldehyde, phenyl ethyl alcohol, phenyl ethyl alcohol, phenyl ethyl propionate, piperonal, piperonyl acetate, piperonyl alcohol, D-pulegone, terpinen-4-ol, terpinyl acetate, 4-tert butylcyclohexyl acetate, thyme oil, thymol, trans-anethole, vanillin, and ethyl vanillin with the proviso that no other pesticidally-active agent is present. 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the pesticidally-active agent consists of pyrethrum thyme oil. 18. The method of claim 16, wherein the pesticidally-active agent comprises pyrethrum and thymol. 19. The method of claim 16, wherein the pesticidally active agent is present in amount of about 0.0001% to about 20% by weight. 20. The method of claim 16, wherein the pest is a cockroach.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Pests (invertebrates, insects, arachnids, mites, larvae thereof, etc.) are annoying to humans for a myriad of reasons. They have annually cost humans billions of dollars in crop losses and in the expense of keeping them under control. For example, the losses caused by pests in agricultural environments include decreased crop yield, reduced crop quality, and increased harvesting costs. Over the years, synthetic chemical pesticides have provided an effective means of pest control. For example, one prior approach involves the use of complex, organic insecticides, such as those disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,376,784 and 4,308,279. Other prior approaches employ absorbent organic polymers for widespread dehydration of the insects. See, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,985,251; 4,983,390; 4,818,534; and 4,983,389. Use of inorganic salts as components of pesticides has also been tried, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,423,284 and 4,948,013, European Patent Application No. 462 347, Chemical Abstracts 119(5):43357q (1993) and Farm Chemicals Handbook, page c102 (1987). However, it has become increasingly apparent that the widespread use of synthetic chemical pesticides has caused detrimental environmental effects that are harmful to humans and other animals. For instance, the public has become concerned about the amount of residual chemicals that persist in food, ground water and the environment, and that are toxic, carcinogenic or otherwise incompatible to humans, domestic animals and/or fish. Moreover, some target pests have even shown an ability to develop resistance to many commonly used synthetic chemical pesticides. In recent times, regulatory guidelines have encouraged the development of potentially less harmful pesticidal compositions via stringent restrictions on the use of certain synthetic pesticides. As a result, elimination of effective pesticides from the market has limited economical and effective options for controlling pests. As an alternative, botanical pesticides are of great interest because they are natural pesticides, i.e., toxicants derived from plants that are safe to humans and the environment. Historically, botanical pesticides, such as tobacco, pyrethrum, derris, hellebore, quassia, camphor and turpentine, have long been used. Of the botanical pesticides, pyrethrum (also known as Caucasian pyrethrum, dalmatic pyrethrum, pesticide chrysanthemum, natural pyrethrum and pyrethrin) has found widespread use. Pyrethrum, which is extracted from the flowers of a chrysanthemum grown in Kenya and Ecuador, acts on insects with phenomenal speed causing immediate paralysis, while at effective pesticidal concentrations exhibits negligible toxic effects on humans and warm-blooded animals. Use of pyrethrins for industrial or agricultural applications, however, is attendant with several disadvantages. For example, they require frequent treatments because they readily decompose when exposed to direct sunlight. Pyrethrins are also neurotoxic to cold-blooded animals, such as fishes, reptiles, etc. Moreover, the supply of pyrethrins is limited and substantial processing is required to bring the natural product to market, and large-scale production is very expensive. Unless pyrethrins are formulated with a synergist, most initially paralyzed insects recover to once again become pests. Synergists are compounds that, although typically possessing no direct toxic effect at the dosage employed, are able to substantially enhance the observed toxicity of a pesticide with which they are combined. Synergists are found in most household, livestock and pet aerosols to enhance the action of the fast knockdown pesticides, e.g., pyrethrum, allethrin, and resmethrin, against flying insects. Synergists are required in pesticidal formulations containing pyrethrum, for example, because target insects produce an enzyme (cytochrome P-450) that attacks pyrethrum and breaks it down, thereby making it effective in knocking an insect down, but ineffective for killing in many cases. As such, these synergists act by inhibiting P-450-dependent polysubstrate monooxygenase enzymes (PSMOs) produced by microsomes, which are subcellular units found in the liver of mammals and in some insect tissues that degrade pyrethrum and other pesticidal compounds, such as pyrethrum, allethrin, resmethrin, and the like. Piperonyl butoxide (PBO) is the main pesticide synergist in commerce. PBO, however, is a synthetic product that has recently been scrutinized by regulatory agencies and certain other groups. As a result, the industry has turned to synthetic pyrethroids, which are very photostable in sunlight and are generally effective against most agricultural insect pests. Pyrethroids are not as safe as pyrethrins, however, and disadvantageously persist in the environment for longer periods. Further, many insects disadvantageously develop resistance to pyrethroids. Many natural products used as insecticides, including plant essential oils, do not provide adequate control of pests in that they are not very stable and break down quickly, thereby failing to provide toxic residual properties. Products such as pyrethrum, although highly toxic to pests on contact when used properly in pesticidal formulations, are not effective pesticides for many applications because they lack residual properties, thereby increasing the frequency and cost of pesticide applications, as well as increased risk and exposure to the environment. Accordingly, there is a great need for novel synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions containing no level or substantially lower levels of synthetic pyrethroids, chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates, carbamates and the like. In addition, there is a need for methods for using same that address the problems described above, i.e. are safe to humans and the environment and relatively inexpensive to use in obtaining acceptable levels of insect or pest control.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A primary object of the present invention is to provide novel pesticidal compositions that contain at least one plant essential oil, derivatives thereof, and/or their constituents as a synergist and at least one known conventional pesticidal compound. Another object of the present invention is to provide pesticidal compositions containing synergistic mixtures or blends of plant essential oils and/or their constituents. Still another object of the present invention is to provide new uses for signal transduction modulators in pesticidal compositions comprising at least one plant essential oil, derivatives thereof and/or their constituents, and/or conventional pesticides. A further object of the present invention is to provide pesticidal compositions wherein the active synergistic compositions of the present invention can be employed in a reduced amount and still achieve the desired pest control. A further object of the present invention is to provide novel, residual pesticidal compositions that contain admixtures of certain compounds, natural or synthetic, with certain plant essential oils and/or their constituents that act to residualize the toxic effects of pesticidal compositions containing the plant essential oils and/or their constituents. A still further object of the present invention is to provide a method for controlling pest growth by the application of the compositions of the present invention to a locus where such control is desired. Another object of the present invention is to provide a pesticidal composition and method for mechanically and neurally controlling pests, e.g., invertebrates, insects, arachnids, larvae thereof, etc. A further object of the present invention is to provide a safe, non-toxic pesticidal composition and method that will not harm the environment. Another object of the present invention is to provide a pesticidal composition and method that has a pleasant scent and that can be applied without burdensome safety precautions. Still another object to of the present invention is to provide a pesticidal composition and method as described above which can be inexpensively produced or employed. Yet another object of the present invention is to provide a pesticidal composition and method to which pests cannot build resistance. The above and other objects are accomplished by the present invention which is directed to (1) a synergistic and residual pesticidal composition containing at least two plant essential oil, derivatives thereof, and/or their constituents, (2) synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions comprising plant essential oils and/or their constituents in admixture with known active pesticidal compounds, (3) synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions comprising plant essential oils and/or their constituents in admixture with compounds not previously used as active ingredients in pesticidal compounds, e.g., signal transduction modulators (inhibitors and/or activators), or (4) synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions comprising known active pesticidal compounds in admixture with other compounds not previously used as active ingredients in pesticidal compounds, e.g., signal transduction modulators. It will be understood that throughout this description, the meaning of term “signal transduction modulators” shall encompass inhibitors and/or activators. In addition, the present invention is directed to methods for controlling pests by the applying a pesticidally effective amount of the above synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions to a locus where pest control is desired. Additional objects and attendant advantages of the present invention will be set forth, in part, in the description that follows, or may be learned from practicing or using the present invention. The objects and advantages may be realized and attained by means of the instrumentalities and combinations particularly recited in the appended claims. It is to be understood that the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not to be viewed as being restrictive of the invention, as claimed. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?	This application is related to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/094,463, filed Jul. 28, 1998, U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/100,613, filed Sep. 16, 1998, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/122,803, filed Mar. 3, 1999, the entire disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates, in general, to pesticidal compositions and, in particular, synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions containing plant essential oils and/or their constituents. In one aspect, the present invention relates to synergistic pesticidal compositions containing synergistic mixtures of plant essential oils and/or their constituents. In another aspect, the present invention relates to synergistic pesticidal compositions containing certain plant essential oils and/or their constituents in admixture with known active pesticidal compounds. In another aspect, the present invention relates to residual pesticidal compositions containing certain plant essential oils and/or their constituents in admixture with known active pesticidal compounds and other compounds not previously used as active ingredients in pesticidal compositions, such as, for example, so called signal transduction modulators known to have beneficial use in the pharmaceutical arts. In a further aspect, the present invention relates to a method for controlling pests by the application of pesticidally effective amounts of the above synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions to a locus where pest control is desired. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Pests (invertebrates, insects, arachnids, mites, larvae thereof, etc.) are annoying to humans for a myriad of reasons. They have annually cost humans billions of dollars in crop losses and in the expense of keeping them under control. For example, the losses caused by pests in agricultural environments include decreased crop yield, reduced crop quality, and increased harvesting costs. Over the years, synthetic chemical pesticides have provided an effective means of pest control. For example, one prior approach involves the use of complex, organic insecticides, such as those disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,376,784 and 4,308,279. Other prior approaches employ absorbent organic polymers for widespread dehydration of the insects. See, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,985,251; 4,983,390; 4,818,534; and 4,983,389. Use of inorganic salts as components of pesticides has also been tried, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,423,284 and 4,948,013, European Patent Application No. 462 347, Chemical Abstracts 119(5):43357q (1993) and Farm Chemicals Handbook, page c102 (1987). However, it has become increasingly apparent that the widespread use of synthetic chemical pesticides has caused detrimental environmental effects that are harmful to humans and other animals. For instance, the public has become concerned about the amount of residual chemicals that persist in food, ground water and the environment, and that are toxic, carcinogenic or otherwise incompatible to humans, domestic animals and/or fish. Moreover, some target pests have even shown an ability to develop resistance to many commonly used synthetic chemical pesticides. In recent times, regulatory guidelines have encouraged the development of potentially less harmful pesticidal compositions via stringent restrictions on the use of certain synthetic pesticides. As a result, elimination of effective pesticides from the market has limited economical and effective options for controlling pests. As an alternative, botanical pesticides are of great interest because they are natural pesticides, i.e., toxicants derived from plants that are safe to humans and the environment. Historically, botanical pesticides, such as tobacco, pyrethrum, derris, hellebore, quassia, camphor and turpentine, have long been used. Of the botanical pesticides, pyrethrum (also known as Caucasian pyrethrum, dalmatic pyrethrum, pesticide chrysanthemum, natural pyrethrum and pyrethrin) has found widespread use. Pyrethrum, which is extracted from the flowers of a chrysanthemum grown in Kenya and Ecuador, acts on insects with phenomenal speed causing immediate paralysis, while at effective pesticidal concentrations exhibits negligible toxic effects on humans and warm-blooded animals. Use of pyrethrins for industrial or agricultural applications, however, is attendant with several disadvantages. For example, they require frequent treatments because they readily decompose when exposed to direct sunlight. Pyrethrins are also neurotoxic to cold-blooded animals, such as fishes, reptiles, etc. Moreover, the supply of pyrethrins is limited and substantial processing is required to bring the natural product to market, and large-scale production is very expensive. Unless pyrethrins are formulated with a synergist, most initially paralyzed insects recover to once again become pests. Synergists are compounds that, although typically possessing no direct toxic effect at the dosage employed, are able to substantially enhance the observed toxicity of a pesticide with which they are combined. Synergists are found in most household, livestock and pet aerosols to enhance the action of the fast knockdown pesticides, e.g., pyrethrum, allethrin, and resmethrin, against flying insects. Synergists are required in pesticidal formulations containing pyrethrum, for example, because target insects produce an enzyme (cytochrome P-450) that attacks pyrethrum and breaks it down, thereby making it effective in knocking an insect down, but ineffective for killing in many cases. As such, these synergists act by inhibiting P-450-dependent polysubstrate monooxygenase enzymes (PSMOs) produced by microsomes, which are subcellular units found in the liver of mammals and in some insect tissues that degrade pyrethrum and other pesticidal compounds, such as pyrethrum, allethrin, resmethrin, and the like. Piperonyl butoxide (PBO) is the main pesticide synergist in commerce. PBO, however, is a synthetic product that has recently been scrutinized by regulatory agencies and certain other groups. As a result, the industry has turned to synthetic pyrethroids, which are very photostable in sunlight and are generally effective against most agricultural insect pests. Pyrethroids are not as safe as pyrethrins, however, and disadvantageously persist in the environment for longer periods. Further, many insects disadvantageously develop resistance to pyrethroids. Many natural products used as insecticides, including plant essential oils, do not provide adequate control of pests in that they are not very stable and break down quickly, thereby failing to provide toxic residual properties. Products such as pyrethrum, although highly toxic to pests on contact when used properly in pesticidal formulations, are not effective pesticides for many applications because they lack residual properties, thereby increasing the frequency and cost of pesticide applications, as well as increased risk and exposure to the environment. Accordingly, there is a great need for novel synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions containing no level or substantially lower levels of synthetic pyrethroids, chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates, carbamates and the like. In addition, there is a need for methods for using same that address the problems described above, i.e. are safe to humans and the environment and relatively inexpensive to use in obtaining acceptable levels of insect or pest control. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A primary object of the present invention is to provide novel pesticidal compositions that contain at least one plant essential oil, derivatives thereof, and/or their constituents as a synergist and at least one known conventional pesticidal compound. Another object of the present invention is to provide pesticidal compositions containing synergistic mixtures or blends of plant essential oils and/or their constituents. Still another object of the present invention is to provide new uses for signal transduction modulators in pesticidal compositions comprising at least one plant essential oil, derivatives thereof and/or their constituents, and/or conventional pesticides. A further object of the present invention is to provide pesticidal compositions wherein the active synergistic compositions of the present invention can be employed in a reduced amount and still achieve the desired pest control. A further object of the present invention is to provide novel, residual pesticidal compositions that contain admixtures of certain compounds, natural or synthetic, with certain plant essential oils and/or their constituents that act to residualize the toxic effects of pesticidal compositions containing the plant essential oils and/or their constituents. A still further object of the present invention is to provide a method for controlling pest growth by the application of the compositions of the present invention to a locus where such control is desired. Another object of the present invention is to provide a pesticidal composition and method for mechanically and neurally controlling pests, e.g., invertebrates, insects, arachnids, larvae thereof, etc. A further object of the present invention is to provide a safe, non-toxic pesticidal composition and method that will not harm the environment. Another object of the present invention is to provide a pesticidal composition and method that has a pleasant scent and that can be applied without burdensome safety precautions. Still another object to of the present invention is to provide a pesticidal composition and method as described above which can be inexpensively produced or employed. Yet another object of the present invention is to provide a pesticidal composition and method to which pests cannot build resistance. The above and other objects are accomplished by the present invention which is directed to (1) a synergistic and residual pesticidal composition containing at least two plant essential oil, derivatives thereof, and/or their constituents, (2) synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions comprising plant essential oils and/or their constituents in admixture with known active pesticidal compounds, (3) synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions comprising plant essential oils and/or their constituents in admixture with compounds not previously used as active ingredients in pesticidal compounds, e.g., signal transduction modulators (inhibitors and/or activators), or (4) synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions comprising known active pesticidal compounds in admixture with other compounds not previously used as active ingredients in pesticidal compounds, e.g., signal transduction modulators. It will be understood that throughout this description, the meaning of term “signal transduction modulators” shall encompass inhibitors and/or activators. In addition, the present invention is directed to methods for controlling pests by the applying a pesticidally effective amount of the above synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions to a locus where pest control is desired. Additional objects and attendant advantages of the present invention will be set forth, in part, in the description that follows, or may be learned from practicing or using the present invention. The objects and advantages may be realized and attained by means of the instrumentalities and combinations particularly recited in the appended claims. It is to be understood that the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not to be viewed as being restrictive of the invention, as claimed. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS All patents, patent applications and literatures cited in this description are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. In the case of inconsistencies, the present disclosure, including definitions, will prevail. In one embodiment, the present invention provides a synergistic and residual pesticidal composition comprising, in admixture with a suitable carrier and optionally with a suitable surface active agent, at least two plant essential oil compounds or derivatives thereof, including racemic mixtures, enantiomers, diastereomers, hydrates, salts, solvates, metabolites, analogs, homologs, etc. Each plant essential oil or derivative thereof, which may be extracted from natural sources or synthetically made, generally contains, as a major constituent, an acyclic monoterpene alcohol or aldehyde, a benzenoid aromatic compound containing at least one oxygenated substituent or side chain, or a monocarbocyclic terpene generally having a six membered ring bearing one or more oxygenated substituents. Examples of such essential oils or their constituents include, but are not limited to, members selected from the group consisting of aldehyde C16 (pure), alpha-terpineol, amyl cinnamic aldehyde, amyl salicylate, anisic aldehyde, benzyl alcohol, benzyl acetate, cinnamaldehyde, cinnamic alcohol, carvacrol, carveol, citral, citronellal, citronellol, dimethyl salicylate, eucalyptol (cineole), eugenol, iso-eugenol, galaxolide, geraniol, guaiacol, ionone, d-limonene, menthol, methyl anthranilate, methyl ionone, methyl salicylate, alpha-phellandrene, pennyroyal oil, perillaldehyde, 1- or 2-phenyl ethyl alcohol, 1- or 2-phenyl ethyl propionate, piperonal, piperonyl acetate, piperonyl alcohol, D-pulegone, terpinen-4-ol, terpinyl acetate, 4-tert butylcyclohexyl acetate, thyme oil (white and red), thymol, trans-anethole, vanillin, ethyl vanillin, and the like. As these plant essential oil compounds are known and used for other uses, they may be routinely prepared by a skilled artisan by employing known methods. Further, the present invention provides new uses for so called signal transduction modulators. Signal transduction modulators have been known to show therapeutic utility or potential in the pharmaceutical arts, but have heretofore not been known to exhibit utility in the pesticidal arts. As such, the synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions of the present invention may comprise known active pesticidal compounds and/or at least one of the above plant essential oil compounds, and at least one signal transduction modulator . Preferred signal transduction modulators include those that are effective for the disruption of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)/cAMP-dependent protein kinase, tyrosine kinase, MEK 1 or MEK 2, calcium phospholipid-dependent protein kinase (PKC), mitogen activated protein kinase family members, calcium-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase, growth factor receptor, octopamine receptor, etc. Preferred signal transduction modulators include, but are not limited to, forskolin, PD98059 (also known as 2-(2-amino-3-methoxyphenyl)-4-oxo-4H-[1]benzopyran or 2′-amino-3′-methoxy-flavone), geldanamycin, lavendustin A, lavendustin B, lavendustin C, genistein, herbimycin A, 2-hydroxy-5-(2,5-di-hydroxybenzyl)amino-benzoic acid, methyl 2,5-dihydroxycinnamate, tyrphostin, staurosporine, cytochalasin B, and the like. In another preferred embodiment, the present invention includes a synergistic pesticidal composition for agricultural use comprising a mixture of eugenol, alpha-terpineol, citronellal, thymol and trans-anethole. Data below shows that trans-anethole synergizes the action of thyme oil and thyme oil derivatives such as thymol and carvacrol, which are believed to antagonize mitochondrial electron transport pathways in pests. In another preferred embodiment, the present invention is directed to a synergistic pesticidal composition for controlling household pests comprising alpha-terpineol, benzyl alcohol, 2-phenylethyl alcohol and/or 2-phenylethyl propionate. Data below shows that this embodiment is highly effective, i.e., exhibited increased toxicity, against fire ants and cockroaches compared to the individual plant essential oils, alone. In still another preferred embodiment, the present invention is directed to synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions comprising at least one plant essential oil compound and at least one pesticidal agent selected from the group consisting of a natural insecticide compound, chlorinated hydrocarbon, an organophosphate, a carbamate and the like, in admixture with a suitable carrier and optionally a suitable surface active agent. Preferred pesticidal agents include, without limitation, allethrin, azadirachtin (neem), carbaryl, chlorpyrifos, DDT, fenvalorate, malathion, permethrin, pyrethrum, resmethrin, rotenone, pyrethroids, etc. In a further preferred embodiment, the present invention encompasses synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions comprising at least one of the above plant essential oil compounds and one or more members selected from the group consisting of pyrethrolone, allethrolone, chrysanthemic acid, chrysanthemyl alcohol, cis-jasmone, and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), in admixture with a suitable carrier and optionally a suitable surface active agent. In another preferred embodiment, the present invention is directed to a synergistic and residual pesticidal composition comprising at least one of the above plant essential oil compounds, a pesticidal agent and a signal tranduction modulator. It will be appreciated by the skilled artisan that the synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions of the present invention unexpectedly exhibit excellent pesticidal activities at sub-lethal dosage regimens, i.e., using active pesticidal agents at lesser concentrations than the individual compounds. Further, it will be appreciated by the skilled artisan that the synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions of the present invention unexpectedly exhibit pesticidal activity for extended periods of time, (i.e. using natural compounds as residual insecticides that in and of themselves provide little, if any, residual pesticide properties). Without wishing to be bound by the following theories, it is possible that plant essential oils antagonize a pest's nerve receptors or may act as P-450 inhibitors. Alternatively, plant essential oils may act via an alternative mode of action. In the case where pyrethrum is the pesticidal agent in admixture with one or more plant essential oils, it is believed that pyrethrum facilitates penetration of a pest cuticle, thereby increasing access of the plant essential oils to the pest's nerve receptors. Further, another possibility is that pyrethrum and other pesticidal agents biochemically synergize the plant essential oils. The pesticidal agents may also disrupt energy levels within the insect's metabolism, thereby synergizing the antagonistic action of so-called octopamine affectors. In any event, the net effect of the increased toxicity and synergized action of the inventive synergistic composition disclosed herein is heretofore unknown and unexpected. Use of synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions of the present invention generally results in 100% mortality on contact and provide residual toxic properties for at least two weeks. As such, they are advantageously employed as pesticidal agents in uses such as, without limitation, agriculture, organic farming, households, professional pest control, pet bedding, foliage application, underwater or submerged application, solid treatment, soil incorporation application, seedling box treatment, stalk injection and planting treatment, ornamentals, and against termites, mosquitoes, fire ants, head lice, dust mites, etc. With respect to plants, the synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions resist weathering which includes wash-off caused by rain, decomposition by ultra-violet light, oxidation, or hydrolysis in the presence of moisture or, at least such decomposition, oxidation and hydrolysis as would materially decrease the desirable pesticidal characteristic of the synergistic and residual compositions or impart undesirable characteristics to the synergistic and residual compositions. The synergistic and residual compositions are so chemically inert that they are compatible with substantially any other constituents of the spray schedule, and they may be used in the soil, upon the seeds, or the roots of plants without injuring either the seeds or roots of plants. They may also be used in combination with other pesticidally active compounds. The term “carrier” as used herein means a material, which may be inorganic or organic and of synthetic or natural origin, with which the active compound is mixed or formulated to facilitate its application to the plant, seed, soil or other object to be treated, or its storage, transport and/or handling. In general, any material that may be customarily employed as a carrier in insecticidal, herbicidal, or fungicidal formulations, are suitable for use with the present invention. The inventive synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions of the present invention may be employed alone or in the form of mixtures with such solid and/or liquid dispersible carrier vehicles and/or other known compatible active agents, especially plant protection agents, such as other insecticides, acaricides, miticides, nematocides, fungicides, bactericides, rodenticides, herbicides, fertilizers, growth-regulating agents, etc., if desired, or in the form of particular dosage preparations for specific application made therefrom, such as solutions, emulsions, suspensions, powders, pastes, and granules which are thus ready for use. The synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions of the present invention can be formulated or mixed with, if desired, conventional inert (i.e. plant compatible or herbicidally inert) pesticide diluents or extenders of the type usable in conventional pesticide formulations or compositions, e.g. conventional pesticide dispersible carrier vehicles such as gases, solutions, emulsions, suspensions, emulsifiable concentrates, spray powders, pastes, soluble powders, dusting agents, granules, foams, pastes, tablets, aerosols, natural and synthetic materials impregnated with active compounds, microcapsules, coating compositions for use on seeds, and formulations used with burning equipment, such as fumigating cartridges, fumigating cans and fumigating coils, as well as ULV cold mist and warm mist formulations, etc. Formulations containing the synergistic and residual compositions of the present invention may be prepared in any known manner, for instance by extending the synergistic and residual compositions with conventional pesticide dispersible liquid carriers and/or dispersible solid carriers optionally with the use of carrier vehicle assistants, e.g. conventional pesticide surface-active agents, including emulsifying agents and/or dispersing agents, whereby, for example, in the case where water is used as diluent, organic solvents may be added as auxiliary solvents. Suitable liquid diluents or carriers include water, petroleum distillates, or other liquid carriers with or without surface active agents. The choice of dispersing and emulsifying agents and the amount employed is dictated by the nature of the composition and the ability of the agent to facilitate the dispersion of the synergistic and residual compositions of the present invention. Generally, it is desirable to use as little of the agent as is possible, consistent with the desired dispersion of the synergistic and residual compositions of the present invention in the spray so that rain, dew, fog, etc. does not re-emulsify the synergistic and residual compositions of the present invention after it is applied to the plant and wash it off the plant. Non-ionic, anionic, amphoteric, or cationic dispersing and emulsifying agents may be employed, for example, the condensation products of alkylene oxides with phenol and organic acids, alkyl aryl sulfonates, complex ether alcohols, quaternary ammonium compounds, and the like. Liquid concentrates may be prepared by dissolving a composition of the present invention with a non-phytotoxic solvent and dispersing the synergistic and residual compositions of the present inventions in water with suitable surface active emulsifying and dispersing agents. Examples of conventional carrier vehicles for this purpose include, but are not limited to, aerosol propellants which are gaseous at normal temperatures and pressures, such as Freon; inert dispersible liquid diluent carriers, including inert organic solvents, such as aromatic hydrocarbons, e.g. benzene, toluene, xylene, alkyl naphthalenes, etc., halogenated especially chlorinated, aromatic hydrocarbons, e.g. chloro-benzenes, etc., cycloalkanes, e.g. cyclohexane, etc., paraffins, e.g. petroleum or mineral oil fractions, chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons, e.g. methylene chloride, chloroethylenes, etc., alcohols, e.g. methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol, glycol, etc., as well as ethers and esters thereof ,e.g. glycol monomethyl ether, etc., amines, e.g. ethanolamine, etc., amides, e.g. dimethyl formamide etc., sulfoxides, e.g. dimethyl sulfoxide, etc., acetonitrile, ketones, e.g. acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, methyl isobutyl ketone, cyclohexanone, etc., and/or water, as well as inert dispersible finely divided solid carriers such as ground natural minerals, e.g. kaolins, clays, vermiculite, alumina, silica, chalk, i.e. calcium carbonate, talc, attapulgite, montmorillonite, kieselguhr, etc., and ground synthetic minerals, e.g. highly dispersed silicic acid, silicates, e.g. alkali silicates, etc. Surface-active agents, i.e., conventional carrier vehicle assistants, that may be employed with the present invention include, without limitation, emulsifying agents, such as non-ionic and/or anionic emulsifying agents, e.g. sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate, polyethylene oxide esters of fatty acids, polyethylene oxide ethers of fatty alcohols, alkyl sulfates, alkyl sulfonates, aryl sulfonates, albumin hydrolyzates, etc. and especially alkyl arylpolyglycol ethers, magnesium stearate, sodium oleate, etc. In accordance with the principles of the present invention, insecticides can also be prepared as either water or oil based suspensions. Known quantities of the active materials can be dispersed into water or oil using high speed agitation as delivered from machines such as colloid mills, waring blenders, high speed homogenizers or lightening mixers. These systems are capable of imparting a large amount of energy into the liquid resulting in the generation of very small drops of one liquid dispersed throughout the other. If water is the continuous phase, it is a water-based suspension. If the continuous phase is oil, it is an oil based suspension. To aid in the dispersion of the one fluid into another, emulsifiers and dispersants may be added. These agents can be non-ionic and/or anionic emulsifying agents (e.g. polyethylene oxide esters of fatty acids, polyethylene oxide ethers of fatty alcohols, alkyl sulfates, alkyl sulfonates, aryl sulfonates, albumin hydrolyzates, etc. and especially alkyl arylpolyglycol ethers).To stabilize the mixture, to prevent the agglomeration of the droplets over time, the viscosity of the liquid is adjusted using agents such as xantham gums, polyacryamides or polyacrylates, and swelling clays such as attapulgite, bentonite or veegum. The preferred particle size of the suspended particles is the 3 to 5 micron range. Concentrations of the active may range from 0.01 to 70% with the typical concentration approximately 1 to 50% w/w. In the preparation of wettable powders, dust or granulated formulations, the active ingredient is dispersed in and on an appropriately divided carrier. In the formulation of the wettable powders the aforementioned dispersing agents as well as lignosulfonates can be included. Dusts are admixtures of the compositions with finely divided solids such as talc, amorphous or fumed silica, attapulgite clay, kaolin, kieselguhr, pyrophyllite, chalk, diatomaceous earths, vermiculite, calcium phosphates, calcium and magnesium carbonates, sulfur, flours, and other organic and inorganic solids which acts carriers for the pesticide. These finely divided solids preferably have an average particle size of less than about 50 microns. A typical dust formulation useful for controlling insects contains 1 part of synergistic and residual composition and 99 parts of diatomaceous earth or vermiculite. Granules may comprise porous or nonporous particles. The granule particles are relatively large, a diameter of about 400-2500 microns typically. The particles are either impregnated or coated with the inventive pesticidal compositions from solution. Granules generally contain 0.05-15%, preferably 0.5-5%, active ingredient as the pesticidally- effective amount. Thus, the contemplated are formulations with solid carriers or diluents such as bentonite, fullers earth, ground natural minerals, such as kaolins, clays, talc, chalk, quartz, attapulgite, montmorillonite or diatomaceous earth, vermiculite, and ground synthetic minerals, such as highly-dispersed silicic acid, alumina and silicates, crushed and fractionated natural rocks such as calcite, marble, pumice, sepiolite and dolomite, as well as synthetic granules of inorganic and organic meals, and granules of organic materials such as peanut shell, paper waste, sawdust, coconut shells, corn cobs and tobacco stalks. Adhesives, such as carboxymethyl cellulose, natural and synthetic polymers, (such as gum arabic, polyvinyl alcohol and polyvinyl acetate), and the like, may also be used in the formulations in the form of powders, granules or emulsifiable concentrations. If desired, colorants such as inorganic pigments, for example, iron oxide, titanium oxide and Prussian Blue, and organic dyestuffs, such as alizarin dyestuffs, azo dyestuffs or metal phthalocyanine dyestuffs, and trace elements, such as salts of iron, manganese, boron, copper, cobalt, molybdenum and zinc may be used. If desired, volatile organic compounds suitable as the fragrance ingredient for use in formulations for household or pet applications, include, but are not limited to, amyl salicylate, citronellol, citronelloxyacetaldehyde, cyclamen aldehyde, citronellyl isobutyrate, coumarin, cyclohexyl acetate, cyclohexyl butyrate, diethyl malonate, ethyl 2-acetyl-5-ketohexanoate, isobornyl acetate, linalool, phenethyl alcohol, undecanol, alpha-hexylcinnamaldehyde, 2-methylhexanol, hexalon, phenylacetaldehyde, cis-3-hexen-1-ol, cyclamal, veronol, eugenol, Lyral, Galaxolide, Citralva, musk ambrette, terpinyl acetate, geraniol, alpha-damascone, alpha-methylionone, and the like. Illustrative of volatile essential oils are oil of Bergamot, cedar leaf, cedar wood, geranium, lavender, white cedar, sandalwood oil, rose extract, violet extract, galbanum oil, and the like. Synthetic types of organic fragrances are described in publications such as U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,314,915; 4,411,829; and 4,434,306. In commercial or agricultural applications, the present invention encompasses carrier composition mixtures in which the synergistic and residual compositions are present in an amount substantially between about 0.01-95% by weight, and preferably 0.5-90% by weight, of the mixture, whereas carrier composition mixtures suitable for direct application or field application generally contemplate those in which the active compound is present in an amount substantially between about 0.0001-10%, preferably 0.01-1%, by weight of the mixture. Thus, the present invention contemplates over-all formulations that comprise mixtures of a conventional dispersible carrier vehicle such as (1) a dispersible inert finely divided carrier solid, and/or (2) a dispersible carrier liquid such as an inert organic solvent and/or water, preferably including a surface-active effective amount of a carrier vehicle assistant, e.g. a surface-active agent, such as an emulsifying agent and/or a dispersing agent, and an amount of the active compound which is effective for the purpose in question and which is generally between about 0.0001-95%, and preferably 0.01-95%, by weight of the mixture. The synergistic and residual compositions can also be used in accordance with so-called ultra-low-volume process, i.e. by applying such compounds or by applying a liquid composition containing the same, via very effective atomizing equipment, in finely divided form, e.g. average particle diameter of from 50-100 microns, or even less, i.e. mist form, for example by airplane crop spraying techniques. Only up to at most about a few liters/hectare are needed. In this process it is possible to use highly concentrated liquid compositions with said liquid carrier vehicles containing from about 20 to 95% by weight of the synergistic and residual compositions or even the 100% active substances alone, e.g. about 20-100% by weight of the synergistic and residual compositions. The mixture of active materials may be applied, without limitation, in sufficient amounts so as to provide about 0.2 to 2 and preferably about 0.5 to 1.5 pounds of active materials per acre. Moreover, the required amount of the synergistic and residual composition contemplated herein may be applied per acre treated in from 1 to 200 gallons or more of liquid carrier and/or diluent or in from about 5 to 500 pounds of inert solid carrier and/or diluent. The concentration in the liquid concentrate will usually vary from about 10 to 95% by weight and in the solid formulations from about 0.5 to 90% by weight. Satisfactory sprays, dusts, or granules for general use contain from about ¼ to 15 pounds of active synergistic and residual compositions per acre. Furthermore, the present invention encompasses methods for killing, combating or controlling pests, which comprises applying to at least one of correspondingly (a) such pests and (b) the corresponding habitat thereof, i.e. the locus to be protected, e.g. to a growing crop, to an area where a crop is to be grown or to a domestic animal, a correspondingly combative, a pesticidally effective amount, or toxic amount of the particular synergistic and residual compositions of the invention alone or together with a carrier as noted above. The instant formulations or compositions may be applied in any suitable usual manner, for instance by spraying, atomizing, vaporizing, scattering, dusting, watering, squirting, sprinkling, pouring, fumigating, and the like. The method for controlling insects comprises applying the inventive composition, ordinarily in a formulation of one of the aforementioned types, to a locus or area to be protected from the insects, such as the foliage and/or the fruit of plants. The compound, of course, is applied in an amount sufficient to effect the desired action. This dosage is dependent upon many factors, including the targeted pest, the carrier employed, the method and conditions of the application, whether the formulation is present at the locus in the form of an aerosol, or as a film, or as discrete particles, the thickness of film or size of particles, and the like. Proper consideration and resolution of these factors to provide the necessary dosage of the active compound at the locus to be protected are within the skill of those versed in the art. In general, however, the effective dosage of the compound of this invention at the locus to be protected—i.e., the dosage with which the pest comes in contact—is of the order of 0.001 to 0.5% based on the total weight of the formulation being applied, though under some circumstances the effective concentration will be as little as 0.0001% or as much as 20%, on the same basis. The synergistic and residual pesticidal compositions and methods of the present invention are effective against a wide variety of pests and it will be understood that the pests exemplified and evaluated in the working Examples herein is representative of such a wider variety. For instance, the present invention can be used to control pests that attack plants or warm-blooded animals, stored products and fabrics. Representative crop plants that can be so treated include, without limitation, cotton, corn, deciduous and citrus fruits, tomatoes, maize, ornamental plants, potatoes, rice, soybean, sugar beets, tobacco, wheat, etc. Representative animals that can be protected or treated by the present invention include, without limitation, humans, horses, dogs, cats, cattle, sheep, goats, hogs, etc. Representative stored products that can be protected from pest attack by the present invention include, without limitation, grains, flour and flour products, tobacco and tobacco products, processed foods and the like. Representative fabrics that can be protected from pest attack by the invention are wool, cotton, silk, linen and the like. The composition and method of the present invention will be further illustrated in the following, non-limiting Examples. The Examples are illustrative of various embodiments only and do not limit the claimed invention regarding the materials, conditions, weight ratios, process parameters and the like recited herein. EXAMPLE 1 Synergistic Effect of Plant Essential Oils and/or Their Constituents with Pyrethrum on the American Cockroach Glass jars were treated with different concentrations of test chemicals in acetone. The acetone was allowed to evaporate and the cockroaches were exposed to the jars. Ten cockroaches were used for each cross-walk treatment. Each individual component, with the exception of pyrethrum, was used at 100 mg/jar. In the co-treatment experiment without pyrethrum, each chemical was used at 20 mg/jar. In the cotreatment experiment with pyrethrum (25% pure pyrethrins), each plant essential oil was used at 20 mg/jar. Pyrethrum was used at 2 mg/jar. Results are shown below. % Mortality Treatment 24 hrs. 48 hrs. 72 hrs. Control 0 0 0 1- phenylethyl alcohol (100 mg) 0 0 10 2- α-Terpineol (100 mg) 20 30 60 3- benzyl alcohol (100 mg) 0 20 40 4- phenylethyl propionate (100 mg) 100 5- eugenol (100 mg) 100 6- pyrethrum (55% pure) (2 mg/jar) 0 0 10 1 + 2 + 3 (20 mg each) 40 70 80 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 (20 mg each) 60 100 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 (20 mg each) 100 1 + pyrethrum (20 mg + 2 mg) 0 20 20 2 + pyrethrum (20 mg + 2 mg) 40 60 100 3 + pyrethrum (20 mg + 2 mg) 20 40 80 4 + pyrethrum (20 mg + 2 mg) 100 5 + pyrethrum (20 mg + 2 mg) 100 EXAMPLE 2 Synergistic Effects of Plant Essential Oils and/or Their Constituents with Pyrethrum on the American Cockroach Glass jars were treated with different concentrations of test chemicals in acetone. The acetone was allowed to evaporate and the cockroaches were exposed to the jars. Five cockroaches were used for each cross-walk treatment, with two replicates/treatment. This experiment was repeated 3 times. In the cotreatment experiment with pyrethrum, ten mg/jar of plant essential oils and/or their constituents were used. Pyrethrum was used at one mg/jar in all tests. Results are shown below. Treatment % Mortality at 24 hrs. Control 0 1- Thymol (20 mg/jar) 0 2- Thyme Oil (20 mg/jar) 0 3- Blend 5 (20 mg/jar) 0 4- Eugenol (20 mg/jar) 0 5- Pyrethrum (1 mg/jar) 0 1 (10 mg/jar) + pyrethrum 50 2 (10 mg/jar) + pyrethrum 70 3 (10 mg/jar) + pyrethrum 80 4 (10 mg/jar) + pyrethrum 100 The tested dose of Thyme oil, Thymol and Blend 5 did not induce any death or sign of toxicity (body weight and appetite) against female rats (8-10 week-old rat) up to 5 days after treatment. The Blend-5 is a combination of plant essential oils consisting of thymol, eugenol, trans-anethole, alpha-terpineol, and citronellal. Examples 1 and 2. These Examples show synergistic activity of a synergistic composition containing plant essential oils and/or their constituents and pyrethrum (25% pure pyrethrins) at lesser concentrations, i.e., each at sub lethal dosages. EXAMPLE 3 Synergistic and Residual Effects of Mixture of Plant Essential Oil(s) With Pyrethrum and Pyrethrum Derivatives Against American Cockroach Glass jars were treated with different concentrations of test chemicals in acetone. The acetone was allowed to evaporate and the cockroaches were exposed to the jars. Five cockroaches were used for each cross-walk treatment, with two replicates/treatment. This experiment was repeated 2 times. The averaged results are shown below. % Mortality at time interval in days after treatment Treatment 1 hr. 3 5 7 10 20 30 45 60 Control 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Thymol (30 mg/jar) 30 10 0 C-Alcohol (3 mg/jar) + C-Acid (3 mg/jar) 0 0 0 Pyrethrum (45% pure) (.3 mg/jar) 0 0 0 Thymol (30 mg) + Pyrethrum (.3 mg) 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 80 100 Thymol + C-Alcohol + C-Acid 100 100 100 100 100 80 80 80 70 (30 mg) + (3 mg) + (3 mg) 4-Blend (25 mg) (phenethyl alcohol, phenethyl 40 40 10 0 propionate, benzyl alcohol, α-terpineol) 4-Blend (25 mg) + pyrethrum (.3 mg) 100 100 100 100 80 80 60 40 0 The data above demonstrate the synergistic and residual effects of one or more plant essential oils with pyrethrum. The increased toxicity and increased residual action of the synergistic blends are unexpected and provide distinct benefits over existing pesticide technologies. EXAMPLE 4 Synergistic and Residual Effects of Thymol With Pyrethrum Glass jars were treated with different concentrations of test chemicals in acetone. The acetone was allowed to evaporate and the cockroaches were exposed to the jars. Five cockroaches were used for each cross-walk treatment, with two replicates/treatment. This experiment was repeated 2 times. Results are shown below. % Mortality at time interval in days after treatment Treatment 1 hr. 3 10 30 45 Control 0 0 0 0 0 Thymol (30 mg/jar) 30 10 0 Thymol (10 mg/jar) 10 0 0 Thymol (5 mg/jar) 0 0 0 Pyrethrum (25% pure) (1 mg/jar) 10 10 0 Pyrethrum (25% pure) (0.3 mg/jar) 0 0 Pyrethrum (25% pure) (0.1 mg/jar) 0 0 Thymol (30 mg) + Pyrethrum (1 mg) 100 100 100 100 80 Thymol (30 mg) + Pyrethrum (0.3 mg) 100 100 100 100 80 Thymol (30 mg) + Pyrethrum (0.1 mg) 100 100 100 100 50 Thymol (10 mg) + Pyrethrum (1 mg) 100 100 100 100 50 Thymol (10 mg) + Pyrethrum (0.3 mg) 100 100 100 100 50 Thymol (10 mg) + Pyrethrum (0.1 mg) 100 100 100 100 20 Thymol (5 mg) + Pyrethrum (1 mg) 100 100 100 100 10 Thymol (5 mg) + Pyrethrum (0.3 mg) 100 100 100 90 0 Thymol (5 mg) + Pyrethrum (0.1 mg) 100 100 70 40 0 These data demonstrate the definite synergy and increased residual toxicity of thymol and sublethal amounts of pyrethrum. This synergy andincreased residual action at such low levels is unexpected and significant. EXAMPLE 5 Synergistic and Residual Effect of Mixture of Plant Essential Oil Constituents With Pyrethrins and DMSO A sample of pyrethrins in an acetone solution at a ratio of 1 part pyrethrins to 100 parts acetone was prepared. A second sample containing four plant essential oil constituents (alpha-terpineol, benzyl alcohol, phenyl ethyl alcohol and phenyl ethyl propionate) in equal proportions by weight was prepared. Then, the first and second samples were combined in a 1:1 ratio to obtain a synergized 4-blend composition, 1 part 4- blend to 0.01 parts pyrethrins. The synergized 4-blend composition was then applied to uncovered 9 cm glass petri dishes at 100 ul each. The second sample was applied to uncovered 9 cm glass petri dishes at 500 ul each. After exposure for one hour, allowing the acetone to evaporate, ten fire ants were placed in each petri dish and observed to determine the time to accomplish LD 90, which is the lethal dose required to kill 90% of the test population. It was observed that the 100 ul of synergized 4-blend killed three times faster than the 500 ul of 4-blend alone. The 100 ul of synergized 4-blend killed the ants in one minute and fifty seconds whereas the 500 ul of 4-blend alone killed the ants in four minutes and forty-five seconds. The ants exposed to the 4-blend composition exhibited increased signs of neurotoxic effect, including tremors and lack of coordination. This data shows that the level of the insecticidal plant essential oils in the synergistic compositions of the present invention may be decreased to lower levels of active ingredient in suitable end-use formulations from 5% to 1%, adding 0.01% pyrethrins, to achieve a faster knockdown and kill, at less cost. Moreover, the synergized sample continued to provide faster residual knockdown and mortality against fire ants than the unsynergized sample for at least fourteen (14) days after exposure. Similar experiments were conducted using dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and it also proved to be synergistic with plant essential oils and the synergized sample also provided residual toxic properties. EXAMPLE 6 Synergistic and Residual Effects of Thymol With Pyrethrum Derivatives Glass jars were treated with different concentrations of test chemicals in acetone. The acetone was allowed to evaporate and the cockroaches were exposed to the jars. Five cockroaches were used for each cross-walk treatment, with two replicates/treatment. This experiment was repeated 2 times. Results are shown below. % Mortality at time interval in days after treatment Treatment 1 hr. 3 10 30 Control 0 0 0 0 Thymol (30 mg/jar) 50 0 0 Chrysanthemate Ester (0.3 mg/jar) 0 0 0 Chrysanthemate Ester (0.6 mg/jar) 0 0 0 Chrysanthemate Ester (3.0 mg/jar) 20 0 0 Thymol (30 mg) + Chrysanthemate 0 0 Ester (0.3 mg) 100:1 Thymol (30 mg) + Chrysanthemate 0 0 Ester (0.6 mg) 50:1 Thymol (30 mg) + Chrysanthemate 100 100 100 100 Ester (3.0 mg) 10:1 These data demonstrate the definite synergy and increased residual toxicity of thymol and sublethal amounts of pyrethrum derivatives. This synergy and increased residual action at such low levels is unexpected and significant. EXAMPLE 7 Synergistic and Residual Effects of Mixture of Thymol With Pyrethrum Derivatives and Signal Transduction Modulators Against American Cockroach Glass jars were treated with different concentrations of test chemicals in acetone. The acetone was allowed to evaporate and the cockroaches were exposed to the jars. Five cockroaches were used for each cross-walk treatment, with two replicates/treatment. This experiment was repeated 2 times. Results are shown below. % Mortality at time interval in days after treatment Treatment 1 hr. 3 5 10 30 45 60 Control 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Thymol (20 mg/jar) 10 10 0 Cis-Jasmone (3 mg/jar) 0 0 0 PD 98059 (40 ug/jar) 0 0 0 Lavandustin A 0 0 0 (40 ug/jar) Thymol + Cis-Jasmone 100 100 100 100 100 100 70 Thymol + PD 98059 100 100 100 100 100 100 60 Thymol + Lavandustin A 100 100 100 80 100 100 40 The data above demonstrate the synergistic and residual effects of thymol with pyrethrum derivative Cis-Jasmone and signal transduction modulators such as PD 98059 and Lavandustin A. The increased toxicity and increased residual action of the synergistic blends are unexpected and provide distinct benefits over existing pesticide technologies. This data also demonstrates the ratios necessary to produce residual toxic effects. EXAMPLE 8 Synergistic and Residual Effects of Benzyl Alcohol With Pyrethrum and Other Synergists Glass jars were treated with different concentrations of test chemicals in acetone. The acetone was allowed to evaporate and the cockroaches were exposed to the jars. Five cockroaches were used for each cross-walk treatment, with two replicates/treatment. This experiment was repeated 2 times. Results are shown below. % Mortality at time interval in days after treatment Treatment 1 hr. 7 30 45 Control 0 0 0 0 Benzyl Alcohol (B-A) (100 mg/jar) 80 0 0 B-A (50 mg/jar) 0 0 0 B-A (50 mg/jar) + Thymol (1 mg) 100 0 B-A (50 mg/jar) + Thymol (5 mg) 100 0 B-A (50 mg/jar) + Pyrethrum (25% pure) 100 100 60 0 (1 mg) B-A (50 mg/jar) + Pyrethrum (25% pure) 100 100 100 30 (5 mg) B-A (50 mg/jar) + Cis-Jasmone (1 mg) 100 0 0 B-A (50 mg/jar) + Chrysanthemyl 100 0 0 Alcohol (1 mg) B-A (50 mg/jar) + Chrysanthemic 100 0 0 Acid (1 mg) These data demonstrate the definite synergy and increased residual toxicity of benzyl alcohol with synergists. This synergy and increased residual action at such low levels is unexpected and significant. EXAMPLE 9 Synergistic and Residual Effects of Benzyl Alcohol With Chrysanthemates Glass jars were treated with different concentrations of test chemicals in acetone. The acetone was allowed to evaporate and the cockroaches were exposed to the jars. Five cockroaches were used for each cross-walk treatment, with two replicates/treatment. This experiment was repeated 2 times. Results are shown below. % Mortality at time interval in days after treatment Treatment 1 hr. 7 14 21 Control 0 0 0 Benzyl Alcohol (B-A) (100 mg/jar) 70 0 Chrysanthemate Ester (C-Ester) (1 mg/jar) 0 0 B-A (100 mg/jar) + C-Ester (1 mg) 100 30 0 Chrysanthemyl Alcohol (C-Alcohol) (1 mg) + 0 0 0 Chrysanthemic Acid (C-Acid) (1 mg) B-A (100 mg/jar) + C-Alcohol (1 mg) + 100 50 0 C-Acid (1 mg) C-Ester (10 mg/jar) 30 0 B-A (100 mg/jar) + C-Ester (10 mg) 100 100 0 C-Alcohol (10 mg/jar) + C-Acid (10 mg/jar) 40 0 B-A (100 mg) + C-Alcohol (10 mg) + 100 100 C-Acid (10 mg) These data demonstrate the definite synergy and increased residual toxicity of benzyl alcohol with synergists. This synergy and increased residual action at such low levels is unexpected and significant. This data also demonstrates the ratios necessary to produce residual toxic effects. EXAMPLE 10 Synergistic and Residual Effects of Benzyl Alcohol With Synergists Glass jars were treated with different concentrations of test chemicals in acetone. The acetone was allowed to evaporate and the cockroaches were exposed to the jars. Five cockroaches were used for each cross-walk treatment, with two replicates/treatment. This experiment was repeated 2 times. Results are shown below. % Mortality at time interval in days after treatment Treatment 1 hr. 7 14 21 30 45 Control 0 0 Benzyl Alcohol (B-A) (100 mg/jar) 70 0 Pulegone (10 ug/jar) 30 20 Eugenol (10 ug/jar) 10 20 Cis-Jasmone (10 mg/jar) 0 0 Tetrahydrofurfuryl Alcohol (THFA) 0 0 (10 mg/jar) Thymol (15 mg/jar) 30 0 B-A (100 mg/jar) + Pulegone (10 ug) 100 100 0 B-A (100 mg/jar) + Eugenol (10 ug) 100 100 20 0 B-A (100 mg/jar) + Cis-Jasmone 100 100 50 50 40 0 (10 mg) B-A (100 mg/jar) + THFA (10 mg) 100 100 40 50 20 0 B-A (100 mg/jar) + Thymol (15 mg) 100 100 50 20 0 0 These data demonstrate the definite synergy and increased residual toxicity of benzyl alcohol with synergists. This synergy and increased residual action at such low levels is unexpected and significant. This data also demonstrates the ratios necessary to produce residual toxic effects. EXAMPLE 11 Synergistic and Residual Effects of Benzyl Alcohol With Signal Transduction Modulators Glass jars were treated with different concentrations of test chemicals in acetone. The acetone was allowed to evaporate and the cockroaches were exposed to the jars. Five cockroaches were used for each cross-walk treatment, with two replicates/treatment. This experiment was repeated 2 times. Results are shown below. % Mortality at time interval in days after treatment Treatment 1 hr. 7 14 21 Control 0 0 0 Benzyl Alcohol (B-A) (100 mg/jar) 100 0 0 B-A (100 mg/jar) + Lavandustin A (40 ug) 100 100 0 B-A (100 mg/jar) + PD 98059 (40 ug) 100 100 0 B-A (100 mg/jar) + Forskolin (40 ug) 100 100 20 B-A (100 mg/jar) + Geldanamycin (100 ng) 100 80 0 These data demonstrate the increased residual toxicity of benzyl alcohol with signal transduction modulators. This synergy and increased residual action at such low levels is unexpected and significant. This data also demonstrates the ratios necessary to produce residual toxic effects. EXAMPLE 12 Synergistic Effects of Thymol With Conventional Insecticides Glass jars were treated with different concentrations of test chemicals in acetone. The acetone was allowed to evaporate and the cockroaches were exposed to the jars. Five cockroaches were used for each cross-walk treatment, with two replicates/treatment. This experiment was repeated 2 times. Results are shown below. % Mortality at time interval in days after treatment Treatment 1 hr. 7 14 21 Control 0 Thymol (10 mg/jar) 0 Malathion (75 ug/jar) 0 Deltamethrin (5 ug/jar) 30 Permethrin (5 ug/jar) 0 Thymol (10 mg/jar) + Malathion (75 ug/jar) 0 Thymol (10 mg/jar) + Deltamethrin (5 ug/jar) 100 Thymol (10 mg/jar) + Permethrin (5 ug/jar) 0 These data demonstrate the synergy of thymol with deltamethrin even at very low levels. This synergy is unexpected and significant. EXAMPLE 13 Synergistic and Residual Effects of Thymol With Carbaryl Glass jars were treated with different concentrations of test chemicals in acetone. The acetone was allowed to evaporate and the cockroaches were exposed to the jars. Five cockroaches were used for each cross-walk treatment, with two replicates/treatment. This experiment was repeated 2 times. Results are shown below. % Mortality at time interval in days after treatment Treatment 1 hr. 7 14 21 30 Control 0 Thymol (15 mg/jar) 20 0 Carbaryl (1.0 mg/jar) 90 20 0 Carbaryl (0.1 mg/jar) 30 0 Thymol (15 mg/jar) + Carbaryl 100 100 100 100 0 (1.0 mg/jar) Thymol (15 mg/jar) + Carbaryl 100 80 10 0 (0.1 mg/jar) These data demonstrate the synergy and residual toxicity of thymol with carbaryl even at very low levels. This synergy and residual toxicity is unexpected and significant. EXAMPLE 14 Synergistic and Residual Effects of Thymol With Conventional Insecticides Glass jars were treated with different concentrations of test chemicals in acetone. The acetone was allowed to evaporate and the cockroaches were exposed to the jars. Five cockroaches were used for each cross-walk treatment, with two replicates/treatment. This experiment was repeated 2 times. Results are shown below. % Mortality at time interval in days after treatment Treatment 1 hr. 7 14 21 30 45 Control 0 Thymol (15 mg/jar) 10 20 10 Malathion (100 ug/jar) 100 90 60 Deltamethrin (5 ug/jar) 30 0 0 Permethrin (10 ug/jar) 10 0 0 Thymol (15 mg/jar) + Malathion 40 0 0 (100 ug/jar) Thymol (15 mg/jar) + Deltamethrin 100 70 80 100 70 50 (5 ug/jar) Thymol (15 mg/jar) + Permethrin 80 100 90 50 30 0 (10 ug/jar) These data demonstrate the synergy and residual toxicity of thymol with deltamethrin and permethrin at very low levels. This synergy and residual toxicity is unexpected and significant. Thymol and malathion are antagonistic. EXAMPLE 15 Synergistic Effect of Plant Essential Oils and/or Their Constituents and Pyrethrum on the American Cockroach This experiment was performed to determine whether pyrethrum (25% pure pyrethrins) act as a synergist to the plant essential oils and/or their constituents or vice versa. Five cockroaches were used for each cross-walk treatment, with two replicates/treatment. This experiment was repeated 2 times. Results are shown below. Treatment % Mortality at 24 hrs. Control 0 1- Thymol (50 mg/jar) 20 2- Thyme Oil (35 mg/jar) 30 3- Blend 5 (40 mg/jar) 30 4- pyrethrum (1 mg/jar) 0 1 + pyrethrum 70 2 + pyrethrum 90 3 + pyrethrum 100 The dose of pyrethrum which did not induce any lethal effects on Am. Cockroaches was mixed as 1 part relative to the test concentration of plant essential oils and/or their constituents. Without wishing to be bound by the following theory, it appears that pyrethrum acts as a synergist to the plant essential oils and their constituents tested. None of the test doses induced any toxicity against female rats. EXAMPLE 16 Synergistic Toxicity among Plant Essential Oil Constituents Several experiments were performed to exemplify that binary mixtures of plant essential oil compounds act synergistically. Early 5th instar larvae of Spodoptera litura (15-20 mg) were treated topically on the dorsum with doses of pure compounds as per standard protocols. Treated larvae were placed on diet in 5 cm plastic petri dishes and mortality observed at 24 hours post-treatment. For each treatment there were four replicates with 10 larvae each. Results are shown below. Treatments (μg/larva) Mortality (%) Experiment 1 Acetone control 0 Thymol (35) 25 Citronellal (35) 0 Thymol (35) + citronellal (35) ND Experiment 2 Acetone control 0 Thymol (40) 27.5 Thymol (40) + citronellal (40) 67.5 Experiment 3 Acetone control 0 Thymol (40) 25 Thymol (40) + citronellal (40) 57.5 Experiment 4 Acetone control 0 Thymol (40) 80 Thymol (40) + citronellal (40) 93.3 Experiment 5 Acetone control 0 Thymol (40) 20 Thymol (40) + citronellal (40) 77.5 Experiment 6 Thymol (35) 32.5 α-terpineol (35) 5 Both at 35 32.5 Experiment 7 Thymol (35) 60 Eugenol (35) 0 Both at 35 50 Experiment 8 Eugenol (90) 27.5 α-terpineol (90) 20 Both at 90 35 Experiment 9 Citronellal (110) 10 α-terpineol (110) 15 Both at 110 65 Experiment 10 Citronellal (110) 12.5 Eugenol (110) 20 Both at 110 40 Experiment 11 Thymol (35) 37.5 t-anethole (35) 12.5 Both at 35 100 Experiment 12 Thymol (40) 40 t-anethole (40) 12.5 Thymol (40) + t-anethole (25) 97.5 Thymol (40) + t-anethole (20) 90 Thymol (40) + t-anethole (15) 87.5 Thymol (40) + t-anethole (10) 80 Thymol (40) + t-anethole (5) 70 Thymol (40) + t-anethole (2.2) 55 Experiment 13 t-anethole (60) 17.5 α-terpineol (60) 7.5 Both at 60 97.5 Experiment 14 t-anethole (60) 30 Eugenol (60) 8 Both at 60 95 Experiment 15 t-anethole (70) 24 Citronellal (70) 6 Both at 70 40 Experiments 2-5 show that thymol is synergized by citronellal when applied in equal doses. Experiments 6-10 show that that thymol is not synergized by α-terpineol or eugenol. Eugenol does not appear to be synergized by α-terpineol or citronellal. However, α-terpineol and citronellal look to act synergistically (exp. 9). Experiments 11 & 12 show that trans-anethole is a potent synergist for thymol, even at a ratio of 1:8. Experiments 13-15 show that trans-anethole is an effective synergist for eugenol, α-terpineol and citronellal. EXAMPLE 17 Synergistic Effect of Plant Essential Oils and Propargite Against Two-Spotted Spider Mites Mixtures of 5-Blend (thymol, trans-anethole, α-terpineol, eugenol, and citronellal) with and without the commercial miticide, propargite (Omite™) were tested against adult mites on bean leaf discs. Treatments consisted of spraying adult mites (direct toxicity) and observing for toxicity versus survival. For each treatment there were 5 replicates with 10 mites in each. Mortality was determined. Results are shown below. % Survival at: Treatment 24 hrs. 48 hrs. 72 hrs. Control 4% 5% 32% 5-Blend, 0.5% 0% 0% 0% Omite, 0.01% 5% 5% 22% 5-Blend + Omite 30% 48% 52% Conclusions: When sprayed directly on adult mites, neither 5-Blend nor Omite are toxic up to 72 hours. However, the combination of the two products shows enhanced toxicity. These data are unexpected and provide advantages over existing pesticide technologies. EXAMPLE 18 Synergistic Effect of Plant Essential Oils With Conventional Insecticides Against Spodoptera litura Mixtures of 5-Blend (thymol, trans-anethole, α-terpineol, eugenol, and citronellal) with conventional insecticides were tested against 5-day old larvae of Spodoptera litura (2nd instar) on cabbage leaf pieces dipped in test solution. Mortality was observed at 24 and 48 hours. For each treatment there were 5 replicates with 50 larvae per replicate (n=250). Results are shown below. Mortality (%) Treatment 24 hrs. 48 hrs. Control 0 0 5-Blend (1% = 1:100 dilution) 2 6 Tebufenozide (Confirm ™), 0.1 ppm 4.5 41 Cypermethrin (Cymbush ™), 0.01 ppm 78 80 5-Blend + Tebufenozide 39 74 5-Blend + Cypermethrin 58 89 Conclusions: In this experiment, 5-Blend synergized tebufenozide at 24 hours and 48 hours. The results with cypermethrin are inconclusive due to initial toxicity. These data are unexpected and provide advantages over existing pesticide technologies. EXAMPLE 19 Synergistic Effect of Plant Essential Oils With Chrysanthemates Against Spodoptera litura Mixtures of 5-Blend (thymol, trans-anethole, α-terpineol, eugenol, and citronellal) and potential synergists were tested by application to cabbage leaf discs dipped in 1% emulsions. There were 4 leaf discs per treatment. Ten 3-day old (2nd instar) Spodoptera litura larvae per disc. Potential synergists and insecticides were dissolved in THFA/Tween 20 (carrier/emulsifier) at 10% active ingredient level; mixed with 5-Blend at 1:10 ratio of synergist to 5-Blend. Mortality was observed at 24 and 48 hours. For each treatment there were 5 replicates with 50 larvae per replicate (n=250). Results are shown below. Mortality (%) Treatment 24 hrs. 48 hrs. Control (THFA/Tween 20) 0 0 Cis-Jasmone 0 0 Chrysanthemic Acid 0 0 Chrysanthemyl Alcohol 0 0 Chrysanthemic Esters 5 5 5-Blend 20 30 5-Blend + Cis-Jasmone 60 85 5-Blend + Chrysanthemic Acid 72.5 87.5 5-Blend + Chrysanthemyl Alcohol 70 87.5 5-Blend + Chrysanthemic Esters 60 75 Conclusions: In this experiment, at a ratio of 10:1, 5-Blend is synergized by cis-jasmone, and the chrysanthemates. There was virtually no damage to the leaf discs in the synergized 5-Blend treatments, 30% damage in the 5-blend alone, and more than 80% in the remaining treatments. The control was completely consumed within 48 hours. These data are unexpected and provide advantages over existing pesticide technologies. EXAMPLE 20 Synergistic Effect of Benzyl Alcohol With Pyrethrum Against Spodoptera litura Mixtures of 5-Blend and potential synergists were tested by application to cabbage leaf discs dipped in 1% emulsions. There were 4 leaf discs per treatment; ten 3-day old (2nd instar) Spodoptera litura larvae per disc. Potential synergists and insecticides were dissolved in THEA/Tween 20 at 10% a.i.; mixed with 5-Blend at 1:10 ratio (synergist:5-Blend). In this example, THFA/Tween 20 at a ratio of 6:1 was used as a carrier/emulsifier for pyrethrum (20% pure pyrethrins) and other test substances. The sample size for each treatment is 40 (4 replicates with 10 insects each) of Spodoptera litura. Results are shown below. Mortality (%) Treatment 24 hrs. Control (THFA/Tween 20) 10 Pyrethrum 40:1 (ingredient ratio) 37.5 Pyrethrum 20:1 40 Pyrethrum 10:1 100 Benzyl Alcohol 15 Benzyl Alcohol + Pyrethrum 40:1 72.5 Benzyl Alcohol + Pyrethrum 20:1 82.5 Benzyl Alcohol + Pyrethrum 10:1 100 Conclusions: Benzyl alcohol appears to synergize pyrethrum, at least at the lower levels of active ingredient. The effect is obscured at the highest rate because there was 100% mortality with pyrethrum alone. These data are unexpected and provide advantages over existing pesticide technologies. EXAMPLE 21 Synergistic and Residual Effects of Plant Essential Oils With Conventional Insecticides And Synergists, And Signal Transduction Modulators Glass jars were treated with different concentrations of test chemicals in acetone. The acetone was allowed to evaporate and American cockroaches were exposed to the jars. Five cockroaches were used for each cross-walk treatment, with two replicates/treatment. This experiment was repeated 2 times. Results are shown below. % Mortality at time interval in days after treatment Treatment 1 hr. 7 14 21 30 Control 0 Benzyl Alcohol (100 mg) 100 0 0 Mixture ES-2a: 100 100 100 Benzyl Alcohol (B-A) (100 mg) Tetrahydrofurfuryl Alcohol (THFA) (10 mg) PD 98059 (100 ug) Trans-Anethole (10 mg) Pyrethrum (55% pure pyrethrins) (3 mg) Mixture ES-2b: 100 100 0 B-A (100 mg) THFA (10 mg) PD 98059 (100 ug) Trans-Anethole (10 mg) Chrysanthemate Ester (5 mg) These data demonstrate the synergistic and residual toxic effects of plant essential oils with pyrethrum and signal transduction modulators at very low levels. This synergy and residual toxicity is unexpected and significant. Signal transduction modulators may also synergize conventional pesticides and chrysanthemates as it does here with pyrethrum and chrysanthemate ester. EXAMPLE 22 Synergistic and Residual Effects of Benzyl Alcohol With Trans-Anethole Glass jars were treated with different concentrations of test chemicals in acetone. The acetone was allowed to evaporate and American cockroaches were exposed to the jars. Five cockroaches were used for each cross-walk treatment, with two replicates/treatment. This experiment was repeated 2 times. Results are shown below. % Mortality at time interval in days after treatment Treatment 1 hr. 7 14 21 30 Control 0 Benzyl Alcohol (100 mg/jar) 70 0 Trans-Anethole (10 mg/jar) 0 Benzyl Alcohol (B-A) (100 mg/jar) with: Trans-Anethole 10 mg/jar (1:10) 100 100 80 40 0 Trans-Anethole 2 mg/jar (1:50) 100 0 Trans-Anethole 1 mg/jar (1:100) 100 0 Mixture ES-2b: 100 100 0 B-A (100 mg) THFA (10 mg) PD 98059 (100 ug) Trans-Anethole (10 mg) Chrysanthemate Ester (5 mg) These data demonstrate the synergistic and residual toxic effects of plant essential oils with pyrethrum and signal transduction modulators at very low levels. This synergy and residual toxicity is unexpected and significant. Signal transduction modulators may also synergize conventional pesticides and chrysanthemates as it does here with pyrethrum and chrysanthemate ester. EXAMPLE 23 Synergistic and Residual Effects of Thymol With Pyrethrum And Signal Transduction Modulators Glass jars were treated with different concentrations of test chemicals in acetone. The acetone was allowed to evaporate and American cockroaches were exposed to the jars. Five cockroaches were used for each cross-walk treatment, with two replicates/treatment. This experiment was repeated 2 times. Results are shown below. % Mortality at time interval in days after treatment Treatment 1 hr. 7 14 21 30 45 60 Control 0 Mixture ES-A: (100 mg thymol + 40 ug PD98059) 15 minute brief exposure 100 0 0 24 hour continuous exposure 100 100 100 60 0 Mixture ES-B: (100 mg thymol + 3 mg pyrethrum) (Pyrethrum = 55% pure pyrethrins) 15 minute brief exposure 100 100 100 85 85 65 65 24 continuous exposure 100 100 100 100 85 70 80 Mixture ES-C: (100 mg thymol + 20 mg Phenethyl Propionate + 3 mg Cis-Jasmone) 15 minute brief exposure 100 0 24 hour continuous exposure 100 100 0 After ten minutes of exposure, all roaches from all three products are uncontrolled and unable to walk on the wall of the jars. These data demonstrate the synergistic and residual toxic effects of thymol with other plant essential oils in admixture with pyrethrum and signal transduction modulators at very low levels. This synergy and residual toxicity is unexpected and significant. EXAMPLE 24 Synergistic Effect of Phenethyl Propionate With Plant Essential Oils and Thymol In this bioassay, aqueous emulsions (1:400 a.i. to water) of thymol or 5-blend (thymol, trans-anethole, eugenol, α-terpineol, and citronellal) were applied, with and without phenethyl propionate (PEP), to cabbage leaf discs and 3rd instar larvae of Spodoptera litura were exposed to the treated discs after drying. There were five replicates with 10 larvae per replicate, and this was repeated two times. Mortality was observed after 24 hours exposure. Results are shown below. Mortality (%) Treatment 24 hrs. Control 1 5-Blend 73 PEP 8 5-Blend + PEP (1:1) 84 Thymol 98 PEP 2 Thymol + PEP (1:1) 84 Conclusions: Phenethyl propionate appears to synergize thymol and the 5-Blend. PEP can be used as a diluent for thymol and 5-Blend without appreciable loss of activity. These data are unexpected and provide advantages over existing pesticide technologies. As can be seen from the above discussion, the synergistic and residual combinations of active compounds according to the present invention are markedly superior to known pesticidal agents/active compounds conventionally used for pest control in the household and in agricultural areas. The pesticidal effectiveness of the particular new synergistic and residual combinations of active compounds of the present invention is substantially (and surprisingly) higher than the sum of the separate effects of the individual active compounds. Although illustrative embodiments of the invention have been described in detail, it is to be understood that the present invention is not limited to those precise embodiments, and that various changes and modifications can be effected therein by one skilled in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention as defined by the appended claims.	A	A01	A01N	65	00
11840407	US20080051748A1-20080228	ELASTIC COMPOSITE	ACCEPTED	20080213	20080228		[]	A61F1315	["A61F1315", "B29C6500"]	7794819	20070817	20100914	428	189000	77615.0	COLE	ELIZABETH	[{"inventor_name_last": "Black", "inventor_name_first": "Kevin P.", "inventor_city": "Rock Hill", "inventor_state": "SC", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Brewer", "inventor_name_first": "Dickie J.", "inventor_city": "Clover", "inventor_state": "SC", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Lester", "inventor_name_first": "Donald H.", "inventor_city": "Waxhaw", "inventor_state": "NC", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Marche", "inventor_name_first": "Thierry", "inventor_city": "La Chapelle Basse Mer", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "FR"}]	An elastic composite includes a first nonwoven, a second nonwoven, and two elastic films sandwiched between the first and second nonwoven. The elastic composite also includes a lateral edge portion where the first nonwoven is bonded to the second nonwoven, a lane between the elastic films that is free of the elastic films, and a first bond joining the first nonwoven to the elastic film, and a second bond joining the second nonwoven to the elastic film. The elastic composite may be used as a component of a disposable garment.	1. An elastic composite comprising: a first nonwoven, a second nonwoven, two elastic films sandwiched between said first nonwoven and said second nonwoven, a lateral edge portion where said first nonwoven being bonded to said second nonwoven, a lane between said elastic films being free of said elastic films, a first bond joining said first nonwoven to said elastic film, and a second bond joining said second nonwoven to said elastic films. 2. The elastic composite according to claim 1 wherein said first and second nonwoven having a CD/MD elongation at peak ratio of at least 1:1. 3. The elastic composite according to claim 1 wherein the CD/MD extensibility ratio being at least 3:1. 4. The elastic composite according to claim 1 wherein said first nonwoven and said second nonwoven being made of the same material and being selected from the group consisting of: carded nonwovens and spunlaced nonwovens. 5. The elastic composite according to claim 1 wherein said elastic film comprising a styrenic block copolymer. 6. The elastic composite according to claim 1 wherein said lane comprising a stiffened lane. 7. The elastic composite according to claim 6 wherein said stiffened lane being selected from the group consisting of: said first nonwoven and said second nonwoven being adhesively bonded together, or said first nonwoven and said second nonwoven being bonded together via calendaring, or said first nonwoven and said second nonwoven being adhesively bonded together and calendered, or said first nonwoven and said second nonwoven being bonded together via thermal, ultrasonic and/or infrared bonding, or an anchor material being sandwiched between said first nonwoven and said second nonwoven and between said two elastic films, or an anchor material being sandwiched between said first nonwoven and said second nonwoven and co-extruded with said two elastic films, or an anchor material being sandwiched between said first nonwoven and said second nonwoven and overlapping an edge portion of said two elastic films. 8. The elastic composite according to claim 1 wherein either said bond being selected from the group consisting of: adhesive bonds, thermal bonds, ultrasonic bonds and combinations thereof. 9. The elastic composite according to claim 1 wherein either said first bond or said second bond being selected from the group consisting of: a continuous bond surface with areas of greater and lesser bonding, or continuous linear strip bonds running in the machine direction, or linear strip bonds running in the machine direction wherein each strip comprising a plurality of dots, or a combination thereof. 10. An elastic composite consisting of: a first nonwoven, a second nonwoven, an elastic film sandwiched between said first nonwoven and said second nonwoven, and having a first lateral edge and a second lateral edge, a first bond joining said first nonwoven to said elastic film, and a second bond joining said second nonwoven to said elastic film, a lateral edge portion where said first nonwoven being bonded to said second nonwoven and located adjacent said first lateral edge of said elastic film, and a stiffened lane located adjacent said second lateral edge of said elastic film and including said first nonwoven and said second nonwoven and being free of said elastic film. 11. The elastic composite according to claim 10 wherein the CD/MD extensibility ratio being at least 3:1. 12. The elastic composite according to claim 10 wherein said first nonwoven and said second nonwoven being made of the same material and being selected from the group consisting of: carded nonwovens and spunlaced nonwovens. 13. The elastic composite according to claim 10 wherein said stiffened lane being selected from the group consisting of: said first nonwoven and said second nonwoven being adhesively bonded together, or said first nonwoven and said second nonwoven being bonded together via calendaring, or said first nonwoven and said second nonwoven being adhesively bonded together and calendered, or said first nonwoven and said second nonwoven being bonded together via thermal, ultrasonic and/or infrared bonding, or an anchor material being sandwiched between said first nonwoven and said second nonwoven and between said two elastic films, or an anchor material being sandwiched between said first nonwoven and said second nonwoven and co-extruded with said two elastic films, or an anchor material being sandwiched between said first nonwoven and said second nonwoven and overlapping an edge portion of said two elastic films. 14. The elastic composite according to claim 10 wherein either said bond being selected from the group consisting of: adhesive bonds, thermal bonds, ultrasonic bonds and combinations thereof. 15. The elastic composite according to claim 10 wherein either said first bond or said second bond being selected from the group consisting of: a continuous bond surface with areas of greater and lesser bonding, or continuous linear strip bonds running in the machine direction, or linear strip bonds running in the machine direction wherein each strip comprising a plurality of dots, or a combination thereof. 16. A process for making an elastic composite comprising the steps of: extruding two elastic films, cooling the two elastic films, laminating the two elastic films between the two nonwovens, stiffening a lane between the two elastic films, and taking up said elastic composite. 17. The process according to claim 16 further comprising the step of: tensioning the nonwovens in the machine direction prior to laminating.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Disposable garments, for example diapers or training pants, are known. Such garments may have side panels (or ears) and/or tabs. The side panels and/or tabs may be made from elastic composites. Elastic composites typically comprise various combinations of nonwovens and elastic materials, each combination designed to obtain a specific solution to a particular problem. Often, these elastic composites require some type of mechanical work to activate the composite. Examples of elastic composites (also known as elastic laminates) may be found in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,255,236 and 6,726,983. U.S. Pat. No. 6,255,236 discloses an elastic laminate where two nonwovens sandwich an elastic web, and the laminate has at least one elastic lane and at least one stiffened lane. U.S. Pat. No. 6,726,983 discloses an elastic laminate where two nonwovens sandwich an elastic film, and the elastic film is extrusion coated onto one nonwoven and is thermally bonded to the other nonwoven. There is an on-going effort in the disposable garment industry to provide new elastic composites with a balance of physical and esthetic properties and cost. Accordingly, there is a need for new elastic composites.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An elastic composite includes a first nonwoven, a second nonwoven, and two elastic films sandwiched between the first and second nonwovens. The elastic composite also includes a lateral edge portion where the first nonwoven is bonded to the second nonwoven, a lane between the elastic films that is free of the elastic films, and a first bond joining the first nonwoven to the elastic films, and a second bond joining the second nonwoven to the elastic films. The elastic composite may be used as a component of a disposable garment.	RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of earlier-filed, co-pending U.S. Provisional application Nos. 60/839,998 filed Aug. 24, 2006 and 60/889,311 filed Feb. 12, 2007. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The instant invention is directed to an elastic composite for use in disposable garments, particularly as a side panel (or ear) or a tab of a disposable diaper. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Disposable garments, for example diapers or training pants, are known. Such garments may have side panels (or ears) and/or tabs. The side panels and/or tabs may be made from elastic composites. Elastic composites typically comprise various combinations of nonwovens and elastic materials, each combination designed to obtain a specific solution to a particular problem. Often, these elastic composites require some type of mechanical work to activate the composite. Examples of elastic composites (also known as elastic laminates) may be found in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,255,236 and 6,726,983. U.S. Pat. No. 6,255,236 discloses an elastic laminate where two nonwovens sandwich an elastic web, and the laminate has at least one elastic lane and at least one stiffened lane. U.S. Pat. No. 6,726,983 discloses an elastic laminate where two nonwovens sandwich an elastic film, and the elastic film is extrusion coated onto one nonwoven and is thermally bonded to the other nonwoven. There is an on-going effort in the disposable garment industry to provide new elastic composites with a balance of physical and esthetic properties and cost. Accordingly, there is a need for new elastic composites. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An elastic composite includes a first nonwoven, a second nonwoven, and two elastic films sandwiched between the first and second nonwovens. The elastic composite also includes a lateral edge portion where the first nonwoven is bonded to the second nonwoven, a lane between the elastic films that is free of the elastic films, and a first bond joining the first nonwoven to the elastic films, and a second bond joining the second nonwoven to the elastic films. The elastic composite may be used as a component of a disposable garment. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For the purpose of illustrating the invention, there is shown in the drawings a form that is presently preferred; it being understood, however, that this invention is not limited to the precise arrangements and instrumentalities shown. FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of a representative disposable garment, e.g., a diaper. FIG. 2 is a schematic illustration of a second representative disposable garment, e.g., a diaper. FIG. 3 is a top plan view of an embodiment of the instant invention, parts broken away for clarity. FIG. 4 is an exploded sectional view of a first embodiment of the instant invention taken along sectional lines A-A of FIG. 3. FIG. 5 is an exploded sectional view of a second embodiment of the instant invention taken along sectional lines A-A of FIG. 3. FIG. 6 is an exploded sectional view of a third embodiment of the instant invention taken along sectional lines A-A of FIG. 3. FIG. 7 is an exploded sectional view of a fourth embodiment of the instant invention taken along sectional lines A-A of FIG. 3. FIG. 8 is an exploded sectional view of a fifth embodiment of the instant invention taken along sectional lines A-A of FIG. 3. FIG. 9 is a schematic illustration of a process for making the instant invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Referring to the drawings, wherein like elements have like numerals, there is shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 representative disposable garments, diapers 10 and 30. In FIG. 1, diaper 10 generally comprises a rear waist portion 12, a front waist portion 14, and an interconnecting portion 16. At the lateral edges of the rear waist portion 12, there are affixed side panels (or ears) 18. At the distal ends of the side panels 18, tabs 20 may be affixed thereto. At the distal ends of tab 20, fastening device 22 may be affixed thereto. On the exterior surface of front waist portion 14, a mating fastening device 24 may be disposed (shown as two elements, but may be a continuous element). Fastening device 22 and mating fastening device 24 co-operate to releasably secure diaper 10 about a wearer, as is well known. Fastening device 22 and mating fastening device 24 may be any known fastening mechanism. Such known fastening mechanisms include, but are not limited to, hook and loop fasteners and adhesive fasteners. In diaper 10, side panels 18 may be elastic (e.g., stretchable in a direction away from rear waist portion 12), so that the diaper may be securely fit to the wearer, and tabs 20 may be non-elastic. In FIG. 2, diaper 30 generally comprises a rear waist portion 32, a front waist portion 34, and an interconnecting portion 36. At the lateral edges of the rear waist portion 32, there are affixed side panels (or ears) 38. At the distal ends of the side panels 38, tabs 40 may be affixed thereto. At the distal ends of tab 40, fastening device 42 may be affixed thereto. On the exterior surface of front waist portion 34, a mating fastening device 44 may be disposed (shown as two elements, but may be a continuous element). Fastening device 42 and mating fastening device 44 co-operate to releasably secure diaper 30 about a wearer, as is well known. Fastening device 42 and mating fastening device 44 may be any known fastening mechanism. Such known fastening mechanisms include, but are not limited to, hook and loop fasteners and adhesive fasteners. In diaper 30, side panels 18 may be non-elastic, and tabs 20 may be elastic (e.g., stretchable in a direction away from rear waist portion 32), so that the diaper may be securely fit to the wearer. Referring to FIG. 3, the instant invention, an elastic composite 50, is shown. Elastic composite 50 generally comprises a first (or bottom) nonwoven 54, a second (or upper) nonwoven 56, and a first (or right) elastic film 58 and second (or left) elastic film 60 sandwiched between the first nonwoven 54 and second nonwoven 56. The elastic composite 50 generally comprises two lateral edge portions 62, two stretch zones 64 and a lane 66 (lane 66 is divided by a center line 52 which is shown for reference). In the lateral edge portion 62, the first nonwoven 54 and the second nonwoven 56 may be bonded together (discussed in greater detail below). In the stretch zone 64, the first and second nonwovens 54, 56 may be bonded to the upper and lower surfaces of the elastic films 58, 60 (discussed in greater detail below). The first and second nonwovens 54, 56 may be identical materials. These nonwovens may be any nonwoven. In one embodiment, the nonwoven has a basis weight in the range of 10-40 g/m2, and in another embodiment, in the range of 22-30 g/m2. The nonwoven, in one embodiment, is inelastic and highly extensible in the cross machine direction (CD). In one embodiment, the nonwoven has a CD extension at peak load of at least 200%. These nonwovens may be further characterized, in another embodiment, by their CD/MD (CD-cross machine or transverse direction; MD-machine direction) elongation ratio which may be at least 1:1, or at least 3:1, or in the range of 3-6:1, or in the range of 4-5:1. In one embodiment, the nonwoven is a point-bonded, carded nonwoven or spunlaced nonwoven produced from staple fibers. The staple fibers may be any material, for example, polyester (e.g., PET), polyolefin (e.g., PP), or a blend of both. The nonwoven may have apertures. An example of the point-bonded carded nonwoven is FPN 571D available from Fiberweb of Simpsonville, S.C. or SAWABOND 4132 (22 g/m2) from Sandler AG of Schwarzenbach, Germany. An example of the spunlaced nonwoven is SAWATEX® 2628 available from Sandler AG of Schwarzenbach, Germany. The elastic films 58, 60 are, in one embodiment, identical to one another. The elastic films may be made from any elastomeric polymer. In one embodiment, the elastomeric polymers may be styrenic block copolymers. Styrenic block copolymers include, but are not limited to, SIS (styrene-isoprene-styrene) block copolymers, SBS (styrene-butene-styrene) block copolymers, and combinations thereof. The elastic film may have a basis weight, in one embodiment, of 40-100 g/m2, and in another, 50-70 g/m2. The elastic film may be further characterized by CD elongation of at least 200%. The adhesive used in the bonding discussed above may be any adhesive. In one embodiment, the adhesive is a hot melt, non-elastic adhesive. Alternatively, adhesive may be replaced with bonding (e.g., thermal, ultrasonic, and/or infrared with or without binder fibers in the nonwoven). The instant invention, elastic composite 50, shall be discussed in further detail below with regard to the embodiments shown in FIGS. 4-8. In FIG. 4, elastic composite 50′ is shown. In lateral edge portions 62, the first nonwoven 54 and the second nonwoven 56 are bonded together via lateral edge bonds 68. The lateral edge bonds 68 are formed from the adhesive discussed above. While in each lateral edge portion 62 there is shown two layers of adhesive (forming bonds 68), the invention is not so limited and, for example, a single layer of adhesive (applied to either nonwoven) may be used. Lateral edge bonds 68, in one embodiment, may be a continuous layer of adhesive (i.e., the adhesive covers the length and width of the lateral edge portions), whereby the nonwovens, which are inelastic but extensible, are generally fixed (i.e., prevented or substantially prevented from extension). Lateral edge bonds 68, in another embodiment, may be in the form of a grid or cross-hatching of lines of adhesive, or any other pattern intended to generally fix the nonwovens in the lateral edge portions 62. In one embodiment where the width of the elastic composite is 170 mm, the adhesive weight of the lateral edge bonds 68 is 8-9 g/m2. Likewise, in lane 66, the first nonwoven 54 and the second nonwoven 56 are bonded together via lane bonds 72. The lane bonds 72 are formed from the adhesive discussed above. While in lane 66 there is shown two layers of adhesive (forming bonds 72), the invention is not so limited and, for example, a single layer of adhesive (applied to either nonwoven) may be used. Lane bonds 72, in one embodiment, may be a continuous layer of adhesive (i.e., the adhesive covers the length and width of the lane), whereby the nonwovens, which are inelastic but extensible, are generally fixed (i.e., prevented or substantially prevented from extension). Lane bonds 72, in another embodiment, may be in the form of a grid or cross-hatching of lines of adhesive, or any other pattern intended to generally fix the nonwovens in the lane portion 66. In one embodiment where the width of the elastic composite is 170 mm, the adhesive weight of the lane bond 78 is 2-3.2 g/m2. In stretch zones 64, the first nonwoven 54 and the second nonwoven 56 are bonded to elastic films 58, 60 via stretch zone bonds 70. The stretch zone bonds 70 are located between the first nonwoven 54 and the elastic films 58, 60, and between the second nonwoven 56 and the elastic films 58, 60, as shown. The stretch zone bonds 70 are formed from the adhesive discussed above. The stretch zone bond 70 consists of a plurality of adhesive bonds, whereby when the elastic composite is stretched in the CD, the nonwoven may extend with the elastic film, and when the elastic composite is relaxed, the nonwoven may bulk. The stretch zone bonds 70, in one embodiment, may be a plurality of continuous lines of adhesive extending in the MD (in the drawing, this is illustrated by a horizontal line of dots). The stretch zone bond 70, in another embodiment, may be a plurality of discontinuous (e.g., dots) lines of adhesive extending in the MD (in the drawing, this is illustrated by a horizontal line of dots). The elastic films 58, 60 may extend to the lateral edges of the stretch zone 64 or may extend slightly over the lateral edges of the stretch zone 64. Instead of lines of adhesive, a continuous film of adhesive of various weights/volumes/densities of adhesives may be used (e.g., a pattern of high density adhesive lines with lower densities there between). In one embodiment, the lines of adhesive may have a width in the range of 0.5-1.0 mm or 0.5-0.55 mm. In one embodiment, the center-to-center line of adhesive spacing may be in the range of 2.0-2.5 mm. In FIG. 5, elastic composite 50″ is shown. Elastic composite 50″ is the same as elastic composite 50′ (of FIG. 4), except as follows. A stiffener 74 is added to lane 66 between the first nonwoven 54 and the second nonwoven 56. Stiffener 74 is added to provide additional mechanical strength to lane 66. Lane 66 may be the portion of the elastic composite that is affixed to the disposable garment or the fastener may be affixed thereto, and as such may require additional mechanical strength to facilitate attachment to the garment in assembly of the garment and/or use of the garment. Stiffener 74 is bonded to the first nonwoven 54 and the second nonwoven 56 via lane bonds 72, as discussed above. Stiffener 74 is a non-extensible material (non-extensible with regard to the elastic films 58, 60). Stiffener 74 may be a film or nonwoven. In elastic composite 50″, stiffener 74 extends slightly beyond the lateral edges of lane 66 and overlaps (but may not be bonded thereto) the elastic films 58, 60. In FIG. 6, elastic composite 50′″ is shown. Elastic composite 50′″ is the same as elastic composite 50″ (of FIG. 5), except as follows. Stiffener 74 does not overlap elastic films 58, 60, and when the elastic composite 50′″ is assembled, the lateral edges of stiffener 74 are adjacent to or abut with their respective lateral edge of the elastic films. In FIG. 7, elastic composite 50″″ is shown. Elastic composite 50″″ is the same as elastic composite 50′ (of FIG. 4), except as follows. In elastic composite 50″″, elastic films 58, 60 are replaced with film 76. Film 76 has three zones, two lateral stretch portions 78 (corresponding to the stretch zones 64) and a center portion 80 therebetween (corresponding to lane 66). The lateral stretch portions 78 are elastic and the center portion 80 is inelastic. Film 76 is a unitary material and may be made by co-extrusion. In FIG. 8, elastic composite 50A is shown. Elastic composite 50A is similar to the foregoing elastic composites, except as follows. Elastic composite 50A has no lane 66. Instead, elastic composite 50A includes elastic film 82 (same materials of construction as prior elastic films) which may be adhered to the first nonwoven 54 and second nonwoven 56 via stretch zone bonds 70, as shown. Elastic composite 50A consists of two lateral edge portions 62 and an intermediate stretch zone 64. Referring to FIG. 9, a process 100 for making elastic composite 50 is illustrated. In extrusion step 102, the elastic films 58, 60 or film 76 is made from polymeric resins in to the extruded material. In cooling step 104, the extruded material is cooled and solidified. In laminating step 106, elastic films 58, 60 or film 76 (and/or stiffener 74 as needed) are laminated between nonwovens 54, 56 (nonwovens 54, 56 being provided from supplies 108). Typically, there is no tension in the laminator (except for the slight tensions necessary to move the films and nonwovens therethrough). Optionally, however, a tension (in the MD) may be added to ‘neck down’ the nonwoven prior to lamination to the film. In stiffening step 110, lane 66 (and/or lateral edge portions 62) may be subject to calendering (either heated or nonheated rollers) to ensure firm bonding therein. Finally, in take-up step 112, the elastic composite 50 may be subjected to inspection, edge trim, winding up, and/or packaging. When used in the disposable garment, the elastic composite may be cut along center line 52; so that one portion may be used on the right side of the garment and the other portion may be used on the left side of the garment. When elastic composite 50 is used as a side panel (or ear), the elastic composite should have a CD elongation of at least 140%. When the elastic composite 50 is used as a tab, the elastic composite should have a CD elongation of at least 35% (to obtain this elongation, it may be necessary to use a continuous adhesive layer for stretch zone bonds 70). The lane portion of the elastic composite is used to fasten the elastic composite to the garment. The present invention may be embodied in other forms without departing from the spirit and the essential attributes thereof, and, accordingly, reference should be made to the appended claims, rather than to the foregoing specification, as indicated the scope of the invention.	A	A61	A61F	13	15
11866619	US20080082769A1-20080403	Mass storage system and method	ACCEPTED	20080318	20080403		[]	G06F1200	["G06F1200"]	7873790	20071003	20110118	711	118000	68309.0	BANSAL	GURTEJ	[{"inventor_name_last": "Bouchou", "inventor_name_first": "Jean-Louis", "inventor_city": "Rosny-Sous-Bois", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "FR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Dejon", "inventor_name_first": "Christian", "inventor_city": "Paris", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "FR"}]	The present invention concerns a storage method and system (1) comprising processing means (11) and storage resources (20, 100) containing firstly storage means (20) including at least one physical library (P201 to P20n) and secondly memory means (100) called a cache (100), in which the processing means (11) of the storage system (1), vis-à-vis the computer platforms (101 to 10n), emulate at least one virtual library (V201 to V20n) from at least one physical library (P201 to P20n) which the storage system has under its control, characterized in that the processing means (11) of the storage system (1) comprise a management module (30) responsible for emulation and managing priorities over time for accesses to the storage resources (20, 100) using the results of calculations of at least one cache activity index per determined periods of time, and of at least one cache occupancy rate at a given time.	1. A storage system (1) for data generated, in at least one format, by at least one computer platform (101 to 10n) and transmitted to the storage system (1) via at least one communication network (RC) through access means (101) of computer platforms (101 to 10n) to the storage system (1) comprising processing means (11) and storage resources (20, 100) comprising firstly: storage means (20) containing at least one physical library (P201 to P20n) including at least one robot (P22) capable of loading and unloading at least one data storage cartridge (P211 to P21n) in and from at least one reader (P2001 to P200n) to allow the writing and reading of data transmitted by the computer platform (101 to 10n) in the physical library (P201 to P20n), and secondly cache memory means (100), which the said processing means (11) of the storage system (1) emulate, vis-à-vis the computer platforms (101 to 10n), at least one virtual library (V201 to V20n) from at least one physical library (P201 to P20n) under control of the storage system (1), the data thus stored in the physical library (P201 to P20n) and the virtual library (V201 to V20n) being grouped into groups of virtual volumes of determined size having at least one image (V1 to Vn) in the physical library (P201 to P20n) and/or one image (V′1 to V′n) in the virtual library (V201 to V20n), the access means (101) of the platforms (101 to 10n) to the storage system (1) thereby being arranged for accessing for reading and writing, via the communication network (RC), an image (V′1 to V′n) in the cache (100) of each of the virtual volumes stored by the storage system (1), the storage system being further characterized in that the processing means (11) of the storage system (1) comprises a management module (30) managing accesses to the storage resources (20, 100) both in the physical library (P201 to P20n) and in the virtual library (V201 to V20n), in relation to requests transmitted by the access means (101) of the computer platforms (101 to 10n) to the storage system (1), the management module (30) being responsible for emulation of the virtual volumes (V1 to Vn) of the physical library into virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the virtual library of the cache (100) and comprising firstly a of cache activity control module (31) calculating at least one cache activity index per determined periods of time, reflecting utilization of the access bandwidth to the cache (100), and secondly cache occupancy control module (32) calculating at least one cache occupancy rate at a given time, the management module (30) triggering said calculations periodically or on an ad hoc basis, whenever space is allocated for a new virtual volume (V′1 to V′n) in the cache (100) and using the result of said calculations, with reference to at least one management algorithm (AG) of the access bandwidth to the cache and implemented in the storage system (1), so as to regulate occupancy of the cache (100) while managing priorities over time for access to the storage resources (20, 100) by the computer platforms (101 to 10n) to flush the cache (100) by a read/write operation of the virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) or by the system (1) itself for at least one operation, thereby enabling the copying of data from at least one virtual volume (V′1 to V′n) of the virtual library (V201 to V20n) towards at least one virtual volume (V1 to Vn) of the physical library (P201 to P20n). 2. The storage system according to claim 1, characterized in that the cache (100) consists of a plurality of hard disks (1001 to 100n) on which a plurality of partitions (P1 to Pn) is distributed, the management module (30) comprising an organization module (33) permanently keeping up to date information on the distribution of the partitions (P1 to Pn) installed on the hard disks and on the distribution of the data recorded on the different partitions (P1 to Pn), said organization module (33), on the basis of said up-to-date information, generating at least one directory (RP) containing information on the locations and utilization of the virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100), the virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) on which reading or writing is in progress being identified as open virtual volumes, and the virtual volumes on which no reading or writing is in progress being identified as closed virtual volumes. 3. The storage system according to claim 2, characterized in that the management module (30) provides access to the content of the storage resources (20, 100) of the system (1) and verifies the content of the physical library (P201 to P20n) and virtual library (V201 to V20n) to assign to each of the virtual volumes a status value from among at least the following statuses: <<disk only>> status when the virtual volume has an image (V′1 to V′n) in the virtual library (V201 to V20n) of the cache (100) but does not have an image in the physical library or has at least one image in the physical library (P201 to P20n) which is not valid i.e. does not contain the same data as the image (V′1 to V′n) in the virtual library (V201 to V20n); <<out of cache>> status when the virtual volume does not have any image (V′1 to V′n) in the virtual library (V201 to V20n) of the cache (100); <<disk and tape>> status when the virtual volume has valid images both in the virtual library (V201 to V20n) of the cache (100) and in the physical library (P200 to P20n); <<swapping in>> status when the virtual volume has an image (V′1 to V′n) in the progress of being loaded in the virtual library (V201 to V20n), from an image (V1 to Vn) in the physical library (P201 to P20n); <<swapping out>> status when the virtual volume has an image (V′1 to V′n) in the virtual library (V201 to V20n) in the progress of being copied into an image (V1 to Vn) of the physical library (P201 to P20n); <<incomplete>> status when the virtual volume (V′1 to V′n) of the virtual library (V201 to V20n) is open and does not contain any data or contains incomplete data; <<moving out>> status when the virtual volume (V′1 to V′n) of the virtual library (V201 to V20n) is in the progress of being copied from one partition (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) to another; <<swappable>> status when the virtual volume has an image (V′1 to V′n) in the virtual library (V201 to V20n) of the cache (100) but has at least one image (V1 to Vn) in the physical library (P201 to P20n) which is not valid or the image (V′1 to V′n) in the virtual library (V201 to V20n) is in progress of being copied into an image (V1 to Vn) of the physical library (P201 to P20n), i.e. the volume either has <<disk only>> status or has <<swapping out>> status. 4. The storage system according to claim 2, wherein the cache occupancy control module (32) calculates firstly an individual occupancy rate corresponding to calculation of the occupancy rate on each of the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) individually, and secondly a mean occupancy rate corresponding to calculation of the occupancy rate of all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100). 5. The storage system according to claim 4, characterized in that the mean occupancy rate of the cache (100) at a given time, calculated by the cache occupancy control module (32), corresponds for all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100), to the sum of the size of the data present in the closed virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) having <<disk only>> status and the size for all the partitions (P1 to Pn) allocated to the open virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n), irrespective of their status, this sum being compared, for all partitions (P1 to Pn), to the total size available in all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100), to obtain the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100). 6. The storage system according to claim 4, characterized in that the individual occupancy rate of each partition (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) at a given time, calculated by the cache occupancy control module (32), corresponds, for each of the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) individually, to the size of the data present in the virtual volumes (V′n to V′n) having <<disk only>> status, whether they are open or closed, this size being compared for each partition (P1 to Pn) with the total available size in the partition (P1 to Pn) under consideration, to obtain the individual occupancy rate of each partition (P1 to Pn). 7. The storage system according to claim 1, characterized in that an activity index of the cache per determined periods of time is calculated by cache activity control module (31), said activity index correspondence to the mean, calculated over a determined number of successive determined time periods, of the maximum number of virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) that are simultaneously open during each determined period of time. 8. The storage system System according to claim 7, characterized in that the management module (30) compares the activity index of the cache with a minimum activity threshold and a maximum activity threshold, compares the individual occupancy rate of the cache with a maximum occupancy threshold and compares the mean occupancy rate of the cache with a first priority threshold, below which occupancy of the cache (100) has priority over flushing, and a second flush start threshold, above which flushing of the cache (100) can be performed, to manage accesses to the cache (100) by the management algorithm (AG) for managing the access bandwidth to the cache, implemented in the storage system, and comprising at least one of the following rules: if the value of the individual occupancy rate of a partition (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) is higher than the value of the maximum occupancy threshold, irrespective of the value of the activity index of the cache (100), the flush operation of the cache (100) is essential and is authorized to start to the possible detriment of accesses to the cache by the computer platforms (101 to 10n), part of the access bandwidth to the cache (100) then being used for the copying of one or more virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of this partition (P1 to Pn) into the physical library (P201 to P20n) during this flush operation, if the value of the activity index of the cache (100) is less or equal to the value of the minimum activity threshold, any flush operation of the cache (100) is authorized to start, to allow copying of one or more virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) towards the physical library (P201 to P20n), if the value of the activity index of the cache (100) lies between the value of the minimum activity threshold and the value of the maximum activity threshold, a flush operation of the cache (100) already in progress is authorized to continue, the copying of one or more virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) from the cache (100) to the physical library (P201 to P20n) being authorized during this flush operation in progress, but if no flush operation is in progress a new flush operation of the cache (100) is not authorized to start, if the value of the activity index of the cache (100) is higher than the value of the maximum activity threshold, a new flush operation of the cache (100) is not authorized to start and a flush operation of the cache (100) already in progress is interrupted, to the benefit of accessing to the cache (100) by the computer platforms (101 to 10n), unless the value of the individual occupancy rate of the cache (100) is higher than the value of the maximum occupancy threshold or unless the value of the mean occupancy rate of the cache (100) is higher than the flush start threshold, new copying of one or more virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) from the cache (100) into the physical library (P201 to P20n), during a flush operation already in progress, then being forbidden, whilst copying already in progress of one or more virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) from the cache (100) to the physical library (P201 to P20n), during this flush operation in progress, is authorized to be completed, if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) is less or equal to the value of the priority threshold, accesses to the storage resources (20, 100) in reply to requests transmitted by the access means (101) of the computer platforms (101 to 10n) to the storage system (1) have priority over the accesses needed to copy volumes requiring the same resources (20, 100) during a flush operation of the cache (100), this copying then possibly being deferred until release of these resources (20, 100), if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) is higher than the priority threshold, accesses to the storage resources (20, 100) in reply to requests transmitted by the access means (101) of the computer platforms (101 to 10n) to the storage system, do not have priority over the accesses needed to copy volumes requiring the same resources (20, 100) during a flush operation of the cache (100) which can therefore be started or continued to the possible detriment of accesses to the storage resources (20, 100) by the computer platforms (101 to 10n), if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) is less or equal to the value of the flush start threshold, a flush operation of the cache (100) towards the physical library (P201 to P20n) is only authorized to start if the value of the activity index of the cache (100) is less or equal the value of the minimum activity threshold, if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) is higher than the value of the flush start threshold, a flush operation of the cache (100) towards the physical library (P201 to P20n) is essential and is authorized to start. 9. The storage system according to claim 7, characterized in that the cache activity control module (31) comprises means for consulting information generated by an organization module (33), to calculate the activity index of the cache (100) by counting the number of open virtual volumes, the maximum activity threshold corresponding to the total number of virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) open at the same time which consume a fraction of the bandwidth that is considered too high to allow an internal operation to start which requires access to the cache (100). 10. The storage system according to claim 4, characterized in that the cache occupancy control module comprises means for consulting the information generated by an organization module (33), to calculate firstly the mean occupancy rate of the cache (100) by comparing the sum of the total size of the data present in the open virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n), irrespective of their status, and the total size of the data present in the closed virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) having <<disk only>> status, with the total storage capacity in all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100), and secondly to calculate the individual occupancy rate of each of the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) by comparing, for a given partition (P1 to Pn), the size of the data present in the virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) having <<disk only>> status, whether they are open or closed, with the total storage capacity of this partition (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100). 11. The storage system according to claim 10, characterized in that the organization module (33) cooperates with the cache activity control module (31) and the cache occupancy module (32) control to distribute the virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) equitably over the different partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100), in order to promote homogeneous distribution over all the disks carrying the different partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100). 12. The storage system according to claim 4, characterized in that the management module (30), during the flush operation of the cache (100), uses the results of the calculations made by the cache occupancy control module (32) to select those virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) to be copied into the physical library (P201 to P20n), the virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) thus selected being the closed virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) having <<disk only>> status and which were the less recently accessed, for reading or writing, by the computer platforms (101 to 10n), either in a given partition (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) if the value of the individual occupancy rate of this partition is greater or equal to the value of the maximum occupancy threshold, or in all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) if the values of the individual occupancy rates of all the partitions are below the value of the maximum occupancy threshold. 13. The storage system according to claim 12, characterized in that the management module (30) comprises an activity control module for the physical library (P201 to P20n), keeping permanently up to date at least information on the utilization of the readers (P2001 to P200n) and/or of the cartridges (P211 to P21n) of the physical libraries (P201 to P20n) under the control of the storage system (1), this reader utilization information thereby enabling the management module (30) to manage priorities over time for accesses to the storage resources (20, 100), firstly by the system (1) itself to flush at least one virtual volume (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) towards at least one virtual volume (V1 to Vn) of the physical library (P201 to P20n), and secondly by the computer platforms (101 to 10n) to read/write a virtual volume (V′1 to V′n) not present in the cache (100) and therefore necessitating consultation of the physical library (P201 to P20n) to copy a virtual volume (V1 to Vn) of this physical library (P201 to P20n) towards the cache (100), in the form of a virtual volume (V′1 to V′n) of the virtual library (V201 to V20n). 14. The storage system according claim 13, characterized in that the management module (30), through its access means to the content of the storage resources (20, 100) of the system (1), keeps permanently up to date at least information on the validity of the virtual volumes (V1 to Vn) present in the cartridges (P211 to P21n) of the physical libraries (P201 to P20n) under the control of the storage system (1), with respect to the virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) which may have been modified in the cache (100) by the computer platforms (101 to 10n), this validity information thereby enabling the management module (30) to compare the space occupied by the obsolete virtual volumes (V1 to Vn) in the cartridges (P211 to P21n) of the physical library (P201 to P20n) with a maximum invalidity threshold, and when this space of obsolete virtual volumes (V1 to Vn) reaches this threshold, to perform compacting of the valid volumes (V1 to Vn) of this physical library (P201 to P20n), in the cartridges (P211 to P21n) containing virtual volumes (V1 to Vn) in the physical library (P201 to P20n) that are not utilized and/or corresponding to closed virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) in the cache (100), by controlling the reading of all the valid volumes (V1 to Vn) of the source cartridges (P211 to P21n) containing obsolete volumes (V1 to Vn) and simultaneously copying these valid volumes (V1 to Vn) into target cartridges (P211 to P21n), so as to erase these source cartridges (P211 to P21n) and obtain only cartridges (P211 to P21n) containing valid volumes (V1 to Vn) in the physical library (P201 to P20n) and empty cartridges. 15. The storage system according to claim 14, characterized in that the management module (30), responsible for emulation of the virtual volumes (V1 to Vn) of the physical library (P201 to P20n) into virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the virtual library (V201 to V20n) of the cache (100), offers the possibility that a virtual volume (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) may have multiple images (V1 to Vn) in the physical library (P201 to P20n), and that those virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) taken into account by the module (32) of cache occupancy control for the calculation of the occupancy rate, are volumes which correspond to the virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) having <<disk only>> status, i.e. having images (V1 to Vn) present in the physical library (P201 to P20n) which are not all valid. 16. The storage system according to claim 14, characterized in that the management module (30) uses the results of the operations performed by the cache activity control module (31), cache occupancy control module (32) the activity control module (34) of the physical library (P201 to P20n), so that the compacting of the valid volumes (V1 to Vn) of the physical library (P201 to P20n) by the management module (30) is conducted in relation to the activity and occupancy of the cache (100), giving preference to access to the storage resources (20, 100) by the computer platforms (101 to 10n) over accessing required for this compacting. 17. The storage system according to claim 16, characterized in that the processing means (11) runs a software application forming all the modules (30, 31, 32, 33 and 34) of the storage system (1) and responsible for the interoperability of the different means of the system, this software application cooperating with an operating system installed on the storage system to manage the operations to be performed by generating information on at least the locations and utilization of all the data present in the storage system (1), the data needed for running this application being previously recorded in a memory accessible by the processing means (11) of the system (1). 18. Method for saving/storing data generated, in at least one format, by at least one computer platform (101 to 10n) and transmitted to a storage system (1) via a communication network (RC) through platform access means (101) accessing the storage system (1), the storage system comprising storage resources (20, 100) comprising firstly storage means (20) containing at least one physical library (P201 to P20n) including at least one robot (P22) able to load and unload at least one data storage cartridge (P211 to P21n) in and from at least one reader (P2001 to P200n) allowing the writing and reading of data transmitted by the computer platform (101 to 10n) in the physical library (P201 to P20n), and secondly comprising cache memory means (100), in which the processing means (11) of the storage system (1), vis-à-vis the computer platforms (101 to 10n), emulate at least one virtual library (V201 to V20n) from at least one physical library (P201 to P20n) which the storage system (1) has under its control, the data thus stored in the physical library (P201 to P20n) and in the virtual library (V201 to V20n) being grouped into virtual volumes of determined size having at least image (V1 to Vn) in the physical library (P201 to P20n) and/or one image (V′1 to V′n) in the virtual library (V201 to V20n), the access means (101) of the platforms (101 to 10n) to the storage system (1) thereby accessing for reading and writing, via the communication network (RC), the image (V′1 to V′n) in the cache (100) of each of the virtual volumes stored by the storage system, the method being characterized in that it comprises at least the following steps: emulation (61) of the virtual volumes (V1 to Vn) of the physical library (P201 to P20n) into virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the virtual library (V201 to V20n) of the cache (100), by a management module (30) present in the processing means (11) of the storage system (1) and managing accesses to the storage resources (20, 100) both to virtual volumes de (V1 to Vn) of the physical library (P201 to P20n) and to virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100), in relation to requests transmitted by the access means (101) of the computer platforms (101 to 10n) to the storage system (1); calculation (62), by a cache activity control module (31), of at least one activity index of the cache (100) per determined periods of time, reflecting utilization of the access bandwidth to the cache (100), this calculation step (62) being repeated to monitor changes in activity of the cache (100) periodically or on an ad hoc basis whenever space is allocated for a new virtual volume (V′1 to V′n) in the cache (100); calculation (63), by a cache occupancy control module (32), of at least one occupancy rate of the cache (100) at a given time, this calculation step (63) being repeated to monitor changes in occupancy of the cache (100) periodically or an ad hoc basis whenever space is allocated for a new virtual volume (V′1 to V′n) in the cache (100); decision (64), by the management module (30), in relation to the results of these calculations and to at least one management algorithm (AG) for managing the access bandwidth to the cache (100), implemented in the storage system (1), between authorization (70) or interdiction (80) of access to the storage resources (20, 100) by the computer platforms (101 to 10n) to read/write virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) in the cache (100), or by the system (1) itself for at least one operation, called a cache flush, allowing the copying of data from at least one virtual volume (V′1 to V′n) of the virtual library (V201 to V20n) to at least one virtual volume (V1 to Vn) of the physical library (P201 to P20n), so as to regulate occupancy of the cache (100) whilst managing priorities over time for accesses to the resources by the platforms and by the system itself. 19. Method according to claim 18, characterized in that it comprises firstly at least one installation step (67) to install a plurality of partitions (P1 to Pn) on a plurality of hard disks (1001 to 100n) forming the cache (100), and secondly at least one step (68) for the creation and updating, by an organization module (33), of data representing information on the distribution of partitions (P1 to Pn) and on the distribution of data recorded in the different partitions (P1 to Pn), said organization module (33), on the basis of this information, generating at least one directory (RP) containing information on the locations and utilization of the virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n), the virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) on which reading or writing is in progress being identified as open virtual volumes, and the virtual volumes on which no reading or writing is in progress being identified as closed virtual volumes. 20. Method according to claim 19, characterized in that it comprises a verification step of the content of the physical library (P201 to P20n) and of the virtual library (V201 to V20n) by the management module (30), via access means to the content of the storage resources (20, 100) of the system (1), followed by an assignment step, to each of the virtual volumes, of a value called a status, from among at least the following statuses: <<disk only>> status when the virtual volume has an image (V′1 to V′n) in the virtual library (V201 to V20n) of the cache (100) but does not have an image in the physical library, or has at least one image (V1 to Vn) in the physical library (P201 to P20n) which is not valid, i.e. does not contain the same data as the image (V′1 to V′n) in the virtual library (V201 to V20n); <<out of cache>> status when the virtual volume does not have any image (V′1 to V′n) in the virtual library (V201 to V20n) of the cache (100); <<disk and tape>> status when the virtual volume has valid images both in the virtual library (V201 to V20n) of the cache (100) and in the physical library (P201 to P20n); <<swapping in>> status when the virtual volume has an image (V′1 to V′n) in the progress of being loaded into the virtual library (V201 to V20n), from an image (V1 to Vn) in the physical library (P201 to P20n); <<swapping out>> status when the virtual volume has an image (V′1 to V′n) in the virtual library (V201 to V20n) in the progress of being copies into an image (V1 to Vn) of the physical library (P201 to P20n); <<incomplete>> status when the virtual volume (V′1 to V′n) of the virtual library (V201 to V20n) is open and does not contain any data, or contains incomplete data; <<moving out>> status when the virtual volume (V′1 to V′n) of the virtual library (V201 to V20n) is in the progress of being copied from one partition (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) to another; and <<swappable>> status when the virtual volume has an image (V′1 to V′n) in the virtual library (V201 to V20n) of the cache (100) but has at least one image (V1 to Vn) in the physical library (P201 to P20n) which is not valid or the image (V′1 to V′n) in the virtual library (V201 to V20n) is in the progress of being copied into an image (V1 to Vn) of the physical library (P201 to P20n), i.e. the volume either has <<disk only>> status or <<swapping out>> status. 21. Method according to claim 19, characterized in that step (63) to calculate the occupancy rate of the cache (100) at a given time, by the cache occupancy control module (32), comprises firstly a step (635) to calculate a so-called individual occupancy rate, corresponding to calculation of the occupancy rate on each of the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) individually, and secondly a step (636) to calculate a so-called mean occupancy rate, corresponding to calculation of the occupancy rate of all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100). 22. Method according to claim 21, characterized in that the step (636) to calculate the mean occupancy rate of the cache (100), by the cache occupancy control module (32) consists of measuring, for all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100), the sum of the size of the data present in the closed virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) having <<disk only>> status and the size allocated to the open virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n), irrespective of their status, this sum being compared with the total size available in all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100), to obtain the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100). 23. Method according to claim 21, characterized in that step (635) to calculate the individual occupancy rate of each partition (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100), by the cache occupancy control module, consists of measuring, for each of the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) individually, the total size of the data present in the virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) having <<disk only>> status, whether they are open or closed, this size being compared with the total available size in the partition (P1 to Pn) under consideration of the cache (100), to obtain the mean occupancy rate of each of the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100). 24. Method according to claim 18, characterized in that the calculations step (62) to calculate the activity index of the cache (100) per determined periods of time, by the cache activity control module, consists of calculating a mean, calculated over a determined number of successive determined time periods, of the maximum number of virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) opened simultaneously during each determined time period. 25. Method according to claim 22, characterized in that it comprises at least one additional comparison step (65) to compare the activity index of the cache with a minimum activity threshold and a maximum activity threshold, a comparison step (661) of the individual occupancy rate of the cache with the maximum occupancy threshold and a comparison step (662) of the mean occupancy rate with a first threshold called a priority threshold, below which occupancy of the cache (100) has priority over flushing, and with a second threshold called a flush start threshold above which flushing of the cache (100) can be performed, implemented by the management module (30) to manage accesses to the cache (100) by means of the management algorithm (AG) for managing the access bandwidth to the cache (100), implemented in the storage system (1), and comprising at least one of the following rules: if the value of the individual occupancy rate of a partition (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) is higher than the value of the maximum occupancy threshold, irrespective of the value of the activity index of the cache (100), the flush operation of the cache (100) is essential and is authorized to start to the possible detriment of accesses to the cache (100) by the computer platforms (101 to 10n), part of the access bandwidth to the cache (100) then being used to copy one or more virtual volumes (V′n to V′n) from this partition (P1 to Pn) towards the physical library (P201 to P20n) during this flush operation, if the value of the activity index of the cache (100) is less or equal to the minimum activity threshold, any flush operation of the cache (100) is authorized to start, to allow the copying of one or more virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) towards the physical library (P201 to P20n), if the value of the activity index of the cache (100) lies between the value of the minimum activity threshold and the value of the maximum activity threshold, a flush operation of the cache (100) already in progress is authorized to continue, the copying of one or more virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) from the cache (100) to the physical library (P201 to P20n) being authorized during this flush operation in progress, but if no flush operation is in progress a new flush operation of the cache (100) is not authorized to start, if the value of the activity index of the cache (100) is higher than the value of the maximum activity threshold, a new flush operation of the cache (100) is not authorized to start and a flush operation of the cache (100) already in progress is interrupted, to the benefit of accessing to the cache (100) by the computer platforms (101 to 10n), unless the value of the individual occupancy rate of the cache (100) is higher than the value of the maximum occupancy threshold or unless the value of the mean occupancy rate of the cache (100) is higher than the flush start threshold, new copying of one or more virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) from the cache (100) to the physical library (P201 to P20n), during a flush operation already in progress, then being forbidden, whilst copying already in progress of one or more virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) from the cache (100) to the physical library (P201 to P20n), during this flush operation in progress, is authorized to be completed, if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) is less or equal to the priority threshold, accesses to the storage resources (20, 100), in reply to requests transmitted by the access means (101) of the computer platforms (101 to 10n) to the storage system (1), have priority over accessing needed to copy volumes requiring the same resources (20, 100) during a flush operation of the cache (100), this copying then possibly being deferred until release of these resources (20, 100), if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) is higher than the priority threshold, accesses to the storage resources (20, 100) in reply to requests transmitted by the access means (101) of the computer platforms (101 to 10n) to the storage system (1) do not have priority over accesses needed to copy volumes requiring the same resources (20, 100) during a flush operation of the cache (100), which can therefore start or continue to the possible detriment of accessing to the storage resources (20, 100) by the computer platforms (101 to 10n), if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) is less or equal to the value of the flush start threshold, a flush operation of the cache (100) towards the physical library (P201 to P20n) is only authorized to start if the value of the activity index of the cache (100) is less or equal to the value of the minimum activity threshold, if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) is higher than the value of the flush start threshold, a flush operation of the cache (100) towards the physical library (P201 to P20n) is essential and is authorized to start. 26. Method according to claim 19, characterized in that the calculation step (62) to calculate the activity index of the cache (100), by the cache activity control module (31), comprises at least one consultation step (621) of the data generated by the organization module (33), to calculate the activity index of the cache (100) by counting the number of open virtual volumes in the cache (100), the maximum activity threshold corresponding to the total number of virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) open at the same time which consume a fraction of the access bandwidth considered too high to allow the start of an internal operation requiring access to the cache (100). 27. Method according to claim 22, characterized in that the calculation step (63) to calculate the occupancy rate of the cache (100), by the cache occupancy control module (32), comprises at least one consultation step (631) of the data generated by the organization module (33) to calculate firstly the mean occupancy rate of the cache (100) by comparison (632) of the sum of the total size of the data present in the open virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n), irrespective of their status, and the total size of the data present in the closed virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) having <<disk only>> status, with the total storage capacity of all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100), and secondly the individual occupancy rate of each of the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) by comparison (633), for a given partition (P1 to Pn), of the size of the data present in the virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) having <<disk only>> status, whether they are open or closed, with the total storage capacity of this partition (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100). 28. Method according to claim 19, characterized in that the emulation step (61) of the virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) by the management module (30) comprises a cooperation step (611) of the organization module (33) with the cache activity control module (31) and the cache occupancy control module (32) to distribute the virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) equitably over the different partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100), in order to promote homogeneous distribution over all the disks carrying the different partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100). 29. Method according to claim 18, characterized in that the flush operation of the cache (100), results from the use, by the management module (30), of the results of the calculations made by the cache occupancy control module (32), to select the virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) to be copied into the physical library (P201 to P20n), the virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) thus selected being closed virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) having <<disk only>> status and which were the less recently accessed for reading or writing by the computer platforms (101 to 10n), either in a given partition (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) if the value of the individual occupancy rate of this partition is greater or equal to the value of the maximum occupancy threshold, or in all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) if the values of the individual occupancy rates of all the partitions are lower than the value of the maximum occupancy threshold. 30. Method according to claim 18, characterized in that it comprises at least one step (71) for the creation and update, by an activity control module (34) of the physical library (P201 to P20n), of data representing information on utilization of the readers and/or of the cartridges of the libraries (P201 to P20n) under the control of the storage system (1), this information thereby enabling the management module (30) to manage priorities over time for accesses to the storage resources (20, 100), firstly by the system (1) itself to flush at least one virtual volume (V′1 to V′n) from the cache (100) towards a volume (V1 to Vn) of the physical library (P201 to P20n), and secondly by the computer platforms (101 to 10n) to read/write a virtual volume (V′1 to V′n) not present in the cache (100) and therefore necessitating consultation of the physical library (P201 to P20n) to copy a volume (V1 to Vn) from this physical library (P201 to P20n) to the cache (100), in the form of a virtual volume (V′1 to V′n) of the virtual library (V201 to V20n). 31. Method according to claim 20, characterized in that it comprises at least one step (69) for the creation and update, by the management module (30), of data representing information on the validity of the volumes (V1 to Vn) present in the cartridges (P211 to P21n) of the physical libraries (P201 to P20n) under the control of the storage system (1), with respect to the virtual volumes (V1 to Vn) which may have been modified in the cache (100) by the computer platforms (101 to 10n), this information on validity enabling the management module (30) to implement a comparison step (89) of the space occupied by obsolete virtual volumes (V1 to Vn) in the cartridges (P211 to P21n) of the physical library (P201 to P20n) with a maximum invalidity threshold and, if this space occupied by these obsolete virtual volumes (V1 to Vn) reaches this threshold, to implement a compacting step (90) of the valid volumes (V1 to Vn), taken from cartridges (P211 to P21n) containing volumes (V1 to Vn) that are non-utilized and/or correspond to closed virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n), by controlling the reading (92) of all the valid volumes (V1 to Vn) of the source cartridges (P211 to P21n) containing obsolete volumes (V1 to Vn) and simultaneously copying (93) these valid volumes (V1 to Vn) into target cartridges (P211 to P21n), so as to erase these source cartridges (P211 to P21n) and only obtain cartridges (P211 to P21n) containing valid volumes (V1 to Vn) in the physical library (P201 to P20n). 32. Method according to claim 31, characterized in that the emulation steps (61) of the virtual volumes (V1 to Vn) of the physical library (P201 to P20n) into virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the virtual library (V201 to V20n) of the cache (100) and the management steps of the cache (100) by the management module (30), offer the possibility that a virtual volume (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) may have multiple images (V1 to Vn) in the physical library (P201 to P20n), step (69) by the management module (30) to create and update information representing validity of the volumes (V1 to Vn) present in the cartridges (P211 to P21n) of the physical libraries (P201 to P20n) allowing those virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) taken into account by module (32) of cache occupancy control, for calculation of the occupancy rate, to correspond to the virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) having <<disk only>> status, i.e. having images (V1 to Vn) present in the physical library (P201 to P20n) which are not all valid. 33. Method according to claim 31, characterized in that the compacting step (90) of the physical library (P200 to P20n) comprises a step (91), in which the management module (30) uses the results of the operations performed by the cache activity control module (31) cache occupancy control module (32) and activity control module (34) of the physical library (P201 to P20n), so that the compacting of the valid volumes (V1 to Vn) of the physical library (P201 to P20n) by the management module (30) is performed in relation to the activity and occupancy of the cache (100), by giving preference to accessing to the storage resources (20, 100) by the computer platforms (101 to 10n) over accessing needed for this compacting. 34. Method according to claim 18, characterized in that it comprises a step to install a software application in the operating system of the storage system (1), said software application forming all the modules (30, 31, 32, 33 and 34) of the storage system (1) and responsible for the interoperability of the different means of this system, said software application cooperating with an operating system installed on the storage system (1) to manage the operations to be performed by generating information on at least the locations and utilization of all the data present in the storage system (1), this installation step enabling the recording of the data needed to run this application in a memory accessible by the processing means (11) of the system (1). 35. The storage system according to claim 3, wherein the cache occupancy control module (32) calculates firstly an individual occupancy rate corresponding to calculation of the occupancy rate on each of the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) individually, and secondly a mean occupancy rate corresponding to calculation of the occupancy rate of all the partitions (P1 to Pr) of the cache (100). 36. The storage system according to claim 35, characterized in that the mean occupancy rate of the cache (100) at a given time, calculated by the cache occupancy control module (32), corresponds for all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100), to the sum of the size of the data present in the closed virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) having <<disk only>> status and the size for all the partitions (P1 to Pn) allocated to the open virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n), irrespective of their status, this sum being compared, for all partitions (P1 to Pn), to the total size available in all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100), to obtain the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100). 37. The storage system according to claim 35, characterized in that the individual occupancy rate of each partition (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) at a given time, calculated by the cache occupancy control module (32), corresponds, for each of the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) individually, to the size of the data present in the virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) having <<disk only>> status, whether they are open or closed, this size being compared for each partition (P1 to Pn) with the total available size in the partition (P1 to Pn) under consideration, to obtain the individual occupancy rate of each partition (P1 to Pn). 38. The storage system according to claim 36, characterized in that the individual occupancy rate of each partition (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) at a given time, calculated by the cache occupancy control module (32), corresponds, for each of the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) individually, to the size of the data present in the virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) having <<disk only>> status, whether they are open or closed, this size being compared for each partition (P1 to Pn) with the total available size in the partition (P1 to Pn) under consideration, to obtain the individual occupancy rate of each partition (P1 to Pn). 39. The storage system according to claim 2, characterized in that an activity index of the cache per determined periods of time is calculated by cache activity control module (31), said activity index correspondence to the mean, calculated over a determined number of successive determined time periods, of the maximum number of virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) that are simultaneously open during each determined period of time. 40. The storage system according to claim 3, characterized in that an activity index of the cache per determined periods of time is calculated by cache activity control module (31), said activity index correspondence to the mean, calculated over a determined number of successive determined time periods, of the maximum number of virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) that are simultaneously open during each determined period of time. 41. The storage system according to claim 4, characterized in that an activity index of the cache per determined periods of time is calculated by cache activity control module (31), said activity index correspondence to the mean, calculated over a determined number of successive determined time periods, of the maximum number of virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) that are simultaneously open during each determined period of time. 42. The storage system according to claim 5, characterized in that an activity index of the cache per determined periods of time is calculated by cache activity control module (31), said activity index correspondence to the mean, calculated over a determined number of successive determined time periods, of the maximum number of virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) that are simultaneously open during each determined period of time. 43. The storage system according to claim 35, characterized in that an activity index of the cache per determined periods of time is calculated by cache activity control module (31), said activity index correspondence to the mean, calculated over a determined number of successive determined time periods, of the maximum number of virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) that are simultaneously open during each determined period of time. 44. The storage system according to claim 36, characterized in that an activity index of the cache per determined periods of time is calculated by cache activity control module (31), said activity index correspondence to the mean, calculated over a determined number of successive determined time periods, of the maximum number of virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) that are simultaneously open during each determined period of time. 45. The storage system according to claim 37, characterized in that an activity index of the cache per determined periods of time is calculated by cache activity control module (31), said activity index correspondence to the mean, calculated over a determined number of successive determined time periods, of the maximum number of virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) that are simultaneously open during each determined period of time. 46. The storage system according to claim 35, characterized in that the management module (30) compares the activity index of the cache with a minimum activity threshold and a maximum activity threshold, compares the individual occupancy rate of the cache with a maximum occupancy threshold and compares the mean occupancy rate of the cache with a first priority threshold, below which occupancy of the cache (100) has priority over flushing, and a second flush start threshold, above which flushing of the cache (100) can be performed, to manage accesses to the cache (100) by the management algorithm (AG) for managing the access bandwidth to the cache, implemented in the storage system, and comprising at least one of the following rules: if the value of the individual occupancy rate of a partition (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) is higher than the value of the maximum occupancy threshold, irrespective of the value of the activity index of the cache (100), the flush operation of the cache (100) is essential and is authorized to start to the possible detriment of accesses to the cache by the computer platforms (101 to 10n), part of the access bandwidth to the cache (100) then being used for the copying of one or more virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of this partition (P1 to Pn) into the physical library (P201 to P20n) during this flush operation, if the value of the activity index of the cache (100) is less or equal to the value of the minimum activity threshold, any flush operation of the cache (100) is authorized to start, to allow copying of one or more virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) towards the physical library (P201 to P20n), if the value of the activity index of the cache (100) lies between the value of the minimum activity threshold and the value of the maximum activity threshold, a flush operation of the cache (100) already in progress is authorized to continue, the copying of one or more virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) from the cache (100) to the physical library (P201 to P20n) being authorized during this flush operation in progress, but if no flush operation is in progress a new flush operation of the cache (100) is not authorized to start, if the value of the activity index of the cache (100) is higher than the value of the maximum activity threshold, a new flush operation of the cache (100) is not authorized to start and a flush operation of the cache (100) already in progress is interrupted, to the benefit of accessing to the cache (100) by the computer platforms (101 to 10n), unless the value of the individual occupancy rate of the cache (100) is higher than the value of the maximum occupancy threshold or unless the value of the mean occupancy rate of the cache (100) is higher than the flush start threshold, new copying of one or more virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) from the cache (100) into the physical library (P201 to P20n), during a flush operation already in progress, then being forbidden, whilst copying already in progress of one or more virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) from the cache (100) to the physical library (P201 to P20n), during this flush operation in progress, is authorized to be completed, if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) is less or equal to the value of the priority threshold, accesses to the storage resources (20, 100) in reply to requests transmitted by the access means (101) of the computer platforms (101 to 10n) to the storage system (1) have priority over the accesses needed to copy volumes requiring the same resources (20, 100) during a flush operation of the cache (100), this copying then possibly being deferred until release of these resources (20, 100), if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) is higher than the priority threshold, accesses to the storage resources (20, 100) in reply to requests transmitted by the access means (101) of the computer platforms (101 to 10n) to the storage system, do not have priority over the accesses needed to copy volumes requiring the same resources (20, 100) during a flush operation of the cache (100) which can therefore be started or continued to the possible detriment of accesses to the storage resources (20, 100) by the computer platforms (101 to 10n), if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) is less or equal to the value of the flush start threshold, a flush operation of the cache (100) towards the physical library (P201 to P20n) is only authorized to start if the value of the activity index of the cache (100) is less or equal the value of the minimum activity threshold, if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions (P1 to Pn) of the cache (100) is higher than the value of the flush start threshold, a flush operation of the cache (100) towards the physical library (P201 to P20n) is essential and is authorized to start. 47. The storage system according to claim 46, characterized in that the cache activity control module (31) comprises means for consulting information generated by an organization module (33), to calculate the activity index of the cache (100) by counting the number of open virtual volumes, the maximum activity threshold corresponding to the total number of virtual volumes (V′1 to V′n) of the cache (100) open at the same time which consume a fraction of the bandwidth that is considered too high to allow an internal operation to start which requires access to the cache (100).			The present invention relates to the area of data processing, and in particular to the mass storage of data of different formats, generated by different heterogeneous computer platforms such as platforms of type GCOS8®, Unix®, Linux® or Windows® for example. These platforms run data-saving software applications e.g. GCOS8/TMS, Bull OpenSave, Veritas NetBackup or Legato Networker allowing generated data to be saved by sending it towards mass storage systems via a communication network such as a network of SAN type (<<Storage Area Network >>) or a network of Internet type for example. Mass storage systems all comprise communication means via at least one communication network, and data processing means firstly to manage exchanges with computer platforms and secondly to manage the storage of data derived from these platforms. Mass storage systems also comprise firstly memory means to store the data needed to run the software applications managing system operations, and secondly high capacity storage means to store mass data sent by the different platforms to which these systems are connected. In the prior art several types of mass storage systems are known, in which the high capacity storage means consist of physical libraries of magnetic storage media, called cartridges, handled by robots. These physical libraries comprise a plurality of cartridges in which data is written and read by means of at least one reader which individually accesses, via robotics, each of these cartridges when a request for writing or reading is transmitted by one of the computer platforms to the mass storage system. However, these known prior art solutions have the major disadvantages of being relatively slow, and of rapidly becoming saturated when numerous requests for access to the physical libraries are sent by the platforms. Mass storage systems are also known in the prior art which comprise large size memory means, called cache, forming a buffer between the computer platforms and the physical libraries. These large-size memory means consist, for example, of a plurality of hard disks in which the data sent or consulted by the platforms can be temporarily stored, to facilitate platform accessing to data while the system performs necessary operations within the physical library of physical cartridges. These mass storage systems known in the prior art therefore allow data to be stored temporarily in large-size memory means, to enable access thereto by platforms more rapidly than if they accessed the physical library. These mass storage systems therefore allow data consultation and updating to be managed at the request of the computer platforms from which this data originate. However, on account of the multitude and complexity of the maintenance tasks performed by these systems, when requests are transmitted by the computer platforms, the slowness and easy saturation of the processing capacities of these systems remain major drawbacks. The large-size memory means of these mass storage systems effectively have a certain bandwidth which limits the possible number of simultaneous accesses to data. In the prior art, in particular from patent application US 2005/055512 A1, mass storage systems are known which manage the flushing of various cache volumes in relation to pre-determined priorities and in relation to periods of inactivity corresponding to a low <<demand load >> when the need to flush the cache is low (since there is large free space in the cache). This type of solution has the disadvantage of only taking into account the occupancy of the cache, and does not allow fine-tuned management of the cache in relation to demands or the management of access to the cache by the computer platforms and the system itself. From the prior art, particularly from patent application U.S. Pat. No. 5,566,315 A, mass storage systems are known in which an allocation rate and a blocking rate are calculated to regulate flushing of the cache. This type of solution has the disadvantage of not anticipating blockage of the cache, since it consists of calculating the number of times when space allocations have failed because too much cache space is used. This type of solution thus does not allow fine-tuned management of the cache either, in relation to demand, nor does it allow management of the accesses to the cache by the computer platforms and the system itself. Finally, from the prior art, in particular from patent application U.S. Pat. No. 5,530,850 A, storage systems are known allowing the compacting of data stored and segmented on storage devices, subsequent to changes in entered data. This type of solution also has the disadvantage of not allowing fine-tuned management of the cache in relation to demand, nor the management of access to the cache by computer platforms and the system itself. Additionally, this type of solution does not allow the triggering of compacting in relation to the activity of the storage system. In this context, it would be of interest to optimise the management of the different tasks of writing, reading and ensuring the maintenance of the physical libraries which a mass storage system has under its control. The purpose of the present invention is to overcome some disadvantages of the prior art by proposing a storage system which is able to optimise the management of the different tasks of read, write and maintenance of physical libraries which are under its control, giving priority to data access by the computer platforms. This purpose is achieved with a storage system for data generated, in at least one format, by at least one computer platform and transmitted to the storage system via at least one communication network through access means of the platform to the storage system, the storage system comprising processing means and storage resources comprising firstly storage means containing at least one physical library including at least one robot capable of loading and unloading at least one data storage cartridge in and from at least one reader to allow the writing and reading of data transmitted by the computer platform in the physical library, and secondly memory means, called a cache, in which the processing means of the storage system emulate, vis-à-vis the computer platforms, at least one virtual library from at least one physical library which the storage system has under its control, the data thus stored in the physical library and the virtual library being grouped into groups of determined size, called virtual volumes, having at least one image in the physical library and/or one image in the virtual library, the access means of the platforms to the storage system thereby accessing for reading and writing, via the communication network, the image in the cache of each of the virtual volumes stored by the storage system, characterized in that the processing means of the storage system comprise a management module managing accesses to the storage resources both in the physical library and in the virtual library, in relation to requests transmitted by the access means of the computer platforms to the storage system, the management module being responsible for emulation of the virtual volumes of the physical library into virtual volumes of the virtual library of the cache and comprising firstly a module of cache activity control calculating at least one cache activity index per determined periods of time, reflecting utilization of the access bandwidth to the cache, and secondly a module of cache occupancy control calculating at least one cache occupancy rate at a given time, the management module triggering these calculations periodically or on an ad hoc basis whenever space is allocated for a new virtual volume in the cache and using the result of these calculations, with reference to at least one algorithm of management of the access bandwidth to the cache and implemented in the storage system, so as to regulate occupancy of the cache whilst managing priorities over time for access to the storage resources by the computer platforms to read/write virtual volumes of the cache or by the system itself for at least one operation, called flush of the cache, enabling the copying of data from at least one virtual volume of the virtual library towards at least one virtual volume of the physical library. According to another feature, the cache consists of a plurality of hard disks on which a plurality of partitions is distributed, the management module comprising an organization module keeping permanently up to date information on the distribution of the partitions installed on the hard disks and on the distribution of the data recorded on the different partitions, this organization module, on the basis of this information, generating at least one directory containing information on the locations and utilization of the virtual volumes of the cache, the virtual volumes on which reading or writing is in progress being identified as open virtual volumes, and the virtual volumes on which no reading or writing is in progress being identified as closed virtual volumes. According to another feature the management module comprises access means to the content of the storage resources of the system and verifies the content of the physical library and virtual library to assign to each of the virtual volumes a value, called a status, from among at least the following statuses: <<disk only>> status when the virtual volume has an image in the virtual library of the cache but does not have an image in the physical library or has at least one image in the physical library which is not valid i.e. does not contain the same data as the image in the virtual library; <<out of cache>> status when the virtual volume does not have any image in the virtual library of the cache; <<disk and tape>> status when the virtual volume has valid images both in the virtual library of the cache and in the physical library; <<swapping in>> status when the virtual volume has an image in the progress of being loaded in the virtual library, from an image in the physical library; <<swapping out>> status when the virtual volume has an image in the virtual library in the progress of being copied into an image of the physical library; <<incomplete>> status when the virtual volume of the virtual library is open and does not contain any data or contains incomplete data; <<moving out>> status when the virtual volume of the virtual library is in the progress of being copied from one partition of the cache to another; <<swappable>> status when the virtual volume has an image in the virtual library of the cache but has at least one image in the physical library which is not valid or the image in the virtual library is in progress of being copied into an image of the physical library, i.e. the volume either has (<disk only status or has <<swapping out>> status. According to another feature, the module of cache occupancy control calculates firstly a so-called individual occupancy rate corresponding to calculation of the occupancy rate on each of the partitions of the cache individually, and secondly a so-called mean occupancy rate corresponding to calculation of the occupancy rate of all the partitions of the cache. According to another feature, the mean occupancy rate of the cache at a given time, calculated by the module of cache occupancy control, corresponds for all the partitions of the cache, to the sum of the size of the data present in the closed virtual volumes having <<disk only>> status and the size for all the partitions allocated to the open virtual volumes, irrespective of their status, this sum being compared, for all partitions, to the total size available in all the partitions of the cache, to obtain the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions of the cache. According to another feature, the individual occupancy rate of each partition of the cache at a given time, calculated by the module of cache occupancy control, corresponds, for each of the partitions of the cache individually, to the size of the data present in the virtual volumes having <<disk only>> status, whether they are open or closed, this size being compared for each partition with the total available size in the partition under consideration, to obtain the individual occupancy rate of each partition. According to another feature, the activity index of the cache per determined periods of time, calculated by the module of cache activity control, corresponds to the mean, calculated over a determined number of successive determined time periods, of the maximum number of virtual volumes of the cache that are simultaneously open during each determined period of time. According to another feature, the management module compares the activity index of the cache with a minimum activity threshold and a maximum activity threshold, compares the individual occupancy rate of the cache with a maximum occupancy threshold and compares the mean occupancy rate of the cache with a first threshold, called a priority threshold, below which occupancy of the cache has priority over flushing, and a second threshold, called a flush start threshold, above which flushing of the cache can be performed, to manage accesses to the cache by means of the management algorithm for managing the access bandwidth to the cache, implemented in the storage system, and comprising at least one of the following rules: if the value of the individual occupancy rate of a partition of the cache is higher than the value of the maximum occupancy threshold, irrespective of the value of the activity index of the cache, the flush operation of the cache is essential and is authorized to start to the possible detriment of accesses to the cache by the computer platforms, part of the access bandwidth to the cache then being used for the copying of one or more virtual volumes of this partition into the physical library during this flush operation, if the value of the activity index of the cache is less or equal to the value of the minimum activity threshold, any flush operation of the cache is authorized to start, to allow copying of one or more virtual volumes towards the physical library, if the value of the activity index of the cache lies between the value of the minimum activity threshold and the value of the maximum activity threshold, a flush operation of the cache already in progress is authorized to continue, the copying of one or more virtual volumes from the cache to the physical library being authorized during this flush operation in progress, but if no flush operation is in progress a new flush operation of the cache is not authorized to start, if the value of the activity index of the cache is higher than the value of the maximum activity threshold, a new flush operation of the cache is not authorized to start and a flush operation of the cache already in progress is interrupted, to the benefit of accessing to the cache by the computer platforms, unless the value of the individual occupancy rate of the cache is higher than the value of the maximum occupancy threshold or unless the value of the mean occupancy rate of the cache is higher than the flush start threshold, new copying of one or more virtual volumes from the cache into the physical library, during a flush operation already in progress, then being forbidden, whilst copying already in progress of one or more virtual volumes from the cache to the physical library, during this flush operation in progress, is authorized to be completed, if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions of the cache is less or equal to the value of the priority threshold, accesses to the storage resources in reply to requests transmitted by the access means of the computer platforms to the storage system have priority over the accesses needed to copy volumes requiring the same resources during a flush operation of the cache, this copying then possibly being deferred until release of these resources, if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions of the cache is higher than the priority threshold, accesses to the storage resources in reply to requests transmitted by the access means of the computer platforms to the storage system, do not have priority over the accesses needed to copy volumes requiring the same resources during a flush operation of the cache which can therefore be started or continued to the possible detriment of accesses to the storage resources by the computer platforms, if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions of the cache is less or equal to the value of the flush start threshold, a flush operation of the cache towards the physical library is only authorized to start if the value of the activity index of the cache is less or equal the value of the minimum activity threshold, if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions of the cache is higher than the value of the flush start threshold, a flush operation of the cache towards the physical library is essential and is authorized to start. According to another feature, the module of cache activity control comprises means for consulting information generated by the organization module, to calculate the activity index of the cache by counting the number of open virtual volumes, the maximum activity threshold corresponding to the total number of virtual volumes of the cache open at the same time which consume a fraction of the bandwidth that is considered too high to allow an internal operation to start which requires access to the cache. According to another feature, the module of cache occupancy control comprises means for consulting the information generated by the organization module, to calculate firstly the mean occupancy rate of the cache by comparing the sum of the total size of the data present in the open virtual volumes, irrespective of their status, and the total size of the data present in the closed virtual volumes having <<disk only>> status, with the total storage capacity in all the partitions of the cache, and secondly to calculate the individual occupancy rate of each of the partitions of the cache by comparing, for a given partition, the size of the data present in the virtual volumes having <<disk only>> status, whether they are open or closed, with the total storage capacity of this partition of the cache. According to another feature, the organization module cooperates with the module of cache activity control and the module of cache occupancy control to distribute the virtual volumes equitably over the different partitions of the cache, in order to promote homogeneous distribution over all the disks carrying the different partitions of the cache. According to another feature, the management module, during the flush operation of the cache, uses the results of the calculations made by the module of cache occupancy control to select those virtual volumes of the cache to be copied into the physical library, the virtual volumes thus selected being the closed virtual volumes having <<disk only>> status and which were the less recently accessed, for reading or writing, by the computer platforms, either in a given partition of the cache if the value of the individual occupancy rate of this partition is greater or equal to the value of the maximum occupancy threshold, or in all the partitions of the cache if the values of the individual occupancy rates of all the partitions are below the value of the maximum occupancy threshold. According to another feature, the management module comprises a module of activity control of the physical library, keeping permanently up to date at least information on the utilization of the readers and/or of the cartridges of the physical libraries under the control of the storage system, this information thereby enabling the management module to manage priorities over time for accesses to the storage resources, firstly by the system itself to flush at least one virtual volume of the cache towards at least one virtual volume of the physical library, and secondly by the computer platforms to read/write a virtual volume not present in the cache and therefore necessitating consultation of the physical library to copy a virtual volume of this physical library towards the cache, in the form of a virtual volume of the virtual library. According to another feature, the management module, through its access means to the content of the storage resources of the system, keeps permanently up to date at least information on the validity of the virtual volumes present in the cartridges of the physical libraries under the control of the storage system, with respect to the virtual volumes which may have been modified in the cache by the computer platforms, this information on validity enabling the management module to compare the space occupied by the obsolete virtual volumes in the cartridges of the physical library with a maximum invalidity threshold, and when this space of obsolete virtual volumes reaches this threshold, to perform compacting of the valid volumes of this physical library, in the cartridges containing virtual volumes in the physical library that are not utilized and/or corresponding to closed virtual volumes in the cache, by controlling the reading of all the valid volumes of the source cartridges containing obsolete volumes and simultaneously copying these valid volumes into target cartridges, so as to erase these source cartridges and obtain only cartridges containing valid volumes in the physical library and empty cartridges. According to another feature, the management module, responsible for emulation of the virtual volumes of the physical library into virtual volumes of the virtual library of the cache, offers the possibility that a virtual volume of the cache may have multiple images in the physical library, and that those virtual volumes of the cache taken into account by the module of cache occupancy control for the calculation of the occupancy rate, are volumes which correspond to the virtual volumes of the cache having <<disk only>> status, i.e. having images present in the physical library which are not all valid. According to another feature, the management module uses the results of the operations performed by the module of cache activity control, the module of cache occupancy control and module of activity control of the physical library, so that the compacting of the valid volumes of the physical library by the management module is conducted in relation to the activity and occupancy of the cache, giving preference to access to the storage resources by the computer platforms over accessing required for this compacting. According to another feature the processing means run a software application forming all the modules of the storage system and responsible for the interoperability of the different means of the system, this software application cooperating with an operating system installed on the storage system to manage the operations to be performed by generating information on at least the locations and utilization of all the data present in the storage system, the data needed for running this application being previously recorded in a memory accessible by the processing means of the system. A further purpose of the present invention is to propose a data-saving method allowing optimised management of the different write, read and library maintenance tasks under its control, by giving priority to data access by the computer platforms. This purpose is achieved with a method for saving/storing data generated, in at least one format, by at least one computer platform and transmitted to a storage system via a communication network through platform access means accessing the storage system, the storage system comprising storage resources comprising firstly storage means containing at least one physical library including at least one robot able to load and unload at least one data storage cartridge in and from at least one reader allowing the writing and reading of data transmitted by the computer platform in the physical library, and secondly comprising memory means, called a cache, in which the processing means of the storage system, vis-à-vis the computer platforms, emulate at least one virtual library from at least one physical library which the storage system has under its control, the data thus stored in the physical library and in the virtual library being grouped into groups of determined size, called virtual volumes, having at least image in the physical library and/or one image in the virtual library, the access means of the platforms to the storage system thereby accessing for reading and writing, via the communication network, the image in the cache of each of the virtual volumes stored by the storage system, the method being characterized in that it comprises at least the following steps: emulation of the virtual volumes of the physical library into virtual volumes of the virtual library of the cache, by a management module present in the processing means of the storage system and managing accesses to the storage resources both to virtual volumes de of the physical library and to virtual volumes of the cache, in relation to requests transmitted by the access means of the computer platforms to the storage system; calculation, by a module of cache activity control, of at least one activity index of the cache per determined periods of time, reflecting utilization of the access bandwidth to the cache, this calculation step being repeated to monitor changes in activity of the cache periodically or on an ad hoc basis whenever space is allocated for a new virtual volume in the cache; calculation, by a module of cache occupancy control, of at least one occupancy rate of the cache at a given time, this calculation step being repeated to monitor changes in occupancy of the cache periodically or an ad hoc basis whenever space is allocated for a new virtual volume in the cache; decision, by the management module, in relation to the results of these calculations and to at least one management algorithm for managing the access bandwidth to the cache, implemented in the storage system, between authorization or interdiction of access to the storage resources by the computer platforms to read/write virtual volumes in the cache, or by the system itself for at least one operation, called a cache flush, allowing the copying of data from at least one virtual volume of the virtual library to at least one virtual volume of the physical library, so as to regulate occupancy of the cache whilst managing priorities over time for accesses to the resources by the platforms and by the system itself. According to another feature, the method comprises firstly at least one installation step to install a plurality of partitions on a plurality of hard disks forming the cache, and secondly at least one step for the creation and updating, by an organization module, of data representing information on the distribution of partitions and on the distribution of data recorded in the different partitions, this organization module, on the basis of this information, generating at least one directory containing information on the locations and utilization of the virtual volumes, the virtual volumes on which reading or writing is in progress being identified as open virtual volumes, and the virtual volumes on which no reading or writing is in progress being identified as closed virtual volumes. According to another feature, the method comprises a verification step of the content of the physical library and of the virtual library by the management module, via access means to the content of the storage resources of the system, followed by an assignment step, to each of the virtual volumes, of a value called a status, from among at least the following statuses: <<disk only>> status when the virtual volume has an image in the virtual library of the cache but does not have an image in the physical library, or has at least one image in the physical library which is not valid, i.e. does not contain the same data as the image in the virtual library; <<out of cache>> status when the virtual volume does not have any image in the virtual library of the cache; <<disk and tape>> status when the virtual volume has valid images both in the virtual library of the cache and in the physical library; <<swapping in>> status when the virtual volume has an image in the progress of being loaded into the virtual library, from an image in the physical library; <<swapping out>> status when the virtual volume has an image in the virtual library in the progress of being copies into an image of the physical library; <<incomplete>> status when the virtual volume of the virtual library is open and does not contain any data, or contains incomplete data; <<moving out>> status when the virtual volume of the virtual library is in the progress of being copied from one partition of the cache to another; <<swappable>> status when the virtual volume has an image in the virtual library of the cache but has at least one image in the physical library which is not valid or the image in the virtual library is in the progress of being copied into an image of the physical library, i.e. the volume either has <<disk only>> status or <<swapping out>> status. According to another feature, the step to calculate the occupancy rate of the cache at a given time, by the module of cache occupancy control, comprises firstly a step to calculate a so-called individual occupancy rate, corresponding to calculation of the occupancy rate on each of the partitions of the cache individually, and secondly a step to calculate a so-called mean occupancy rate, corresponding to calculation of the occupancy rate of all the partitions of the cache. According to another feature, the step to calculate the mean occupancy rate of the cache, by the module of cache occupancy control, consists of measuring, for all the partitions of the cache, the sum of the size of the data present in the closed virtual volumes having <<disk only>> status and the size allocated to the open virtual volumes, irrespective of their status, this sum being compared with the total size available in all the partitions of the cache, to obtain the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions of the cache. According to another feature, step to calculate the individual occupancy rate of each partition of the cache, by the module of cache occupancy control, consists of measuring, for each of the partitions of the cache individually, the total size of the data present in the virtual volumes having <<disk only>> status, whether they are open or closed, this size being compared with the total available size in the partition under consideration of the cache, to obtain the mean occupancy rate of each of the partitions of the cache. According to another feature, step to calculate the activity index of the cache per determined periods of time, by the module of cache activity control, consists of calculating a mean, calculated over a determined number of successive determined time periods, of the maximum number of virtual volumes of the cache opened simultaneously during each determined time period. According to another feature, the method comprises at least one additional comparison step to compare the activity index of the cache with a minimum activity threshold and a maximum activity threshold, a comparison step of the individual occupancy rate of the cache with the maximum occupancy threshold and a comparison step of the mean occupancy rate with a first threshold called a priority threshold, below which occupancy of the cache has priority over flushing, and with a second threshold called a flush start threshold above which flushing of the cache can be performed, implemented by the management module to manage accesses to the cache by means of the management algorithm for managing the access bandwidth to the cache, implemented in the storage system, and comprising at least one of the following rules: if the value of the individual occupancy rate of a partition of the cache is higher than the value of the maximum occupancy threshold, irrespective of the value of the activity index of the cache, the flush operation of the cache is essential and is authorized to start to the possible detriment of accesses to the cache by the computer platforms, part of the access bandwidth to the cache then being used to copy one or more virtual volumes from this partition towards the physical library during this flush operation, if the value of the activity index of the cache is less or equal to the minimum activity threshold, any flush operation of the cache is authorized to start, to allow the copying of one or more virtual volumes towards the physical library, if the value of the activity index of the cache lies between the value of the minimum activity threshold and the value of the maximum activity threshold, a flush operation of the cache already in progress is authorized to continue, the copying of one or more virtual volumes from the cache to the physical library being authorized during this flush operation in progress, but if no flush operation is in progress a new flush operation of the cache is not authorized to start, if the value of the activity index of the cache is higher than the value of the maximum activity threshold, a new flush operation of the cache is not authorized to start and a flush operation of the cache already in progress is interrupted, to the benefit of accessing to the cache by the computer platforms, unless the value of the individual occupancy rate of the cache is higher than the value of the maximum occupancy threshold or unless the value of the mean occupancy rate of the cache is higher than the flush start threshold, new copying of one or more virtual volumes from the cache to the physical library, during a flush operation already in progress, then being forbidden, whilst copying already in progress of one or more virtual volumes from the cache to the physical library, during this flush operation in progress, is authorized to be completed, if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions of the cache is less or equal to the priority threshold, accesses to the storage resources, in reply to requests transmitted by the access means of the computer platforms to the storage system, have priority over accessing needed to copy volumes requiring the same resources during a flush operation of the cache, this copying then possibly being deferred until release of these resources, if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions of the cache is higher than the priority threshold, accesses to the storage resources in reply to requests transmitted by the access means of the computer platforms to the storage system do not have priority over accesses needed to copy volumes requiring the same resources during a flush operation of the cache, which can therefore start or continue to the possible detriment of accessing to the storage resources by the computer platforms, if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions of the cache is less or equal to the value of the flush start threshold, a flush operation of the cache towards the physical library is only authorized to start if the value of the activity index of the cache is less or equal to the value of the minimum activity threshold, if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions of the cache is higher than the value of the flush start threshold, a flush operation of the cache towards the physical library is essential and is authorized to start. According to another feature, the step to calculate the activity index of the cache, by the module of cache activity control, comprises at least one consultation step of the data generated by the organization module, to calculate the activity index of the cache by counting the number of open virtual volumes in the cache, the maximum activity threshold corresponding to the total number of virtual volumes of the cache open at the same time which consume a fraction of the access bandwidth considered too high to allow the start of an internal operation requiring access to the cache. According to another feature, the step to calculate the occupancy rate of the cache, by the module of cache occupancy control, comprises at least one consultation step of the data generated by the organization module to calculate firstly the mean occupancy rate of the cache by comparison of the sum of the total size of the data present in the open virtual volumes, irrespective of their status, and the total size of the data present in the closed virtual volumes having <<disk only>> status, with the total storage capacity of all the partitions of the cache, and secondly the individual occupancy rate of each of the partitions of the cache by comparison, for a given partition, of the size of the data present in the virtual volumes having <<disk only>> status, whether they are open or closed, with the total storage capacity of this partition of the cache. According to another feature, the emulation step of the virtual volumes by the management module comprises a cooperation step of the organization module with the module of cache activity control and the module of cache occupancy control to distribute the virtual volumes equitably over the different partitions of the cache, in order to promote homogeneous distribution over all the disks carrying the different partitions of the cache. According to another feature, the flush operation of the cache, results from the use, by the management module, of the results of the calculations made by the module of cache occupancy control, to select the virtual volumes of the cache to be copied into the physical library, the virtual volumes thus selected being closed virtual volumes having <<disk only>> status and which were the less recently accessed for reading or writing by the computer platforms, either in a given partition of the cache if the value of the individual occupancy rate of this partition is greater or equal to the value of the maximum occupancy threshold, or in all the partitions of the cache if the values of the individual occupancy rates of all the partitions are lower than the value of the maximum occupancy threshold. According to another feature, the method comprises at least one step for the creation and update, by a module of activity control of the physical library, of data representing information on utilization of the readers and/or of the cartridges of the libraries under the control of the storage system, this information thereby enabling the management module to manage priorities over time for accesses to the storage resources, firstly by the system itself to flush at least one virtual volume from the cache towards a volume of the physical library, and secondly by the computer platforms to read/write a virtual volume not present in the cache and therefore necessitating consultation of the physical library to copy a volume from this physical library to the cache, in the form of a virtual volume of the virtual library. According to another feature, the method comprises at least one step for the creation and update, by the management module, of data representing information on the validity of the volumes present in the cartridges of the physical libraries under the control of the storage system, with respect to the virtual volumes which may have been modified in the cache by the computer platforms, this information on validity enabling the management module to implement a comparison step of the space occupied by obsolete virtual volumes in the cartridges of the physical library with a maximum invalidity threshold and, if this space occupied by these obsolete virtual volumes reaches this threshold, to implement a compacting step of the valid volumes, taken from cartridges containing volumes that are non-utilized and/or correspond to closed virtual volumes, by controlling the reading of all the valid volumes of the source cartridges containing obsolete volumes and simultaneously copying these valid volumes into target cartridges, so as to erase these source cartridges and only obtain cartridges containing valid volumes in the physical library. According to another feature, the emulation steps of the virtual volumes of the physical library into virtual volumes of the virtual library of the cache and the management steps of the cache by the management module, offer the possibility that a virtual volume of the cache may have multiple images in the physical library, step by the management module to create and update information representing validity of the volumes present in the cartridges of the physical libraries allowing those virtual volumes of the cache taken into account by module of cache occupancy control, for calculation of the occupancy rate, to correspond to the virtual volumes of the cache having <<disk only>> status, i.e. having images present in the physical library which are not all valid. According to another feature, the compacting step of the physical library comprises a step, in which the management module uses the results of the operations performed by module of cache activity control, module of cache occupancy control and module of activity control of the physical library, so that the compacting of the valid volumes of the physical library by the management module is performed in relation to the activity and occupancy of the cache, by giving preference to accessing to the storage resources by the computer platforms over accessing needed for this compacting. According to another feature, the method comprises a step to install a software application in the operating system of the storage system, this software application forming all the modules of the storage system and responsible for the interoperability of the different means of this system, this software application cooperating with an operating system installed on the storage system to manage the operations to be performed by generating information on at least the locations and utilization of all the data present in the storage system, this installation step enabling the recording of the data needed to run this application in a memory accessible by the processing means of the system. Other particular aspects and advantages of the present invention will become more clearly apparent from the description given below with reference to the appended drawings in which: FIG. 1 shows the storage system according to one embodiment of the invention, FIG. 2 illustrates the main steps of the method according to one embodiment of the invention, FIG. 3 shows the details of the emulation step such as implemented in the system, according to one embodiment of the invention, FIG. 4 shows the detailed steps of the method according to one embodiment of the invention, The present invention concerns a storage method and storage system 1 for data generated by at least one computer platform 101 to 10n. As mentioned previously, the invention allows the saving of data derived from various types of computer platforms, for example such as GCOS8®, Unix®, Linux® or Windows®. These platforms run data-saving software applications, such as GCOS8/TMS, Bull OpenSave, Veritas NetBackup or Legato Networker for example, enabling generated data to be saved by sending it towards mass storage systems via a communication network, such as the Internet network for example. Data items are generated by these different platforms in at least one data processing format and are transmitted to the storage system 1 via at least one communication network RC through access means 101 of the platform to the storage system 1. In particular, these access means 101 to the storage system 1 may consist of one of the above-cited data-saving software applications, combined with communication means via at least one communication network, or of any type of access means enabling the platform to perform data consultations or data changes or any known operation in this area. As is known per se, the storage system 1 comprises data processing means 11 and storage resources 20, 100. These storage resources 20, 100 comprise firstly storage means 20 containing at least one physical library P201 to P20n including at least one robot P22 capable of loading and unloading at least one data storing cartridge P211 to P21n in and from at least one reader P2001 to P200n, and secondly comprise memory means 100, called cache 100, which include at least one virtual library V201 to V20n which temporarily stores data corresponding to data of at least one cartridge V1 to Vn of a physical library P201 to P20n which the storage system has under its control. The processing means 11 of the storage system 1 according to the invention, vis-à-vis computer-platforms 101 to 10n, emulate at least one virtual library V201 to V20n from at least one physical library P201 to P20n. In storage systems known in the prior art, when the access means 101 to the storage system 1 of one of the computer platforms 101 to 10n managed by the storage system 1, requires data reading or writing, the robot 20 allows loading of the cartridge P211 to P21n corresponding to the required data into one of the readers P2001 to P200n of the physical library P201 to P20n to permit writing and reading of the data. On the other hand, in storage systems emulating a virtual library V201 to V20n from the physical library P201 to P20n, as is the case in the present invention, the computer platforms 101 to ion in fact access the virtual library V201 to V20n of the cache 100 instead of directly accessing the physical library P201 to P20n. Emulation therefore allows the storage system 1 to act vis-à-vis computer platforms 101 to 10n as if it effectively offers direct access to the physical library P201 to P20n, but by offering quicker access to the virtual library V201 to V20n. The computer platforms 101 to 10n therefore do not need to be modified and the storage system 1 takes in charge the converting of received requests in order to provide the data requested by the computer platforms 101 to 10n, as if it derived from a physical library P201 to P20n. Emulation may have different levels of details, going for example as far as emulating the physical library down to the last reader, but emulation allows the storage system 1 to have its own organization and it is not necessary that the organization of the libraries emulated in the cache correspond exactly to the organization of the physical libraries which the system has under its control. Therefore, when the storage system receives a request from a computer platform to mount a cartridge in a reader, it will interpret the received request and may for example simulate mounting of a cartridge in a reader to allow reading/writing of this cartridge by the computer platform, until this platform transmits a cartridge dismount request to the system. In manner known per se, the data stored in the physical library P201 to P20n is grouped into groups of determined size, called virtual volumes V1 to Vn. These virtual volumes V1 to Vn of the physical library P201 to P20n can be accessed by processing means 11 of the storage system 1. Similarly, the virtual library V201 to V20n in the cache 100 of the storage system 1, temporarily and in the form of at least one group called a virtual volume V′1 to V′n of the cache 100, stores data corresponding to the content of at least one virtual volume V1 to Vn of the library P201 to P20n. Therefore, the data items of each of the virtual volumes have at least one image V1 to Vn in the physical library P201 to P20n and/or one image V′1 to V′n in the virtual library V201 to V20n, the access means 101 of the platforms 101 to 10Hhd n to the storage system 1, via the communication network RC, thereby read/write accessing the image V′1 to V′n in the cache 100 of each of the virtual volumes stored by the storage system. The different components and resources of the storage system 1 such as, inter alia, the cache 100, the processing means 11 and the physical library P201 to P20n may, in manner known per se, be connected together by high data rate connections such as, for example, the optical fibres used according to the <<Fiber Channel>> protocol. In a manner more specific to the present invention, the processing means 11 of the storage system 1 comprise a management module 30 responsible for emulating volumes V1 to Vn of the library into virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache. This management module (30) manages accessing, for reading and writing, to all the storage resources 20, 100, both to virtual volumes V1 to Vn of the physical library P201 to P20n, and to virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the virtual library V201 V20n of the cache 100. At the time of requests transmitted by the access means 101 of the computer platforms 101 to 10n to the storage system, the management module 30 will authorize or forbid access to data in relation to demand and to the different parameters defined in an algorithm AG of management of the cache access bandwidth, implemented in the system 1. This management algorithm AG may for example be stored in a memory accessible by the processing means 11 of the system, and allows management of priorities over time for accesses to storage resources 20, 100 by the computer platforms 101 to 10n to read/write virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache 100, or by the system 1 itself for at least one internal operation, called a cache flush, allowing the copying of data from at least one virtual volume V′1 to V′n of the virtual library V201 to V20n towards at least one virtual volume V1 to Vn of the physical library P200 to P20n. The cache flush operation is called <<internal>> in opposition to accessing to the cache 100 required by the computer platforms which a priori are external to the storage system. This operation in fact corresponds to a cache management operation decided by the system itself, internally, in accordance with management algorithms of the cache 100. Similarly, the compacting of valid volumes V1 to Vn of the physical library P201 to P20n, described further on, corresponds to an internal operation requiring access to the cache 100. The term <<internal operation>> will therefore be used herein for any operation internally decided by the system itself to manage its storage resources. During the flush operation of the cache 100, a certain number of virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the virtual library V201 to V20n, eligible for flushing, are chosen so that they can be recopied into the physical library P201 to P20n. The flush operation will start, in relation to available resources 20, 100, with at least one of these eligible virtual volumes V′1 to V′n, then when use of the resources 20, 100 so allows, it will choose other virtual volumes V′1 to V′n for their recopying into the physical library P201 to P20n. A flush operation of the cache 100 may therefore concern a plurality of virtual volumes V′1 to V′n to be <<flushed>> (copied to the physical library) simultaneously or successively during a given flush operation, depending on the availability of resources. The start of a flush operation is determined by the activity of the system, and by cache occupancy, and the copies made during these flush operations are also controlled in relation to activity and occupancy as is explained in detail below. It is therefore possible to manage priorities over time for access to the storage resources 20, 100 by the computer platforms 101 to 10n to read/write virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache 100, or by the system 1 itself for at least one internal operation. Additionally, according to some embodiments, the invention comprises at least one calculation of at least one cache activity index per determined periods of time, reflecting utilization of the access bandwidth to the cache 100. In this way, the use of the cache access bandwidth (generally, use of the resources) determines accessing to the cache 100 by the computer platforms 101 to 10n or by the system 1 itself. According to some embodiments, the invention comprises at least one calculation of at least one cache occupancy rate making it possible, for example, to determine whether data can be written in the cache or if the cache must be flushed, etc. Therefore, in various embodiments, the invention allows the regulated use of the cache access bandwidth, so as to avoid any blockage or delay arising from too extensive utilization of the resources of the system 1. Also, the invention allows the occupancy of the cache 100 to be regulated, whilst managing priorities over time for accessing the resources 20,100 of the storage system 1, as is detailed below. In some embodiments of the invention, the different means herein described can be carried by a software application run by the processing means 11 of the storage system 1. Therefore, this software application will form all the modules 30, 31, 32, 33 and 34 described herein and will be responsible for the interoperability of the different means of the storage system 1 according to the invention. This software application will cooperate with the operating system installed on the storage system 1 to manage the operations to be performed. According to the invention, the operating system of the storage system 1 may consist of any operating system which, in manner known per se, generates data representing information on at least the locations and utilization of all the data present in the storage system 1. Therefore the information generated by this operating system is used by the processing means 11 of the storage system according to the invention. For example, the operating system of the storage system 1 may consist of a system of AIX type. In this case, the data generated by this AIX system, representing information on at least the locations and utilization of all the data of this system, corresponds to a journaling system of JFS type (<<Journalized File System>>), particularly suitable for implementing the invention, although the invention can be implemented in other types of operating systems generating other types of file systems. The data required for running this application is evidently previously recorded in a memory accessible by the processing means 11 of the system 1, e.g. the memory in which the management algorithm AG is stored. In some embodiments of the invention, the cache 100 consists of a plurality of hard disks 1001 to 100n on which a plurality of partitions P1 to Pn is distributed. For example, the partitions P1 to Pn installed on these hard disks can be organized according to an array of RAID 5 type (<<Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks>>), type 5 also being called <<Disk Array with Block-interleaved Distributed Parity>>) so as to allow repair in the event of any damage. In some embodiments of the invention, the management module 30 comprises an organization module 33 permanently updating information relating to the distribution of the partitions P1 to Pn installed on the hard disks and to the distribution of data recorded in the different partitions P1 to Pn. By means of the journaling file system JFS of the operating system, the organization module 33, on the basis of this information on distribution of the partitions P1 to Pn and data distribution, generates at least one directory (RP) containing information on the locations and utilization of the virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache 100. The virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache 100 on which read or write operations are in progress are identified as <<open virtual volumes>> and the virtual volumes on which no reading or writing is in progress are identified as <<closed virtual volumes>>. By means of the journalized file system JFS of the operating system, this organization module 33 integrates the information indicating which virtual volumes V′1 to V′n are open and which are closed, and therefore allows equitable distribution of data over the different partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100. This equitable distribution of data over the different hard disks of the cache promotes homogeneous distribution of the volumes over the disks carrying the partitions, and therefore avoids heavy concentration of accesses to the disks carrying the different partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100. Indeed, the hard disks 1001 to 100n of the cache 100 have a limited bandwidth which means that only a limited number of simultaneous accesses are allowed to the different partitions P1 to Pn. If several operations require access to one same disk, some operations will have to be placed on standby while the other operations are completed. Equitable distribution of data over the disks can minimize this placing on standby for access to the partitions P1 to Pn. In some embodiments of the invention, the management module 30 comprises access means to the content of the resources 20, 100 of the storage system 1. On accessing the storage resources (20, 100), the management module 30 can therefore verify the content of the physical library P201 to P20n and of the virtual library V201 to V20n so as to assign to each of the virtual volumes a value called a status. This status allows the management module 30 to manage the state of the virtual volumes V′1 to V′n and V1 to Vn, of the cache 100 and of the physical library P201 to P20n respectively. The management module 30 therefore assigns a status to each of the virtual volumes in relation to the content of the two libraries, from among at least the following statuses: <<disk only>> status when the virtual volume has an image V′1 to V′n in the virtual library V201 to V20n of the cache 100, but has no image in the physical library or has at least one image V1 to Vn in the physical library P200 to P20n which is not valid i.e. does not contain the same data as the image V′1 to V′n in the virtual library V201 to V20n; <<out of cache>> status when the virtual volume has no image V′1 to V′n in the virtual library V201 to V20n of the cache 100; <<disk and tape>> status when the virtual volume has valid images both in the virtual library V201 to V20n of the cache 100 and in the physical library P201 to P20n; <<swapping in>> status when the virtual volume has an image V′1 to V′n in the progress of being loaded (currently being loaded) into the virtual library V201 to V20n, from an image V1 to Vn in the physical library P201 to P20n; <<swapping out>> status when the virtual volume has an image V′1 to V′n in the virtual library V201 to V20n in the progress of being copied (currently being copied) in an image V1 to Vn of the physical library P201 to P20n; <<incomplete>> status when the virtual volume V′1 to V′n of the virtual library V201 to V20n is open and does not contain data or contains incomplete data; <<moving out>> status when the virtual volume V′1 to V′n of the virtual library V201 to V20n is in the progress of being copied from one partition P1 to Pn of the cache 100 to another; <<swappable>> status when the virtual volume has an image V′1 to V′n in the virtual library V201 to V20n of the cache 100, but has at least one image V1 to Vn in the physical library P201 to P20n which is not valid, or the image V′1 to V′n in the virtual library V201 to V20n is in the progress of being copied into an image V1 to Vn of the physical library P201 to P20n, i.e. the volume either has <<disk only>> or <<swapping out>> status. In some embodiments of the invention, the management module 30 comprises a module 31 of cache activity control which calculates at least one cache activity index per determined periods of time. This cache activity index per determined time periods may, for example, correspond to the mean number of virtual volumes V′1 to V′n opened in the cache 100, i.e. the virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache 100 on which reading or writing is in progress during a determined period of time. More precisely, the activity index may be calculated over a sliding time period i.e. by repeating the calculation of the index over several successive determined time periods and by calculating the mean of the activity indexes obtained on each of these successive time periods. Therefore, the mean calculated for several successive non-periodic activity indexes enables the calculation of the activity index to perform better by eliminating any sudden, brief variations in activity. The activity index obtained subsequent to this mean calculation is therefore smoothed (low pass filter) and truly represents the activity of the cache 100. The activity index of the cache per determined periods of time may therefore correspond to the mean, calculated over a determined number of successive determined time periods, of the mean number of virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache 100 simultaneously opened during each determined time period. The management module 30 can therefore monitor the activity of the cache 100 by triggering this calculation periodically or at different points in time when space is allocated for a new virtual volume V′1 to V′n in the cache 100. In some embodiments of the invention, the management module 30 also comprises a module 32 of cache occupancy control which calculates at least one cache occupancy rate at a given time. More precisely, this given time may be determined in relation to the operations performed by the storage system 1. For example, this calculation of occupancy rate may take place whenever a system operation translates as (results in) a closure of a virtual volume V′1 to V′n of the cache 100 and/or by the end of a flush operation of the cache 100, and/or during a flush operation, when copying of a virtual volume V′1 to V′n of the cache 100 is completed and/or there is new allocation of storage space in the cache 100 to define a virtual volume V′1 to V′n of the cache. It will be noted in passing that the opening of a virtual volume V′1 to V′n of the cache 100 results in the defining of the maximum space reserved for virtual volumes V′1 to V′n in the cache 100, so that the platform which requested opening of a virtual volume V′1 to V′n is able to record data therein having the size of a whole virtual volume V′1 to V′n, and on the closing of this virtual volume V′1 to V′n of the cache 100, if this virtual volume is not complete i.e. it does not contain as much data as is possible, the storage system 1 allocates only the necessary size to this virtual volume V′1 to V′n instead of maintaining for it the maximum size possible for virtual volumes V′1 to V′n. The management module 30 is therefore able to monitor occupancy of the cache 100 by triggering this calculation periodically or on an ad hoc basis whenever space is allocated for a new virtual volume V′1 to V′n in the cache 100, the closing of a volume not necessarily requiring an estimation of occupancy of the cache 100. In some embodiments of the invention, the module 32 of cache occupancy control calculates two different occupancy rates. It calculates firstly a so-called individual occupancy rate, corresponding to calculation of the occupancy rate on each of the partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100 individually, and secondly a so-called mean occupancy rate corresponding to calculation of the occupancy rate of all the partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100. In the embodiments in which the management module 30 assigns a status to the virtual volumes, the mean occupancy rate of the cache 100 may, for all the partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100, correspond to the sum of the size of the data present in the closed virtual volumes V′1 to V′n having <<disk only>> status and the size allocated to the open virtual volumes V′1 to V′n, irrespective of their status, this sum being compared with the total size available in all the partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100, to obtain the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100. Similarly, the individual occupancy rate of each partition P1 to Pn of the cache 100 at a given time may, for each of the partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100 individually, correspond to the size of the data present in the virtual volumes V′1 to V′n having <<disk only>> status, whether they are open or closed, this size being compared, for each partition P1 to Pn, with the total available size in the partition P1 to Pn under consideration, to obtain the individual occupancy rate of each partition P1 to Pn. In the embodiments in which the management module 30 does not assign a status to the virtual volumes, the cache occupancy rates may correspond either to the total size of the data present only in the closed virtual volumes V′1 to V′n in the cache 100, or to the total size of the data present both in the closed virtual volumes V′1 to V′n and in the open virtual volumes V′1 to V′n. In relation to the algorithm AG of management of the cache access bandwidth, the management module 30 uses the results of the calculations performed by the modules 31 and 32 controlling cache activity and cache occupancy respectively, so as to manage accessing to the storage resources 20, 100 of the system 1. Access to the cache 100 may evidently be requested by the computer platforms 101 to 10n to read/write virtual volumes V′1 to V′n, but also by the system 1 itself for a flush operation of all or part of the cache 100 towards the physical library P201 to P20n. In this way the algorithm AG managing the bandwidth for access to the cache 100 is able to give priority over time to the different accesses to the storage resources 20, 100 required for the different operations which can be performed by the system 1 according to the invention. More precisely, the management module 30 compares the activity index of the cache with a minimum activity threshold and a maximum activity threshold, compares the individual occupancy rate of the different partitions P′1 to P′n of the cache 100 with a maximum occupancy threshold, and compares the mean occupancy rate of the cache 100 with a first threshold, called a priority threshold, below which occupancy of the cache 100 has priority over flushing, and a second threshold, called a flush start threshold, above which flushing of the cache 100 can be performed. This comparison enables the management module 30 to manage accesses to the caches 100 by means of the algorithm AG managing the bandwidth for cache access. In some embodiments of the invention, the management algorithm AG preferably comprises all the rules described below, but more generally at least one of these rules. The invention also makes provision for the possible modification of these different rules through parameterisation of the management algorithm AG. One first rule provides that if the value of the individual occupancy rate of a partition P1 to Pn of the cache 100 is higher than the value of the maximum occupancy threshold, irrespective of the value of the activity index of the cache 100, the flush operation of the cache 100 is essential and is authorized to start, to the possible detriment of cache accessing by the computer platforms 101 to 10n, part of the access bandwidth to the cache 100 then being used for copying one or more virtual volumes V′1 to V′n from this partition P1 to Pn into the physical library P201 to P20n during this flush operation. Another rule provides that if the value of the activity index of the cache 100 is less or equal to the value of the minimum activity threshold, any flush operation of the cache 100 is authorized to start for the copying of one or more virtual volumes V′1 to V′n into the physical library P201 to P20n. Another rule provides that if the value of the activity index of the cache 100 lies between the value of the minimum activity threshold and the value of the maximum activity threshold, a flush operation of the cache 100 already in progress is authorized to continue, the copying of one or more virtual volumes V′1 to V′n from the cache 100 to the physical library P201 to P20n being authorized during this flush operation is progress, but if no flush operation is in progress a new flush operation of the cache 100 is not authorized to start. Therefore, a new flush operation of the cache 100 will not be authorized to start, only flush operations already in progress being authorized to continue, and the copying of virtual volumes of the cache 100 chosen to be eligible for flushing during this operation will be authorized. Also, these conditions set by the activity indexes may be lifted (cleared, broken) by conditions fixed by the individual and mean occupancy rates, i.e. a new flush operation will be authorized to start if the individual occupancy rate exceeds the maximum occupancy threshold or if the mean occupancy rate exceeds the flush start threshold. Another rule provides that if the value of the activity index of the cache 100 is higher than the value of the maximum activity threshold, a new flush operation of the cache 100 is not authorized to start, and a flush operation of the cache 100 already in progress is interrupted to the benefit of cache accessing by the computer platforms 101 to 10n, unless the value of the individual occupancy rate of the cache 100 is higher than the value of the maximum occupancy threshold or unless the value of the mean occupancy rate of the cache 100 is higher than the flush start threshold, any new copying of one or more virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache 100 into the physical library P20 P20n, during a flush operation already in progress, being forbidden, whilst the copying already in progress of one or more virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache 100 into the physical library P201 to P20n, during this flush operation in progress, is authorized to be completed. Therefore, as previously, these conditions set by the activity indexes can be lifted by the conditions fixed by the individual and mean occupancy rates, i.e. if the value of the individual occupancy rate or mean occupancy rate of the cache 100 is higher than the value of the maximum occupancy threshold or the flush start threshold respectively, a new flush operation of the cache 100 may take place. Another rule provides that if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100 is less or equal to the value of the priority threshold, access to the storage resources 20,100 in reply to requests transmitted by the access means 101 of the computer platforms 101 to 10n to access the storage system 1 have priority over accesses needed to copy volumes (1) requiring the same resources 20, 100 during a flush operation of the cache 100, this copying possibly being deferred until release of these resources 20, 100. Another rule provides that if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100 is higher than the priority threshold, accesses to the storage resources 20, 100 in reply to requests transmitted by the access means 101 of the computer platforms 101 to 10n, to access the storage system 1, do not have priority over accesses needed for copying which require the same resources 20, 100 during a flush operation of the cache 100, this flush operation can therefore start or continue to the possible detriment of accessing to the storage resources 20, 100 by the computer platforms 101 to 10n. Another rule provides that if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100 is less or equal to the value of the flush start threshold, a flush operation of the cache 100 towards the physical library P201 to P20n is only authorized to start if the value of the activity index of the cache 100 is less or equal to the minimum activity threshold. Another rule provides that if the value of the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100 is higher than the value of the flush start threshold, a flush operation of the cache 100 towards the physical library P201 to P20n is essential and is authorized to start. In addition, the algorithm may, in one variant of embodiment, have been previously parameterised so that the maximum occupancy threshold and the flush start threshold have the same value and are in fact one same threshold which determines flush start. The calculations of the individual and mean occupancy rates therefore provide precise control over the operations performed by the system 1 in relation to the utilization of the different partitions of the cache 100. The system therefore provides flexibility of use enabling an operator to fix different values for the thresholds and to control the different operations performed in relation to the parameters chosen by the operator in the management algorithm. These different rules and the parameterisation of the algorithm and thresholds allow flexible use of the system, and an operator in charge of parameterisation may for example choose to fix the priority threshold at a zero value so that occupancy never has priority over flushing. Similarly, the parameterisation of the thresholds allows a priority threshold for example to be fixed at higher value than the value of the flush start threshold, so that when the mean occupancy rate exceeds the flush start threshold of the cache a flush operation is authorized to start, but occupancy of the cache continues to have priority over flushing. Conversely, the priority threshold may be fixed at a lower value than the flush start threshold, so that when the mean occupancy rate exceeds the priority threshold, a cache flush operation has priority over occupancy, and if the flush start threshold is reached the flush operation becomes essential and will be triggered immediately having priority over occupancy. The invention therefore permits numerous different operating functions but essentially, and in general insofar as is possible, gives preference to access to the resources by the computer platforms. Finally, the algorithm is preferably parameterised such as explained above, so that if the activity index is less or equal to the minimum activity threshold, a cache flush operation can be started irrespective of the values of the occupancy rates, if there are closed virtual volumes having <<disk only>> status, eligible for flushing from the cache 100. However, parameterisation may be different and require a given occupancy rate to allow the start of a flush operation. In addition, it will be noted here that the rules fixed in relation to the values of indexes and rates were fixed under a relationship of type <<less or equal to>> and higher than>>, but evidently the relationship may be of the type <<lower than>> and <<greater or equal to>> or any combination of these relationships, without departing from the spirit of the invention. In some embodiments of the invention, the organization module 33 cooperates with the module 31 of cache activity control and the module 32 of cache occupancy control, in order to distribute data equitably over the different partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100, so as to promote homogeneous distribution of the virtual volumes over all the disks carrying the different partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100. Therefore, by means of this cooperation, the management module 30 allows the equitable distribution of data over the different partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100 to be performed solely when the activity and occupancy of the cache 100 so permit. The module 31 of cache activity control comprises means for consulting the information generated by the organization module 33. By consulting the information generated by the organization module 33, the module 31 of cache activity control can therefore calculate the activity index of the cache 100 by counting the number of open virtual volumes V′1 to V′n in the cache 100. The minimum activity threshold corresponds to an activity value for which it is considered that the resources 20, 100 of the system 1 are under-exploited, or exploited at a sufficiently low level to allow flush operations of the cache 100 to be performed. The system 1 can then internally, i.e. by itself, without action by the computer platforms, launch flush operations of the cache 100. These flush operations of the cache 100 consist of a group of copying operations of virtual volumes V′1 to V′n having <<disk-only>> status, in parallel with accessing by the computer platforms which, if the activity index falls to below the minimum activity threshold, are sufficiently few in number to allow at least one flush operation to be performed without running the risk of limiting access to the cache by the computer platforms. As for the maximum activity threshold, this corresponds to the total number of virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache which, when they opened at the same time, consume a fraction of the bandwidth that is considered too high to allow the start of an internal operation requiring access to the cache. The value of this threshold is therefore previously chosen to avoid creating any conflicting of access to the different partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100. Similarly, the module 32 of cache occupancy control, controlled by the management module 30, comprises means for consulting the information generated by the organization module 33 to calculate firstly the mean occupancy rate of the cache 100 and secondly the individual occupancy rate of each of the partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100. As mentioned previously, controlling of the content of the physical and virtual libraries by the management module 30 allows the assignment of statuses to the virtual volumes which are used for calculations of occupancy rates by the module 32 controlling the occupancy of the cache 100. In some embodiments of the invention, the management module 30, during the flush operation of the cache 100, uses the results of the calculations performed by the module 32 controlling cache occupancy to choose the virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache 100 to be copied into the physical library P201 to P20n. The virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache 100 thus selected for a flush operation are closed virtual volumes V′1 to V′n having <<disk only>> status since they are not in the progress of being used (not currently used) and do not have an image in the physical library or have at least one image in the physical library which is not valid. In some particularly advantageous embodiments, this selection may be made in accordance with a so-called LRU rule (<<Less Recently Used>>). The virtual volumes V′1 to V′n selected in accordance with this rule are the virtual volumes V′1 to V′n the less recently accessed, for reading or writing, by the partition P1 to Pn of the cache 100 if the value of individual occupancy rate of this partition is greater or equal to the value of the maximum occupancy threshold, or by the all the partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100 if the values of the individual occupancy rates of all the partitions are lower than the maximum occupancy threshold. In some embodiments of the invention, the management module 30 also comprises a module 34 of activity control of the physical library P201 to P20n. This module 34 controlling the activity of this library permanently updates information at least on the utilization of the readers P2001 to P200n and/or of the cartridges P211 to P21n of the libraries P201 to P20n under the control of the storage system 1. This information is used by the management module 30 to manage priorities over time for access to the storage resources 20, 100, particularly in relation to the availability of the readers P2001 to P200n and/or cartridges P211 to P21n. Firstly this module 34 therefore permits the regulation of accesses to the storage resources 20, 100 by the system 1 itself for a flush operation of the cache 100 towards the physical library P201 to P20n. Secondly, this module 34 also allows regulation of accesses to the storage resources 20, 100 by the computer platforms 101 to 10n to read/write a virtual volume V′1 to V′n not present in the cache 100 and therefore requiring consultation of the physical library P201 to P20n for the copying of a virtual volume V1 to Vn from this physical library P201 to P20n to the cache 100, in the form of a virtual volume V′1 to V′n of the virtual library V201 to V20n. In some embodiments of the invention, the management module 30, through its access means to the content of the storage resources 20, 100, permanently updates information on at least the validity of the volumes V1 to Vn present in the cartridges P211 to P21n of the physical libraries P201 to P20n under the control of the storage system 1. The management module 30 therefore permanently verifies that the data present in the library is up to date relative to any virtual volumes V′1 to V′n which may have been modified in the cache 100 by the computer platforms 101 to 10n. This management module 30 responsible for emulating virtual volumes V1 to Vn of the physical library P201 to P20n into virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the virtual library V201 to V20n of the cache, offers the possibility that a virtual volume V′1 to V′n of the cache 100 may have multiple images V1 to Vn in the physical library P201 to P20n but, by assigning statuses to the virtual volumes, allows the virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache 100 which will be taken into account by the module 32 controlling cache occupancy, for calculation of occupancy rate, to be only those which correspond to the virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache 100 whose images V1 to Vn present in the physical library P201 to P20n are not all valid (volumes having <<disk only>> status). This information on validity enables the management module 30 to compare the number of obsolete virtual volumes V1 to Vn in the cartridges P211 to P21n of the physical library P201 to P20n with a maximum invalidity threshold. Therefore, when this space occupied by these obsolete virtual volumes V1 to Vn reaches this threshold, the management module 30 carries out compacting of the valid volumes V1 to Vn of the physical library P201 to P20n, in the cartridges P211 to P21n containing virtual volumes V1 to Vn that are not used in the physical library P201 to P20n and/or corresponding to closed virtual volumes V′1 to V′n in the cache100. This compacting is performed by the management module 30 by controlling the reading of all the valid volumes V1 to Vn in the source cartridges P211 to P21n containing obsolete volumes V1 to Vn and the simultaneous copying of these valid volumes V1 to Vn into target cartridges P211 to P21n, so as to delete these source cartridges P211 to P21n and obtain only cartridges P211 to P21n containing valid volumes V: to Vn in the physical library P201 to P20n. In addition, in some embodiments of the invention, the management module 30 uses the results of the operations performed by the module 31 controlling cache activity and the module 32 controlling cache occupancy, so as to update the data in the cartridges P211 to P21n of the library P201 to P20n, in relation to the activity and occupancy of the cache 100. Therefore, this compacting of data in the cartridges P211 to P21n may be made by giving preference to accesses to the storage resources 20, 100 by the computer platforms 101 to 10n over the accessing required for compacting. For example, this compacting may possibly only take place if few accesses to the physical storage resources 20 are made during a determined time period. The management module 30 may, in some embodiments of the invention, compare the number of obsolete volumes V1 to Vn in the cartridges P211 to P21n of the physical library P201 to P20n with a maximum invalidity threshold. If this threshold is exceeded, the management module 30 will perform compacting of the valid virtual volumes V1 to Vn of the physical library. Therefore, the source cartridges P211 to P21n containing invalid volumes will be erased and only those cartridges P211 to P21n will remain which contain valid volumes V1 to Vn, placed end to end for example so as to save storage space which, up until then, was wasted by invalid or deleted volumes. The method of the invention will now be described with reference to FIGS. 2 to 4. The method of the invention is implemented by a storage system 1 of the type described above. This method comprises at least the following steps: emulating (61) virtual volumes V1 to Vn of the physical library P201 to P20n into virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the virtual library V201 to V20n of the cache 100, by a management module 30 present in the processing means 11 of the storage system 1 and managing accesses to the storage resources 20, 100 both to virtual volumes V1 to Vn of the physical library P201 to P20n and to virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache 100, in relation to requests transmitted by the access means 101 of the computer platforms 101 to 10n to the storage system 1; calculating (62), by a module 31 of cache activity control, at least one activity index of the cache 100 per determined period of time, this calculation step (62) being repeated to monitor changes in the activity of the cache 100 periodically or, on an ad hoc basis, whenever space is allocated for a new virtual volume V′1 to V′n in the cache 100; calculating (63), by a module 32 of cache occupancy control, at least one occupancy rate of the cache 100 at a given time, this calculation step (63) being repeated to monitor changes in occupancy of the cache 100 periodically or, on an ad hoc basis, whenever space is allocated for a new virtual volume V′1 to V′n in the cache 100; deciding (64), by the management module 30, in relation to the result of these calculations and of at least one algorithm AG of management of the access bandwidth to the cache 100, and implemented in the storage system 1, between authorization (70) or interdiction (80) to access the storage resources 20, 100 either by the computer platforms 101 to ion to read/write virtual volumes V′1 to V′n in the cache 100, or by the system 1 itself for at least one operation, called a cache flush operation, allowing copying of the data of at least one virtual volume V′1 to V′n from the virtual library V201 to V20n towards at least one virtual volume V1 to Vn of the physical library P20, to P20n. Prior to implementing the above-described steps, the method may integrate at least one installation step (67) to install a plurality of partitions P1 to Pn on a plurality of hard disks 1001 to 100n forming the cache 100. Additionally, as mentioned previously, the system may comprise an organization module 33 in which case the method comprises at least one step (68) to create and update data representing information on the distribution of the partitions P1 to Pn and the distribution of the data recorded on the different partitions P1 to Pn. The organization module 33, on the basis of this information, generates at least one directory RP containing information on the locations and utilization of the virtual volumes V′1 to V′n, the virtual volumes V′1 to V′n on which reading or writing is in progress being identified as “open” virtual volumes, and the virtual volumes on which no reading or writing is in progress being identified as “closed” virtual volumes. Additionally, as mentioned previously, the management module 30 comprises access means to the content of the physical P201 to P20n and virtual V201 to V20n libraries. These access means enable the management module 30 to assign a status to each of the virtual volumes from among the above-described statuses. This information grouped together by the management module 30 is used to determine whether the different virtual volumes are present both in the virtual library V201 to V20n and in the physical library P201 to P20n, and to know whether the different images of the virtual volumes are valid and whether the images V′1 to V′n in the virtual library V201 to V20n are or are not being utilized. In the embodiments in which all the modules 30, 31, 32, 33 and 34 are carried by a software application run on the processing means 11 of the storage system 1, the method evidently comprises an installation step of this software application in the operating system of the storage system 1, by recording the data required for running this application in a memory accessible by the processing means 11 of the system 1. As explained above, this software application will be responsible for the interoperability of the different means of the system 1 and may itself form all the modules 30, 31, 32, 33 and 34 of the system 1. In some embodiments of the invention, the calculation step (62) to calculate the activity index of the cache 100 per determined periods of time consists of calculating a mean, over a determined number of successive determined periods of time, of the maximum number of virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache 100 that are simultaneously opened during each determined period of time. For example, the calculation can be made over 3 successive period of time and the module 31 of cache activity control, controlling the activity of the cache 100, will therefore repeat 3 times the measuring of the number of virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache 100 on which reading or writing is in progress during each of these 3 successive periods of time. Afterwards, the module 31 controlling cache activity will calculate the mean of the 3 values obtained to obtain a mean number of opened volumes representing the reality, since any sudden variations will have been smoothed by this mean calculated over several successive periods. More simply, this calculation could also be made over a single period, but it would be less representative of the reality and might not allow proper estimation of the activity of the cache 100. In some embodiments of the invention, the step (63) to calculate the occupancy rate of the cache 100 at a given time, by the module 32 of cache occupancy control, controlling occupancy of the cache 100, comprises firstly a step (635) to calculate a so-called individual occupancy rate corresponding to calculation of the occupancy on each of the partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100 individually, and secondly a step (636) to calculate a so-called mean occupancy rate corresponding to calculation of the occupancy rate of all the partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100. In the embodiments in which the management module 30 assigns statuses to the virtual volumes, this step (636) calculating a mean occupancy rate of the cache 100, by module 32 controlling occupancy of the cache 100, consists of measuring for all partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100, the sum of the total size of the data present in the closed virtual volumes V′1 to V′n having <<disk only>> status, and the size allocated to the opened virtual volumes V′1 to V′n, irrespective of their status, this sum being compared to the total size available in all the partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100, to obtain the mean occupancy rate of all the partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100. Similarly, step (635) to calculate the individual occupancy rate of each partition P1 to Pn of the cache 100, by module 32 controlling occupancy of the cache 100, in this embodiment, consists of measuring for each of the partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100 individually the total size of the data present in the virtual volumes V′1 to V′n having <<disk only>> status, whether they are open or closed, this size being compared to the total size available in the partition P1 to Pn of the cache 100 under consideration, to obtain the mean occupancy rate of each of the partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100. In some embodiments of the invention, the method also comprises at least one comparison step (65) of the cache activity index with a minimum activity threshold and a maximum activity threshold, a comparison step (661) of the individual occupancy rate of the cache with the maximum occupancy threshold and a comparison step (662) of the mean occupancy rate with a first threshold, called a priority threshold below which occupancy of the cache 100 has priority over flushing, and a second threshold called a flush start threshold above which flushing of the cache 100 can be performed. These comparison steps are implemented by the management module 30 to manage accesses to the cache 100 by means of the cache's access bandwidth management algorithm AG, managing the access bandwidth to the cache 100, implemented in the storage system 1 as explained previously, for the management rules in relation to the different thresholds. These rules and the parameterisation of the algorithm described previously will not be further detailed here. The calculations of the activity index and individual and mean occupancy rates allow precise control over the operations performed by the system 1 in relation to the utilization of the different partitions of the cache 100. The system therefore provides flexible utilization enabling an operator to fix different values for the thresholds and to control the different internal operations performed in relation to the values of the thresholds and parameters chosen in the management algorithm. In the embodiments of the invention in which the system comprises an organization module 33, step (62) to calculate the activity index of the cache 100, by the module 31 of cache activity control, comprises at least one consultation step (621) of the data generated by the organization module 33 in order to calculate the activity of the cache by counting the number of virtual volumes opened in the cache 100. The maximum activity threshold corresponds to the total number of virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache 100 which, when they are opened at the same time, consume a fraction of the access bandwidth to the cache 100 that is considered too high to allow the start of an operation requiring access to the cache 100. When this threshold is reached, an operation requiring access to the cache 100 risks saturating the bandwidth or setting up conflicting access to the different partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100. Similarly, step (63) to calculate the occupancy rate of the cache 100, by the module 32 of cache occupancy control, comprises at least one consultation step (631) of the data generated by the organization module 33, to know the number of open and closed virtual volumes and to calculate the occupancy rates as explained above. In the embodiments in which the management module 30 assigns statuses to the virtual volumes, this consultation step (631) enables the module 32 of cache occupancy control to calculate firstly the mean occupancy rate of the cache 100 by comparing (632) the sum, for all partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100, of the total size of the data present in the open virtual volumes V′1 to V′n, irrespective of their status, and the size of the data present in the closed virtual volumes V′1 to V′n having <<disk only>> status, with the total storage capacity of all the partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100. This consultation step (631) enables the module 32 of cache occupancy control to calculate also the individual occupancy rate of each of the partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100 by comparing (633), for a given partition P1 to Pn, the size of the data present in the virtual volumes V′1 to V′n having <<disk only>> status, whether they are opened or closed, with the total storage capacity of this partition P1 to Pn of the cache 100. In addition, the emulation step (61) of the virtual volumes V′1 to V′n by the management module 30 may comprise a cooperation step (611) between the organization module 33 and module 31 of cache activity control and module 32 of cache occupancy control, so as to distribute data equitably over the different partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100, in order to promote homogeneous distribution of the virtual volumes V′1 to V′n over the disks carrying the different partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100. This distribution also avoids heavy concentrations of access to the different disks carrying the different partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100. In some embodiments, the flush operation of the cache 100 results from the use, by the management module 30, of the results of the calculations performed by module 32 of cache occupancy control, so as to select those virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache 100 to be copied into the physical library P201 to P20n). The virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache 100 thus selected for a flush operation are closed virtual volumes V′1 to V′n having <<disk only>> status since they are not in the progress of being used and they do not have an image in the physical library or have at least one image in the physical library which is not valid. In some particularly advantageous embodiments, the virtual volumes V′1 to V′n thus selected are the less recently accessed virtual volumes V′1 to V′n, for reading or writing, by the computer platforms 101 to 10n, either in a given partition P1 to Pn of the cache 100 if the value of the individual occupancy rate of this partition is greater or equal to the value of maximum occupancy threshold, or in all the partitions P1 to Pn of the cache 100 if the values of the individual occupancy rates of all the partitions are lower than the value of the maximum occupancy threshold. In the embodiments in which the management module 30 comprises a module 34 controlling the activity of the library, the method comprises at least one step (71) to create and update data representing information on the utilization of readers and/or of the cartridges of the libraries P201 to P20n under the control of the storage system 1. As explained previously, this information enables the management module 30 to manage priorities over time for accesses to the storage resources 20, 100, firstly by the system 1 itself for a flush operation of the cache 100 towards the physical library P20, to P20n, and secondly by the computer platforms 101 to 10n to read/write a virtual volume V′1 to V′n not present in the cache 100 and therefore requiring consultation of the physical library P201 to P20n to copy a volume V1 to Vn from this physical library P201 to P20n to the cache 100, in the form of a virtual volume V′1 to V′n of the virtual library V201 to V20n. In the embodiments in which the management module 30 comprises means for accessing the content of the storage resources 20, 100 of the storage system 1, the management module 30 can conduct at least step (69) to create and update data representing information on the validity of the volumes V1 to Vn present in the cartridges P211 to P21n) of the libraries P20, to P20n under the control of the storage system 1, with respect to any virtual volumes V1 to Vn which may have been modified in the cache 100 by the computer platforms 101 to 10n. This information on validity allows the management module 30 to implement a comparison step (89) of the space occupied by the obsolete volumes V1 to Vn in the cartridges P211 to P21n of the physical library P201 to P20n with a maximum invalidity threshold. When the space occupied by these obsolete virtual volumes physique V1 to Vn reaches this threshold, the management module 30 performs a compacting step (90) of the valid volumes V1 to Vn in the physical library P201 to P20n. Therefore the management module 30 is able to carry out compacting of valid volumes V1 to Vn, taken from cartridges P211 to P21n containing non-utilized volumes V1 to Vn and/or corresponding to closed virtual volumes V′1 to V′n, by controlling a reading (92) of all the valid volumes V1 to Vn of the source cartridges P211 to P21n containing obsolete volumes V1 to Vn and simultaneously a copying (93) of these valid volumes V1 to Vn into target cartridges P211 to P21n, so as to erase these source cartridges P211 to P21n and only obtain cartridges P211 to P21n containing valid volumes V1 to Vn in the physical library P201 to P20n. As mentioned previously, the emulation step (61) of the virtual volumes V1 to Vn of the physical library P201 to P20n into virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the virtual library V201 to V20n of the cache 100, and the management steps of the cache 100 by the management module 30 offer the possibility that a virtual volume V′1 to V′n of the cache 100 may have multiple copies V1 to Vn, called images, in the physical library P201 to P20n. The creation and updating step (69), by the management module 30, of data representing information on the validity of the volumes V1 to Vn present in the cartridges P211 to P21n of the physical libraries P201 to P20n, allows the virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache 100 taken into account by the module 32 controlling cache occupancy, for calculation of occupancy rate, to be those which correspond to the virtual volumes V′1 to V′n of the cache having <<disk only>> status, i.e. whose images present in the physical library are not all valid. Finally, step (90) to compact the physical library P201 to P20n may comprise a step (91) in which the management module 30 uses the results of the operations performed by the module 31 of cache activity control, by the module 32 cache occupancy control and by the module 34 of activity control of the physical library P201 to P20n. Through this use (91), the compacting of the valid volumes V1 to Vn of the physical library P201 to P20n by the management module 30 will be made in relation to the activity and occupancy of the cache 100, giving preference to accesses to the storage resources 20, 100 by the computer platforms 101 to 10n over accesses required for this compacting. It will be obvious for persons skilled in the art that the present invention allows embodiments under numerous other specific forms without departing from the scope of application of the invention such as claimed. Therefore the described embodiments are to be considered as illustrative but can be modified in the field defined by the scope of the appended claims, and the invention is not to be construed as being limited to the foregoing details.	G	G06	G06F	12	00
11716359	US20080219525A1-20080911	Acceleration of Joseph's method for full 3D reconstruction of nuclear medical images from projection data	ACCEPTED	20080828	20080911		[]	G06K900	["G06K900", "A61B600", "A61B603"]	7856129	20070309	20101221	382	128000	62591.0	STREGE	JOHN	[{"inventor_name_last": "Panin", "inventor_name_first": "Vladimir", "inventor_city": "Knoxville", "inventor_state": "TN", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Kehren", "inventor_name_first": "Frank", "inventor_city": "Knoxville", "inventor_state": "TN", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Michel", "inventor_name_first": "Christian J.", "inventor_city": "Lenior City", "inventor_state": "TN", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A method for interpolating at least one oblique line of response ray representing nuclear image projection data through a rectangular volume and a system for using the method. The method consists of steps of interpolating all the direct rays in a rectangular volume, making a projected ray by projecting the oblique ray onto a surface of the rectangular volume, matching the projected ray to a coinciding interpolated direct ray, shearing the rectangular volume to match the projected ray, and interpolating the oblique ray in the sheared volume.	1. A method for reconstructing a nuclear medical image in three-dimensional image space by interpolating contributions of oblique line-of-response projection rays through a rectangular volume to voxels of said volume, comprising the steps of: (a) interpolating contributions all direct rays through said rectangular volume; (b) creating surface projected rays by projecting said oblique rays onto a surface of the rectangular volume; (c) matching the projected rays to coinciding interpolated direct rays; (d) shearing the rectangular volume to align with matched projected rays; and (e) interpolating matched oblique rays in corresponding sheared volumes. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein step (a) is accomplished by Joseph's Method. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein Joseph's Method consists of the steps of: (i) measuring the distances between the centers of the two pixels nearest the ray and the point where the ray intersects the line passing through the center of the pixels, and (ii) using the measured distances as the coefficients for interpolation. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein step (e) is accomplished using Joseph's Method. 5. The method of claim 4, wherein Joseph's Method consists of the steps of: (i) measuring the distances between the centers of the two pixels nearest the ray and the point where the ray intersects the line passing through the center of the pixels, and (ii) using the measured distances as the coefficients for interpolation. 6. The method of claim 1, further comprising the step of using the interpolation from a first oblique ray for additional oblique rays that have translational symmetry with the first oblique ray along one axis of the rectangular volume. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein step (d) is accomplished by skewing rows of voxels in the rectangular volume so that the voxels' vertical edges are substantially parallel to the projected ray. 8. A method for interpolating contributions of at least two oblique line of response rays representing nuclear medical image projection data of opposite polar angles through a rectangular image volume to voxels of said volume, comprising the steps of: (a) interpolating all direct line of response rays in said rectangular volume; (b) projecting said oblique rays of opposite polar angles onto a surface of the rectangular volume; (c) matching the projected rays to coinciding interpolated direct rays; (d) creating sheared volumes for each projected ray by shearing the rectangular volume to align with the angle of the matched projected rays; (e) interpolating one oblique ray of opposite polar angle in its corresponding sheared volume; and (f) applying the interpolated value to the rest of the oblique rays of opposite polar angle. 9. The method of claim 8, wherein step (a) is accomplished using Joseph's Method. 10. The method of claim 9, wherein Joseph's Method consists of the steps of: (i) measuring the distances between the centers of the two pixels nearest the ray and the point where the ray intersects the line passing through the center of the pixels, and (ii) using the measured distances as the coefficients for interpolation. 11. The method of claim 8, wherein step (e) is accomplished using Joseph's Method. 12. The method of claim 11, wherein Joseph's Method consists of the steps of: (i) measuring the distances between the centers of the two pixels nearest the ray and the point where the ray intersects the line passing through the center of the pixels, and (ii) using the measured distances as the coefficients for interpolation. 13. The method of claim 8, wherein step (d) is accomplished by skewing the rows of voxels in the rectangular volume so that the voxels' vertical edges are substantially parallel to the projected rays. 14. A system for reconstructing nuclear medical images by interpolation of oblique line of response ray contributions to voxels in an image volume, comprising: a medical imaging device, a processor for receiving data from the medical imaging device; and software executing on the processor, wherein the software interpolates all the direct rays in said image volume, creates a plurality of projected rays for each oblique ray by projecting the oblique rays onto a surface of the image volume, matches each projected ray to a coinciding interpolated direct ray, creates a plurality of sheared volumes by shearing the image volume to align with matched projected rays, and interpolates each oblique ray in each sheared volume. 15. The system of claim 14, wherein the software interpolates using Joseph's Method. 16. The system of claim 15, wherein the software executes Joseph's Method by measuring the distances between the centers of the two pixels nearest the ray and the point where the ray intersects the line passing through the center of the pixels, and using the measured distances as the coefficients for interpolation. 17. The system of claim 14, wherein the medical imaging device is a PET scanner. 18. The system of claim 14, wherein the medical imaging device is a SPECT scanner. 19. The system of claim 14, wherein the software outputs a full three dimensional image reconstruction. 20. The system of claim 19, said three dimensional reconstruction is displayed on a graphical interface. 21. The system of claim 19, wherein said full three dimensional reconstruction is outputted as a data set.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Medical imaging is one of the most useful diagnostic tools available in modern medicine. Medical imaging allows medical personnel to non-intrusively look into a living body in order to detect and assess many types of injuries, diseases, conditions, etc. Medical imaging allows doctors and technicians to more easily and correctly make a diagnosis, decide on a treatment, prescribe medication, perform surgery or other treatments, etc. There are medical imaging processes of many types and for many different purposes, situations, or uses. They commonly share the ability to create an image of a bodily region of a patient, and can do so non-invasively. Examples of some common medical imaging types are nuclear medical (NM) imaging such as positron emission tomography (PET) and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). Using these or other imaging types and associated apparatus, an image or series of images may be captured. Other devices may then be used to process the image in some fashion. Finally, a doctor or technician may read the image in order to provide a diagnosis. A PET camera works by detecting pairs of gamma ray photons in time coincidence. The two photons arise from the annihilation of a positron and electron in the patient's body. The positrons are emitted from a radioactive isotope that has been used to label a biologically important molecule (a radiopharmaceutical). Hundreds of millions such decays occur per second in a typical clinical scan. Because the two photons arising from each annihilation travel in opposite directions, the rate of detection of such coincident pairs is proportional to the amount of emission activity, and hence the molecule, along the line connecting the two detectors at the respective points of gamma ray interaction. In a PET camera the detectors are typically arranged in rings around the patient. By considering coincidences between all appropriate pairs of these detectors, a set of projection views can be formed, each element of which represents a line integral, or sum, of the emission activity in the patient's body along a well defined path. These projections are typically organized into a data structure called a sinogram, which contains a set of plane parallel projections at uniform angular intervals around the patient. A three dimensional image of the radiopharmaceutical's distribution in the body then can be reconstructed from these data. A SPECT camera functions similarly to a PET camera, but detects only single photons rather than coincident pairs. For this reason, a SPECT camera must use a lead collimator with holes, placed in front of its detector panel, to pre-define the lines of response in its projection views. One or more such detector panel/collimator combinations rotates around a patient, creating a series of planar projections each element of which represents a sum of the emission activity, and hence biological tracer, along the line of response defined by the collimation. As with PET, these data can be organized into sinograms and reconstructed to form an image of the radiopharmaceutical tracer distribution in the body. The purpose of the reconstruction process is to retrieve the spatial distribution of the radiopharmaceutical from the projection data. A conventional reconstruction step involves a process known as back-projection. In simple back-projection, an individual data sample is back-projected by setting all the image pixels along the line of response pointing to the sample to the same value. In less technical terms, a back-projection is formed by smearing each view back through the image in the direction it was originally acquired. The back-projected image is then taken as the sum of all the back-projected views. Regions where back-projection lines from different angles intersect represent areas which contain a higher concentration of radiopharmaceutical. While back-projection is conceptually simple, it does not by itself correctly solve the reconstruction problem. A simple back-projected image is very blurry; a single point in the true image is reconstructed as a circular region that decreases in intensity away from the center. In more formal terms, the point spread function (PSF) of back-projection is circularly symmetric, and decreases as the reciprocal of its radius. Filtered back-projection (FBP) is a technique to correct the blurring encountered in simple back-projection. Each projection view is filtered before the back-projection step to counteract the blurring point spread function. That is, each of the one-dimensional views is convolved with a one-dimensional filter kernel (e.g. a “ramp” filter) to create a set of filtered views. These filtered views are then back-projected to provide the reconstructed image, a close approximation to the “correct” image. The inherent randomness of radioactive decay and other processes involved in generating nuclear medical image data results in unavoidable statistical fluctuations (noise) in PET or SPECT data. This is a fundamental problem in clinical imaging that is dealt with through some form of smoothing of the data. In FBP this is usually accomplished by modifying the filter kernel used in the filtering step by applying a low-pass windowing function to it. This results in a spatially uniform, shift-invariant smoothing of the image that reduces noise, but may also degrade the spatial resolution of the image. A disadvantage of this approach is that the amount of smoothing is the same everywhere in the image although the noise is not. Certain regions, e.g. where activity and detected counts are higher, may have relatively less noise and thus require less smoothing than others. Standard windowed FBP cannot adapt to this aspect of the data. There are several alternatives to FBP for reconstructing nuclear medical data. In fact, most clinical reconstruction of PET images is now based on some variant of regularized maximum likelihood (RML) estimation because of the remarkable effectiveness of such algorithms in reducing image noise compared to FBP. In a sense, RML's effectiveness stems from its ability to produce a statistically weighted localized smoothing of an image. These algorithms have some drawbacks however: they are relatively expensive because they must be computed iteratively; they generally result in poorly characterized, noise dependent, image bias, particularly when regularized by premature stopping (unconverged); and the statistical properties of their image noise are difficult to determine. In a class of algorithms for calculating projections known as the Square Pixel Method, the basic assumption is that the object considered truly consists of an array of N×N square pixels, with the image function ƒ(x, y) assumed to be constant over the domain of each pixel. The method proceeds by evaluating the length of intersection of each ray with each pixel, and multiplying the value of the pixel (S). The major problem of this method is the unrealistic discontinuity of the model. This is especially apparent for rays whose direction is exactly horizontal or vertical, so that relatively large jumps occur in S values as the rays cross pixel boundaries. A second class of algorithms for calculating projections is the forward projection method. This method is literally the adjoint of the process of “back projection” of the FBP reconstruction algorithm. The major criticism of this algorithm is that the spatial resolution of the reprojection is lessened by the finite spacing between rays. Furthermore, increasing the number of pixels does not contribute to a reduction in this spacing, but does greatly increase processing time. A third algorithm for calculating projections based on line-integral approximation, developed by Peter M. Joseph and described in the paper entitled An Improved Algorithm for Reprojecting Rays Through Pixel Images , IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging, Vol. MI-1, No. 3, pp. 192-196, November 1982 (hereinafter, “Joseph's Method”), incorporated by reference herein in its entirety, is similar to the structure of the square pixel method. Each given ray K is specified exactly as a straight line. The basic assumption is that the image is a smooth function of x and y sampled on the grid of positions. The line integral desired is related to an integral over either x or y depending on whether the ray's direction lies closer to the x or y axis. While this algorithm produces a much clearer image than the other two methods, it is slower than either method, especially when interpolating oblique segments. When interpolating oblique segments, an interpolation is required in both the transaxial and axial directions for each ray, further slowing the process. Therefore, there exists a need in the art to have a method for calculating projections that has the clarity of Joseph's Method yet takes less processing time.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Provided is a method for reconstructing a tomographic image from projection data by interpolating an oblique ray or line of response (LOR) through a rectangular volume having the steps of: interpolating all the direct rays in a rectangular volume, creating a projected ray by projecting the oblique ray onto a surface of the rectangular volume, matching the projected ray to a coinciding interpolated direct ray, shearing the rectangular volume to match the projected ray, and interpolating the oblique ray in the sheared volume. Further provided is a method for interpolating a number of oblique rays through a rectangular volume having the steps of: interpolating all the direct rays in a rectangular volume, creating a plurality of projected rays for each oblique ray by projecting the oblique rays onto a surface of the rectangular volume, matching each projected ray to a coinciding interpolated direct ray, creating a plurality of sheared volumes by shearing the rectangular volume to match the projected rays, and interpolating each oblique ray in each sheared volume. Further provided is a method for interpolating at least two oblique rays of opposite polar angle through a rectangular volume having the steps of: interpolating all the direct rays in a rectangular volume, projecting the of oblique rays of opposite polar angle onto a surface of the rectangular volume, matching the projected rays to a coinciding interpolated direct ray, creating sheared volumes for each projected ray by shearing the rectangular volume to match the projected rays, interpolating one oblique ray of opposite polar angle in its corresponding sheared volume, and applying the interpolated value to the rest of the oblique rays of opposite polar angle. Further provided is a system for reconstructing tomographic images from projection data by interpolating oblique rays or LORs. The system includes a medical imaging device, a processor, and software running on the processor that executes the methods of the present invention.	TECHNICAL FIELD The current invention is in the field of medical imaging, and in particular pertains to reconstruction of tomographic images from acquired projection data obtained by an imaging apparatus. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Medical imaging is one of the most useful diagnostic tools available in modern medicine. Medical imaging allows medical personnel to non-intrusively look into a living body in order to detect and assess many types of injuries, diseases, conditions, etc. Medical imaging allows doctors and technicians to more easily and correctly make a diagnosis, decide on a treatment, prescribe medication, perform surgery or other treatments, etc. There are medical imaging processes of many types and for many different purposes, situations, or uses. They commonly share the ability to create an image of a bodily region of a patient, and can do so non-invasively. Examples of some common medical imaging types are nuclear medical (NM) imaging such as positron emission tomography (PET) and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). Using these or other imaging types and associated apparatus, an image or series of images may be captured. Other devices may then be used to process the image in some fashion. Finally, a doctor or technician may read the image in order to provide a diagnosis. A PET camera works by detecting pairs of gamma ray photons in time coincidence. The two photons arise from the annihilation of a positron and electron in the patient's body. The positrons are emitted from a radioactive isotope that has been used to label a biologically important molecule (a radiopharmaceutical). Hundreds of millions such decays occur per second in a typical clinical scan. Because the two photons arising from each annihilation travel in opposite directions, the rate of detection of such coincident pairs is proportional to the amount of emission activity, and hence the molecule, along the line connecting the two detectors at the respective points of gamma ray interaction. In a PET camera the detectors are typically arranged in rings around the patient. By considering coincidences between all appropriate pairs of these detectors, a set of projection views can be formed, each element of which represents a line integral, or sum, of the emission activity in the patient's body along a well defined path. These projections are typically organized into a data structure called a sinogram, which contains a set of plane parallel projections at uniform angular intervals around the patient. A three dimensional image of the radiopharmaceutical's distribution in the body then can be reconstructed from these data. A SPECT camera functions similarly to a PET camera, but detects only single photons rather than coincident pairs. For this reason, a SPECT camera must use a lead collimator with holes, placed in front of its detector panel, to pre-define the lines of response in its projection views. One or more such detector panel/collimator combinations rotates around a patient, creating a series of planar projections each element of which represents a sum of the emission activity, and hence biological tracer, along the line of response defined by the collimation. As with PET, these data can be organized into sinograms and reconstructed to form an image of the radiopharmaceutical tracer distribution in the body. The purpose of the reconstruction process is to retrieve the spatial distribution of the radiopharmaceutical from the projection data. A conventional reconstruction step involves a process known as back-projection. In simple back-projection, an individual data sample is back-projected by setting all the image pixels along the line of response pointing to the sample to the same value. In less technical terms, a back-projection is formed by smearing each view back through the image in the direction it was originally acquired. The back-projected image is then taken as the sum of all the back-projected views. Regions where back-projection lines from different angles intersect represent areas which contain a higher concentration of radiopharmaceutical. While back-projection is conceptually simple, it does not by itself correctly solve the reconstruction problem. A simple back-projected image is very blurry; a single point in the true image is reconstructed as a circular region that decreases in intensity away from the center. In more formal terms, the point spread function (PSF) of back-projection is circularly symmetric, and decreases as the reciprocal of its radius. Filtered back-projection (FBP) is a technique to correct the blurring encountered in simple back-projection. Each projection view is filtered before the back-projection step to counteract the blurring point spread function. That is, each of the one-dimensional views is convolved with a one-dimensional filter kernel (e.g. a “ramp” filter) to create a set of filtered views. These filtered views are then back-projected to provide the reconstructed image, a close approximation to the “correct” image. The inherent randomness of radioactive decay and other processes involved in generating nuclear medical image data results in unavoidable statistical fluctuations (noise) in PET or SPECT data. This is a fundamental problem in clinical imaging that is dealt with through some form of smoothing of the data. In FBP this is usually accomplished by modifying the filter kernel used in the filtering step by applying a low-pass windowing function to it. This results in a spatially uniform, shift-invariant smoothing of the image that reduces noise, but may also degrade the spatial resolution of the image. A disadvantage of this approach is that the amount of smoothing is the same everywhere in the image although the noise is not. Certain regions, e.g. where activity and detected counts are higher, may have relatively less noise and thus require less smoothing than others. Standard windowed FBP cannot adapt to this aspect of the data. There are several alternatives to FBP for reconstructing nuclear medical data. In fact, most clinical reconstruction of PET images is now based on some variant of regularized maximum likelihood (RML) estimation because of the remarkable effectiveness of such algorithms in reducing image noise compared to FBP. In a sense, RML's effectiveness stems from its ability to produce a statistically weighted localized smoothing of an image. These algorithms have some drawbacks however: they are relatively expensive because they must be computed iteratively; they generally result in poorly characterized, noise dependent, image bias, particularly when regularized by premature stopping (unconverged); and the statistical properties of their image noise are difficult to determine. In a class of algorithms for calculating projections known as the Square Pixel Method, the basic assumption is that the object considered truly consists of an array of N×N square pixels, with the image function ƒ(x, y) assumed to be constant over the domain of each pixel. The method proceeds by evaluating the length of intersection of each ray with each pixel, and multiplying the value of the pixel (S). The major problem of this method is the unrealistic discontinuity of the model. This is especially apparent for rays whose direction is exactly horizontal or vertical, so that relatively large jumps occur in S values as the rays cross pixel boundaries. A second class of algorithms for calculating projections is the forward projection method. This method is literally the adjoint of the process of “back projection” of the FBP reconstruction algorithm. The major criticism of this algorithm is that the spatial resolution of the reprojection is lessened by the finite spacing between rays. Furthermore, increasing the number of pixels does not contribute to a reduction in this spacing, but does greatly increase processing time. A third algorithm for calculating projections based on line-integral approximation, developed by Peter M. Joseph and described in the paper entitled An Improved Algorithm for Reprojecting Rays Through Pixel Images, IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging, Vol. MI-1, No. 3, pp. 192-196, November 1982 (hereinafter, “Joseph's Method”), incorporated by reference herein in its entirety, is similar to the structure of the square pixel method. Each given ray K is specified exactly as a straight line. The basic assumption is that the image is a smooth function of x and y sampled on the grid of positions. The line integral desired is related to an integral over either x or y depending on whether the ray's direction lies closer to the x or y axis. While this algorithm produces a much clearer image than the other two methods, it is slower than either method, especially when interpolating oblique segments. When interpolating oblique segments, an interpolation is required in both the transaxial and axial directions for each ray, further slowing the process. Therefore, there exists a need in the art to have a method for calculating projections that has the clarity of Joseph's Method yet takes less processing time. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Provided is a method for reconstructing a tomographic image from projection data by interpolating an oblique ray or line of response (LOR) through a rectangular volume having the steps of: interpolating all the direct rays in a rectangular volume, creating a projected ray by projecting the oblique ray onto a surface of the rectangular volume, matching the projected ray to a coinciding interpolated direct ray, shearing the rectangular volume to match the projected ray, and interpolating the oblique ray in the sheared volume. Further provided is a method for interpolating a number of oblique rays through a rectangular volume having the steps of: interpolating all the direct rays in a rectangular volume, creating a plurality of projected rays for each oblique ray by projecting the oblique rays onto a surface of the rectangular volume, matching each projected ray to a coinciding interpolated direct ray, creating a plurality of sheared volumes by shearing the rectangular volume to match the projected rays, and interpolating each oblique ray in each sheared volume. Further provided is a method for interpolating at least two oblique rays of opposite polar angle through a rectangular volume having the steps of: interpolating all the direct rays in a rectangular volume, projecting the of oblique rays of opposite polar angle onto a surface of the rectangular volume, matching the projected rays to a coinciding interpolated direct ray, creating sheared volumes for each projected ray by shearing the rectangular volume to match the projected rays, interpolating one oblique ray of opposite polar angle in its corresponding sheared volume, and applying the interpolated value to the rest of the oblique rays of opposite polar angle. Further provided is a system for reconstructing tomographic images from projection data by interpolating oblique rays or LORs. The system includes a medical imaging device, a processor, and software running on the processor that executes the methods of the present invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention will now be described in greater detail in the following by way of example only and with reference to the attached drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a representation of Joseph's Method for two dimensional interpolation. FIGS. 2A-C are three dimensional, front, and side views, respectively, of a oblique ray in a rectangular volume. FIG. 3 is a representation of Joseph's Method for three dimensional interpolation. FIG. 4A-B are front and side views, respectively, of the three dimensional interpolation of FIG. 3. FIG. 5 is a front view of a sheared space for the three dimensional interpolation of FIG. 3 in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 6 is a three dimensional space with two opposite polar angle rays passing through it. FIGS. 7A and 7B are front and side views, respectively, of the three dimensional space of FIG. 6. FIGS. 8A and 8B are the front views of the sheared space for the two rays in FIG. 6. FIG. 9 is a flow chart of a method according to the present invention. FIG. 10 is a system using the methods of the present invention. FIGS. 11A and 11B are top and cross-sectional views, respectively, of a cylindrical PET scanner with multiple detector rings, which is applicable to the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION As required, disclosures herein provide detailed embodiments of the present invention; however, the disclosed embodiments are merely exemplary of the invention that may be embodied in various and alternative forms. Therefore, there is no intent that specific structural and functional details should be limiting, but rather the intention is that they provide a basis for the claims and as a representative basis for teaching one skilled in the art to variously employ the present invention. Joseph's Method is a method for reprojecting rays through pixel images using line integrals. The basic assumption is that the image is a smooth function of x and y sampled on a grid of points in (x,y) space. FIG. 1 is a representation of Joseph's Method in two dimensional space 110. Each ray 120 passing through space 110, is specified as a straight line, using either: y(x)=−cot (θ)x+y0 or x(y)=−y tan (θ)+x0. The line integral desired is related to an integral over either x or y depending on whether ray 120's direction lies closer to the x or y axis, that is S  ( K ) = ∫ L k   sf  ( x , y ) or  = 1  sin  ( θ )   ∫ f  ( x , y  ( x ) )   x   for    sin  ( θ )  ≥ 1 2  = 1  cos  ( θ )   ∫ f  ( x  ( y ) , y )   y   for    cos  ( θ )  ≥ 1 2 . The above two equations are related in the interchange of x and y as independent and dependent variables. In each case, the one dimensional integral is approximated by a simple sum, such as a Riemann sum; for example, the x-direction integral becomes S = 1  sin   θ   [ ∑ n = 2 N - 1  P n , n ′ + λ n  ( P n , n ′ + 1 - P n , n ′ ) + T 1 + T N ] where the terms T1 and TN represents the first and last pixel on the line and are treated separately, and λn is the fractional number defined by n′=integer part of y(xn) λn=y(xn)−n′. Interpolation enters in two senses: 1) explicitly, in the use of fraction λn to estimate the value of f(xn,y(xn))≅(1−λn)Pn,n′+λnPn,n′+1 and 2) implicitly in the sense that the summation above is the application of the trapezoidal rule to numerically estimate the one dimensional (x) integral. The treatment of the endpoints T1 and TN depend on the application. In some situations, they may be taken to be zero if outside the object images. For applications to heart-isolating algorithms, it is necessary to make them proportional to the length of intersection of the ray with the first and last pixels. Looking at FIG. 1, in two dimensions, Joseph's Method can be summarized as follows: For a given line or row yin two-dimensional space 110, each ray 120 receives information from the two nearest pixels 130A and 130B. The distances 160A and 160B between the centers of pixels 130A and 130B and the point 150 where ray 120 intersects the horizontal line 140 passing through the center of pixels 130A and 130B define the interpolation coefficients. When there is translational symmetry in the axial (z) direction, the interpolation coefficients are the same for all the rays which differ only by their axial coordinate. This is shown in FIGS. 11A-11B, which is a schematic representation of a cylindrical PET scanner 1101, and its cross-section, respectively. The PET scanner 1101 includes multiple detector rings, such as rings 1102-1105. Oblique rays 1106 and 1107 correspond to various non-zero ring difference. For example, ray 1106 extends between rings 1104 and 1105, while ray 1107 extends between rings 1103 and 1104. Rays 1106 and 1107 have the same transaxial coordinates (in the x-y plane) as direct rays 1108, which extends within the same detector ring 1102. There is also an axial translation symmetry for all rays with the same ring difference. FIG. 2A is an example of an oblique segment ray 220 in three dimensional space 210. Oblique segment ray 220 receives information from the four nearest voxels (i.e., volume elements or three dimensional pixels) 215A, 215B, 215C and 215D in an (x,y,z) image volume: the four voxels can be broken down into four pixels, two pixels 230A and 230B in the x direction (FIG. 2B), and two pixels 231A and 231B in the axial or z direction (FIG. 2C). In order to interpolate oblique ray 220, interpolations over both the x direction and the z direction must be made. As in the two dimensional case, the distances 260A and 260B between the centers of pixels 230A and 230B and the point 250 where the ray 220 intersects the horizontal line 240 passing through the center of pixels 230A and 230B define the interpolation coefficients in the x direction. Likewise, the distances 261A and 261B between the centers of pixels 231A and 231B and the point 251 where the ray 220 intersects the horizontal line 241 passing through the center of pixels 231A and 231B, define the interpolation coefficients in the axial direction. FIG. 3 shows an example of an oblique ray 320 in a rectangular image volume 310 for a full three-dimensional reconstruction. If one were to interpolate based on Joseph's Method as described above, both front (i.e. xy) surface 410A and side (i.e. yz) surface 410B projections of the oblique ray 320 (see FIGS. 4A and 4B) would be necessary for each such oblique ray 320, thus creating a front ray projection 420A and a side ray projection 420B. However, front ray projection 420A of oblique ray 320 on front surface 410A may coincide with the projection of a direct (i.e. two dimensional) ray on the same plane. Therefore, the interpolation coefficients in the x direction may be the same for front ray projection 420A of oblique ray 320 and the direct two-dimensional ray. The pixel interpolation values for the direct rays thus could be reused on front ray projection 420A. An efficient way to use such interpolated pixel values over the whole image volume would be to compute a sheared volume 510 (see FIG. 5). In sheared volume 510, in each row from volume 310 of FIG. 3, the vertical edges of the voxels may be skewed so that they are aligned with front ray projection 420A on the xy surface. By so shearing the volume space to create sheared volume 510 to match the direction of ray projection 420A, the two interpolations otherwise needed for oblique ray 320 may be reduced to a single interpolation of oblique ray 320 in sheared volume 510. When there is translational symmetry in the z direction as shown in FIG. 11, the interpolation coefficients may be the same for all the rays which differ only by their x coordinate. Therefore, only one interpolation coefficient can be used for all voxels of one axial row in the sheared volume. This coefficient may be different for each plane. FIG. 6 shows a three dimensional space 610 through which model ray 620 and model ray 630 pass. Model rays 620 and 630 have opposite polar angles (i.e. opposite angles in the y-z plane). When rays 620 and 630 are projected onto the xy side surface 710B (see FIG. 7B), it can be seen that they both have the identical xy side surface projection 740. Yet, when model rays 620 and 630 are projected onto the yz front surface 710A (see FIG. 7A), it can be seen that they have opposite or mirrored yz front surface projections 720A and 730A. FIGS. 8A and 8B show front views of sheared volumes 810A and 810B for front projections 720A and 730A in accordance with the present invention. While sheared volumes 810A and 810B are different, each front projection 720A and 730A may coincide with a projection of a direct ray on the same plane. In practice, the same sheared volume may be used for both positive and negative polar angles, such that only one of the volumes 810A and 810B is actually necessary. Once the sheared volumes 810A or 810B are matched to the direct rays, the interpolation may reduce to a single interpolation of oblique model rays 620 and 630 in the sheared volume 810A or 810B, respectively. Since both model rays 620 and 630 have the same side projection 740, both rays can be interpolated in the same single interpolation. For example, an oblique ray in a positive segment uses the following one dimensional axial interpolation: Ppositive segment=value=wzshearedvoxel(ρ,y,z)+(1−wz) shearedvoxel(ρ,y,z+1) While the same ray in the negative segment reuses the coefficients as: Pnegative segment=(1−wz)shearedvoxel(ρ,y,z)+wzshearedvoxel(ρ,y,z+1)=shearedvoxel(ρ,y,z)+shearedvoxel(ρ,y,z+1)−value This excludes multiplication when calculating rays for one of the segments for the voxels in the sheared volume belonging to the intersection of the two segments. The algorithm may be thus summarized as follows. The equations for Joseph's method can be rewritten for the 3D case as: y  ( x ) = - cot  ( θ )  x + y 0 z  ( x ) = d  ( x )  tan   φ + z 0 = ( - x   1 sin   θ + d 0 )  tan   φ + z 0 ,  sin   θ  ≥ 1 2 or x  ( y ) = - y   tan  ( θ ) + x 0 z  ( y ) = d  ( y )  tan   φ + z 0 = ( y   1 cos   θ + d 0 )  tan   φ + z 0 ,  cos   θ  ≥ 1 2 and   thus S  ( K ) = 1  sin   θ   cos   ϕ   ∫ f  ( x , y  ( x ) , z  ( x ) )   x ,  sin   θ  ≥ 1 2 = 1  cos   θ   cos   ϕ   ∫ f  ( x  ( y ) , y , z  ( x ) )   x ,  cos   θ  ≥ 1 2 Where θ is the azimuthal and φ is the polar angle. For the case where  sin   θ  ≥ 1 2 S = 1  sin   θ   cos   φ  [ ∑ n = 2 N - 1  μ n  ( P n , n ′ , n ″ + λ n  ( P n , n ′ + 1 , n ″ - P n , n ′ , n ″ ) ) + ( 1 - μ n )  ( P n , n ′ , n ″ + 1 + λ n  ( P n , n ′ + 1 , n ″ + 1 - P n , n ′ , n ″ + 1 ) where n′=integer part of y(xn) λn=y(xn)−n′. n″=integer part of z(xn) μn=z(xn)−n″ where Pn,n′,n″=f (n, n′, n″). For each azimuthal angle, a sheared volume is calculated using a 1 D transaxial interpolation in the original volume. Because of the transaxial symmetry, the original and sheared volumes are stored with axial index first. An array of depth coordinates d is also computed, as such coordinates are used when computing interpolation factors for oblique segments. Projection rays are also stored with axial index first. The storage of the axial index as the first index is very important from a hardware point of view, as all operations are applied in axial direction first. Thus, having the axial index as the first index facilitates an efficient use of the memory cache and enables use of hardware parallelization. This results in fast computing. The projections for 2D segments are calculated at the same time as the sheared volumes. The projections for all oblique segments are then obtained by a 1 D axial interpolation in the sheared volume. FIG. 9 shows an embodiment of a method 900 in accordance with the present invention. The first step 910 is to interpolate all the direct (i.e. planar) rays in the image volume. Once there are a number of direct rays, in step 920 the front surface ray projections of the oblique rays may be matched to the direct rays. The voxel space may then be sheared at step 930 to align with the matched front ray projections. Finally, the oblique rays may be interpolated at step 940 in the sheared volumes. FIG. 10 is a system 1000 for using method 900. System 1000 may be comprised of a medical imaging device 1010, i.e. a PET scanner, a SPECT scanner or similar device capable of acquiring a medical image. Medical imaging device 1010 may be attached to a processor 1020 for receiving the data. Processor 1020 may have software running on it that executes a method of the present invention and outputs a fully three dimensional reconstruction of the object scanned. The invention having been thus described, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that the same may be varied in many ways without departing from the spirit of the invention. Any and all such variations are intended to be covered within the scope of the following claims. For example, the method can be extended to a so-called LOR projection geometry when the transverse distance between rays is not a constant, as in a ring scanner. In such case, the method requires only a scanner with axial translation symmetry. The method also can be extended in the case of an unmatched back-projector. In such case, a different shear procedure would be used where each voxel receives contributions from two nearest projection rays in the transverse direction. This is important when the transverse voxel size is significantly smaller than the transverse projection size.	G	G06	G06K	9	00
11704067	US20070233191A1-20071004	Vaginal remodeling device and methods	ACCEPTED	20070919	20071004		[]	A61N139	["A61N139"]	8961511	20070207	20150224	606	041000	79644.0	HUPCZEY, JR	RONALD	[{"inventor_name_last": "Parmer", "inventor_name_first": "Jonathan", "inventor_city": "Woodside", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]	This invention relates generally to apparatus and methods for tightening tissue of the female genitalia by heating targeted connective tissue with radiant energy, while cooling the mucosal epithelial surface over the target tissue to protect it from the heat. Embodiments include a treatment tip that comprises both an energy delivery element and a cooling mechanism. As the treatment tip contacts the epithelial mucosa, the tip cools the mucosa by contact, and delivers energy thought the epithelium to the underlying tissue, thereby creating a reverse thermal gradient. The effect of the applied heat is to remodel genital tissue by tightening it. Such remodeling may include a tighter vagina and a tighter introitus. The tightening may be a consequence of thermal denaturation of collagen as well as a longer term healing response in the tissue that includes an increased deposition of collagen.	1. A method for remodeling a therapeutic zone within a target tissue, the target tissue comprising tissue underlying a mucosal epithelium of female genital tissue, the method comprising: heating the target tissue, and remodeling the therapeutic zone of target tissue. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein heating the target tissue comprises heating it to a temperature between about 45 degrees C. and about 80 degrees C. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein heating the target tissue comprises heating it to a temperature between about 50 degrees C. and about 75 degrees C. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein heating the target tissue comprises heating it to a temperature between about 55 degrees C. and about 70 degrees C. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein heating comprises delivering energy by contacting the epithelium with a treatment tip, the tip including an energy delivery element. 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the energy includes any of radiofrequency energy, microwave energy, or ultrasound energy. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the heating is controlled by a feedback control, such that temperature does not go higher than a predetermined temperature. 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the feedback control is provided by one or more thermal sensors. 9. The method of claim 7, wherein the feedback control is provided by one or more impedance monitors. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the method further comprises cooling the epithelium. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein cooling is by contacting the epithelium with a treatment tip, the tip including a cooling mechanism. 12. The method of claim 10, wherein cooling the epithelium comprises cooling it to a temperature between about 0 degrees C. and about 10 degrees C. 13. The method of claim 10, wherein the method further comprises cooling of at least some of the target tissue, the cooling of the target tissue having an effect on the therapeutic zone. 14. The method of claim 10, wherein the cooling precedes the heating, and continues during the heating. 15. The method of claim 10, wherein the cooling is during the heating, and continues after heating. 16. The method of claim 10, wherein the combination of cooling the epithelium and heating the target tissue creates a reverse thermal gradient from the epithelium to the target tissue. 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the reverse thermal gradient ranges from a low temperature of about 0 degrees C. to about 10 degrees C. at the epithelium to a high temperature of about 45 degrees C. to about 80 degrees C. in the underlying target tissue. 18. The method of claim 1, wherein the method comprises contacting the epithelium with a treatment tip at a one or more contact sites during a procedure, the tip comprising an energy delivery element adapted to heat the target tissue. 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the method is performed during a procedure, and wherein the contacting of any one of more contact sites is repeated one or more times during a procedure. 20. The method of claim 18, wherein the method includes contacting the tip to the epithelium at a plurality of contact sites during a procedure, moving the tip from site to site, the combined contact sites comprising a treatment area. 21. The method claim 20, wherein any one of the contact sites is contacted one or more times during a procedure. 22. The method of claim 20, the method further comprising repeating the procedure one or more times. 23. The method of claim 22, wherein the treatment areas of the one or more procedures, respectively, may be any of the same treatment area, different treatment areas, or overlapping treatment areas. 24. The method of claim 1, wherein the female genitalia includes the vulva and the vagina. 25. The method of claim 1, wherein the female genitalia includes the introitus. 26. The method of claim 1, wherein the female genitalia includes a portion of the vagina extending from the introitus inwardly to a location from about 1 cm to about 3.5 cm in from the introitus. 27. The method of claim 1, wherein the female genitalia includes a portion of the vagina circumferentially around its wall from about 1 o'clock to about 11 o'clock, wherein the aspect closest to the urethra is at 12 o'clock. 28. The method of claim 1, wherein the female genitalia includes a portion radiating outward from the introitus to Hart's line. 29. The method of claim 1, wherein the female genitalia includes the mucosal surfaces of the labia minora. 30. The method of claim 1, wherein the target tissue includes submucosa and muscularis below the mucosal epithelium. 31. The method of claim 1, wherein the heating does not substantially modify the mucosal epithelium of the genital tissue. 32. The method of claim 1, wherein remodeling comprises contracting target tissue. 33. The method of claim 1, wherein remodeling comprises tightening the introitus. 34. The method of claim 1, wherein remodeling comprises tightening the vagina. 35. The method of claim 1, wherein remodeling comprises denaturing collagen. 36. The method of claim 1, wherein remodeling comprises tightening collagen-rich sites in the target tissue. 37. The method of claim 1, wherein remodeling comprises rejuvenating the genital tissue toward a conformation like that which the genitalia had prior to experiencing vaginal birth. 38. The method of claim 1, wherein at least some of the remodeling occurs during the heating. 39. The method of claim 1, wherein at least some of the remodeling occurs after the heating. 40. The method of claim 39, wherein the remodeling after the heating is by a depositing of collagen in the target tissue. 41. An apparatus for remodeling a therapeutic zone within a target tissue, the target tissue comprising tissue underlying a mucosal epithelium of female genital tissue, the apparatus comprising: a treatment tip, the tip comprising: a shaft comprising a longitudinal axis, an energy delivery element, and a cooling mechanism, wherein the energy delivery element is adapted to contact the epithelium, and wherein treatment tip is configured to deliver energy from the energy delivery element to the target tissue in a uniform manner. 42. The apparatus of claim 41, wherein the energy delivery element is configured to be substantially parallel to the longitudinal axis of the shaft. 43. The apparatus of claim 41, wherein the energy delivery element is configured to have a width of about 0.75 cm to about 1.25 cm. 44. The apparatus of claim 41, wherein the energy delivery element is configured to have a length of about 1 cm to about 3 cm. 45. The apparatus of claim 41, wherein the energy delivery element is configured to be flat. 46. The apparatus of claim 41, wherein the energy delivery element is configured to have a radial curvature with respect to the longitudinal axis of the shaft. 47. The apparatus of claim 46, wherein the radial curvature is an arc of up to 30 degrees. 48. The apparatus of claim 46, wherein the radial curvature is an arc of about 30 degrees. 49. The apparatus of claim 41, wherein the shaft is configured to include a narrow portion proximal to the energy delivery element, and wherein the energy delivery element is configured to be substantially parallel to the longitudinal axis of the shaft, such that the energy delivery element projects forward from the shaft. 50. The apparatus of claim 41, wherein the cooling system is configured to cool the energy delivery element. 51. The apparatus of claim 41, wherein the cooling system comprises cooling fluid and at least one nozzle, the nozzle, configured to spray the cooling fluid on the energy delivery element. 52. The apparatus of claim 41, wherein the energy delivery element comprises at least one capacitively coupled electrode. 53. The apparatus of claim 41, wherein the energy delivery element comprises at least one radiofrequency (RF) electrode. 54. The apparatus of claim 53, wherein the RF electrode is a monopolar electrode. 55. The apparatus of claim 53, wherein the at one RF electrode is a bipolar electrode pair. 56. The apparatus of claim 53, further comprising at least one thermister located in close proximity to the electrode. 57. The apparatus of claim 53, further comprising a programmable memory chip.	<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The vagina is made up of three layers, a mucosa of stratified squamous epithelial tissue, the submucosa or lamina propria containing vascularized connective tissue and a deeper muscularis, containing smooth muscle. Collagen molecules are produced by cells resident in the these tissues which synthesize three polypeptide chains that wrap around one another to form a triple helix. Collagen is a major type of fibrous protein that is a basic structural element of connective tissue, tendon, cartilage, and bone. Each of the collagen chains is approximately 1000 amino acid units in length, with glycine recurring regularly every third unit, and with proline and hydroxyproline recurring very frequently. Cross-linking occurs between the sides, not the ends, of collagen molecules and is coupled with the amino acid composition to give collagen its great strength. Collagen tissue tightening takes place in a direction parallel to an axis of collagen fibers. The phenomenon of thermal contraction of collagen begins with a denaturation of the triple helix of the collagen molecule. Partial denaturation of collagen tissue results in a contraction of the collagen-rich spaces and provides a “tightening” effect on the overlaying tissue. Patents relevant to aspects of collagen denaturation and exploitation of this for medical or cosmetic purposes include U.S. Pat. No. 5,919,219 to Knowlton for “Method for Controlled Contraction of Collagen Tissue Using RF Energy” and U.S. Pat. No. 5,755,753 to Knowlton for “Method for Controlled Contraction of Collagen Tissue”; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,143,063 to Fellner for “Method of Removing Adipose Tissue”. Further patents and published patent applications include U.S. Pat. No. 6,350,276 to Knowlton for “Tissue Remodeling Apparatus Containing Cooling Fluid”; U.S. Pat. No. 6,387,380 to Knowlton for “Apparatus for Controlled Contraction of Collagen Tissue”; U.S. Pat. No. 6,425,912 to Knowlton for “Method and Apparatus for Modifying Skin Surface and Soft Tissue Structure”; U.S. Pat. No. 6,453,202 to Knowlton for “Apparatus for Tissue Remodeling”; U.S. Pub 2002/0049483 to Knowlton for “Fluid Delivery Apparatus”; U.S. Pub 2003/0212393 to Knowlton for “Handpiece with RD Electrode and Non-Volatile Memory”; U.S. Pub 2003/0236487 to Knowlton for “Method for Treatment of Tissue with Feedback”; and U.S. Pub 2004/0000316 to Knowlton for “Methods for Creating Tissue Effect Utilizing Electromagnetic Energy and a Reverse Thermal Gradient”. The vaginal tissue of women is stretched during vaginal child birth; at least some of the effects of the stretching are permanent and many women have long term medical consequences. Some consequences include physical problems, such as uterine prolapse, cystoceles, urethroceles, enteroceles, rectoceles, stress urinary incontinence, bowel movement problems, for which surgical options are available. Some consequences may include sexual aspects, as may follow from excessive loosening of the vagina and its opening, the introitus. Such loosening typically occurs with the first vaginal delivery, and the loosening tends to increase with subsequent vaginal deliveries. This effective of looseness in this region may include decreased pressure and friction during intercourse, and as a consequence, decreased sexual pleasure for women and their conjugal partners. Some surgical options can be exercised in an attempt to alleviate these problems, but surgical approaches can bring with them a risk of scarring that is entirely counterproductive with regard to the desired result. More generally, these surgical approaches are not highly popular because of the risks associated with an invasive procedure, in a sensitive area, especially when such procedures are considered medically optional. There is a need for effective approaches to treating a loose vagina and introitus with a non-invasive procedure; accordingly, the object of the present invention to provide apparatus and method for corrective or restorative remodeling of the mucosal surfaces of the vagina, introitus, and vulva.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Embodiments of the invention include an apparatus for remodeling target tissues, including the lamina propria and the muscularis, underlying the mucosal epithelium of a female genital tissue. The apparatus comprises a hand piece and a treatment tip, the hand piece further supported a by comprehensive upstream electronic system. Embodiments of the treatment tip comprise a connector portion, which connects the tip to the hand piece, a midsection, typically narrowed, and a distal portion that comprises an energy delivery element. The treatment tip further comprises a housing that defines an internal space. The internal space accommodates a cooling system, with a lumen for conveying a refrigerating fluid, and nozzles, which are adapted to spray refrigerant on to the internal side of the energy delivery element thereby cooling it, such the cooled, in turn, cooling a genital mucosal epithelial surface on contact. The types of energy delivery element may include a radiofrequency, microwave, or ultrasound delivery embodiments. Some particular embodiments include capacitively coupled RF electrodes, which may by monopolar or bipolar. Monopolar RF electrode-based embodiments may comprise a conductive pad to serve as a return electrode. Bipolar RF-based embodiments may include one or more pairs of electrodes. The electrodes may further comprise thermal sensors that provide feedback control based on local temperature, and may further comprise EEROM chips that identify the treatment tip type or convey configuration parameters of the electrode to the hand piece, or to the larger electronic system. The energy delivery element and the treatment tip as a whole are adapted to make optimal contact with the genital epithelial surface, when contact and capacitive coupling is occurring between the tip and an epithelial contact site. By optimal contact is meant a contact that best allows a delivery of energy into the target tissue that is broadly uniform across the surface of the contact site, notably without significant distortion along the edges of the contact site. Non-uniform delivery of energy does not serve the remodeling process well, and further may risk damage to the mucosal epithelium. These adaptive configurations include a sidemounted configuration of the energy delivery element, the face of the energy delivery element being substantially parallel with respect to the linear axis of the treatment tip. Other adaptive configurations include a narrowed mid-section of the tip proximal to the distal portion. This configuration allows the energy delivery element at the distal portion of the tip to project outward or forward from its surrounding support structure, thereby allowing the contact between the energy delivery element and the mucosal epithelium to be more accurate, deliberate, and visible, and for the level of contacting pressure to be better controlled by the physician. Further, the dimensions and configuration of the energy delivery element are adapted to the optimize contact, particularly with the vaginal wall. The width of the energy delivery element is between 0.75 and 1.25 cm. Such a width is sufficient to engage the curved wall of the vagina in a manner that is sufficiently flat and parallel that the quality of contact across the face of the energy delivery element is substantially equal, without increased pressure, closer contact, or distortion along the edges of the element. Such a close contact allows for a uniform delivery of energy into the underlying target tissue. In some embodiments, the face of the energy delivery element is radially curved (with respect to the longitudinal axis of the tip) within the width of the element so as to create an arc of up to 30 degrees. Such curvature is also adapted to make parallel contact with the vaginal wall. An element of about 1 cm width, per embodiments of the invention, requires about 10 contact sites to radially treat a 300 degree arc inside a vagina, thus a 30 degree arc provides for a good fit against the curve of the vaginal wall and thereby provides a uniform delivery of energy into the target tissue. In typical embodiments, the length of the energy delivery element is about 1 to about 3 cm in length, in other embodiments it may be as long as about 4 cm. This is a length well adapted to treating the lower aspect of the vagina, wherein treatment by the method comprises contacting the vaginal epithelium in a region that extends from the introitus inward to a position about 3 to 4 cm inward from the introitus. In some embodiments of the invention, the method can by practiced with a single row of parallel contact sites immediately inside the introitus. In other embodiments, the method may include deeper rows, or rows that overlap an intial row, while keeping the contact sites within the lower portion of the vagina. Embodiments of the invention include methods for remodeling a therapeutic zone of tissue within a target tissue of female genitalia. The target tissue lies immediately beneath the mucosal epithelium of genital tissues, and includes the lamina propria, a connective tissue that includes collagen in the extracellular space, and the muscularis, which includes smooth muscle. The target zone of embodiments of the invention does not include deeper tissue, such as endopelvic fascia. The anatomical areas of the female genitalia treated by embodiment of the invention include the vulva and the vagina, and the introitus, the opening of the vagina. The vulva includes tissue radiating outward from the introitus to Hart's line, where mucosal epithelium gives way to skin on the outer surface of the labia minora. With more specific regard to the vagina, embodiments of the method comprise treating the lower portion of the vagina, a portion extending from the introitus to a location from about 2 cm to about 4 cm inward from the introitus, in other embodiments the location may extends inward as far as about 6 cm. With regard to the circumference of the inner wall of the vagina, a clock-position reference scheme is helpful. The urethra lies next to the anterior wall of the vagina, the location of the vaginal wall nearest the urethra and urethral opening may be considered 12 o'clock. With this reference point, the target tissue of embodiments of the invention include the approximately 300 degree arc between 1 o'clock and 11 o'clock. Embodiments of the invention do not include treating the approximately 60 degree arc between 11 o'clock and 10 o'clock because the practice of this invention is not directed toward tissue in the vicinity of the urethra. Embodiments of the method include heating the target zone with radiant energy, typically radiofrequency (RF) energy, but other embodiments may use microwave or ultrasound energy. The method includes contacting the mucosal epithelium with a treatment tip that has an energy delivering element and a cooling mechanism. By delivering energy to the tissue while cooling the epithelial surface, a reverse thermal gradient is created. The RF energy penetrates through the cooled epithelium and into the underlying target tissue, and heats the tissue. A zone of tissue that is heated within the target tissues to a threshold level, i.e., to a therapeutic temperature that causes remodeling is termed a therapeutic zone. Not all tissue within the target tissue necessarily reaches this threshold level of heat. In some cases, cooling from the treatment tip may penetrate into the target tissue, and in this situation, the presence of cooled tissue may have an effect on the therapeutic zone, by moving it deeper within the target tissue, for example, or by constraining its volume. Energy delivered from the treatment tip may heat the target tissue to a temperature as high as about 80 degrees C. In some embodiments, therapeutic temperature may range between about 45 degrees C. and about 80 degrees C. In other embodiments, the therapeutic temperature may range between about 50 degrees C. and about 75 degrees C. In still other embodiments, the therapeutic temperature may range between about 55 degrees C. and about 70 degrees C. Heating is a process subject to feedback control during a treatment procedure, so as to keep the temperature within a predetermined temperature range. Feedback may be provided by one or more thermisters (thermal sensors) or impedance monitors. The treatment tip may cool the epithelium to a temperature between about 0 degrees C. and about 10 degrees C. A reverse thermal gradient, accordingly may be represented a low temperature of between about 0 degrees C. and about 10 degrees C. at the mucosal epithelium, and a high temperature of between 45 degrees C. and about 80 degrees C. in the target tissue. During a typical procedure, according to embodiments of the invention, any period of heating is accompanied by cooling; however cooling may also precede heating, and follow heating. Methods of treatment comprise contacting the treatment tip to a contact site on the mucosal epithelium. The contact site conforms to the dimensions of the treating surface of the treatment tip. During the course of a single treatment, as for example would occur to a visit to a medical office, typically a plurality of contact sites are treated. During a procedure, a single contact site may be contacted multiple times. The summed total of mucosal contact sites comprises a treatment area. Such an area, comprising multiple contact sites may be recorded on a grid. The method may be applied on more than one occasion; a patient may return to her physician at a later date when the effects of a previous treatment may be evaluated and a treatment repeated. The treatment areas of the separate procedures may be the same, be different, or overlap. Remodeling genital tissue, per embodiments of the invention may include heat-denaturing collagen within collagen-rich areas in the target tissues. Inasmuch as the overlaying mucosal epithelium is cooled by the method, it does not get heated, and is substantially unaffected by the method. Remodeling of target tissue within the therapeutic zone may occur substantially during the time when the tissue is being heated. Remodeling may also occur substantially after the heating has occurred, for example days or weeks later. Such remodeling comprises biological healing responses to the stress of heating, and such responses may include the deposition of new collagen. Whether by denaturation of existing collagen, or by later deposition of new collagen, the effect of remodeling on the tissue is generally one of tissue contraction or tightening. Thus, embodiments of invention comprise tightening the vagina and the introitus. The effect of vaginal childbirth on the vagina and introitus is a loosening of these tissues. Inasmuch as the method comprises tightening these tissues, the method has a rejuvenating effect in that it remodels the tissue toward the conformation it had prior to having experienced vaginal childbirth.	RELATED APPLICATIONS This patent application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/743,247, of Parmer, filed on Feb. 7, 2006, entitled “Vaginal rejuvenation treatment device and methods”, the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to a method and apparatus for remodeling tissue of the vagina and vulva, such as by the application of radiant energy. BACKGROUND The vagina is made up of three layers, a mucosa of stratified squamous epithelial tissue, the submucosa or lamina propria containing vascularized connective tissue and a deeper muscularis, containing smooth muscle. Collagen molecules are produced by cells resident in the these tissues which synthesize three polypeptide chains that wrap around one another to form a triple helix. Collagen is a major type of fibrous protein that is a basic structural element of connective tissue, tendon, cartilage, and bone. Each of the collagen chains is approximately 1000 amino acid units in length, with glycine recurring regularly every third unit, and with proline and hydroxyproline recurring very frequently. Cross-linking occurs between the sides, not the ends, of collagen molecules and is coupled with the amino acid composition to give collagen its great strength. Collagen tissue tightening takes place in a direction parallel to an axis of collagen fibers. The phenomenon of thermal contraction of collagen begins with a denaturation of the triple helix of the collagen molecule. Partial denaturation of collagen tissue results in a contraction of the collagen-rich spaces and provides a “tightening” effect on the overlaying tissue. Patents relevant to aspects of collagen denaturation and exploitation of this for medical or cosmetic purposes include U.S. Pat. No. 5,919,219 to Knowlton for “Method for Controlled Contraction of Collagen Tissue Using RF Energy” and U.S. Pat. No. 5,755,753 to Knowlton for “Method for Controlled Contraction of Collagen Tissue”; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,143,063 to Fellner for “Method of Removing Adipose Tissue”. Further patents and published patent applications include U.S. Pat. No. 6,350,276 to Knowlton for “Tissue Remodeling Apparatus Containing Cooling Fluid”; U.S. Pat. No. 6,387,380 to Knowlton for “Apparatus for Controlled Contraction of Collagen Tissue”; U.S. Pat. No. 6,425,912 to Knowlton for “Method and Apparatus for Modifying Skin Surface and Soft Tissue Structure”; U.S. Pat. No. 6,453,202 to Knowlton for “Apparatus for Tissue Remodeling”; U.S. Pub 2002/0049483 to Knowlton for “Fluid Delivery Apparatus”; U.S. Pub 2003/0212393 to Knowlton for “Handpiece with RD Electrode and Non-Volatile Memory”; U.S. Pub 2003/0236487 to Knowlton for “Method for Treatment of Tissue with Feedback”; and U.S. Pub 2004/0000316 to Knowlton for “Methods for Creating Tissue Effect Utilizing Electromagnetic Energy and a Reverse Thermal Gradient”. The vaginal tissue of women is stretched during vaginal child birth; at least some of the effects of the stretching are permanent and many women have long term medical consequences. Some consequences include physical problems, such as uterine prolapse, cystoceles, urethroceles, enteroceles, rectoceles, stress urinary incontinence, bowel movement problems, for which surgical options are available. Some consequences may include sexual aspects, as may follow from excessive loosening of the vagina and its opening, the introitus. Such loosening typically occurs with the first vaginal delivery, and the loosening tends to increase with subsequent vaginal deliveries. This effective of looseness in this region may include decreased pressure and friction during intercourse, and as a consequence, decreased sexual pleasure for women and their conjugal partners. Some surgical options can be exercised in an attempt to alleviate these problems, but surgical approaches can bring with them a risk of scarring that is entirely counterproductive with regard to the desired result. More generally, these surgical approaches are not highly popular because of the risks associated with an invasive procedure, in a sensitive area, especially when such procedures are considered medically optional. There is a need for effective approaches to treating a loose vagina and introitus with a non-invasive procedure; accordingly, the object of the present invention to provide apparatus and method for corrective or restorative remodeling of the mucosal surfaces of the vagina, introitus, and vulva. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Embodiments of the invention include an apparatus for remodeling target tissues, including the lamina propria and the muscularis, underlying the mucosal epithelium of a female genital tissue. The apparatus comprises a hand piece and a treatment tip, the hand piece further supported a by comprehensive upstream electronic system. Embodiments of the treatment tip comprise a connector portion, which connects the tip to the hand piece, a midsection, typically narrowed, and a distal portion that comprises an energy delivery element. The treatment tip further comprises a housing that defines an internal space. The internal space accommodates a cooling system, with a lumen for conveying a refrigerating fluid, and nozzles, which are adapted to spray refrigerant on to the internal side of the energy delivery element thereby cooling it, such the cooled, in turn, cooling a genital mucosal epithelial surface on contact. The types of energy delivery element may include a radiofrequency, microwave, or ultrasound delivery embodiments. Some particular embodiments include capacitively coupled RF electrodes, which may by monopolar or bipolar. Monopolar RF electrode-based embodiments may comprise a conductive pad to serve as a return electrode. Bipolar RF-based embodiments may include one or more pairs of electrodes. The electrodes may further comprise thermal sensors that provide feedback control based on local temperature, and may further comprise EEROM chips that identify the treatment tip type or convey configuration parameters of the electrode to the hand piece, or to the larger electronic system. The energy delivery element and the treatment tip as a whole are adapted to make optimal contact with the genital epithelial surface, when contact and capacitive coupling is occurring between the tip and an epithelial contact site. By optimal contact is meant a contact that best allows a delivery of energy into the target tissue that is broadly uniform across the surface of the contact site, notably without significant distortion along the edges of the contact site. Non-uniform delivery of energy does not serve the remodeling process well, and further may risk damage to the mucosal epithelium. These adaptive configurations include a sidemounted configuration of the energy delivery element, the face of the energy delivery element being substantially parallel with respect to the linear axis of the treatment tip. Other adaptive configurations include a narrowed mid-section of the tip proximal to the distal portion. This configuration allows the energy delivery element at the distal portion of the tip to project outward or forward from its surrounding support structure, thereby allowing the contact between the energy delivery element and the mucosal epithelium to be more accurate, deliberate, and visible, and for the level of contacting pressure to be better controlled by the physician. Further, the dimensions and configuration of the energy delivery element are adapted to the optimize contact, particularly with the vaginal wall. The width of the energy delivery element is between 0.75 and 1.25 cm. Such a width is sufficient to engage the curved wall of the vagina in a manner that is sufficiently flat and parallel that the quality of contact across the face of the energy delivery element is substantially equal, without increased pressure, closer contact, or distortion along the edges of the element. Such a close contact allows for a uniform delivery of energy into the underlying target tissue. In some embodiments, the face of the energy delivery element is radially curved (with respect to the longitudinal axis of the tip) within the width of the element so as to create an arc of up to 30 degrees. Such curvature is also adapted to make parallel contact with the vaginal wall. An element of about 1 cm width, per embodiments of the invention, requires about 10 contact sites to radially treat a 300 degree arc inside a vagina, thus a 30 degree arc provides for a good fit against the curve of the vaginal wall and thereby provides a uniform delivery of energy into the target tissue. In typical embodiments, the length of the energy delivery element is about 1 to about 3 cm in length, in other embodiments it may be as long as about 4 cm. This is a length well adapted to treating the lower aspect of the vagina, wherein treatment by the method comprises contacting the vaginal epithelium in a region that extends from the introitus inward to a position about 3 to 4 cm inward from the introitus. In some embodiments of the invention, the method can by practiced with a single row of parallel contact sites immediately inside the introitus. In other embodiments, the method may include deeper rows, or rows that overlap an intial row, while keeping the contact sites within the lower portion of the vagina. Embodiments of the invention include methods for remodeling a therapeutic zone of tissue within a target tissue of female genitalia. The target tissue lies immediately beneath the mucosal epithelium of genital tissues, and includes the lamina propria, a connective tissue that includes collagen in the extracellular space, and the muscularis, which includes smooth muscle. The target zone of embodiments of the invention does not include deeper tissue, such as endopelvic fascia. The anatomical areas of the female genitalia treated by embodiment of the invention include the vulva and the vagina, and the introitus, the opening of the vagina. The vulva includes tissue radiating outward from the introitus to Hart's line, where mucosal epithelium gives way to skin on the outer surface of the labia minora. With more specific regard to the vagina, embodiments of the method comprise treating the lower portion of the vagina, a portion extending from the introitus to a location from about 2 cm to about 4 cm inward from the introitus, in other embodiments the location may extends inward as far as about 6 cm. With regard to the circumference of the inner wall of the vagina, a clock-position reference scheme is helpful. The urethra lies next to the anterior wall of the vagina, the location of the vaginal wall nearest the urethra and urethral opening may be considered 12 o'clock. With this reference point, the target tissue of embodiments of the invention include the approximately 300 degree arc between 1 o'clock and 11 o'clock. Embodiments of the invention do not include treating the approximately 60 degree arc between 11 o'clock and 10 o'clock because the practice of this invention is not directed toward tissue in the vicinity of the urethra. Embodiments of the method include heating the target zone with radiant energy, typically radiofrequency (RF) energy, but other embodiments may use microwave or ultrasound energy. The method includes contacting the mucosal epithelium with a treatment tip that has an energy delivering element and a cooling mechanism. By delivering energy to the tissue while cooling the epithelial surface, a reverse thermal gradient is created. The RF energy penetrates through the cooled epithelium and into the underlying target tissue, and heats the tissue. A zone of tissue that is heated within the target tissues to a threshold level, i.e., to a therapeutic temperature that causes remodeling is termed a therapeutic zone. Not all tissue within the target tissue necessarily reaches this threshold level of heat. In some cases, cooling from the treatment tip may penetrate into the target tissue, and in this situation, the presence of cooled tissue may have an effect on the therapeutic zone, by moving it deeper within the target tissue, for example, or by constraining its volume. Energy delivered from the treatment tip may heat the target tissue to a temperature as high as about 80 degrees C. In some embodiments, therapeutic temperature may range between about 45 degrees C. and about 80 degrees C. In other embodiments, the therapeutic temperature may range between about 50 degrees C. and about 75 degrees C. In still other embodiments, the therapeutic temperature may range between about 55 degrees C. and about 70 degrees C. Heating is a process subject to feedback control during a treatment procedure, so as to keep the temperature within a predetermined temperature range. Feedback may be provided by one or more thermisters (thermal sensors) or impedance monitors. The treatment tip may cool the epithelium to a temperature between about 0 degrees C. and about 10 degrees C. A reverse thermal gradient, accordingly may be represented a low temperature of between about 0 degrees C. and about 10 degrees C. at the mucosal epithelium, and a high temperature of between 45 degrees C. and about 80 degrees C. in the target tissue. During a typical procedure, according to embodiments of the invention, any period of heating is accompanied by cooling; however cooling may also precede heating, and follow heating. Methods of treatment comprise contacting the treatment tip to a contact site on the mucosal epithelium. The contact site conforms to the dimensions of the treating surface of the treatment tip. During the course of a single treatment, as for example would occur to a visit to a medical office, typically a plurality of contact sites are treated. During a procedure, a single contact site may be contacted multiple times. The summed total of mucosal contact sites comprises a treatment area. Such an area, comprising multiple contact sites may be recorded on a grid. The method may be applied on more than one occasion; a patient may return to her physician at a later date when the effects of a previous treatment may be evaluated and a treatment repeated. The treatment areas of the separate procedures may be the same, be different, or overlap. Remodeling genital tissue, per embodiments of the invention may include heat-denaturing collagen within collagen-rich areas in the target tissues. Inasmuch as the overlaying mucosal epithelium is cooled by the method, it does not get heated, and is substantially unaffected by the method. Remodeling of target tissue within the therapeutic zone may occur substantially during the time when the tissue is being heated. Remodeling may also occur substantially after the heating has occurred, for example days or weeks later. Such remodeling comprises biological healing responses to the stress of heating, and such responses may include the deposition of new collagen. Whether by denaturation of existing collagen, or by later deposition of new collagen, the effect of remodeling on the tissue is generally one of tissue contraction or tightening. Thus, embodiments of invention comprise tightening the vagina and the introitus. The effect of vaginal childbirth on the vagina and introitus is a loosening of these tissues. Inasmuch as the method comprises tightening these tissues, the method has a rejuvenating effect in that it remodels the tissue toward the conformation it had prior to having experienced vaginal childbirth. INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE All publications and patent applications identified herein are incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an apparatus for applying radiant energy to the target tissue while cooling the epithelium in order to remodel genital tissue, shown are a hand piece and a connected treatment tip. FIG. 2 is an exposed perspective view of a treatment tip embodiment. FIG. 3 is an exposed side view of a treatment tip embodiment. FIG. 4 is frontal cutaway view of the treatment tip, showing cooling nozzles that underlay the energy delivery element that contacts the epithelium FIG. 5 shows frontal views of the treatment tip embodiments with (A) a single monopolar electrode, (B) a single bipolar of electrodes, and (C) multiple pairs of bipolar electrodes. FIG. 6 shows front perspective views of two embodiments of a treatment tip, treatment side facing up, where FIG. 6A shows an electrode with a flat surface, and FIG. 6B shows an electrode with a curved surface. FIG. 7 is a schematic view of female genitalia depicting the mucosal epithelial surfaces that overlay the target tissue, as well as an orienting clock to provide a circumferential reference scheme for the vagina wall. FIG. 8 shows a treatment tip contacting a genital epithelial mucosal surface and the underlying target tissue including the lamina propria and the muscularis. FIG. 9 depicts (FIG. 9A) a treatment area of a mucosal epithelium comprising multiple contact sites, and (FIG. 9B) a representation of the treatment area as a mapping grid. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Apparatus Embodiments of the present invention include an apparatus and method for remodeling female genital tissue by applying heat to a target tissue underlying the surface mucosal epithelium, while cooling the surface epithelium itself. The apparatus and methods build on those of prior art such as those described by Knowlton, including US 2004/0000316, and others cited in the background, all incorporated by this reference, but include novel features in the apparatus and methods that are configured and adapted to particulars of the female genital treatment site, the mucosal epithelium contacted by the present apparatus, and the underlying target tissue that is remodeled according to aspects of the invention. FIG. 1 shows an apparatus 1, which comprises a hand piece 2 and a treatment tip 10. The hand piece 2 is adapted to be held by an operator, such as a physician, and may include connections to a larger supporting system (not shown), or, in some embodiments, it may be operable as self-sufficient independent device. FIG. 1 shows the connector portion 15 of the shaft of the treatment tip, the narrow midsection 24, and the distal portion 28, which includes the energy delivery element 30. FIGS. 2-5 provide various views of the treatment tip. FIG. 2 provides an exposed view from a perspective proximal to the tip, FIG. 3 is an exposed view from a side perspective, and FIG. 4 is a frontal view directed toward the energy delivery element, exposed so as to reveal the nozzles directly below the energy delivery element. FIG. 5 shows embodiments of the treatment tip that vary with respect to the type of energy delivery element (i.e., radiofrequency electrodes, variously monopolar, a bipolar pair, and multiple biopolar pairs). The treatment tip 10, depicted in greater detail in FIGS. 2-5 includes a housing 26, a connector portion 15, and an energy delivery element 30, which receives input through wire 31 (FIG. 3). The treatment tip as a whole is designed as a quick connect/disconnect unit with respect to its attachment to the base hand piece 2. The connection of the treatment tip 10 to the hand piece 2 is by way of the connector portion 15 of the treatment tip. The housing 26 defines an interior space 29 which extends forward from the connector portion 15 to the distal end 28 of the treatment tip. The energy delivery element 30 is side-mounted with respect to the linear axis of the tip, configured to face outward on a side on the distal portion 28 of the tip. By a side-mount, or by mounted so as to face a side of the treatment tip, it is meant that the energy delivery element 30 is configured to be approximately parallel to the linear axis of the shaft 20. Between the connector portion 15 and the distal portion 28 of the tip is narrowed mid-section mid-portion 24, such narrowing or tapering on the same side as that which the energy delivery element 30 faces (narrowing may occur generally in the midsection 24, but embodiments typically include the narrowing at least on the same side as the energy delivery element). The side-mounted configuration of the energy delivery element 30 and the tapered section 24 of the tip both are adapted to optimize the contact of the energy delivery element to the epithelial surfaces of the female genitalia, in particular to those of the vagina. Details of the female genitalia are described further below. For the purpose of describing the advantage of a side placement 22 and the tapered section 21 of the shaft, of the canal-like aspect of vagina and entry into it with an instrument that engages the side of the canal are considered. An elongate structure best suited for entry into the vagina, and to make a substantially flat or surface-to-surface parallel contact with the side of the vagina, a side mounted energy delivery unit is advantageous. An advantage conferred by parallel contact is that contact pressure is distributed equally across the contact area, with no pressure biased against any side of the contact site. With such a uniformly pressured contact occurring, so too is energy uniformly directed to underlying target tissue. The narrow mid-section 24 of the shaft further provides a functional advantage to the tip 10 in that it allows the energy delivery element 30 at the distal portion 28 of the tip to project forward from the body of the shaft, such projection allowing the physician operating the apparatus to make contact to epithelium with appropriate pressure, to make the contact more discrete, to make the contacting flat, and to better visualize the contact. The overall length of the treatment tip 10, from the base of the connector portion 15 to the foremost point of the distal portion 28 is designed such that the side mounted energy delivery element 30 reaches the innermost region of the vagina that is treated by the tip. Accordingly, embodiments of the tip may have an overall length of between about 2.75 inches and 4.25 inches. Particular embodiments have an overall length of between about 3 inches and about 4 inches. Still more embodiments have an overall length of between about 3.25 inches and about 3.75 inches. This overall length is appropriate for providing the treatment tip access the lower portion of a gently unfolded vagina. The energy delivery element 30 also has dimensions advantageously adapted to making appropriately flat contact with the vaginal wall. The width of the element, an RF electrode in typical embodiments, in some embodiments is between about 0.7 cm and about 1.3 cm. In other embodiments, the width is between about 0.8 cm and about 1.2 cm. In still other embodiments, the width is between about 0.9 cm and about 1.1 cm. In some embodiments, the length of the energy delivery element 30 is between about 2 and about 3 cm. In other embodiments, the length is between about 2.25 cm and about 2.75 cm. The constraints on the length are related to the advantageous aspect of being able to make contact at particular sites on the mucosal epithelium, to avoid contact with other sites, deeper in the vagina, where it is not desired to make contact, and generally to make contact discretely and efficiently at the desired treatment area. The method of treatment typically comprises treating the vagina at a point no deeper than about 3.5 cm in from the introitus. The constraints on the width of the energy delivery element related, as described above, to the desirability of being able to make a substantially flat contact with the inner aspect of a curved surface. By constraining the width of the contact site, an increased pressure or closeness of contact that could occur along lengthwise edges is minimized. In embodiments depicted to this point, the energy delivery element has had a flat configuration. FIG. 6 shows another embodiment of the treatment tip 10, where the energy delivery element 30 takes a curvilinear form. In other embodiments the energy delivery element comprises a curved surface such it includes a curvature radially with respect to the linear axis while remaining parallel to the linear axis, the form representing an arc of a cylinder. FIG. 6A shows a treatment tip embodiment where the energy delivery element is flat, while the embodiment in FIG. 6B has a curved surface, the curve being radial with respect to the linear axis of the tip. The arc of the curvature may be as large as approximately 30 degrees. Some embodiments may include a curvature of about 30 degrees. This 30 degrees of curvature is adapted to fit the curvature of the vaginal wall. Accordingly, various configurational and dimensional aspects of the treatment tip 10 and the energy delivery element 30 are advantageous for the method of remodeling genital tissue. These features are particularly suited for treating the vaginal wall, but also are appropriate for treating mucosal epithelial surfaces of female genitalia outside the vagina. As described above, these features include (1) the side-facing orientation of the energy delivery element with respect to the linear axis of the treatment tip and its shaft, (2) the overall length of the treatment tip from its proximal end to the distal end, (3) the narrow portion 24 of the tip which allows the energy delivery element to project forward from a background structure, rather than being in contiguous plane with surrounding structure, (4) the surface dimensions of the energy delivery element, particularly the width, which allow for substantially flat contact with the vaginal wall in the case of a flat energy delivery element 30, and (5) in the case of embodiment with a curved energy delivery element, a particularly close fit between the energy delivery element and the vaginal wall is achievable. All such enumerated features contribute to a uniformly-distributed contact between the energy delivery surface and the mucosal epithelium, such uniform fit diminishes the likelihood of edge-biased contact that could harm the epithelium, and affirmatively promotes uniform distribution of energy across the area of site where the energy delivery element contacts the epithelium and through which energy radiates into the underlying target tissue. Uniformity in flux across a surface area promotes an advantageous uniformity, consistency, and predictability in the remodeling response. Further, and equally important, small variation in flux also minimizes occurrence of damage, either to the epithelium or the target tissue, that can occur when large excursions in energy flux include, as they inevitably do, areas which receive high rates of energy flux. As seen in FIGS. 2 and 3, the interior space 29 of the tip accommodates a cooling system to cool the energy delivery element, which comprises a cooling lumen 54 for conveying cooling fluid 52 to nozzles 56. The cooling fluid typically comprises a refrigerant, as exemplified by 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (R 134A), which is stored in a reservoir (not shown) under pressure, and conveyed through a lumen 54 to nozzles 56. The nozzles are configured within the interior space 29 in the distal portion 28 or the tip 10 under the inner surface of the energy delivery element 30. On release of the refrigerant from the nozzles, it sprays onto the interior surface and cools the element as the refrigerant undergoes a liquid to gas transition. The exterior surface of the energy delivery element, when in contact with an epithelial mucosal surface as during the practice of method embodiments of the invention, cools the epithelial surface upon such contact. This surface cooling prevents the build up of heat on the mucosal surface, the energy being delivered by the delivery element passes through the mucosal surface and into the underlying tissue targeted by the invention, which is then heated. The energy delivery element 30 is may be any of an RF electrode, a microwave emitter, or an ultrasound emitter. Embodiments that include an RF electrode will be described in some detail. The RF electrode, in some embodiments, is a capactive electrode, which capacitively couples to the mucosal epithelium. The RF electrode, without limiting the scope of the invention, may have a thickness in the range of about 0.01 to about 1.0 mm. The RF electrode 30 has a conductive portion 35 facing the interior space 29 within the treatment tip, and a dielectric portion 36 facing the exterior of the tip. Conductive portion 35 comprises a metal, exemplary metals including copper, gold, silver, and aluminum. Dielectric portion 36 may comprise a variety of different materials including, by way of example, polyimide, Teflon (RTM) and the like, silicon nitride, polysilanes, polysilazanes, polyimides, Kapton and other polymers, antenna dielectrics and other dielectric materials well known in the art. Other exemplary dielectric materials include polymers such as polyester, silicon, sapphire, diamond, zirconium-toughened alumina (ZTA), alumina and the like. Dielectric portion 36 covers the conductive portion 35, and is disposed between conductive portion 35 and the patient's tissue during treatment. In another embodiment, RF electrode 30 is made of a composite material, including but not limited to gold-plated copper, copper-polyimide, silicon/silicon-nitride and the like. In one embodiment, conductive portion 35 adheres to dielectric portion 36 which can be a substrate with a thickness, by way of example and without limitation, of about 0.001″. This embodiment is similar to a standard flex circuit board material commercially available in the electronics industry. In this embodiment, dielectric portion 36 is in contact with the mucosal epithelium, and the conductive portion 35 is separated from the mucosal epithelium. Generally, RF electrodes 30 can be either monopolar or bipolar. In the monopolar mode, RF current flows through body tissue from a return electrode which can be in a form of a conductive pad applied to another portion of the patient's body. FIG. 5 shows various embodiments of electrodes from a facing perspective, for example FIG. 5A shows a tip with a monopolar pair of electrodes, FIG. 5B shows a bipolar pair, and FIG. 5C shows a tip with multiple bipolar pairs. Additionally, the electrode may be equipped with an integrated EEROM (Electrically Erasable Read Only Memory, also known as EEPROM) programmable memory chip at any suitable location within the treatment tip (not shown). Such a chip may provide identifying information or other information about the operational status or configuration parameters of the RF electrode to the system, such parameters may include, by way of example, the type and size of the electrode, the number of times the energy delivery element has been fired, and the like. Additionally, thermisters (thermal sensors) 38 (shown in FIG. 4) may be provided at each corner of an RF electrode, or otherwise in close proximity to the electrode, to provide feedback to the system on the temperature at their location. In some embodiments, the treatment tip as a whole is designed as a single-use disposable component, while the hand piece 2 is typically a reusable instrument. The single-use and disposable aspects of treatment tip 10 are in accord with its designated use in a single procedure, in the context of a female patient having a procedure, per embodiments of the method further described below, in a medical setting. Accordingly, the entirety of construction and components of the treatment tip retain their integrity through sterilization procedures, and the tip is typically packaged singly in a container or a wrap that preserves the sterile integrity of the tip until such time when it is unwrapped and connected to the hand piece 2 in preparation for a treatment procedure. Embodiments of the treatment tip 10 are modular in that they have a common connector portion 12 but may have variations in the shaft portion 20 and energy delivery elements 30 and cooling mechanism components, such as the fluid 52 or nozzles 56. Electronic Support System for the Apparatus The apparatus 1 is included in a larger electronic system (not shown) with features well known in the art. Embodiments comprise a power source, an RF power source in typical embodiments; it feeds energy to an RF power generator and power flows therefrom to RF electrodes 30. A multiplexer measures current, voltage and temperature, at the thermal sensors 38 associated with to each RF electrode 30. The multiplexer is driven by a controller, which can be a digital or analog controller, or a computer with software. When controller is a computer it can include a CPU coupled through a system bus. On the system there may also be a keyboard, disk drive, or other non volatile memory systems, a display, and other peripherals, as are well known in the art. Also coupled to the bus may be a program memory and a data memory. An operator interface includes operator controls and a display. The controller can be coupled to different types of imaging systems including ultrasonic, thermal sensors 38, and impedance monitors 39. Current and voltage are used to calculate impedance. A diagnostic phase can be initially run to determine the level of treatment activity. This can be done through ultrasound as well as other means. Diagnostics can be performed both before and after treatment. Thermal sensors 38 measure voltage and current as delivered to the desired treatment site; the output for these sensors is used by a controller to control the delivery of RF power, which can also control temperature and power. An operator set level of power and/or temperature may be determined to provide operating limits that will not be exceeded. The controller maintains the set level under changing conditions. The amount of RF energy delivered controls the amount of power. A profile of power delivered can be incorporated in the controller, as well as a preset amount of energy to be delivered. Feedback control can be based on monitoring of impedance, temperature, or other indicators, and occurs either at the controller or at RF generator, if it incorporates a controller. For impedance measurement, this can be achieved by supplying a small amount of non therapeutic RF energy. Voltage and current are then measured to confirm electrical contact. Circuitry, software and feedback to controller result in full process control and are used to change power, the duty cycle, monopolar or bipolar energy delivery, flow rate and pressure ,and can also determine when the process is completed through time, temperature and/or impedance. These process variables can be controlled and varied in accordance with tissue temperature, as monitored at multiple sites on contacting exterior surface 34, as well as by monitoring impedance to current flow at each RF electrode 39, indicating changes in current carrying capability of the tissue during the process. Further, a controller can provide multiplexing, monitor circuit continuity, and determine which RF electrode 30 is activated. Thermal sensors 38 can be thermistors, which have a resistance that varies with temperature. An analog amplifier can be a conventional differential amplifier circuit for use with thermistors and transducers. The output of the analog amplifier is sequentially connected by an analog multiplexer to the input of an analog digital converter. The output of the amplifier is a voltage, which represents the respective sensed temperatures. The digitized amplifier output voltages are supplied by analog to digital converter to a microprocessor, which calculates the temperature or impedance of the tissue. In some embodiments, the microprocessor can be a type 6800, however, any suitable microprocessor or general purpose digital or analog computer can be used to calculate impedance or temperature. The microprocessor sequentially receives and stores digital representations of impedance and temperature. Each digital value received by the microprocessor corresponds to different temperatures and impedances. Calculated temperature and impedance values can be indicated on a display. Alternatively, or in addition to the numerical indication of temperature or impedance, calculated impedance or temperature values can be compared by the microprocessor with temperature and impedance limits. When the values exceed predetermined temperature or impedance values a warning can be given on the display and additionally, the delivery of RF energy to its respective electrode can be decreased or multiplexed to another electrode. A control signal from the microprocessor can reduce the power level by the RF generator, or de-energize the power delivered to any particular electrode. The controller 68 receives and stores the digital values that represent temperatures and impedances sent. Calculated surface temperatures and impedances can be forwarded by the controller to the display. If desired, the calculated surface temperature of the vaginal mucosal tissue layer is compared with a temperature limit and a warning signal can be sent to the display. Similarly, a control signal can be sent to the RF power source when temperature or impedance values exceed a predetermined level. Methods Embodiments of the invention provide a non-surgical method and apparatus for remodeling the tissues of the female genitalia by applying heat to a target tissue underlying the surface mucosal epithelium, while cooling the surface epithelium itself. Typically, the tissues are those of women who have had one or more vaginal births, and whose tissues have been stretched by giving birth. In particular, the target tissues (FIG. 8) are the connective tissue layers such as the lamina propria or submocosa 102 and the muscularis 104 underlying the mucosal epithelium 100 of genital tissues. Particular features or areas of genital tissue (FIG. 7) having an epithelial surface include the vulva and the vagina 112, and the introitus 114, the entrance to the vagina and a demarcation between the internal and external genitalia. The heating of target tissue, per embodiments of this invention includes raising the temperature of the target tissue to as high as 80 degree C.. Temperature is raised to a level that is therapeutic, i.e., to a temperature that causes remodeling, as described herein. That portion of the target tissue which attains the therapeutic temperature, for a sufficient time, is termed the therapeutic zone within the target tissue. The therapeutic temperature, in some cases may be only as high as 45 degrees C., or as high as 80 degrees C. The inventive method, therefore includes heating target tissue to as high as 80 degrees C. Per embodiments of the invention, target tissue may be heated to a temperature between about 45 degrees C. and about 80 degrees C. In other embodiments, the target tissue temperature may be heated to a temperature between about 50 degrees C. and about 75 degrees C. In still other embodiments, the target tissue may be heated to a temperature between about 55 degrees C. and about 70 degrees. The vagina is a fibromuscular tube, lined with stratified squamous epithelium, that connects the external and internal organs of the female reproductive system. The vagina runs obliquely upwards and backwards at an angle of about 45 degrees between the bladder in front and the rectum and anus behind. In an adult female the anterior wall is about 7.5 cm long and the posterior wall is about 9 cm long. The difference in length is due to the angle of insertion of the cervix through the anterior wall. More particularly with regard to the vagina, embodiments of the invention comprise remodeling the lower portion of the vagina, the lower portion representing, the lower being that portion immediately inward from the introitus. Thus, according to embodiments of the invention, the portion of the vagina to be treated is a region between the introitus and a position located no further than about 3 to about 4 cm inward from the introitus. With regard to the circumferential aspects of the vagina, locations along the circumference of the vaginal wall may be assigned a clock position (see reference clock dial 136, in FIG. 7) such that the circumferential point closest to the urethra is at 12 o'clock. Using this orientation, embodiments of the invention comprise treating and remodeling the vagina over the 300 degree circumferential arc from about 1 o'clock to about 11 o'clock. The mucosal epithelium of vulvar tissue outside the vagina and the introitus includes the labia minora, or that portion of the vulva extending outward from the introitus to Hart's line, the boundary where mucosal epithelium and labial skin meet (FIG. 7). The mucosal epithelium and the skin, while contiguous, are embryologically and histologically distinct. The portion of the female genitalia that are covered by epithelium is also substantially defined by the bounds of the vestibule, which extends outward or down from the hymenal ring at the top of the vagina, radially beyond the introitus, including the portion of labia minora located within Hart's line 120. The target tissue of embodiments of this invention include the connective tissue underlying these mucosal epithelial surfaces of the genitalia which, progressing down from the epithelial surface, are known as the lamina propria 102 and the muscularis 104 (FIG. 8), respectively (see, for example, Netter, Atlas of Human Anatomy, 4th edition, Saunders, 2006). The lamina propria includes a mixture of cells types that populate connective tissue, such as fibroblasts, and the muscularis is a layer of smooth muscle. Collagen is secreted or deposited into the extracellular space in these tissues by cells such as fibroblasts. These described target tissue layers below the epithelium overlay deeper tissues, including endopelvic fascia, which are not a target tissue for embodiments of the present invention. The remodeling of the connective tissue underlying the mucosal epithelial surfaces does not substantially affect the epithelium itself. The method and apparatus, as provided by embodiments of the invention are non-invasive and substantially non ablative of genital issue. The nature of the engagement between the apparatus and genital tissue is that of contacting a treatment tip to an epithelial surface of the genital tissue. Through such contact, the apparatus delivers heat to underlying tissue, while preventing the heating of the surface epithelium by cooling it. In a particular embodiment, the invention provides a method and apparatus for remodeling vulvar and vaginal target tissue through the use of a radiofrequency (RF) energy source 30 (see the energy delivery element of FIGS. 1-5) through the vaginal or vulvar mucosal epithelial tissue and to the respective underlying layers that are the target tissue of embodiments of the invention. Other embodiments may make use of other forms of energy, such as microwave or ultrasound. Impedance through mucosal epithelium is lower than that of skin, thus less energy is required to cause heating than would be required were skin being treated rather than mucosal epithelium. The application of energy to the underlying connective tissue creates heat in the targeted tissue, and the heat is understood to have an immediate or nearly immediate effect of denaturing or partially-denaturing collagen in the tissue, this denaturation of collagen being a factor in the tissue remodeling. In other embodiments of the invention, the application of heat to the connective tissue during a treatment procedure is understood to result in a subsequent depositing of new or nascent collagen by cells of the connective tissue, as part of a biological process that may take place over the course of weeks or months following the procedure. As provided by embodiments of the invention, remodeling of genital tissue, whether by denaturation of collagen in the tissue, or by subsequent deposition of new collagen in the tissue, results in a tightening of genital tissue, particularly that of the vagina and the introitus. A consequence of the heating of the target tissue may include a melting or denaturing of preexisting collagen in the tissue, which may reduce or compact the volume occupied by the collagen, the effect of which is to tighten surrounding tissue A longer term biological consequence of the heating may include a healing process in which there is an increase in the rate of cellular production and deposition into the extracellular space. Both types of responses, the near-immediate response of pre-existing collagen, and the longer term increased amount of collagen are understood to contribute to an overall tightening of the target tissue. The tightening of tissue is such that the remodeled genitalia assumes a rejuvenated form, a conformation of the genitalia as they were before having being stretched by vaginal birth. Remodeling of genital tissue, as practiced by embodiments of this invention, may be understood variously as contracting or tightening of tissue, this may apply to the vulva, the vagina, and the introitus. Genitalia rejuvenated by practice of embodiments of the invention, by virtue of the greater tightness of the remodeled vagina and introitus, for example, provide for increased pressure and friction during sexual intercourse, and accordingly may provide greater sexual satisfaction for a woman with such remodeled genitalia and for her sexual partner. Embodiments of the invention provide a method and apparatus for creating a reverse thermal gradient that utilizes one or more RF electrodes 30, to convey energy that manifests as heat in the target tissue, and a mechanism to cool the epithelial surface above the targeted underlying layers. A purpose of cooling the epithelial surface is to protect it from potentially damaging effects of excess heat that would accumulate in the absence of cooling. The epithelial surface is thus a conduit for energy passing through to underlying layers, but the energy does not manifest in the form of increased temperature at the epithelial surface. As such, the epithelium itself is not damaged or substantially modified by the method. Such protection from heating may derive both from the heat-sink aspect of a cooled body, as well as an increase in tissue impedance that is associated with cooled tissue. In some embodiments, the cooling mechanism of the apparatus includes a lumen 54 adapted to accommodate a cooling fluid conveyed to nozzles 56, which cool the energy delivery element 30 of treatment tip 10 of the apparatus. Embodiments of the method thus provide for contacting a contact site on a genital epithelial surface, the tip having the capability both to cool the surface epithelium and to heat the underlying tissue. The cooling fluid cools the treatment tip of the apparatus, as provided by embodiments of the invention; in turn, the surface of the cooled treatment tip cools the surface of the mucosal epithelium that the treatment tip contacts. As provided by embodiments of the invention, the epithelial surface may be cooled to a temperature range of about 0 degrees C. to about 10 degrees C. As energy from the tip passes through the mucosal epithelial surface, the underlying soft tissue may be heated to a temperature range of about 45 degrees C. to about 80 degrees C. Thus, a reverse thermal gradient is created, with a lower temperature at the mucosal epithelium, and a higher temperature in the underlying tissue. In some embodiments the method includes feedback control mechanisms to control the heating such that temperature does not exceed a predetermined level. As provided by embodiments of the apparatus, the feedback is provided to RF delivery by thermal or impedance sensors. In other embodiments, the method may be controlled by delivering a predetermined total of amount of energy. In some embodiments the method may be controlled by delivering an amount of energy within a predetermined amount of time. More specifically within the target tissue of the invention, a treatment zone may be defined, where the heat is particularly focused, or where the heat reaches a threshold temperature sufficient to cause remodeling. Such a treatment zone may be centered at a particular depth below the epithelium, and the treatment zone may have a particular range of depth, it may, for example be broadly distributed across the full range of the lamina propria and muscularis, or it may occupy a relatively flat zone. In some embodiments of the invention, cooling is allowed to proceed into the target tissue itself, below the epithelial surface, to form a cold-protected tissue zone. The cooling of a portion of the target tissue may have an effect on the therapeutic zone, such that the depth and range of the therapeutic zone may be modulated or shifted with respect to where it would be absent such cooling of a portion of the target tissue. If cooling penetrates to a given level in the target tissue to create a cold-protected zone, for example, the therapeutic zone may be pushed deeper into the target tissue. Further, lower temperature in general tends to contain the dissemination of heat, thus focusing the therapeutic zone into a narrower range of depth. In typical embodiments of the invention, the method provides for surface cooling coincident with the time that heat is being delivered to underlying tissue. In some embodiments, in addition to cooling the surface while heating the underlying tissue, the method includes a period of cooling before the application of heat. In other embodiments, the method includes a period of cooling after the application of heat. In still other embodiments, the method includes cooling both before and after the application of heat. As shown in FIG. 8, a treatment tip 10 of the apparatus contacts a contact site 102 on the genital epithelium 100, and such contact creating a site on the epithelium corresponding to the surface area within the outline of the profile of the treatment tip. FIG. 8 shows the distal end 28 of the tip, with the energy delivery element 30 (shown by dotted lines) facing toward the mucosal epithelium. Also shown below the contact site 102 (with dotted lines) are target tissue layers, the lamina propria 104 and the muscularis 106. In typical embodiments of the invention, the method includes making contact with the epithelium, delivering energy, and then moving the treatment tip to another contact site, and delivering energy there. A procedure, such as would take place in a visit to a medical office, would typically include a radial sequence of contacting the epithelium within the vagina and/or contacting other sites outside the vagina. During the same procedure, the treatment tip may be returned to the same contact point multiple times. The circumference of the lower portion of an unfolded vagina, gently stretched as it is during the practice of this method, is approximately 12 cm. Accordingly, with a treatment tip of about 1 cm in width, a series of about 10 contact sites allows completion of an 300 degree arc of the circumference, between the 1 o'clock and 11 o'clock positions. These dimensional considerations underlie the rationale for an embodiment of the treatment wherein the surface of the energy delivery element has a curvature of about 30 degrees, each contact site accounting for about 10% of the 300 degree arc. FIG. 9A is a schematic representation of a vagina 122, with the introitus 124 forming the entrance to the vagina. In a typical procedure, the treatment tip would contact various contact sites in the lower vagina, just inside the introitus. As shown in FIG. 9A, an accumulated set of contact sites 102 that have been treated by the treatment tip, and they collectively comprise a treatment area on the vaginal epithelium. In some embodiments of the method, a single radial row of sites is contacted, as shown in FIG. 9A. In other embodiments, one or more further rows could be included in a procedure, extending further into the vagina, so long as the treatment area remains in the lower portion of the vagina. Contact sites, per embodiments of the invention may include regions outside of the vagina, but within the bounds of Hart's line. Outside of the vagina, the treatment area will develop with a flatter aspect, in contrast to the inner radial configuration characteristic of the vaginal contact sites. As further provided by embodiments of the method and shown FIG. 9B, the contact sites may be recorded on a grid 115, the completed grid thus being a mapped representation of the treatment area, which can be referred to during evaluation of the remodeling at some time point following the treatment. As shown, the treatment grid may contain reference points with respect to the circumferential location on the vagina, as provided, for example, by the clock dial scheme. As summarized above, a given treatment area will be treated during a single procedure during an office visit. The method further includes repetitions of such procedures, typically on another day, when the effects of the previous procedure may be evaluated. From such evaluation, judgment may be made with regard to re-treating a particular previously-treated area, or proceeding to treat other areas. Thus, as provided by embodiments of the method, one or more procedures during follow-up visits may variously include treating the same treatment area, treating an entirely different treatment area, or treating an overlapping treatment area, partially the same as previous area, and partially different. Other variations of treatment tip design and associated methods can be employed to achieve the objectives of the invention without departing from the scope of the invention, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the art. The shape and dimensions of the tip can also be adjusted, as desired, to enhance the effectiveness of the treatment taking into consideration physiological and anatomical information. While various embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Although the description has offered the theory that collagen denaturation underlies the remodeling of tissue brought about by practicing the invention, and theory has also been offered that tissue remodeling may occur as a result of the deposition of collagen by connective tissue at a time after the inventive procedure has been performed. Some theory has also been offered to explain the nature of the protection afforded to the mucosal epithelium by cooling it. Such theories has been offered to simply as possible theories of how the invention works and as an aid in describing the invention, however, it should be understood that such theories and interpretation do not bind or limit the claims with regard to tissue remodeling brought about by the practice of the invention. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be employed in practicing the invention. It is intended that the scope of the invention, methods and structures within the scope of the invention includes equivalents.	A	A61	A61N	1	39
11682118	US20070204610A1-20070906	COOLING/HEATING APPARATUS AND MOUNTING APPARATUS	ACCEPTED	20070822	20070906		[]	F02G104	["F02G104", "F01B2910"]	7610756	20070305	20091103	060	520000	67953.0	NGUYEN	HOANG	[{"inventor_name_last": "Hatta", "inventor_name_first": "Masataka", "inventor_city": "Nirasaki-shi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]	A cooling/heating apparatus for circulating the cooled or heated transfer medium to a load to thereby cool or heat the load includes a heat transfer medium circulation path and a Stirling heat engine. The Stirling heat engine includes a first and a second cylinder chamber; a first and a second piston for expanding or compressing an operation gas in the first and the second cylinder chamber; and a driving mechanism for driving the first and the second piston. When the driving mechanism is driven in a forward direction, the operation gas is expanded in the first cylinder chamber and its temperature decreases, thus cooling the heat transfer medium, whereas, when the driving mechanism is driven in a backward direction, the operation gas is compressed in the first cylinder chamber and its temperature increases, thus heating the heat transfer medium.	1. A cooling/heating apparatus comprising: a heat transfer medium circulation path for circulating a heat transfer medium therethrough; and a Stirling heat engine for cooling or heating the heat transfer medium circulating in the heat transfer medium circulation path, the cooled or heated transfer medium being circulated to a load to thereby cool or heat the load, wherein the Stirling heat engine includes a first cylinder chamber; a second cylinder chamber communicating with the first cylinder chamber; a first and a second piston for expanding or compressing an operation gas in the first and the second cylinder chamber while moving in reciprocating motions with a specific phase difference in the first and the second cylinder chamber, respectively; and a driving mechanism for driving the first and the second piston, and wherein, when the driving mechanism is driven in a forward direction, the operation gas is expanded in the first cylinder chamber and its temperature decreases, thus cooling the heat transfer medium, whereas, when the driving mechanism is driven in a backward direction, the operation gas is compressed in the first cylinder chamber and its temperature increases, thus heating the heat transfer medium. 2. The cooling/heating apparatus of claim 1, further comprising an inverter for controlling a driving of the driving mechanism. 3. The cooling/heating apparatus of claim 2, wherein the inverter operates at a variable frequency. 4. The cooling/heating apparatus of claim 2, wherein the inverter operates based on a temperature of the heat transfer medium. 5. A mounting apparatus comprising: a mounting table for mounting thereon a target object; and a cooling/heating apparatus for cooing or heating the target object by circulating a heat transfer medium through the mounting table, wherein the cooling/heating apparatus includes a heat transfer medium circulation path for circulating the heat transfer medium; and a Stirling heat engine for cooling or heating the heat transfer medium circulating in the heat transfer medium circulation path, and wherein the Stirling heat engine has a first cylinder chamber; a second cylinder chamber communicating with the first cylinder chamber; a first and a second piston for expanding or compressing an operation gas in the first and the second cylinder chamber while moving in reciprocating motions with a specific phase difference in the first and the second cylinder chamber, respectively; and a driving mechanism for driving the first and the second piston, and wherein, when the driving mechanism is driven in a forward direction, the operation gas is expanded in the first cylinder chamber and its temperature decreases, thus cooling the heat transfer medium, whereas, when the driving mechanism is driven in a backward direction, the operation gas is compressed in the first cylinder chamber and its temperature increases, thus heating the heat transfer medium. 6. The mounting apparatus of claim 5, further comprising an inverter for controlling a driving of the driving mechanism. 7. The mounting apparatus of claim 6, wherein the inverter operates at a variable frequency. 8. The mounting apparatus of claim 6, wherein the inverter operates based on a temperature of the heat transfer medium.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A conventional cooling/heating apparatus and a conventional mounting apparatus have been used for various processing apparatuses in a semiconductor manufacturing field. Hereinafter, a cooling/heating apparatus and a mounting apparatus for use in an inspection apparatus for inspecting electrical characteristics of a semiconductor wafer will be described as an example. A conventional inspection apparatus E includes a loader chamber L for transferring a wafer W, a prober chamber P for inspecting electrical characteristics of the wafer W transferred from the loader chamber L and a controller (not shown), as shown in FIG. 4 . Further, the inspection apparatus E is configured to transfer the wafer W from the loader chamber L to the prober chamber P to inspect the electrical characteristics of the wafer W under the control of the controller and then return the wafer W to the prober chamber P. As shown in FIG. 4 , the prober chamber P includes a wafer chuck 1 capable of controlling a temperature of the wafer W mounted thereon; an XY table 2 for moving the wafer chuck 1 in an X and a Y direction; a probe card 3 provided above the wafer chuck 1 moving by the XY table 2 ; and a position alignment mechanism 4 for position-aligning a plurality of probes 3 A of the probe card 3 with a plurality of electrode pads of the wafer W on the wafer chuck 1 . As also shown in FIG. 4 , a test head T of a tester is pivotably provided on a head plate 5 of the prober chamber P and, also, the test head T and the probe card 3 are electrically connected with each other via a performance board (not shown). After setting a test temperature of the wafer W on the wafer chuck 1 between a low temperature region and a high temperature region of the temperature range, a test signal is transmitted from the tester to the probes 3 A via the test head T and the performance board, thereby inspecting the electrical characteristics of the wafer W. Accordingly, the conventional wafer chuck 1 is provided with a cooling/heating apparatus 6 for a temperature control, as shown in FIG. 5 . As can be seen from FIG. 5 , the cooling/heating apparatus 6 includes a first cooling liquid circulation path 62 for circulating cooling liquid between the wafer chuck 1 and a cooling liquid tank 61 ; a second cooling liquid circulation path 63 for circulating the cooling liquid in the cooling liquid tank 61 to be cooled or heated; a temperature sensor 64 for detecting a temperature of the cooling liquid in the cooling liquid tank 61 ; a temperature controller 65 operating based on the detected value of the temperature sensor 64 ; a temperature control mechanism 66 for cooling of heating the cooling liquid circulating through the second cooling liquid circulating path 63 under the control of the temperature controller 65 ; and a heater 67 provided in the second cooling liquid circulation path 63 . The first and the second cooling liquid circulation path 62 and 63 are provided with a first and a second pump 62 A and 63 A for circulating the cooling liquid, respectively. The temperature control mechanism 66 has a compressor 66 A, a heat exchanger 66 B and a coolant circulation path 66 C for circulating a gaseous coolant between the compressor 66 A and the heat exchanger 66 B, as shown in FIG. 5 . The coolant circulation path 66 C includes an outgoing path, configured with a first and a second branch line 66 D and 66 E, allowing the gaseous coolant to flow from the compressor 66 A toward the heat exchanger 66 B; and an incoming path allowing the gaseous coolant to flow from the heat exchanger 66 B toward the compressor 66 A. The first branch line 66 D is provided with a condenser 66 G having a cooling fan 66 F and, also, and a first electric valve 66 H and an expansion valve 66 I are attached to a downstream side thereof in order. The first electric valve 66 H operates under the control of the temperature controller 65 . The gaseous coolant whose pressure has been raised by the compressor 66 A is cooled and condensed in the condenser 66 G by the cooling fan 66 F and thus liquefied into a liquid coolant. By opening the first electric valve 66 H, the liquid coolant thus generated reaches the heat exchanger 66 B via the expansion valve 66 I. In the heat exchanger 66 B, the liquid coolant is vaporized to cool the cooling liquid in the second cooling liquid circulation path 63 and then returns to the compressor 66 A. A depressurization valve 66 J and a second electric valve 66 K are attached in the second branch line 66 E in order from an upstream side toward a downstream side. The second electric valve 66 K and the heater 67 operate under the control of the temperature controller 65 . The gaseous coolant whose temperature and pressure have been raised by the compressor 66 A is depressurized by the depressurization valve 66 J and then transferred to the heat exchanger 66 B via the second electric valve 66 K. The high-temperature gaseous coolant heats the cooling liquid of the second cooling liquid circulation path 63 in the heat exchanger 66 B and then returns to the compressor 66 A. When the heating in the heat exchanger 66 B is insufficient, the heater 67 is driven to compensate the insufficient heating capacity in the heat exchanger 66 B. In this way, a temperature of the cooling liquid in the cooling liquid tank 61 is controlled at a specific level by the cooling/heating apparatus 6 . Japanese Patent Laid-open Application No. 2004-076982 (hereinafter, referred to as “Patent Reference 1”) discloses therein a Stirling refrigeration system suitable for cooling a wafer chuck. The Stirling refrigeration system can cool an equipment (e.g., the wafer chuck) by circulating a secondary refrigerant cooled by a Stirling refrigeration unit. However, the cooling/heating apparatus 6 for the wafer chuck 1 in FIG. 5 has a drawback in which a complicated line structure of the temperature control mechanism 66 may cause a frequent failure in various valves attached to the coolant circulation path 66 C. Moreover, the power consumption is increased by the use of the heater 67 in addition to the temperature control mechanism 66 in supplementing the insufficient heating thereof. The Stirling refrigeration system of Patent Reference 1 uses a Stirling refrigeration unit having a simple line structure with no electric valve, so that problems such as a failure in an electric valve and the like do not occur. However, the Stirling refrigeration unit is merely a cooler and thus is only applicable to a cooling system. That is, it is not applicable to a system having both functions of cooling and heating, such as the system of FIG. 5 or the like.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is, therefore, an object of the present invention to provide a cooling/heating apparatus and a mounting apparatus, each capable of reducing power consumption and suppressing failure by simplifying a system having both functions of cooling and heating. In accordance with a first aspect of the present invention, there is provided a cooling/heating apparatus including: a heat transfer medium circulation path for circulating a heat transfer medium therethrough; and a Stirling heat engine for cooling or heating the heat transfer medium circulating in the heat transfer medium circulation path, the cooled or heated transfer medium being circulated to a load to thereby cool or heat the load, wherein the Stirling heat engine includes a first cylinder chamber; a second cylinder chamber communicating with the first cylinder chamber; a first and a second piston for expanding or compressing an operation gas in the first and the second cylinder chamber while moving in reciprocating motions with a specific phase difference in the first and the second cylinder chamber, respectively; and a driving mechanism for driving the first and the second piston, and wherein, when the driving mechanism is driven in a forward direction, the operation gas is expanded in the first cylinder chamber and its temperature decreases, thus cooling the heat transfer medium, whereas, when the driving mechanism is driven in a backward direction, the operation gas is compressed in the first cylinder chamber and its temperature increases, thus heating the heat transfer medium. It is preferable that the cooling/heating apparatus of the first aspect further includes an inverter for controlling a driving of the driving mechanism. It is preferable that the inverter operates at a variable frequency. It is preferable that the inverter operates based on a temperature of the heat transfer medium. In accordance with a second aspect of the present invention, there is provided a mounting apparatus including: a mounting table for mounting thereon a target object; and a cooling/heating apparatus for cooing or heating the target object by circulating a heat transfer medium through the mounting table, wherein the cooling/heating apparatus includes a heat transfer medium circulation path for circulating the heat transfer medium; and a Stirling heat engine for cooling or heating the heat transfer medium circulating in the heat transfer medium circulation path, and wherein the Stirling heat engine has a first cylinder chamber; a second cylinder chamber communicating with the first cylinder chamber; a first and a second piston for expanding or compressing an operation gas in the first and the second cylinder chamber while moving in reciprocating motions with a specific phase difference in the first and the second cylinder chamber, respectively; and a driving mechanism for driving the first and the second piston, and wherein, when the driving mechanism is driven in a forward direction, the operation gas is expanded in the first cylinder chamber and its temperature decreases, thus cooling the heat transfer medium, whereas, when the driving mechanism is driven in a backward direction, the operation gas is compressed in the first cylinder chamber and its temperature increases, thus heating the heat transfer medium. It is preferable that the mounting apparatus of the second aspect further includes an inverter for controlling a driving of the driving mechanism. It is preferable that the inverter operates at a variable frequency. It is preferable that the inverter operates based on a temperature of the heat transfer medium. In accordance with the aspect of the present invention, there are provided a cooling/heating apparatus and a mounting apparatus having a simplified cooling and heating system and capable of reducing power consumption and suppressing failure. BRFSUM description="Brief Summary" end="tail"?	FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a cooling/heating apparatus and a mounting apparatus, each for controlling a temperature of a target object at a specific process temperature in processing the target object such as a semiconductor wafer or the like; and, more particularly, to a cooling/heating apparatus and a mounting apparatus, each capable of reducing power consumption and suppressing failure by simplifying a system. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION A conventional cooling/heating apparatus and a conventional mounting apparatus have been used for various processing apparatuses in a semiconductor manufacturing field. Hereinafter, a cooling/heating apparatus and a mounting apparatus for use in an inspection apparatus for inspecting electrical characteristics of a semiconductor wafer will be described as an example. A conventional inspection apparatus E includes a loader chamber L for transferring a wafer W, a prober chamber P for inspecting electrical characteristics of the wafer W transferred from the loader chamber L and a controller (not shown), as shown in FIG. 4. Further, the inspection apparatus E is configured to transfer the wafer W from the loader chamber L to the prober chamber P to inspect the electrical characteristics of the wafer W under the control of the controller and then return the wafer W to the prober chamber P. As shown in FIG. 4, the prober chamber P includes a wafer chuck 1 capable of controlling a temperature of the wafer W mounted thereon; an XY table 2 for moving the wafer chuck 1 in an X and a Y direction; a probe card 3 provided above the wafer chuck 1 moving by the XY table 2; and a position alignment mechanism 4 for position-aligning a plurality of probes 3A of the probe card 3 with a plurality of electrode pads of the wafer W on the wafer chuck 1. As also shown in FIG. 4, a test head T of a tester is pivotably provided on a head plate 5 of the prober chamber P and, also, the test head T and the probe card 3 are electrically connected with each other via a performance board (not shown). After setting a test temperature of the wafer W on the wafer chuck 1 between a low temperature region and a high temperature region of the temperature range, a test signal is transmitted from the tester to the probes 3A via the test head T and the performance board, thereby inspecting the electrical characteristics of the wafer W. Accordingly, the conventional wafer chuck 1 is provided with a cooling/heating apparatus 6 for a temperature control, as shown in FIG. 5. As can be seen from FIG. 5, the cooling/heating apparatus 6 includes a first cooling liquid circulation path 62 for circulating cooling liquid between the wafer chuck 1 and a cooling liquid tank 61; a second cooling liquid circulation path 63 for circulating the cooling liquid in the cooling liquid tank 61 to be cooled or heated; a temperature sensor 64 for detecting a temperature of the cooling liquid in the cooling liquid tank 61; a temperature controller 65 operating based on the detected value of the temperature sensor 64; a temperature control mechanism 66 for cooling of heating the cooling liquid circulating through the second cooling liquid circulating path 63 under the control of the temperature controller 65; and a heater 67 provided in the second cooling liquid circulation path 63. The first and the second cooling liquid circulation path 62 and 63 are provided with a first and a second pump 62A and 63A for circulating the cooling liquid, respectively. The temperature control mechanism 66 has a compressor 66A, a heat exchanger 66B and a coolant circulation path 66C for circulating a gaseous coolant between the compressor 66A and the heat exchanger 66B, as shown in FIG. 5. The coolant circulation path 66C includes an outgoing path, configured with a first and a second branch line 66D and 66E, allowing the gaseous coolant to flow from the compressor 66A toward the heat exchanger 66B; and an incoming path allowing the gaseous coolant to flow from the heat exchanger 66B toward the compressor 66A. The first branch line 66D is provided with a condenser 66G having a cooling fan 66F and, also, and a first electric valve 66H and an expansion valve 66I are attached to a downstream side thereof in order. The first electric valve 66H operates under the control of the temperature controller 65. The gaseous coolant whose pressure has been raised by the compressor 66A is cooled and condensed in the condenser 66G by the cooling fan 66F and thus liquefied into a liquid coolant. By opening the first electric valve 66H, the liquid coolant thus generated reaches the heat exchanger 66B via the expansion valve 66I. In the heat exchanger 66B, the liquid coolant is vaporized to cool the cooling liquid in the second cooling liquid circulation path 63 and then returns to the compressor 66A. A depressurization valve 66J and a second electric valve 66K are attached in the second branch line 66E in order from an upstream side toward a downstream side. The second electric valve 66K and the heater 67 operate under the control of the temperature controller 65. The gaseous coolant whose temperature and pressure have been raised by the compressor 66A is depressurized by the depressurization valve 66J and then transferred to the heat exchanger 66B via the second electric valve 66K. The high-temperature gaseous coolant heats the cooling liquid of the second cooling liquid circulation path 63 in the heat exchanger 66B and then returns to the compressor 66A. When the heating in the heat exchanger 66B is insufficient, the heater 67 is driven to compensate the insufficient heating capacity in the heat exchanger 66B. In this way, a temperature of the cooling liquid in the cooling liquid tank 61 is controlled at a specific level by the cooling/heating apparatus 6. Japanese Patent Laid-open Application No. 2004-076982 (hereinafter, referred to as “Patent Reference 1”) discloses therein a Stirling refrigeration system suitable for cooling a wafer chuck. The Stirling refrigeration system can cool an equipment (e.g., the wafer chuck) by circulating a secondary refrigerant cooled by a Stirling refrigeration unit. However, the cooling/heating apparatus 6 for the wafer chuck 1 in FIG. 5 has a drawback in which a complicated line structure of the temperature control mechanism 66 may cause a frequent failure in various valves attached to the coolant circulation path 66C. Moreover, the power consumption is increased by the use of the heater 67 in addition to the temperature control mechanism 66 in supplementing the insufficient heating thereof. The Stirling refrigeration system of Patent Reference 1 uses a Stirling refrigeration unit having a simple line structure with no electric valve, so that problems such as a failure in an electric valve and the like do not occur. However, the Stirling refrigeration unit is merely a cooler and thus is only applicable to a cooling system. That is, it is not applicable to a system having both functions of cooling and heating, such as the system of FIG. 5 or the like. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is, therefore, an object of the present invention to provide a cooling/heating apparatus and a mounting apparatus, each capable of reducing power consumption and suppressing failure by simplifying a system having both functions of cooling and heating. In accordance with a first aspect of the present invention, there is provided a cooling/heating apparatus including: a heat transfer medium circulation path for circulating a heat transfer medium therethrough; and a Stirling heat engine for cooling or heating the heat transfer medium circulating in the heat transfer medium circulation path, the cooled or heated transfer medium being circulated to a load to thereby cool or heat the load, wherein the Stirling heat engine includes a first cylinder chamber; a second cylinder chamber communicating with the first cylinder chamber; a first and a second piston for expanding or compressing an operation gas in the first and the second cylinder chamber while moving in reciprocating motions with a specific phase difference in the first and the second cylinder chamber, respectively; and a driving mechanism for driving the first and the second piston, and wherein, when the driving mechanism is driven in a forward direction, the operation gas is expanded in the first cylinder chamber and its temperature decreases, thus cooling the heat transfer medium, whereas, when the driving mechanism is driven in a backward direction, the operation gas is compressed in the first cylinder chamber and its temperature increases, thus heating the heat transfer medium. It is preferable that the cooling/heating apparatus of the first aspect further includes an inverter for controlling a driving of the driving mechanism. It is preferable that the inverter operates at a variable frequency. It is preferable that the inverter operates based on a temperature of the heat transfer medium. In accordance with a second aspect of the present invention, there is provided a mounting apparatus including: a mounting table for mounting thereon a target object; and a cooling/heating apparatus for cooing or heating the target object by circulating a heat transfer medium through the mounting table, wherein the cooling/heating apparatus includes a heat transfer medium circulation path for circulating the heat transfer medium; and a Stirling heat engine for cooling or heating the heat transfer medium circulating in the heat transfer medium circulation path, and wherein the Stirling heat engine has a first cylinder chamber; a second cylinder chamber communicating with the first cylinder chamber; a first and a second piston for expanding or compressing an operation gas in the first and the second cylinder chamber while moving in reciprocating motions with a specific phase difference in the first and the second cylinder chamber, respectively; and a driving mechanism for driving the first and the second piston, and wherein, when the driving mechanism is driven in a forward direction, the operation gas is expanded in the first cylinder chamber and its temperature decreases, thus cooling the heat transfer medium, whereas, when the driving mechanism is driven in a backward direction, the operation gas is compressed in the first cylinder chamber and its temperature increases, thus heating the heat transfer medium. It is preferable that the mounting apparatus of the second aspect further includes an inverter for controlling a driving of the driving mechanism. It is preferable that the inverter operates at a variable frequency. It is preferable that the inverter operates based on a temperature of the heat transfer medium. In accordance with the aspect of the present invention, there are provided a cooling/heating apparatus and a mounting apparatus having a simplified cooling and heating system and capable of reducing power consumption and suppressing failure. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and other objects and features of the present invention will become apparent from the following description of embodiments, given in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 shows a block diagram illustrating principal parts of a mounting apparatus employing an embodiment of a cooling/heating apparatus of the present invention; FIG. 2 describes a conceptual diagram depicting a Stirling heat engine used in the mounting apparatus of FIG. 1; FIGS. 3A and 3B provide graphs respectively showing operations of cooling and heating using the cooling/heating apparatus of FIG. 1; FIG. 4 presents a cross sectional view of an example of a conventional inspection apparatus; and FIG. 5 represents a diagram illustrating an example of a mounting apparatus used in the inspection apparatus of FIG. 4. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENT Hereinafter, the present invention will be explained based on embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 1 to 3. FIG. 1 shows a block diagram illustrating principal parts of a mounting apparatus employing an embodiment of a cooling/heating apparatus of the present invention; FIG. 2 describes a conceptual diagram depicting a Stirling heat engine used in the mounting apparatus of FIG. 1; and FIGS. 3A and 3B provide graphs respectively showing operations of cooling and heating using the cooling/heating apparatus of FIG. 1. As shown in FIG. 1, a mounting apparatus 10 of this embodiment includes a mounting table (wafer chuck) 11, provided in a prober chamber of an inspection apparatus to be movable in directions of X, Y, Z and θ, for mounting thereon a target object (e.g., wafer) (not shown); and a cooling/heating apparatus 12 for cooling or heating the wafer chuck 11. The mounting apparatus 10 is configured to control a temperature of the wafer mounted on the wafer chuck 11 at a specific test temperature by cooling or heating the wafer chuck 11. As shown in FIG. 1, the cooling/heating apparatus 12 has a first cooling liquid circulation path 15 for circulating cooling liquid between the wafer chuck 11 and a cooling liquid tank 13 via a first pump 14; a second cooling circulation path 17 for circulating the cooling liquid of the cooling liquid tank 13 via a second pump 16; a temperature sensor 13A for detecting a temperature of the cooling liquid in the cooling liquid tank 13; a temperature controller 18 operating based on the detected value of the temperature sensor 13A; a heat engine driving inverter 19 (hereinafter, simply referred to as “inverter”) operating based on a signal from the temperature controller 18; and a Stirling heat engine 20 (see FIG. 2) operating based on the signal from the inverter 19. The cooling/heating apparatus 12 is configured to heat or cool the cooling liquid flowing along the second cooling liquid circulation path 17 by using the Stirling heat engine 20. As shown in FIG. 2, the Stirling heat engine 20 has a first cylinder 21; a second cylinder 22 placed adjacent to a lower portion of the first cylinder 21 while communicating with the first cylinder 21; a first and a second piston 23 and 24 moving in vertical reciprocating motions in cylinder chambers 21A and 22A of the first and the second cylinder 21 and 22, respectively to expand or compress a pressurized operation gas of, e.g., helium therein; a driving mechanism 25 for driving the first and the second piston 23 and 24 based on an instruction signal from the inverter 19; and a housing 26 accommodating therein the driving mechanism 25. The first and the second piston 23 and 24 move in vertical reciprocating motions with a phase difference of about 90°. Accordingly, the operation gas expanded or compressed in the first cylinder chamber 21A cools or heats the cooling liquid flowing along the second cooling liquid circulation path 17. The first and the second cylinder 21 and 22 are formed by, e.g., a known casting technique and the like. Since the first and the second piston 23 and 24 are driven in both low and high temperature conditions under high pressure, they are preferably formed of resin having a high stiffness, a self-lubrication property and an infinitesimal thermal expansion coefficient, such as engineering plastic, e.g., polyimide, polyamideimide, polyphenylene sulfide (PPS), polyetheretherketone (PEEK) or the like. In other words, the first and the second piston 23 and 24 are heated to a temperature of about +150° C. or higher when compressing the operation gas in the first and the second cylinder chamber 21A and 22A, whereas they are cooled to a temperature of about −100° C. or lower when expanding the operation gas therein. Therefore, the first and the second piston 23 and 24 need to be formed of a material capable of tolerating such temperature conditions. In case a lubricant is used in the first and the second piston 23 and 24, the lubricant becomes stiff at a low temperature and thus unable to perform its function. Moreover, when the lubricant is mixed with the operation gas, it is adhered to a regenerator to be described later, thus hindering the function of the regenerator. For these reasons, the lubricant is not usable in the first and the second cylinder chamber 21A and 22A and hence, it is preferable that the first and the second piston 23 and 24 are formed of the engineering plastic having a heat resistance, a cold resistance and a self-lubrication property. The first and the second cylinder 21 and 22 are disposed on an upper left wall of the housing 26. The first cylinder 21 has a manifold 27 at a lower portion thereof. A first radiator 28, a regenerator 29 and a heat exchanger 30 are provided in order on top of the manifold 27 to surround the first cylinder chamber 21A. Further, the first and the second cylinder chamber 21A and 22A communicate with each other via the manifold 27, the first radiator 28, the regenerator 29 and the heat exchanger 30. As for the first radiator 28, the regenerator 29 and the heat exchanger 30, there are used known ones. A communication hole 22B in FIG. 2 communicates the second cylinder 22A with the manifold 27. The first radiator 28 reaches a high temperature when the cooling/heating apparatus 12 performs the cooling operation, whereas the first radiator 28 reaches to a low temperature when the cooling/heating apparatus 12 performs the heating operation. As shown in FIG. 1, the first radiator 28 is connected with a second radiator 28B via a circulation path 28A where cooling water circulates, so that the cooling water circulates between the first radiator 28 and the second radiator 28B by a pump 28C. The second radiator 28B has a cooling fan 28D and thus cools or heats the cooing water circulating in the second radiator 28B by using the cooling fan 28D. The cooling water transfers heat to the operation gas flowing through the first radiator 28 or absorbs heat therefrom. Hereinafter, the driving mechanism 25 of the first and the second piston 23 and 24 will be described. As shown in FIG. 2, the driving mechanism 25 includes a motor 25A as a driving source and a crankshaft 25B connected with the motor 25A. The first piston 23 is connected with a first crank 25C of the crankshaft 25B via a first piston rod 23A, a first crosshead 23B and a first connecting rod 23C. The second piston 24 is connected with a second crank 25D of the crankshaft 25B via a second piston rod 24A, a second crosshead 24B and a second connecting rod 24C. The crankshaft 25B converts a rotational motion of the motor 25A into vertical reciprocating motions of the first and the second piston 23 and 24. Reference numerals 23D and 24D in FIG. 2 indicate seal mechanisms. The first and the second crank 25C and 25D are formed with an angle difference therebetween of about 90° along a circumferential direction of the crankshaft 25B and rotate with a phase difference of about 90° by the rotation of the crankshaft 25B. Accordingly, the first and the second piston 23 and 24 move at intervals of about ¼ cycle in reciprocating motions between a top dead center and a bottom dead center in the cylinder chambers 21A and 22A, respectively. When the motor 25A rotates forwardly, the first piston 23 moves in a reciprocating motion prior to the second piston 24 by about ¼ cycle. On the other hand, when the motor 25A rotates backwardly, the first piston 23 moves later than the second piston 24 in a reciprocating motion by about ¼ cycle. The first and the second piston stop temporarily when reversing directions at the top or bottom dead center and move slowly as approaching the top or bottom dead center, so that a small volume change of the operation gas is detected. On the other hand, they move much faster as approaching a middle point between the top and the bottom dead center, and thus a maximum volume change of the operation gas is detected. While the forward rotation of the motor 25A of the driving mechanism 25 causes the first and the second piston 23 and 24 to be driven in reciprocating motions through following operations as one cycle, the cooling liquid flowing along the second cooling liquid circulation path 17 is cooled in the heat exchanger 30. To be specific, in case the motor 25A is driven to rotate the crankshaft 25B forwardly, while the first piston 23 moves upward from the middle point to the top dead center in the first cylinder chamber 21A, the second piston 24 moves upward from the bottom dead center to a vicinity of the middle point in the second cylinder chamber 22A. Further, while the first piston 23 reverses its direction near the top dead center, the second piston 24 moves upward from the middle point toward the top dead center. At this time, the operation gas is compressed in the second cylinder chamber 22A and its temperature increases, thereby generating a high-temperature operation gas. In other words, the second cylinder chamber 22A serves as a high temperature chamber. Subsequently, while the first piston 23 reverses its direction and moves downward from the top dead center toward the middle point, the second piston 24 passes the middle point and moves upward toward the top dead center. At this time, the high-temperature operation gas in the second cylinder chamber 22A moves into the first cylinder chamber 21A. To be specific, the high-temperature operation gas is discharged through the communication hole 22B of the second cylinder 22A and then passes through the manifold 27. While passing through the first radiator 28, the high-temperature operation gas radiates heat. Further, the regenerator 29 absorbs heat from the high-temperature operation gas and thus the high-temperature operation gas loses its heat to become a cooled operation gas. The cooled operation gas thus generated is introduced into the first cylinder chamber 21A via the heat exchanger 30. While the first piston 21 passes the middle point and moves downward toward the bottom dead center in the first cylinder chamber 21A, the second piston 24 moves downward from the top dead center toward the middle point in the second cylinder chamber 22A. At this time, the cooled operation gas is rapidly expanded and becomes a low-temperature operation gas for cooling purposes. In other words, the first cylinder chamber 21A serves as a low temperature chamber. The low-temperature operation gas cools in the heat exchanger 30 the cooling liquid flowing along the second cooling liquid circulation path 17. By absorbing heat during the cooling operation, the low-temperature operation gas increases its temperature, thereby generating a heated operation gas. Next, while the first piston 23 reverses its direction at the bottom dead center and moves upward toward the middle point in the first cylinder chamber 21A, the second piston 24 moves downward from the middle point toward the bottom dead center in the second cylinder chamber 22A. At this time, the heated operation gas moves from the first cylinder chamber 21A into the second cylinder chamber 22A. To be specific, the heated operation gas absorbs heat and increases its temperature while passing through the regenerator 29 where heat has been accumulated. Next, the temperature of the heated operation gas is adjusted while passing through the first radiator 28. Accordingly, the operation gas whose temperature has been adjusted to return to its original temperature is introduced into the second cylinder chamber 21A via the manifold 27 and the communication hole 22B. By repetitively performing the above-described series of reciprocating operation of first and the second piston 23 and 24 in the cylinder chambers 21A and 22A, the cooling liquid flowing along the second cooling liquid circulation path 17 via the heat exchanger 30 is cooled by the low-temperature operation gas in the first cylinder chamber 21A. When the motor 25A of the driving mechanism 25 rotates backwardly, the first piston 23 moves later than the second piston 24 by about ¼ cycle. At this time, the first cylinder chamber 21A changes from a low temperature chamber to a high temperature chamber, whereas the second cylinder chamber 22A changes from a high temperature chamber to a low temperature chamber. The cooling liquid flowing along the second cooling liquid circulation path 17 is heated in the heat exchanger 30 installed to the first cylinder chamber 21A serving as the high temperature chamber. Hereinafter, an operation of the mounting apparatus 10 will be explained. In case a wafer is subjected to a low temperature test, the cooling/heating apparatus 12 is driven to cool the wafer chuck 11. When the wafer dissipates heat during the test, the cooling/heating apparatus 12 cools the wafer via the wafer chuck 11 so that the wafer can be maintained at a specific test temperature. In the cooling/heating apparatus 12, the cooling liquid in the cooling liquid tank 13 circulates between the first cooling liquid circulation path 15 and the wafer chuck 11 by the pump 14, thereby cooling the wafer chuck 11. The cooling liquid that has returned from the wafer chuck 11 to the cooling water tank 13 has an increased temperature due to the heat absorbed from the wafer. The temperature sensor 13A detects the increased temperature and then transmits a detection signal to the temperature controller 18. The temperature controller 18 compares the detected temperature with a preset temperature and then drives the inverter 19 based on a difference therebetween. The inverter 19 drives the Stirling heat engine 20 at a specific frequency based on an instruction signal from the temperature controller 18. The Stirling heat engine 20 allows the heat exchanger 30 to cool the cooling liquid circulating by the second pump 16 along the second cooling liquid circulation path 17. In the Stirling heat engine 20, the driving mechanism 25 is driven based on the instruction signal from the inverter 19. When the driving mechanism 25 is driven to rotate the motor 25A forwardly, the crankshaft 25B rotates. The crankshaft 25B converts the forward rotation of the motor 25A into vertical movements of the first and the second piston 23 and 24 respectively connected with the first and the second crank 25C and 25D. The first piston 23 moves in a vertical reciprocating motion prior to the second piston 24 by about ¼ cycle. To be specific, while the first piston 23 moves upward from the middle point toward the top dead center and reverses its direction near the top dead center in the first cylinder chamber 21A, the second piston 24 moves upward from the bottom dead center and passes the middle point in the second cylinder chamber 22A. At this time, the operation gas is compressed in the second cylinder chamber 22A and its temperature increases, thereby generating a high-temperature operation gas. Next, while the first piston 23 reverses its direction at the top dead center and moves downward toward the middle point, the second piston 24 passes the middle point and moves upward toward the top dead center. At this time, the high-temperature operation gas in the second cylinder chamber 22A moves into the first cylinder chamber 21A. To be specific, the high-temperature operation gas passes through the communication hole 22B and the manifold 27. While passing through the first radiator 28 and the regenerator 29, the high-temperature operation gas is absorbed its heat and then introduced, as a cooled operation gas, into the first cylinder chamber 21A. Next, while the first piston 23 passes the middle point and moves downward toward the bottom dead center in the first cylinder chamber 21A, the second piston 24 moves downward from the top dead center toward the middle point in the second cylinder chamber 22A. At this time, the cooled operation gas is rapidly expanded and cooled, thereby generating a low-temperature operation gas for cooling purposes. The cooling liquid flowing through the heat exchanger 30 is cooled by the low-temperature operation gas in the first cylinder chamber 21A and then returns to the cooling liquid tank 13. The low-temperature operation gas increases its temperature by absorbing heat in the heat exchanger 30. Thereafter, while the first piston 23 reverses its direction at the bottom dead center and moves upward toward the middle point in the first cylinder chamber 21A, the second piston 24 moves downward from the middle point toward the bottom dead center in the second cylinder chamber 22A. At this time, the low-temperature operation gas whose temperature has increased in the heat exchanger 30 moves from the first cylinder chamber 21A into the second cylinder chamber 22A. To be specific, the low-temperature operation gas increases its temperature by absorbing heat while passing through the regenerator 29 where heat has been accumulated and then undergoes a temperature adjustment while passing through the first radiator 28. Accordingly, the operation gas whose temperature has been adjusted to return to its original temperature is introduced into the second cylinder chamber 21A via the manifold 27 and the communication hole 22B. By repetitively performing the above-described operations of first and the second piston 23 and 24, the cooling liquid flowing through the heat exchanger 30 is cooled by the low-temperature operation gas in the first cylinder chamber 21A. The cooling liquid that has been cooled returns to the cooling liquid tank 13 via the second cooling liquid circulation path 17 by the second pump 16 and then constantly maintains its temperature. Referring to the graph of FIG. 3A, there is illustrated an example of a relationship between cooling time and a temperature of the wafer chuck 11 in cooling the wafer chuck 11 with the use of the cooling/heating apparatus 12. When the cooling capacity of the Stirling heat engine 20 is too low, it is enhanced by increasing the number of revolutions of the driving mechanism 25 by way of raising the frequency of the inverter 19 based on the signals from the temperature sensor 13A and the temperature controller 18. On the contrary, the cooling capacity of the Stirling heat engine 20 is too high, it is lowered by decreasing the number of revolutions of the driving mechanism 25 by way of lowering the frequency of the inverter 19. When the temperature condition of the test is changed from a low temperature to a normal temperature, the wafer chuck 11 is heated from the low temperature to the normal temperature. In this case, the forward rotation of the motor 25A of the Stirling heat engine 20 is converted into the backward rotation thereof, thus rotating the crankshaft 25B backwardly. Accordingly, the first piston 23 moves in a vertical reciprocating motion later than the second piston 24 by about ¼ cycle, and the first cylinder chamber 21A serves as a high temperature chamber for heating the cooling liquid. Specifically, when the motor 25A is driven to rotate the crankshaft 25B backwardly, the second piston 24 moves upward from the middle point toward the top dead center in the second cylinder chamber 22A. While the second piston 24 reverses its direction near the top dead center, the first piston 23 moves upward from the bottom dead center toward the top dead center in the first cylinder chamber 21A. At this time, the operation gas is compressed in the first cylinder chamber 21A and becomes a high-temperature operation gas. The high-temperature operation gas thus generated heats in the heat exchanger 30 the cooling liquid flowing along the second cooling liquid circulation path 17. As a result, the high-temperature operation gas radiates heat and is cooled, thereby generating a cooled operation gas. Next, while the second piston 24 reverses its direction near the top dead center and moves downward toward the middle point, the first piston 23 passes the middle point and moves upward toward the top dead center. At this time, the cooled operation gas in the first cylinder chamber 21A moves into the second cylinder chamber 22A. While passing through the regenerator 29, the cooled operation gas radiates heat and is cooled. The cooled operation gas is further cooled while passing through the first radiator 28. The operation gas whose temperature has been lowered is introduced into the second cylinder chamber 21A via the manifold 27 and the communication hole 22B. While the second piston 24 passes through the middle point and moves downward toward the bottom dead center in the second cylinder chamber 21A, the first piston 23 moves downward from the top dead center toward the middle point in the first cylinder chamber 21A. At this time, the operation gas is rapidly expanded and cooled, thereby generating a low-temperature operation gas. Next, while the second piston 24 reverses its direction near the bottom dead center and moves upward toward the middle point in the second cylinder chamber 22A, the first piston 23 moves downward from the middle point toward the lower dead point in the first cylinder chamber 21A. Accordingly, the low-temperature operation gas moves from the second cylinder chamber 22A into the first cylinder chamber 21A. While passing through the communication hole 22B, the manifold 27, the first radiator 28 and the regenerator 29, the low-temperature operation gas absorbs heat and increases its temperature. The operation gas whose temperature has been raised to its original temperature is introduced into the first cylinder chamber 21A. By repeatedly performing the above-described operations of the first and the second piston 23 and 24, the cooling liquid flowing through the heat exchanger 30 is heated by the high-temperature operation gas in the first cylinder chamber 21A. The heated cooling liquid returns to the cooling liquid tank 13 via the second cooling liquid circulation path 17 by the second pump 16 and then is heated until the cooling liquid in the cooling liquid tank 13 reaches a normal temperature. Referring to the graph of FIG. 3B, there is shown an example of a relationship between heating time and a temperature of the wafer chuck 11 in heating the wafer chuck 11 with the use of the cooling/heating apparatus 12. When the heating capacity of the Stirling heat engine 20 is too low, it is enhanced by increasing the number of revolutions of the driving mechanism 25 by way of raising the frequency of the inverter 19 based on the signals from the temperature sensor 13A and the temperature controller 18. On the contrary, the heating capacity of the Stirling heat engine 20 is too high, it is lowered by decreasing the number of revolutions of the driving mechanism 25 by way of lowering the frequency of the inverter 19. As described above, in accordance with this embodiment, since the cooling/heating apparatus 12 employs the Stirling heat engine 20 for cooling and heating operations, valves may not be provided and, thus, the system of the cooling/heating apparatus 12 of the mounting apparatus 10 can be simplified. Therefore, it is possible to suppress failure and reduce power consumption. Especially, the absence of electric valves in the cooling/heating apparatus 20 makes it possible to suppress the failure. In addition, the cooling and the heating capacity can be adjusted by controlling the number of revolutions of the motor 25A of the driving mechanism 25 by using the inverter 19. Further, in accordance with this embodiment, the presence of the inverter 19 for controlling a driving of the driving mechanism 25 of the Stirling heat engine 20, i.e., the motor 25A, makes it possible to cool or heat the cooling liquid by controlling the driving of the motor 25A based on the signal from the temperature controller 18. Furthermore, since the inverter 19 operates at a variable frequency, the number of revolutions of the motor 25A can be increased or decreased by automatically changing the frequency based on the signal from the temperature controller 18, thereby controlling the cooling and the heating capacity of the cooling liquid. A design of the present invention may be appropriately modified without being limited to the above-described embodiments. That is, as long as a cooling/heating apparatus and a mounting apparatus employ a Stirling heat engine for cooling and heating operations, they are included in the present invention. Thus, a configuration of the Stirling heat engine is not limited to that of the Stirling heat engine used in the above-described embodiments. The present invention can be appropriately used as a cooling/heating apparatus and a mounting apparatus for use in various industrial fields other than a semiconductor device manufacturing field. While the invention has been shown and described with respect to the embodiments, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes and modification may be made without departing from the scope of the invention as defined in the following claims.	F	F02	F02G	1	04
11831954	US20080208011A1-20080828	Method and System for Monitoring Oxygenation Levels of a Compartment for Detecting Conditions of a Compartment Syndrome	ACCEPTED	20080814	20080828		[]	A61B502	["A61B502"]	8100834	20070731	20120124	600	483000	97671.0	WEARE	MEREDITH	[{"inventor_name_last": "Shuler", "inventor_name_first": "Michael Simms", "inventor_city": "Atlanta", "inventor_state": "GA", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A method and system for continually monitoring oxygenation levels in real-time in compartments of an animal limb, such as in a human leg or a human thigh or a forearm, can be used to assist in the diagnosis of a compartment syndrome. The method and system can include one or more near infrared compartment sensors in which each sensor can be provided with a compartment alignment mechanism and a central scan depth marker so that each sensor may be precisely positioned over a compartment of a living organism. The method and system can include a device for displaying oxygenation levels corresponding to respective compartment sensors that are measuring oxygenation levels of a compartment of interest. The method and system can also monitor the relationship between blood pressure and oxygenation levels and activate alarms based on predetermined conditions relating to the oxygenation levels or blood pressure or both.	1. A method for monitoring oxygenation levels of a compartment of a human body for detecting conditions of a compartment syndrome, comprising: providing an alignment mechanism on a compartment sensor; monitoring oxygenation levels of the compartment with the compartment sensor; monitoring blood pressure of the human body; and monitoring a relationship between the blood pressure and the oxygenation levels. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising activating an alarm if a significant change in oxygenation levels is detected. 3. The method of claim 1, further comprising activating an alarm if both the blood pressure and oxygenation levels start decreasing in value. 4. The method of claim 1, further comprising displaying the blood pressure and oxygenation levels of the compartment on a display device. 5. The method of claim 1, further comprising providing a central scan depth marker on the compartment sensor. 6. The method of claim 1, further comprising determining if conditions exist that may indicate a compartment syndrome may occur in the human body. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein monitoring oxygenation levels of the compartment with the compartment sensor further comprises measuring muscle oxygenation. 8. A system for monitoring oxygenation levels of a compartment of a human body for detecting conditions of a compartment syndrome, the system comprising: a compartment sensor for detecting oxygenation levels of the human body; a blood pressure device for sensing blood pressure of the human body; a display device for displaying the oxygenation levels and blood pressure values of the human body; and a computing device coupled to the compartment sensor, blood pressure device, and display device; the computing device for monitoring the blood pressure of the human body and for monitoring the oxygenation levels of the human body, the computing device monitors a relationship between the blood pressure and oxygenation level and determines if conditions exist that may indicate that a compartment syndrome exists in the human body based on the relationship. 9. The system of claim 8, wherein the compartment sensor comprises a near infrared sensing element. 10. The system of claim 8, wherein the compartment sensor comprises at least one of an alignment mechanism and a central scan depth marker. 11. The system of claim 8, further comprising an alarm coupled to the computing device, the computing device activating the alarm when the blood pressure and oxygenation levels approach predefined one or more predefined levels. 12. The system of claim 11, wherein the alarm comprises one of an audible and visual device. 13. The system of claim 8, wherein the display device comprises a computer monitor. 14. The system of claim 8, wherein the compartment sensor comprises an array of sensing elements. 15. The system of claim 8, further comprising an array of compartment sensors coupled to the computing device, wherein each sensor has a different optical wavelength relative to a neighboring sensor in order to provide scans of different portions of the human body. 16. The system of claim 8, further comprising an array of compartment sensors coupled to the computing device, wherein the computing device controls a timing for activating respective sensors in order to provide scans of different portions of the human body. 17. The system of claim 8, wherein the computing device receives a pigment value for skin of the human body and calculates an offset value for monitoring the oxygenation levels based on the pigment value. 18. The system of claim 18, wherein the computing device adjusts oxygenation values based on demographics of a patient. 19. The system of claim 8, wherein the demographics of the patient comprises skin pigment. 20. The system of claim 8, wherein the computing device increases a frequency at which the oxygenation levels and blood pressure are monitored if the oxygenation levels and blood pressure fall within a predetermined range of values. 21. The system of claim 8, wherein the computing device compares oxygenation levels between an injured portion of the human body and an uninjured portion of the human body. 22. The system of claim 8, wherein the computing device indicates a possible hematoma condition based on signals that the processor receives from the compartment sensor. 23. A method for monitoring oxygenation levels of a compartment of a human body for detecting conditions of a compartment syndrome, the system comprising: determining an offset value for an oxygenation level scale based on skin pigment of the human body; after determining the offset value, detecting oxygenation levels of the human body; sensing blood pressure of the human body; and monitoring a relationship between the blood pressure and oxygenation levels; and sounding an alarm if the blood pressure and oxygenation levels reach one or more predefined levels that may indicate that a compartment syndrome exists in the human body. 24. The method of claim 17, further comprising providing at least one of an alignment mechanism and a central scan depth marker on the compartment sensor. 25. The method of claim 23, wherein detecting oxygenation levels of the human body further comprises measuring oxygenation values of muscle tissue.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Compartment syndrome is a medical condition where the pressure inside a compartment, which is a muscle group surrounded by fascia or a thin, inelastic film, increases until the blood circulation inside the volume defined by the fascia or thin film is cut off. The most common site, in humans, occurs in the lower leg, and more specifically, in regions adjacent to the tibia and fibula. There are four compartments in the lower, human leg: the anterior (front), lateral (side next to the fibula) and the deep and superficial posterior (back). These four compartments surround the tibia and fibula. Anyone of these four compartments can yield a compartment syndrome when bleeding or swelling occurs within the compartment. Compartment syndrome usually occurs after some trauma or injury to the tissues, such as muscles or bones or vessel (or all three), contained within the compartment. Bleeding or swelling within a compartment can cause an increase in pressure within that compartment. The fascia does not expand, so as pressure rises, the tissue and vessels begin to be compressed within the compartment. This compression of tissue, such as muscle, due to intra-compartmental pressure can restrict and often times stop blood flow from entering the compartment that is destined for any tissues contained within the compartment. This condition is termed ischemia. Without blood flow to tissues, such as muscle, the tissues will eventually die. This condition is termed necrosis. A simple working definition for a compartment syndrome is an increased pressure within a closed space which reduces the capillary blood perfusion below a level necessary for tissue viability. As noted above, this situation may be produced by two conditions. The first condition can include an increase in volume within a closed space, and the second condition is a decrease in size of the space. An increase in volume occurs in a clinical setting of hemorrhage, post ischemic swelling, re-perfusion, and arterial-venous fistula. A decrease in size results from a cast that is too tight, constrictive dressings, pneumatic anti-shock garments, and closure of fascial defects. As the pressure increases in tissue, it exceeds the low intramuscular arteriolar pressure causing decreased blood in the capillary anastomosis and subsequent shunting of blood flow from the compartment. The clinical conditions that may be associated with compartment syndrome include the management of fractures, soft tissue injuries, arterial injuries, drug overdoses, limb compression situations, burns, post-ischemic swelling, constrictive dressings, aggressive fluid resuscitation and tight casts. Referring now to the Figures, FIG. 1 illustrates an X-ray view of a human leg 100 with fractured bones of the tibia 105 and fibula 110 that lead to one or more compartment syndromes in the muscles 115 surrounding the bones of the human leg 100 . The tibia 105 and fibula 110 usually bleed in regions proximate to the physical break regions 120 . This bleeding can form a large pool of stagnant blood referred to as a hematoma. The hematoma can start pressing upon muscles 115 that may be proximate to the break 120 . This pressure caused by the hematoma can severely restrict or stop blood flow into the muscles 115 of a compartment, which is the diagnosis of a compartment syndrome.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A method and system for monitoring oxygenation levels in compartments of an animal limb, such as in a human leg or a human thigh or a forearm, can be used to assist in the diagnosis of a compartment syndrome. The method and system can include one or more near infrared compartment sensors in which each sensor can be provided with a compartment alignment mechanism and a central scan depth marker so that each sensor may be precisely positioned over a compartment of a living organism, such as a compartment of a human leg or human thigh or forearm. The method and system can include a device for displaying oxygenation levels corresponding to respective compartment sensors that are measuring oxygenation levels of a compartment of interest. The alignment mechanism of a compartment sensor can include a linear marking on a surface of the compartment sensor that is opposite to the side which produces a light scan used to detect oxygenation levels. The linear marking can be used by a medical practitioner to align a compartment sensor with the longitudinal axis of a compartment. The central scan depth marker can include a linear marking positioned on a surface of a compartment sensor that intersects the alignment mechanism, a crosshatch, at a location along the alignment mechanism that denotes the deepest region of a light scan produced by the compartment sensor. The depth of measurement can be displayed in numeric form over the crosshatch guide to aid the clinician since depth varies based on light source & receptor separation. The central scan depth marker can insure that a medical practitioner properly aligns the compartment sensor at a location that will measure a compartment of interest. According to one exemplary embodiment of the invention, in addition to each compartment sensor having a compartment alignment mechanism and a central scan depth marker, the compartment sensors can be grouped in pairs and share a common supporting substrate. The common supporting substrate can include a separation device, such as, but not limited to, a perforated region. The separation device, such as a perforated region, can be torn or broken by the user in order to adjust for a size of a compartment of interest. In other words, with the separation device, a pair of two compartment sensors can be physically divided so that the sensors do not share a common substrate after the separation device is utilized. According to another exemplary embodiment of the invention, a compartment sensor can include one light emitting device and two different sets of light detectors such that the compartment sensor can provide a first, shallow oxygenation scan at a first depth and a second, deep oxygenation scan at a second depth. The second depth can be greater than the first depth, so that a general computing device coupled to the two compartment sensors can be programmed or hardwired to calculate the second, deep oxygenation level at the second depth by subtracting data generated by the first, shallow oxygenation level at the first depth. According to another alternate exemplary embodiment of the invention, several individual compartment scanners can be grouped together along a longitudinal axis of a common supporting material to define a linear compartment array. The linear compartment array can also include a linear marking on its surface and that is opposite to the side which produces the light scan as well as multiple crosshatches for depth denotation. The linear marking can be used to align linear compartment array with a longitudinal axis of a compartment. According to another exemplary embodiment of the invention, a compartment sensor or compartment sensor array can be positioned at a predetermined position along a human leg in order to measure a deep posterior compartment of the human leg. Position is posteromedial to the posterior aspect of the tibia. According to one exemplary embodiment of the invention, a linear compartment sensor array can include individual sensors that scan at different depths such that the linear compartment sensor array as a whole has a varied scan depth along its longitudinal axis to more closely match the topography, shape, or depth of a compartment of interest that has a corresponding varied depth. According to another exemplary embodiment of the invention, each individual compartment sensor can produce its oxygenation scan at a predetermined interval such that each individual compartment sensor is only activated one at a time or in a predetermined sequence so that any two or more sensors are not working at a same instant of time in order to reduce any potential for light interference among the different oxygenation scans produced by respective sensors of the array. According to a further exemplary embodiment of the invention, each compartment sensor can use optical filters in combination with different wavelengths of light so that two or more compartment sensors can scan at the same without interfering with one another. According to another exemplary embodiment of the invention, a linear compartment array can include optical transmitters that are shared among pairs of optical receivers. For example, a single optical transmitter can be used with two optical receivers that are disposed at angles of one-hundred eighty degrees relative to each other and the optical transmitter along the axis of the compartment. According to yet another exemplary embodiment, a compartment sensor or compartment sensor array can be made from materials that can be sterilized and used in operating environments that are free from germs or bacteria. A compartment sensor or compartment sensor array can also be provided with a coating that is sterilizable or sterilized. When a compartment sensor or compartment sensor array is sterilized, it can be provided underneath bandages or dressings adjacent to a wound or injury of a compartment or proximate to compartment of interest. Each sensor can be provided with a common and sufficient length of cord, such as on the order of approximately ten feet, to allow the cord to extend off the sterile operative field. According to another exemplary embodiment of the invention, the compartment monitoring method and system can include a device that displays oxygenations levels of a compartment over time in which oxygenation levels are measured at a particular time frequency, such as, but not limited to, on the order of seconds or minutes. According to another exemplary embodiment of the invention, the compartment monitoring system and method can display all measured data from all sensors on the same screen. The display can also show a differential between injured and uninjured leg values of the concordant compartments. For example, the screen can display calculations of the difference between the values of the anterior compartment of both the injured leg and the contralateral uninjured leg (control leg) to help evaluate the perfusion of the injured leg. According to an alternate exemplary embodiment of the invention, the compartment monitoring system and method can display anatomical features and locations for positioning the sensors of the system along compartments of interest selected by a user. This program at initial set up can help insure proper placement of the sensor by the clinician by using diagrams for accurate placement for each of the labeled sensors or sensor arrays. According to another exemplary embodiment of the invention, the compartment monitoring system can detect changes in a size of a hematoma when at least one linear compartment arrays is used to measure oxygenations levels at different positions of a compartment. Alternatively, the compartment monitoring system can provide information on varies levels of blood flow along the longitudinal axis of a compartment when at least one linear compartment array is used to measure oxygenations levels at different positions of a compartment. Alternatively, according to another exemplary embodiment of the invention, a compartment sensor can be provided with a skin pigment sensor that has a known reflectance and that can be used to calibrate the compartment sensor based on relative reflectance of skin pigment which can affect data generated from oxygenation scans. For example, a skin narrow-band simple reflectance device, a tristimulus colorimetric device, or scanning reflectance spectrophotometer can be incorporated into the oxygenation sensor system to obtain a standardized value for skin pigmentation which evaluate melanin and hemoglobin in the skin. Once the skin melanin is determined it can be correlated to its calculated absorption or reflectance (effect) on the NIRS value using a predetermined calibration system. This effect, optical density value, can be incorporated in tissue hemoglobin concentration calculations in the deep tissue. Accounting for skin pigmentation will usually allow for information or values to be compared across different subjects with different skin pigmentation as well as using the number as an absolute value instead of monitoring simply changes in value over time. According to an exemplary embodiment of the invention, a compartment sensor can be provided with layers of a known thickness and a know absorption in order to reduce the depth of an oxygenation scan by the sensor so that a thin layer of tissue, such as skin can be measured by the sensor. In other words, due to limitations of how close the light source and receptor can be positioned, in order to evaluate very superficial layers such as skin, the sensor can be separated from the skin of the subject by fixed amount with a known material. For example, by using a material with a known optical density, the length of a scan can be shortened by projecting the light pathway mostly through the known material. The light pathway would escape the know material only at the maximum depth to evaluate a limited depth of tissue such as skin. This technique would allow for direct measurement of the skin pigmentation effects on the system. This skin sensor can be either incorporated into the compartment monitoring system directly or used to construct the predetermined calibration for skin reflectance values that can be used by the compartment monitoring system. According to another exemplary embodiment of the invention, the compartment monitoring system can receive data from a blood pressure monitoring system in order to correlate oxygenation levels with blood pressure. The compartment monitoring system that includes a blood pressure monitoring system can activate an alarm, such as an audible or visual alarm (or both), when the diastolic pressure of a patient drops since it has been discovered that perfusion can be significantly lowered or stopped at low diastolic pressures and when compartment pressures are greater than the diastolic pressure. According to another exemplary embodiment, the compartment monitoring system can increase a frequency of data collection for oxygenation levels and/or blood pressure readings when low blood pressure is detected by the system. According to an alternative exemplary embodiment, the compartment monitoring system can display blood pressure and oxygenation levels simultaneously and in a graphical manner over time, such as an X-Y plot in a Cartesian plane or as two separate graphs over time. Correlation between hemoglobin concentration and diastolic pressure can be used to estimate intra-compartmental pressures without having to use invasive needle measurements. According to another further exemplary embodiment, the inventive system can incorporate oxygenation levels from both lower extremities and compare values between the legs or other body parts. Initial data from patients with extremity injuries by the inventor have shown that muscular skeletal injuries cause hyperemia (increased blood flow and oxygen) in the injured extremity. If a compartment syndrome develops, the oxygenation drops from an elevated state to an equal and then lower level with comparison to the uninjured limb. Therefore when comparing injured and uninjured extremities, the injured limb may show increased oxygenation levels. If levels begin to drop in the injured limb compared to the uninjured limb, an alarm or alert can be triggered to alert the clinician. A display for the blood pressure being measured can also be provided by the system.	REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application claims priority to provisional patent application entitled, “Near Infrared Compartment Syndrome (NICS) Monitor,” filed on Feb. 27, 2007 and assigned U.S. Application Ser. No. 60/903,632. The entire contents of the provisional patent application mentioned above is hereby incorporated by reference. FIELD OF INVENTION The invention relates to a coordinated, continual and real-time method and system for monitoring oxygenation levels of a compartment in order to detect conditions that are likely caused by a compartment syndrome. More particularly, the invention relates to an orchestrated method and system that monitors oxygenation levels and that is provided with sensors having markers so that the sensors can be precisely positioned over a compartment of interest in order to assist with a compartment syndrome diagnosis. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Compartment syndrome is a medical condition where the pressure inside a compartment, which is a muscle group surrounded by fascia or a thin, inelastic film, increases until the blood circulation inside the volume defined by the fascia or thin film is cut off. The most common site, in humans, occurs in the lower leg, and more specifically, in regions adjacent to the tibia and fibula. There are four compartments in the lower, human leg: the anterior (front), lateral (side next to the fibula) and the deep and superficial posterior (back). These four compartments surround the tibia and fibula. Anyone of these four compartments can yield a compartment syndrome when bleeding or swelling occurs within the compartment. Compartment syndrome usually occurs after some trauma or injury to the tissues, such as muscles or bones or vessel (or all three), contained within the compartment. Bleeding or swelling within a compartment can cause an increase in pressure within that compartment. The fascia does not expand, so as pressure rises, the tissue and vessels begin to be compressed within the compartment. This compression of tissue, such as muscle, due to intra-compartmental pressure can restrict and often times stop blood flow from entering the compartment that is destined for any tissues contained within the compartment. This condition is termed ischemia. Without blood flow to tissues, such as muscle, the tissues will eventually die. This condition is termed necrosis. A simple working definition for a compartment syndrome is an increased pressure within a closed space which reduces the capillary blood perfusion below a level necessary for tissue viability. As noted above, this situation may be produced by two conditions. The first condition can include an increase in volume within a closed space, and the second condition is a decrease in size of the space. An increase in volume occurs in a clinical setting of hemorrhage, post ischemic swelling, re-perfusion, and arterial-venous fistula. A decrease in size results from a cast that is too tight, constrictive dressings, pneumatic anti-shock garments, and closure of fascial defects. As the pressure increases in tissue, it exceeds the low intramuscular arteriolar pressure causing decreased blood in the capillary anastomosis and subsequent shunting of blood flow from the compartment. The clinical conditions that may be associated with compartment syndrome include the management of fractures, soft tissue injuries, arterial injuries, drug overdoses, limb compression situations, burns, post-ischemic swelling, constrictive dressings, aggressive fluid resuscitation and tight casts. Referring now to the Figures, FIG. 1 illustrates an X-ray view of a human leg 100 with fractured bones of the tibia 105 and fibula 110 that lead to one or more compartment syndromes in the muscles 115 surrounding the bones of the human leg 100. The tibia 105 and fibula 110 usually bleed in regions proximate to the physical break regions 120. This bleeding can form a large pool of stagnant blood referred to as a hematoma. The hematoma can start pressing upon muscles 115 that may be proximate to the break 120. This pressure caused by the hematoma can severely restrict or stop blood flow into the muscles 115 of a compartment, which is the diagnosis of a compartment syndrome. Traditional Methods for Diagnosing Compartment Syndromes Referring now to FIG. 2, this Figure is a side view of a human leg 100 in which compartment pressures are being measured with a large bore needle 200, having a gauge size such as 14 or 16 (which is the largest needle in the hospital available to clinicians), according to a conventional method known in the prior art. While compartment pressures can be measured with this conventional method, the method is highly invasive procedure which can cause tremendous pain to the patient. Needles with large gauge sizes of 14 or 16 are analogous to sticking a patient with an object as large as a nail or a pen. In addition to causing tremendous pain to the patient, there are several more problems associated with the conventional needle measuring method. First, it is very challenging for a medical practitioner to actually measure or read pressure of a compartment since the needle must be positioned at least within the interior of a compartment. To enter the interior of a compartment, the needle 200 must penetrate through several layers of skin and muscle. And it is very difficult for the medical practitioner to know if the needle has penetrated adequately through the intermediate layers to enter into the compartment. This challenge significantly increases if the patient being measure is obese and has significant amounts of subcutaneous fat in which to penetrate with the needle. Often, the medical practitioner may not have a needle accurately positioned inside a compartment which can yield a reading of the tissue adjacent to the compartment, such as muscle or skin. Such a reading of muscle or skin instead of the compartment of interest can provide the medical practitioner with elevated or depressed pressure readings that do not reflect the actual pressure contained within the compartment of interest. Pressure readings inside a compartment have been shown to vary (increase) based on the depth of the reading as well as the proximity to the fracture site. Because of the challenge medical practitioners face with precisely positioning a needle within a compartment of interest and because of the numerous law suits associated with the diagnosis of compartment syndrome, many medical schools do not provide any formal training for medical practitioners to learn how to properly place a needle within a compartment of interest for reading a compartment's pressure. Therefore, many medical practitioners are not equipped with the skills or experience to accurately measure compartment pressures with the needle measuring method. Currently, intra-compartmental pressures are the only objective diagnostic tool. Due to the legal climate regarding this condition, clinicians are forced to treat an elevated value for compartment pressures or expose themselves to legal ramifications with any complications. As described later, the treatment of compartment syndrome can cause significant morbidity and increase the risk for infection. Therefore inaccurate and elevated pressure readings are a very difficult and potential dangerous pitfall. Another problem associated with the training and experience required for the needle measuring method is that, as noted above, compartment syndromes usually occur when tissues within the compartment are experiencing unusual levels of swelling and pressure. With this swelling and pressure, the tissues do not have their normal size. Therefore, any training of a medical practitioner must be made with a patient suffering under these conditions. A normal patient without any swelling would not provide a medical practitioner with the skills to accurately assess a size of a compartment when using the needle measuring method for determining compartment pressure. Put another way, due to the trauma associated with the injury, normal anatomy is not always present when attempting to measure compartment pressures. In addition to the problem of entering a compartment that may have an abnormal size or anatomy, the needle measuring method has the problem of providing only a snap-shot of data at an instant of time. When the conventional needle measuring method is used, it provides the medical practitioner with pressure data for a single instant of time. In other words, the needle pressure method only provides the medical practitioner with one data point for a particular time. Once pressure is read by the medical practitioner, he or she usually removes the needle from the patient. The data obtained from a single measurement in time gives no information concerning the pressure trend, and the direction the intra-compartmental pressure is moving. This collection of single data points over long periods of time is usually not very helpful because pressures within a compartment as well as the patient's blood pressure can change abruptly, on the order of minutes. Also, because of the pain associated with the needle measuring method noted above, the medical practitioner will seldom or rarely take pressure readings with in a few minutes of each other using a needle. A further problem of the needle measuring method is that for certain regions of the body, such as the lower leg, there are four compartments to measure. This means that a patient's leg must be stuck with the large bore needle at least four times in order for a medical practitioner to rule out that a compartment syndrome exists for the lower leg. In the lower leg of the human body, one compartment is located under a neighboring compartment such that a needle measurement may be needed in at least two locations that are very close together, but in which the medical practitioner must penetrate tissues at a shallow depth at a first location to reach the first compartment; and for reaching the second compartment that is underneath the first compartment, a large depth must be penetrated by the needle, often with the needle piercing the first compartment and then the second compartment. Another problem, besides pain that is associated with the needle pressure measuring method, is that there is a lack of consensus among medical practitioners over the compartment pressure ranges which are believed to indicate that a compartment syndrome may exist for a particular patient. Normal compartment pressure in the human body usually approaches 4 mmHg in the recumbent position. Meanwhile, scientists have found that an absolute pressure measurement of 30 mmHg in a compartment may indicate presence of compartment syndrome. However, there are other scientists who believe that patients with intracompartmental pressures of 45 mmHg or greater should be identified as having true compartment syndromes. But other studies have shown patients with intra-compartmental pressures above these limits with no clinical signs of compartment syndrome. Additional studies have shown that a pressure gradient based on perfusion pressure (diastolic blood pressure minus intra-compartmental pressure) is the more important variable. Studies have shown in a laboratory setting that once the perfusion pressure drops to 10 mm Hg tissue necrosis starts to occur. Other subjective methods for diagnosing compartment syndromes instead of the needle measuring method exist, however, they may have less accuracy than the needle measuring method because they rely on clinical symptoms of a patient. Some clinical symptoms of a patient used to help diagnose compartment syndromes include pulselessness (absence of a pulse), lack of muscle power, pain, parastesias, and if the flesh is cold to touch. Pain out or proportion and with passive stretch are considered the earliest and most sensitive, but both are very low specificity. One of the major drawbacks of these symptoms is that for many of them the patient must be conscious and must be able to respond to the medical practitioner. This is true for the muscle power and pain assessment. For any inebriated patients or patients who are unconscious, the pain assessment and muscle power assessment cannot be used accurately by the medical practitioner. In the setting of high energy trauma which is associated with compartment syndrome, many patients are not capable of cooperating with a good physical exam due to any number of causes including head trauma, medical treatment (including intubation), drug or alcohol ingestion, neurovascular compromise or critical and life threatening injuries to other body systems. For the pain assessment, if a lower leg compartment syndrome exists in a patient, then the range of motion for a patient's foot or toes will be extremely limited and very painful when the patient's foot or toes are actively or passively moved. The pain from a compartment syndrome can be very immense because the muscles are deprived of oxygen because of the compartment syndrome. Another drawback using pain to assess the likelihood of a compartment syndrome is that every human has a different threshold for pain. This means that even if someone should be experiencing a high level of pain, he or she may have a high threshold for pain and therefore, not provide the medical practitioner with a normal reaction for the current level of pain. Another problem with using pain to assess the likelihood of the existence of a compartment syndrome is that if the patient is experiencing trauma to other parts of their body, he or she may not feel the pain of a compartment syndrome as significantly, especially if the trauma to the other parts of the patient's body is more severe. This condition is termed a distracting injury. On the other hand, trauma causes the initial injury that precipitates a compartment syndrome. That initial trauma by definition will cause a baseline amount of pain that is often very difficult to separate from a potential compartment syndrome pain. These initial injuries by themselves cause significant pain, so a patient that does not tolerate pain well may present similar to a compartment syndrome without having any increased pressures simply because they react vehemently to painful conditions. Conventional Non-Invasive Techniques for Measuring Oxygenation Levels of a Compartment Non-invasive measuring of compartment syndromes using near infrared sensors, such as spectrophotometric sensors, to measure oxygenation levels within a compartment has been suggested by the conventional art. However, these conventional techniques have encountered the problem of a medical practitioner locating compartments of interest and accurately and precisely positioning a sensor over a compartment of interest. Often the orientation of the scan and the depth of the scan produced by a near infrared sensor as well as the orientation of a compartment can be challenging for a medical practitioner to determine because conventional sensors are not marked with any instructions or visual aids. Another problem faced by the medical practitioner with conventional non-invasive techniques is determining how to assess the oxygenation level of compartments that lie underneath a particular neighboring compartment, such as with the deep posterior compartment of the human leg. In trauma settings, near infrared sensors often do not work when they are placed over regions of the body that have hematomas or pools of blood. In such conditions, a medical practitioner usually guesses at what regions of the human body do not contain any hematomas that could block compartment measurements. Also, conventional near infrared sensors typically are not sterilized and cannot be used in surgical or operating environments. Near infrared sensors (NIRS) in their current form are limited to a single sensor with a single sensor depth. They also can be affected by skin pigmentation that is not accounted for in the current technology. Placement of the sensor can be difficult since an expanding hematoma can block a previously acceptable placement. Additionally, the only system as of this writing is a single monitor system. There is no product available at this time which will allow for multiple areas to be monitored in close proximity to one another without the potential for interference from other sensor light sources. Treatment for Compartment Syndrome Referring now to FIG. 3, this figure is a side view of a human leg 100 in which a surgical procedure, known as a fasciotomy, was performed in order to release the pressures in one or more compartments surrounding the bones of the leg according to a technique known in the art in order to alleviate a compartment syndrome that was diagnosed. This surgical procedure includes an incision 300 that is made along the length of the leg 100 and is generally as long as the compartments contained within the leg 100. While a single incision 300 is illustrated in FIG. 3, a second incision is made on the opposing side of the leg so that a patient will have two incisions on each side of his leg 100. These incisions typically extend from near the knee to near the ankle on each side of the leg. This procedure is very invasive and it often leaves the patient with severe scars and venous congestion once healed. Also the procedure increases a patient's chances of receiving an air-borne infection because the incisions made on either side of the leg are usually left open for several days in order to allow for the swelling and excess bleeding to subside. Fasciotomies transform a closed fracture (one in which the skin is intact and minimal risk of infection) to an open fracture. Open fractures have a much higher risk of bone infections which requires multiple surgical debridements and ultimately amputation in some cases in ordered to appropriately treat. Additionally, some wound cannot be closed and require skin transfers, or skin grafts, from other parts of the body, usually from the anterior thigh. Therefore, it is quite apparent that accurately diagnosing compartment syndrome is critical because any misdiagnosis can lead to significant morbidity. A missed compartment syndrome can result in an insensate and contracted leg and foot. A fasciotomy which is highly invasive procedure and which exposes a patient to many additional health risks should not be performed in the absence of a compartment syndrome. Additionally, time is an important factor in the evaluation of these patients. Ischemic muscle begins to undergo irreversible changes after about six hours of decreased perfusion. Once irreversible changes or necrosis occur, a fasciotomy should not be performed. Fasciotomies in the setting of dead muscle only increase the risk for severe infections and other complications. Late fasciotomies have been shown to have approximately a 50-75% risk of complication. Therefore, fasciotomies need to be performed early but judiciously in patients that are often unresponsive or uncooperative in order to prevent severe morbidity. Accordingly, there is a need in the art for a non-invasive, real time method and system that monitors oxygenation levels of a compartment and that is provided with sensors which can be precisely positioned over a compartment of interest in order to assist in assessing conditions associated with a compartment syndrome. A further need exists in the art for a non-invasive method that monitors oxygenation levels of a compartment over long periods of time at frequent time intervals and that can monitor different compartments that may be in close proximity with one another. Another need exists in the art for oxygenation sensors that can be fabricated to fit the size of compartments of interest. There is also a need in the art for a non-invasive method and system that monitors oxygenation levels and that can identify ideal locations along a human body in which to conduct scans for deep compartments. There is another need in the art for sterile, non-invasive oxygenation sensors that can be used under surgical and operating conditions. There is a need for multiple locations and multiple compartments to be monitored in a continual and orchestrated manner by a single system. In other words, multiple monitors coordinated to limit noise and continually monitor multiple compartments are needed in the art. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A method and system for monitoring oxygenation levels in compartments of an animal limb, such as in a human leg or a human thigh or a forearm, can be used to assist in the diagnosis of a compartment syndrome. The method and system can include one or more near infrared compartment sensors in which each sensor can be provided with a compartment alignment mechanism and a central scan depth marker so that each sensor may be precisely positioned over a compartment of a living organism, such as a compartment of a human leg or human thigh or forearm. The method and system can include a device for displaying oxygenation levels corresponding to respective compartment sensors that are measuring oxygenation levels of a compartment of interest. The alignment mechanism of a compartment sensor can include a linear marking on a surface of the compartment sensor that is opposite to the side which produces a light scan used to detect oxygenation levels. The linear marking can be used by a medical practitioner to align a compartment sensor with the longitudinal axis of a compartment. The central scan depth marker can include a linear marking positioned on a surface of a compartment sensor that intersects the alignment mechanism, a crosshatch, at a location along the alignment mechanism that denotes the deepest region of a light scan produced by the compartment sensor. The depth of measurement can be displayed in numeric form over the crosshatch guide to aid the clinician since depth varies based on light source & receptor separation. The central scan depth marker can insure that a medical practitioner properly aligns the compartment sensor at a location that will measure a compartment of interest. According to one exemplary embodiment of the invention, in addition to each compartment sensor having a compartment alignment mechanism and a central scan depth marker, the compartment sensors can be grouped in pairs and share a common supporting substrate. The common supporting substrate can include a separation device, such as, but not limited to, a perforated region. The separation device, such as a perforated region, can be torn or broken by the user in order to adjust for a size of a compartment of interest. In other words, with the separation device, a pair of two compartment sensors can be physically divided so that the sensors do not share a common substrate after the separation device is utilized. According to another exemplary embodiment of the invention, a compartment sensor can include one light emitting device and two different sets of light detectors such that the compartment sensor can provide a first, shallow oxygenation scan at a first depth and a second, deep oxygenation scan at a second depth. The second depth can be greater than the first depth, so that a general computing device coupled to the two compartment sensors can be programmed or hardwired to calculate the second, deep oxygenation level at the second depth by subtracting data generated by the first, shallow oxygenation level at the first depth. According to another alternate exemplary embodiment of the invention, several individual compartment scanners can be grouped together along a longitudinal axis of a common supporting material to define a linear compartment array. The linear compartment array can also include a linear marking on its surface and that is opposite to the side which produces the light scan as well as multiple crosshatches for depth denotation. The linear marking can be used to align linear compartment array with a longitudinal axis of a compartment. According to another exemplary embodiment of the invention, a compartment sensor or compartment sensor array can be positioned at a predetermined position along a human leg in order to measure a deep posterior compartment of the human leg. Position is posteromedial to the posterior aspect of the tibia. According to one exemplary embodiment of the invention, a linear compartment sensor array can include individual sensors that scan at different depths such that the linear compartment sensor array as a whole has a varied scan depth along its longitudinal axis to more closely match the topography, shape, or depth of a compartment of interest that has a corresponding varied depth. According to another exemplary embodiment of the invention, each individual compartment sensor can produce its oxygenation scan at a predetermined interval such that each individual compartment sensor is only activated one at a time or in a predetermined sequence so that any two or more sensors are not working at a same instant of time in order to reduce any potential for light interference among the different oxygenation scans produced by respective sensors of the array. According to a further exemplary embodiment of the invention, each compartment sensor can use optical filters in combination with different wavelengths of light so that two or more compartment sensors can scan at the same without interfering with one another. According to another exemplary embodiment of the invention, a linear compartment array can include optical transmitters that are shared among pairs of optical receivers. For example, a single optical transmitter can be used with two optical receivers that are disposed at angles of one-hundred eighty degrees relative to each other and the optical transmitter along the axis of the compartment. According to yet another exemplary embodiment, a compartment sensor or compartment sensor array can be made from materials that can be sterilized and used in operating environments that are free from germs or bacteria. A compartment sensor or compartment sensor array can also be provided with a coating that is sterilizable or sterilized. When a compartment sensor or compartment sensor array is sterilized, it can be provided underneath bandages or dressings adjacent to a wound or injury of a compartment or proximate to compartment of interest. Each sensor can be provided with a common and sufficient length of cord, such as on the order of approximately ten feet, to allow the cord to extend off the sterile operative field. According to another exemplary embodiment of the invention, the compartment monitoring method and system can include a device that displays oxygenations levels of a compartment over time in which oxygenation levels are measured at a particular time frequency, such as, but not limited to, on the order of seconds or minutes. According to another exemplary embodiment of the invention, the compartment monitoring system and method can display all measured data from all sensors on the same screen. The display can also show a differential between injured and uninjured leg values of the concordant compartments. For example, the screen can display calculations of the difference between the values of the anterior compartment of both the injured leg and the contralateral uninjured leg (control leg) to help evaluate the perfusion of the injured leg. According to an alternate exemplary embodiment of the invention, the compartment monitoring system and method can display anatomical features and locations for positioning the sensors of the system along compartments of interest selected by a user. This program at initial set up can help insure proper placement of the sensor by the clinician by using diagrams for accurate placement for each of the labeled sensors or sensor arrays. According to another exemplary embodiment of the invention, the compartment monitoring system can detect changes in a size of a hematoma when at least one linear compartment arrays is used to measure oxygenations levels at different positions of a compartment. Alternatively, the compartment monitoring system can provide information on varies levels of blood flow along the longitudinal axis of a compartment when at least one linear compartment array is used to measure oxygenations levels at different positions of a compartment. Alternatively, according to another exemplary embodiment of the invention, a compartment sensor can be provided with a skin pigment sensor that has a known reflectance and that can be used to calibrate the compartment sensor based on relative reflectance of skin pigment which can affect data generated from oxygenation scans. For example, a skin narrow-band simple reflectance device, a tristimulus colorimetric device, or scanning reflectance spectrophotometer can be incorporated into the oxygenation sensor system to obtain a standardized value for skin pigmentation which evaluate melanin and hemoglobin in the skin. Once the skin melanin is determined it can be correlated to its calculated absorption or reflectance (effect) on the NIRS value using a predetermined calibration system. This effect, optical density value, can be incorporated in tissue hemoglobin concentration calculations in the deep tissue. Accounting for skin pigmentation will usually allow for information or values to be compared across different subjects with different skin pigmentation as well as using the number as an absolute value instead of monitoring simply changes in value over time. According to an exemplary embodiment of the invention, a compartment sensor can be provided with layers of a known thickness and a know absorption in order to reduce the depth of an oxygenation scan by the sensor so that a thin layer of tissue, such as skin can be measured by the sensor. In other words, due to limitations of how close the light source and receptor can be positioned, in order to evaluate very superficial layers such as skin, the sensor can be separated from the skin of the subject by fixed amount with a known material. For example, by using a material with a known optical density, the length of a scan can be shortened by projecting the light pathway mostly through the known material. The light pathway would escape the know material only at the maximum depth to evaluate a limited depth of tissue such as skin. This technique would allow for direct measurement of the skin pigmentation effects on the system. This skin sensor can be either incorporated into the compartment monitoring system directly or used to construct the predetermined calibration for skin reflectance values that can be used by the compartment monitoring system. According to another exemplary embodiment of the invention, the compartment monitoring system can receive data from a blood pressure monitoring system in order to correlate oxygenation levels with blood pressure. The compartment monitoring system that includes a blood pressure monitoring system can activate an alarm, such as an audible or visual alarm (or both), when the diastolic pressure of a patient drops since it has been discovered that perfusion can be significantly lowered or stopped at low diastolic pressures and when compartment pressures are greater than the diastolic pressure. According to another exemplary embodiment, the compartment monitoring system can increase a frequency of data collection for oxygenation levels and/or blood pressure readings when low blood pressure is detected by the system. According to an alternative exemplary embodiment, the compartment monitoring system can display blood pressure and oxygenation levels simultaneously and in a graphical manner over time, such as an X-Y plot in a Cartesian plane or as two separate graphs over time. Correlation between hemoglobin concentration and diastolic pressure can be used to estimate intra-compartmental pressures without having to use invasive needle measurements. According to another further exemplary embodiment, the inventive system can incorporate oxygenation levels from both lower extremities and compare values between the legs or other body parts. Initial data from patients with extremity injuries by the inventor have shown that muscular skeletal injuries cause hyperemia (increased blood flow and oxygen) in the injured extremity. If a compartment syndrome develops, the oxygenation drops from an elevated state to an equal and then lower level with comparison to the uninjured limb. Therefore when comparing injured and uninjured extremities, the injured limb may show increased oxygenation levels. If levels begin to drop in the injured limb compared to the uninjured limb, an alarm or alert can be triggered to alert the clinician. A display for the blood pressure being measured can also be provided by the system. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 illustrates an X-ray view of a human leg with fractured bones of the tibia and fibula that lead to one or more compartment syndromes in muscles surrounding the bones of the human leg. FIG. 2 is a side view of a human leg in which compartment pressures are being measured with a large bore needle according to a conventional method known in the prior art. FIG. 3 is a side view of a human leg in which a surgical procedure, known as a fasciotomy, was performed in order to release the pressures in one or more compartments surrounding the bones of the leg according to a technique known in the art. FIG. 4 illustrates oxygen levels of compartments of a human leg being measured by compartment sensors that include compartment alignment mechanisms and central scan depth markers according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 5A illustrates a bottom view of two pairs of compartment sensors with each sensor having a compartment alignment mechanism and a central scan marker in addition to a separating device according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 5B illustrates a bottom view of the four compartment sensors of FIG. 5A (?) but with the individual sensors divided from one another through using the separating device, such as the perforations, according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 6A illustrates a bottom view of a three sensor embodiment in which one sensor of the three compartment sensors can scan at two or more depths according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 6B, this figure illustrates the compartment sensor of FIG. 6A that can scan at two or more depths in order to measure deeper compartments of an animal body according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 7 illustrates a near light detector and a far light detector that are positioned within substrate material at predetermined distances from the optical transmitter of a compartment sensor according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 8A illustrates a linear array of compartment sensors assembled as a single mechanical unit that can provide scans at various depths according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 8B illustrates a linear compartment sensor array that can include optical transmitters that are shared among pairs of optical receivers according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 8C is a functional block diagram of compartment sensor that illustrates multiple optical receivers that may positioned on opposite sides of a single optical transmitter and that may be simultaneously activated to produce their scans at the same time according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 9A illustrates a cross-sectional view of a left-sided human leg that has the four major compartments which can be measured by the compartment sensors according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 9B illustrates a cross-sectional view of a right-sided human leg and possible interference between light rays of simultaneous oxygenation scans made by the compartment sensors into respective compartments of interest according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 9C illustrates a position of a compartment sensor in relation to the knee for the deep posterior compartment of a right sided human leg according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 10 illustrates an exemplary display of numeric oxygenation values as well as graphical plots for at least two compartments of an animal according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 11 illustrates single compartment sensors with alignment mechanisms and central scan depth markers that can be used to properly orient each sensor with a longitudinal axis of a compartment of an animal body according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 12 illustrates compartment sensor arrays with alignment mechanisms that can be used to properly orient each array with a longitudinal axis of a compartment of an animal body according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 13A illustrates various locations for single compartment sensors that can be positioned on a front side of animal body, such as a human, to measure oxygenation levels of various compartments according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 13B illustrates various locations for single compartment sensors that can be positioned on a rear side of animal body, such as a human, to measure oxygenation levels of various compartments according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 14A illustrates various locations for compartment sensor arrays that can be positioned over compartments on a front side of an animal body, such as a human, to measure oxygenation levels of the various compartments according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 14B illustrates various locations for compartment sensor arrays that can be positioned over compartments on a rear side of an animal body, such as a human, to measure oxygenations levels of the various compartments according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 14C illustrates an exemplary display and controls for the display device that lists data for eight single compartment sensors according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 14D illustrates an exemplary display of providing users with guidance for properly orienting a single compartment sensor over a compartment of an animal, such as a human leg, according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 15A illustrates a front view of lower limbs, such as two lower legs of a human body, that are being monitored by four compartment sensor arrays according to an exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 15B illustrates a display of the display device that can be used to monitor hematomas and/or blood flow according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 16 illustrates a display of the display device for an instant of time after the display of FIG. 15B and which can be used to monitor hematomas and/or blood flow according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 17 illustrates a sensor design for measuring the optical density of skin according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 18A illustrates a sensor that can penetrate two layers of skin to obtain optical density values according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 18B illustrates a sensor that can penetrate one layer of skin according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 18C illustrates a modified compartment monitoring system that can correlate skin pigmentation values with skin optical density values in order to provide offset values for oxygenation levels across different subjects who have different skin pigmentation according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 19 is a functional block diagram of the major components of a compartment monitoring system that can monitor a relationship between blood pressure and oxygenation values according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 20 is an exemplary display that can be provided on the display device and which provides current blood pressure values and oxygenation levels of a compartment of interest according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 21 is a functional block diagram that illustrates sterilized material options for a compartment sensor according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 22 illustrates an exemplary clinical environment of a compartment sensor where the sensor can be positioned within or between a dressing and the skin of a patient according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 23 is a graph of perfusion pressure plotted against oxygenation levels of a study conducted to determine the sensitivity and responsiveness of the inventive compartment monitoring system according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 24 is a graph of perfusion pressure plotted against a change in the oxygenation levels from a baseline for each subject of the study conducted to determine the sensitivity and responsiveness of the inventive compartment monitoring system according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS A method and system for monitoring oxygenation levels in compartments of an animal limb, such as in a human leg or a human thigh or a forearm, can be used to assist in the diagnosis of a compartment syndrome. The method and system can include one or more near infrared compartment sensors in which each sensor can be provided with a compartment alignment mechanism and a central scan depth marker so that each sensor may be precisely positioned over a compartment of a human leg or human thigh or forearm. The method and system can include a device for displaying oxygenation levels corresponding to respective compartment sensors that are measuring oxygenation levels of a compartment of interest. Referring now to the drawings, in which like reference numerals designate like elements, FIG. 4 illustrates oxygen levels 402A, 402B of compartments of a human leg 100 being measured by a near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) sensors 405A, 405B that include a compartment alignment mechanisms 410A, 410B and central scan depth markers 415A, 415B according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. The alignment mechanism 410 of a compartment sensor 405 can include a linear marking on a surface of the compartment sensor 405 that is opposite to the side which produces a light scan used to detect oxygenation levels. The linear marking can be used by a medical practitioner to align a compartment sensor 405 with the longitudinal axis 450 of a compartment of interest. The invention is not limited to a solid line on the sensor 405. Other alignment mechanisms 410 within the scope of the invention include, but are not limited to, tick marks, dashed lines, notches cut in the substrate of the compartment sensor 405 to provide a geometric reference for the medical practitioner, and other like visual orienting alignment mechanisms 405. The central scan depth marker 415 can include a linear marking positioned on a surface of a compartment sensor 405 that intersects the alignment mechanism 410 at a location along the alignment mechanism 410 that denotes the deepest region of a light scan produced by the compartment sensor 405. The depth of measurement can be displayed in numeric form over the central scan depth marker 415 as a guide to aid medical practitioner since scan depth can vary based on the compartment sensor's light source and receptor separation. The central scan depth marker 415 can insure that a medical practitioner properly aligns the compartment sensor 405 at a location that will measure a compartment of interest. Similar to the alignment mechanism 410 noted above, the invention is not limited to a solid line on the compartment sensor 405. Other central scan depth markers 415 within the scope of the invention include, but are not limited to, tick marks, dashed lines, notches cut in the substrate of the compartment sensor to provide a geometric reference for the medical practitioner, and other like visual orienting central depth markers 415. Once the proper position for a compartment sensor 405 is determined by the medical practitioner with the compartment alignment mechanism 410 and the central scan depth marker 415, the medical practitioner can apply the compartment sensor 405 on the patient by using an adhesive that is already part of the compartment sensor 405. FIG. 4 illustrates three compartment sensors 405A, 405B, and 405C of a system 400 for monitoring three different compartments of the lower human leg 100. A fourth compartment sensor 405D not illustrated can be positioned on a side of the leg not illustrated and which monitors the fourth compartment of the lower human leg 100. The compartment sensors 405 illustrated in FIG. 4 and discussed throughout this document can be of the type described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,615,065 issued in the name of Barrett et al. (the “'065 patent”), the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. The compartment sensors 405 can include those made and distributed by Somanetics, Troy, Mi. However, other conventional near infrared compartment sensors 405 can be used without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. The compartment sensors 405 can generally provide spectrophotometric in vivo monitoring of blood metabolites such as hemoglobin oxygen concentration in any type of compartment and on a continuing and substantially instantaneous basis. The compartment sensors 405 are coupled to a processor and display unit 420 which displays the two oxygen levels 402A, 402B comprising the values of seventy-three. The processor and display unit 420 can display all four oxygen levels of four compartments of the human leg 100 when at least four compartment sensors 405 are deployed. The invention is not limited to four compartment sensor embodiments. The invention can include any number of compartment sensors for the accurate detection of conditions that may be associated with compartment syndrome. For example, another exemplary embodiment illustrated in FIG. 14C allows for eight sensor readings so that concomitant monitoring of the contralateral uninjured leg can be performed. The processor of the display unit 420 can be a conventional central processing unit (CPU) known to one of ordinary skill in the art. It may have other components too similar to those found in a general purpose computer, such as, but not limited to, memory like RAM, ROM, EEPROM, Programming Logic Units (PLUs), firmware, and the like. Alternatively, the processor and display unit 420 can be a general purpose computer without departing from the invention. The processor and display unit 420 can operate in a networked computer environment using logical connections to one or more other remote computers. The computers described herein may be personal computers, such as hand-held computers, a server, a client such as web browser, a router, a network PC, a peer device, or a common network node. The logical connections depicted in the Figures can include additional local area networks (LANs) and a wide area networks (WANs) not shown. The processor and display unit 420 illustrated in FIG. 4 and the remaining Figures may be coupled to a LAN through a network interface or adaptor. When used in a WAN network environment, the computers may typically include a modem or other means for establishing direct communication lines over the WAN. In a networked environment, program modules may be stored in remote memory storage devices. It will be appreciated that the network connections shown are exemplary and other means of establishing a communications link between computers other than depicted may be used. Moreover, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the present invention may be implemented in other computer system configurations, including other hand-held devices besides hand-held computers, multiprocessor systems, microprocessor based or programmable consumer electronics, networked personal computers, minicomputers, mainframe computers, and the like. The invention may be practiced in a distributed computing environment where tasks may be performed by remote processing devices that are linked through a communications network. In a distributed computing environment, program modules may be located in both local and remote storage devices. The processor and display unit 420 can comprise any general purpose computer capable of running software applications and that is portable for mobile applications or emergency applications. The communications between the processor and display unit 420 and the sensors 405 can be wire or wireless, depending upon the application. Typical wireless links include a radio frequency type in which the processor and display unit 420 can communicate with other devices using radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic waves. Other wireless links that are not beyond the scope of the invention can include, but are not limited to, magnetic, optical, acoustic, and other similar wireless types of links. In the exemplary embodiment illustrated in FIG. 4, the compartment sensors 405 are coupled to the processor and display unit 420 with cables 430A, 430B which can include electrical conductors for providing operating power to the light sources of the compartment sensors 405 and for carrying output signals from the detectors of the sensors 405 to the display unit 420. The cables 430 may be coupled to a quad-channel coupler, a preamplifier 425A, 425B, and an integrated, multiple conductor cable 435. Alternatively, all wires could be packaged or merged into a single unit or cord or plug (not illustrated) for insertion into the monitor for ease of management for the clinician and to prevent misplacement of wire plugs into wrong sockets. In addition to tracking compartment oxygen levels, the processor and display unit 420 may receive data from a blood pressure monitor 445. The blood pressure monitor 445 may be coupled to a probe 440 that takes pressure readings from the patient at one or more locations, such as, but not limited to, an arm with a cuff, a needle in the volar wrist, the brachium (arm) via a sphygmomanometer, or arterial line. The probe 440 can be any one of a number of devices that can take blood pressure readings, such as, but not limited to, automated inflating pressure cuffs (sphygmomanometer), arterial lines, and the like. Similarly, other types of blood pressure monitors 445 are not beyond the scope of the invention. Further details of the relationship between blood pressure and oxygen levels in the human body will be discussed and described more fully below in connection with FIGS. 19-20. The display and processing unit 420 can display values at any one time for all compartment sensors 405 being used. While the display and processing unit 420 only displays two oxygen levels for the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 4, the display and processing unit 420 could easily display all four values from the four compartment sensors 405 that are being used to monitor the four compartments of the lower leg 100. Referring now to FIG. 5A, this figure illustrates a bottom view of two pairs of compartment sensors 405 with each sensor 405 having a compartment alignment mechanism 410 and a central scan marker 415 in addition to a separating device 505 according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. The substrate 530 of each compartment sensor 405 can comprise a foam or plastic material that may have a soft and comfortable outer layer. The separating device 505 is illustrated with a dashed line in FIG. 5A. According to one exemplary embodiment the separating device 505 can comprise a perforation in the substrate 530. A perforation is a series of cuts or removed portions positioned along a line which can be perforated or separated. This means, for the exemplary embodiment illustrated in FIG. 5A, the first compartment sensor 405A can be physically separated from the second compartment sensor 405B. The separating device 505 is not limited to perforations and it can include other types of devices. For example, the separating device 505 can comprise a zipper, a plastic seal line, hook and loop fasteners and other like devices that would permit the rapid and accurate expansion of compartment sensors 405 when used in a trauma setting. As noted above, the compartment sensors 405 can include alignment mechanisms 410 and a central scan depth marker 415 in order to accurately position the compartment sensors 405 over compartments of interest. The alignment mechanisms 410 and central depth markers 415 are illustrated with dashed or dotted lines because they are “hidden” relative to the bottom view of the compartment sensors 405 which are illustrated in FIG. 5A. Each compartment sensor 405 may comprise an optical transmitter 510 and an optical receiver 515. The optical transmitter 510 may comprise an electrically actuated light source for emitting a selected examination spectra. Specifically, the optical transmitter 510 may comprise two or more narrow-bandwidth LEDs whose center output wavelengths correspond to the selected examination spectra. Each optical receiver 515 may comprise two or more light detectors, such as photodiodes. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 5A, the optical receiver 515 has a total of four photodiodes in which pairs of photodiodes work together to provide a “near” detector and a “far” detector. Each photo diode must have two receptors to receive light at two separate wavelengths to allow for calculations of oxy-hemoglobin and deoxy-hemoglobin concentrations. Using two pairs of receptors allows for a deep and shallow set to enable isolation of only the deep tissue oxygenation (see FIG. 7). Referring briefly now to FIG. 7, the “near” light detector 702B and the “far” light detector 702A are positioned within the substrate material 530 at predetermined distances from the optical transmitter 510. The “near” detector 702B formed by the two photodiodes that are closest to the optical transmitter 510 have a light mean path length 710B which is primarily confined to “shallow” layers 705 of a compartment of interest. Meanwhile, the “far” detector 702A formed by the pair of photodiodes that are farthest from the optical transmitter 510 have a light mean path 710A that is longer than that of the “near” detector and is primarily confined to “deep” layers of a compartment of interest in a leg 100. By appropriately differentiating the information from the “near” or “shallow” detector 702B (which may produce a first data set) from the “far” or “deep” detector 702A (which may produce a second data set), a resultant value for the tissue optical density may be obtained that characterizes the conditions within a compartment of interest without the effects that are attributable to the overlying tissue 705 which is adjacent to the compartment of interest. This enables the compartment monitoring system 400 (illustrated in FIG. 4) to obtain metabolic information on a selective basis for particular regions within the patient and by spectral analysis of the metabolic information and by using appropriate extinction coefficients, a numerical value or relative quantified value such as 402 of FIG. 4 may be obtained which can characterize metabolites or other metabolite data, such as the hemoglobin oxygen saturation, within the particular region of interest. This region of interest is defined by the curved light mean path 710A extending from the optical transmitter 510 to the “far” or “deep” detector 702A and between this path 710A and the outer periphery of the patient but excluding the region or zone defined by the curved light mean path 710B extending from the optical transmitter 510 to the “near” or “shallow” detector 26. Further details of the compartment sensors 405 are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,615,065, issued in the name of Barrett et al., which is hereby incorporated by reference. Referring back now to FIG. 5A, each compartment sensor 405 has its own cable 430 that provides power to the optical transmitter 405A and that receives data from the optical receiver 515. Each compartment sensor 405 may also include a label 555 which may comprise a name and an anatomical location to position the compartment sensor 405 on a patient. This label may be placed on the bottom of the sensor 405 that contacts the patient as well as on the side that is opposite to the side which contacts the patient. For example, the first sensor 405A can have a first label 555A that comprises the phrase, “Lateral” to describe the name of the compartment that this compartment sensor 405A that is designed to assess. The numerical depth can also be displayed on the label, but is not limited to a single depth. The first pair of compartment sensors 405A, 405B may be coupled to the second pair of compartment sensors 405C, 405D with an expansion device 535. The expansion device 535 may comprise an elastic material that stretches. The expansion device 535 allows the pair of compartment sensors 405 to be positioned on appropriate parts of a patient to monitor any compartments of interest. The four compartment sensor exemplary embodiment illustrated in FIG. 5A is designed for the four compartments of a human lower leg 100. The expansion device 435 is not limited to elastic material. The expansion device can include other mechanisms which allow for an adjustable separation between the pairs of compartment sensors 405 so that the compartment sensors 405 may be precisely and appropriately positioned over specific compartments of interest. The expansion device 435 may include, but is not limited to, springs, tape, hook and loop fasteners, gauze, and other like materials. Referring now to FIG. 5B, this figure illustrates a bottom view of the four compartment sensors 405 of FIG. 5A but with the individual sensors 405 divided from one another through using the separating device 505, such as the perforations, according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. Specifically, the first compartment sensor 405A of the first pair of sensors 405A, 405B is physically located away from the second compartment sensor 405B. Similarly, the third compartment sensor 405C of the second pair of sensors 405B, 405C is physically located away from the fourth compartment sensor 405C. The separating device 505, the expansion device 535 in combination with the alignment mechanism 410 and central scan depth marker 415 can allow the compartment sensors 405 to be accurately and precisely positioned over compartments of interest, such as the four compartments of a human leg 100. In order to accurately monitor the appropriate compartment, a right and left configuration can be provided since compartment alignment would be reversed based on which leg is examined by the medical practitioner. Each configuration would be labeled as right or left. The configuration illustrated in FIGS. 5A and 5B are designed for human left leg 100 where the expansion device would be positioned over the tibia. Referring now to FIG. 6A, this figure illustrates a bottom view of a three sensor embodiment in which one sensor 605 of the three compartment sensors 405A, 405B, 605 can scan at two or more depths according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. Specifically, a compartment sensor 605 may include an optical transmitter 510C that works with at least two different optical receivers 515C1 and 515C2. As noted above, each optical receiver 515 may comprise two or more light detectors, such as photodiodes. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 6A, each optical receiver 515C1 and 515C2 has a total of four photodiodes in which pairs of photodiodes work together to provide “near” detector and “far” detectors for a respective receiver 515C1, 515C2. This combination allows the compartment sensor 605 to scan at least two different depths. And because of the capability to scan at two different depths, the compartment sensor 605 is provided with two different central scan depth markers 415C1, 415C2. Referring now to FIG. 6B, this figure illustrates the compartment sensor 605 of FIG. 6A that can scan at two or more depths in order to measure deeper compartments of an animal body according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. The twp optical receivers 515 of FIG. 6B work in principal in an identical manner relative to the optical receiver described in connection with FIG. 7 discussed above. This means that the combination of the optical transmitter 510C and optical receiver 515C1 can provide an oxygenation level for a first scan depth 620B of a patient. Meanwhile, the combination of the optical transmitter 510C and the optical receiver 515C2 can provide an oxygenation level for a second scan depth 620A of a patient. Therefore, this stacked compartment sensor 605 can be used to measure the oxygenation level of a first compartment that maybe positioned underneath a second compartment, such as for the deep posterior compartment of a lower leg 100 of a human body which is positioned beneath the superficial posterior compartment of the leg 100. This stacked compartment sensor 605 can allow the display and processing unit 420 to subtract the oxygenation level found at the first scan depth 620B of the first compartment, such as the superficial posterior compartment, from the oxygenation level at the second scan depth 620A of the second compartment, such as the deep posterior compartment. The invention is not limited to the two stacked optical receiver embodiment 605 illustrated FIGS. 6A and 6B, and can include any number of optical receivers 515 positioned in the substrate material 530 so that various scan depths can be made to determine oxygenation levels within multiple compartments that may be stacked on or positioned adjacent to one another in a sequential or layered, shallow to deep arrangement. Referring now to FIG. 8A, this Figure illustrates a linear array 805 of compartment sensors 405 assembled as a single mechanical unit that can provide scans at various depths 620A, 620B, 620C, and 620D. The compartment sensors 405 can be simultaneously activated to produce their scans of various depths 620 at the same time when optical filters are used as will be described more fully below in connection with FIG. 8C. Alternatively, the sensors 405 of the linear array 805 can produce their scans of various depths 620 by controlling a phase or timing of the activation of the sensors 405 so that no two sensors 405 are activated at the same time in order to reduce any potential of optical interference between the sensors 405. This phasing of the sensors can be controlled by the display and control unit 420 of FIG. 4. The first compartment sensor 405A can provide a first scan depth 620A that is shorter or more shallow than a second scan depth 620B produced by the second compartment sensor 405B. The scan depths 620 can increase in this manner along its longitudinal axis which corresponds with its alignment mechanism 410 so that the linear array 805 matches the one or more depths of a single compartment of interest. As noted above in connection with FIG. 6B, the scan depth 620 of a compartment sensor 405 is function of the separation distance between the optical transmitter 510 and optical receiver 515. For example, a scan depth 620 of a compartment sensor 405 can be decreased as the optical receiver 515 is moved closer along the body of the sensor 405 towards the optical transmitter 510C. One of ordinary skill in the art recognizes that many of the compartments of the human body have various different geometries and resulting depths relative to the outside skin of a patient. For example, the compartments of the lower human leg 100 tend to have a greater depth or volume adjacent to the knee and generally taper or decrease in depth towards the ankle or foot. Therefore, linear arrays 805 of compartment sensors 405 can be designed to have depths that match a particular geometry of a compartment of interest. To achieve these different scan depths 620, each compartment sensor 405 can have an optical transmitter 510 and an optical receiver 515 that is spaced or separated from each other by an appropriate distance to achieve the desired scan depth 620. If a compartment of interest has a substantially “flat” or “linear” depth relative to the skin surface of a patient, the linear array 805 can be designed such that each compartment sensor 405 produces scans with uniform depths (not illustrated) to match a compartment with such a linear or flat geometry. Like the single sensor embodiments described above in FIGS. 4-6A which are designed to measure individual compartments, the compartment sensor array 805 may comprise an alignment mechanism 410 that can be positioned so that it corresponds with the longitudinal axis 450 of a particular compartment. The compartment sensor array 805 of FIG. 8A is not provided with any central depth markers 415 like those of the single sensor embodiments since the depth markers 415 may not be needed by the medical practitioner since he or she will be assessing the entire length of a particular compartment with the entire compartment sensor array 805 which is unlike that of the single sensor embodiments. Alternatively, multiple crosshatches and numerical depths (not illustrated) can be positioned over each light source/receptor set to locate where each measurement is obtained for identifying sites of a hematoma, which will be described in more detail in connection with FIGS. 15-16 below. Additionally, these positions could be used to locate appropriate amputation level for diabetics or peripheral vascular disease, which is also described in more detail in connection with FIGS. 15-16 below. Referring now to FIG. 8B, this figure illustrates a linear compartment sensor array 805 that can include optical transmitters 510 that are shared among pairs of light receptors 515. For example, a single optical transmitter 510A1 can produce light rays 820A, 820B that can be used by two optical receivers 515A1, 515A2 that are disposed at angles of one-hundred eighty degrees relative to each other and the optical transmitter 510A1 along the longitudinal axis and alignment mechanism 410A of the compartment sensor array 805A. As described previously, the light source and receptor separation can be varied to best match the topography of the compartment in the leg or other body part. Larger separation would allow for deeper sampling in the proximal leg versus more shallow depth closer to the ankle. As discussed above in connection with the single sensor array 805 of FIG. 8A, the sensors 405 of each compartment sensor array 805 illustrated in FIG. 8B can be simultaneously activated to produce their scans at the same time when optical filters (not illustrated in FIG. 8B) are used as will be described more fully below in connection with FIG. 8C. Alternatively, the sensors 405 of each linear compartment sensor array 805 can produce their scans by controlling a phase or timing of the activation of the sensors 405 so that no two sensors 405 are activated at the same time in order to reduce any potential for optical interference between the sensors 405. This phasing of the sensors can be controlled by the display and control unit 420 of FIG. 4. Like the single sensor embodiment illustrated in FIG. 5A, the compartment sensor array 805 of FIG. 8B can comprise an alignment mechanism 410 for aligning the structure with the longitudinal axis 450 of a compartment as well as a separation device 505A that can be used to divide the physical structure of the paired array 805A, 805B into two separate linear compartment sensor arrays 805A, 805B. The compartment sensor arrays 805 of FIG. 8B may also include labels 555 and an expansion device 535, like those of FIG. 5A. The labels can be positioned on the front and back sides of each compartment sensor array 805. While the optical transmitters 510 and receivers 515 of FIG. 8B are illustrated in functional block form, it is noted that these elements as well as other numbered elements, which correspond to the numbered elements of FIGS. 4-7, work similar to the embodiments described and illustrated in FIGS. 4-7. Referring now to FIG. 8C, this figure is a functional block diagram of compartment sensor 405 that illustrates multiple optical receivers 515 that may positioned on opposite sides of a single optical transmitter 510 and that may be simultaneously activated to produce their scans at the same time. This exemplary embodiment can produce scans at the same time by using light with different wavelengths. Using light with different wavelengths can help reduce and substantially eliminate any optical interference that can occur between multiple light rays that may be received by the multiple optical receivers 515. While the optical receivers 515 of FIG. 8C are illustrated in functional block form, it is noted that these receivers 515 as well as other numbered elements, which correspond to the elements of FIGS. 4-7, work similar to the embodiments described and illustrated in FIGS. 4-7. The two optical receivers 515A1, 515A2 of FIG. 8C may be simultaneously activated when two optical filters 810A, 810B having different wavelengths are used. The first optical filter 810A may have a first wavelength of lambda-one (λ1) which is different than a second wavelength of lambda-two (λ2) that is the wavelength of the second optical filter 810B1. The optical transmitter 510 can be designed to produce light having wavelengths of the first and second wavelengths which correspond with the first and second optical filters 810A, 810B. Light 820A with a first wavelength can be produced by the optical transmitter 510 propagating its light through a first optical filter 810A1 that is designed to only let the first wavelength pass through it. Similarly, Light 820B with a second wavelength can be produced by the optical transmitter 510 propagating its light through a second optical filter 810B1 that is designed to only let the second wavelength pass through it. A third optical filter 810A2 corresponding with the first optical filter 810A1 can be designed to only pass the first wavelength such that the optical receiver 515A1 only detects light of the first wavelength. Similarly, a fourth optical filter 810B2 corresponding with the second optical filter 810B1 can be designed to only pass the second wavelength such that the optical receiver 515A2 only detects light of the second wavelength. In this way, simultaneous different compartment scans can be produced at the same time with light having the first wavelength of lambda-one (λ1) and light having the second wavelength of lambda-two (λ2), in which the two optical receivers 515A1 and 515A2 share the same optical transmitter 510. This principal of optical receivers 515 sharing the same optical transmitter 510 is also illustrated in FIG. 8B which provides the compartment sensor arrays 805 discussed above. Specifically, any optical transmitter 510/optical receiver 515 group that is positioned along a single alignment mechanism 410 and longitudinal axis 450 can be designed to have a unique wavelength relative to its neighbors along the same line. So this means that each optical transmitter 510/optical receiver 515 group of a particular compartment sensor array 805, such as first array 805A, can be designed to have unique wavelengths relative to each other for illuminating the same compartment. Meanwhile, a neighboring compartment sensor array 805, such as second array 805B, may have the same wavelength arrangement as the first array 805A. One of ordinary skill in the art recognizes that each light optical transmitter and optical receiver design uses two separate wave lengths to solve for oxy-hemoglobin and deoxy-hemoglobin concentrations, as illustrated in FIG. 7. Therefore, the two optical wavelength design described for FIG. 8C above may translate into four or more wavelengths for each optical transmitter 510 and pair of optical receivers 515. The two wavelength design for FIG. 8C was described above for simplicity and to illustrate how groups of optical transmitters and optical receivers can operate at different wavelengths relative to the groupings. The invention is not limited to only two optical receivers 515 that share the same optical transmitter 510. The invention could include embodiments where a single optical transmitter 510 is shared by a plurality of optical receivers 515 greater than two relative to the exemplary embodiment illustrated in FIG. 8C. Referring now to FIG. 9A, this figure illustrates a cross-sectional view of a left-sided human leg 100 that has the four major compartments 905 which can be measured by the compartment sensors 405 according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. A first compartment 905B (also noted with a Roman Numeral One) of the lower human leg 100 comprises the anterior compartment that is adjacent to the Tibia 910 and Fibula 915. A first compartment sensor 405B is positioned adjacent to the anterior compartment 905B and provides a first oxygenation scan having a depth of 620B. A second compartment 905A (also noted with a Roman Numeral Two) of the lower human leg 100 comprises the lateral compartment that is adjacent to the Fibula 910. A second compartment sensor 405A is positioned adjacent to the lateral compartment 905A and provides a second oxygenation scan having a depth of 620A. A third compartment 905D (also noted with a Roman Numeral Three) of the lower human leg 100 comprises the superficial posterior compartment that is behind the Tibia 910 and Fibula 915. A third compartment sensor 405D is positioned adjacent to the posterior compartment 905D and provides a third oxygenation scan having a depth of 620D. A fourth compartment 905C (also noted with a Roman Numeral Four) of the lower human leg 100 comprises the deep posterior compartment that is within a central region of the human leg 100. A fourth compartment sensor 405C is positioned adjacent to the deep posterior compartment 905C and provides a fourth oxygenation scan having a depth of 620C. Referring now to FIG. 9B, this figure illustrates a cross-sectional view of a right-sided human leg 100 and possible interference between light rays 820 of simultaneous oxygenation scans made by the compartment sensors 405 into respective compartments of interest according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. This figure illustrates how light rays 820 produced by respective compartment sensors 405 can interfere with one another. To resolve this potential problem, the activation and hence, production of light rays 820, by the compartment sensors 405 can be phased so that light rays 820 produced by one compartment sensor 405A are not received and processed by a neighboring compartment sensor 405B, 405C. When light is emitted from the compartment sensors 405 through tissue, the light does not travel in a straight line. It is reflected and spreads throughout the whole tissue. Therefore, light interference or noise would be a significant concern for multiple light sources placed in close proximity to each other. Alternatively, and as noted above, each compartment sensor 405 can produce optical wavelengths that are independent of one another in order to reduce any chances of optical interference. Referring now to FIG. 9C, this figure illustrates a position 930 of a compartment sensor 405C in relation to the knee 927 for the deep posterior compartment 905C of a right sided human leg 100 according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. As illustrated in FIGS. 9A and 9B discussed above, the deep posterior compartment sensor 405C can be positioned such that the sensor 405C can directly sense the oxygenation levels of this compartment 905C without penetrating or going through another compartment. With respect to FIG. 9C, the deep posterior compartment 905C can be accessed by placing the sensor along the posteromedial aspect of the medial tibia. In other words, palpation of the shin bone will allow the location of the tibia. The sensor 405 should be placed just behind the bone on the inside of the leg along the longitudinal axis 450C of the compartment 905C (not illustrated in this Figure). The compartment sensor 405C can be aligned with the longitudinal axis 450C of the deep posterior compartment 905C through using the alignment mechanism 410C. The compartment sensor 405C can positioned at any point along the longitudinal axis 450C. The location of this deep posterior compartment sensor 405C on the lower leg 100 may be one inventive aspect of the technology since it allows a direct scan of the deep posterior compartment 905C. Referring now to FIG. 10, this figure illustrates an exemplary display 1000 of numeric oxygenation values 402 as well as graphical plots 1005 for at least two compartments of an animal according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. The graphical plots 1005 can display the current instantaneous oxygenation level for each compartment as a point as well as historical data displayed as other points along a line that plots the history for a particular compartment sensor 405. In other words, the X-axis of the plots 1005 can denote time in any increments while the Y-axis of the plots can denote oxygenation levels monitored by a particular sensor 405. While only two plots are illustrated, multiple plots can be displayed for each respective sensor 405. In compartment sensor array 805 deployments, the graphical plot 1005 can represent an “average” of oxygenation levels measured by the multiple sensors of a particular linear compartment sensor array 805. The display device 420 can include controls 1015 that allow for the selection of one or more compartment sensors 405 or one or more compartment sensor arrays 805 for displaying on the display device 420. The display of historical oxygenation levels of a compartment 905 over time through the plots 1005 is a significant improvement over conventional methods of direct pressure readings of compartments 905 which usually would only allow periodic measurements of compartments 905 on the order of every fifteen or thirty minutes compared to minutes or seconds now measured with the compartment sensors 405 described in this document. Referring now to FIG. 11, this figure illustrates single compartment sensors 405 with alignment mechanisms 410 and central scan depth markers 415 that can be used to properly orient each sensor 405 with a longitudinal axis 450 of a compartment 905 of an animal body according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. While the longitudinal axis 450 of a compartment (shown with broken lines) cannot actually be seen on the external surface of a lower human leg 100 by a medical practitioner, a medical practitioner can envision this invisible axis 450 based on the anatomy of the leg, such as looking at the knee 927 and comparing its orientation with the ankle and foot of the leg 100. As described above, the compartment extends from the knee to ankle and the sensor can be placed over a portion or all of the compartment being measured. With these single compartment sensor 405 embodiments, each sensor 405 can be positioned along the length of the longitudinal axis 450 to obtain an oxygenation level for a particular compartment 905 of interest. Referring now to FIG. 12, this figure illustrates compartment sensor arrays 805 with alignment mechanisms 410 that can be used to properly orient each array 805 with a longitudinal axis 450 of a compartment 905 of an animal body according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. Since compartment sensor arrays 805 will typically occupy close to the entire length of any given longitudinal axis 450 of a compartment 905 of interest, the individual sensors 405 of the compartment sensor array 805 are usually not provided with central scan depth markers 415. In the sensor array embodiments, the arrays 805 are usually provided only with the alignment mechanism 410. However, the central scan depth markers 415 could be provided if desired for a particular application or medical practitioner (or both). Referring now to FIG. 13A, this Figure illustrates various locations for single compartment sensors 405 that can be positioned on a front side of animal body, such as a human, to measure oxygenation levels of various compartments 905 according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 13A illustrates that the invention is not limited to compartment sensors 405 that only measure lower legs 100 of the human body. The compartment sensors 405 can measure various different compartments 905 such as, but not limited to, compartments 905 of the arm, thighs, and abdomen. Referring now to FIG. 13B, this Figure illustrates various locations for single compartment sensors 405 that can be positioned on a rear side of animal body, such as a human, to measure oxygenation levels of various compartments 905 according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. Similar to FIG. 13A above, the compartment sensors 405 shown in this Figure can measure various different compartments 905 such as, but not limited to, compartments 905 of the arm, thighs, and abdomen. Also, while grouped compartment sensors 405 that are coupled together with expansion devices 535 are not illustrated here (such as those described in connection with FIG. 5A above), one of ordinary skill recognizes that such grouped compartment sensors can be substituted anywhere were the single compartment sensors 405 are shown. Referring now to FIG. 14A, this Figure illustrates various locations for compartment sensor arrays 805 that can be positioned over compartments 905 on a front side of an animal body, such as a human, to measure oxygenation levels of the various compartments 905 according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. Like the single compartment sensor embodiments of FIGS. 13A-13B described above, the compartment sensor arrays 805 can measure various different compartments 905 such as, but not limited to, compartments 905 of the arm, thighs, and abdomen. Referring now to FIG. 14B, this Figure illustrates various locations for compartment sensor arrays 805 that can be positioned over compartments 905 on a rear side of an animal body, such as a human, to measure oxygenations levels of the various compartments 905 according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. Also, while grouped compartment sensor arrays 805 that are coupled together with expansion devices 535 are not illustrated here (such as those described in connection with FIG. 8B above), one of ordinary skill recognizes that such grouped compartment sensor arrays 805 can be substituted anywhere were the individual compartment array sensors 805 are shown. Referring now to FIG. 14C, this Figure illustrates an exemplary display 1300 and controls for the display device 420 that lists data for eight single compartment sensors 405 according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. The eight single compartment sensors 405 may be monitoring compartments of two limbs of an animal, such as two lower legs of a human patient. One limb is usually uninjured while the other limb is typically injured, though the system is not limited to unilateral injuries. The display 1300 may provide up to eight different plots or graphs 1335A, 1330A, 1325A, 1320B, 1335B, 1330B, 1325B, 1320B of data that are taken from the eight different sensors 405 or sensor arrays 805. The first pair of right and left leg sensors may monitor the anterior compartment 905B of FIG. 9A which is displayed with the letter “A” for the first row 1335 of data. The second pair of right and left leg sensors may monitor the lateral compartment 905A of FIG. 9A which is displayed with the letter “L” for the second row 1335 of data. The third pair of right and left leg sensors may monitor the deep posterior compartment 905C which is displayed with the letters “DP” for the third row 1330 of data. The first pair of right and left leg sensors may monitor the superficial posterior compartment 905D which is displayed with the letters “SP” for the fourth row 1320 of data. The display 1300 may also provide a measure of a difference 1340 in oxygenation levels between the injured limb or region and the uninjured limb or region. This difference may be displayed by listing the two oxygenation levels of each respective limb separated by a slash “/” line. Underneath the two oxygenation levels for a respective pair of sensors for the injured and uninjured limbs, a value which is the difference between the oxygenation levels displayed above it may be listed. For example, for the first oxygenation difference value of 1340A, the oxygenation level for the right leg sensor is the value of forty-four while the value for the left leg sensor is the value of sixty-five. In this exemplary embodiment, the right leg is injured while the left leg is uninjured. The difference value displayed under the two oxygenation levels for the first data set 1340A is twenty-one. Initial data from patients with extremity injuries measured by the inventor have shown that muscular skeletal injuries cause hyperemia (increased blood flow and oxygen) in the injured extremity. If a compartment syndrome develops, the oxygenation drops from an elevated state to an equal and then lower level with comparison to the uninjured limb. Therefore when comparing injured and uninjured extremities, the injured limb should show increased oxygenation levels. If levels begin to drop in the injured limb compared to the uninjured limb, an alarm or alert can be triggered to warn the medical practitioner. This alarm can be visual or audible (or both). With the display 1300, a medical practitioner can modify how data is displayed by pressing the “mode” button 1305 on the display 1300 (which may comprise a “touch-screen” type of display). The mode button 1305 permits the medical practitioner to change the display of the screen. This function would allow for selection between multiple different settings to allow for data downloading, changing the time frame for which data is displayed, etc. With the time mark “button” 1310, the medical practitioner can mark or “flag” certain data points being measured for later review. With the select “button” 1315, the medical practitioner can select between the multiple options that can be accessed through the mode button. While the above description of FIG. 14C mentioned that eight single compartment sensors 405 produced the data of the display 1300 of FIG. 14C, the single compartment sensors 405 can be easily substituted by compartment sensor arrays 805. In such a scenario in which compartment sensor arrays 805 are used to produce the data of display 1300, the displayed values can be an “average” of the values taken from a given array 805. This “average” can be calculated by the processor of the display device 420. Referring now to FIG. 14D, this Figure illustrates an exemplary display 1302 of providing users with guidance for properly orienting a single compartment sensor 405 over a compartment of an animal, such as a human leg, according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. The display 1302 can be generated by display device 420 so that a medical practitioner is provided with instructions and graphical information on how to mount and operate the compartment sensors 405 of the system. The display may provide an illustration of the body part having the compartment of interest. In the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 14D, the compartment of interest is located within the lower human leg 100. An illustration of the lower human leg 100 is provided in display 1302. On the body part having the compartment of interest, the display device 420 can identify the longitudinal axis 450 by marking or flagging this axis 450 with a text box label 1309. The display 1302 can also identify an illustration of the compartment sensor 405A by marking or flagging this illustration with another text box label 1311. The display 1302 can also identify a general region for a compartment of interest by encapsulating the region with a geometric outline such as an ellipse and marking this ellipse with another text box label 1307. The display 1302 can also include a miniaturized view 1301 of a cross-section of the compartment of interest, similar to the views illustrated in FIGS. 9A and 9B for this exemplary embodiment that is assessing a lower leg compartment 905. The display 1302 may also allow the user to expand the cross-sectional view 1301 of the compartment of interest by allowing the user to double-click or touch the actual display of the cross-section. Multiple sections including an axial, coronal and/or sagittal view may be included in the on-screen instructions for placement. Upon such action by the user, the display device 420 may enlarge the cross-sectional view 1301 to a size comparable or equivalent to that illustrated in FIG. 9A. Once the medical practitioner has positioned the sensor 405 on the patient over the desired compartment of interest, the display 1302 can be refreshed to include the next compartment of interest. Referring now to FIG. 15A, this Figure illustrates a front view of lower limbs, such as two lower legs of a human body, that are being monitored by four compartment sensor arrays 805 according to an exemplary embodiment of the invention. The four sensor arrays 805 can be positioned along compartments of interest by orienting the alignment mechanism 410 along the longitudinal axis of a respective compartment. Multiple central scan depth markers 415 and numerical depths (not illustrated in FIG. 15A) can be positioned over each light source/receptor set of a sensor array 805 to locate where each measurement is obtained for identifying sites of a hematoma, which will be described in more detail in connection with FIGS. 15B-16 below. Referring now to FIG. 15B, this Figure illustrates a display 1505 of the display device 420 that can be used to monitor hematomas and/or blood flow according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. The display 1505 can include an average oxygenation level 1515 of thirty-six at an instant of time that is determined from the two compartment sensor arrays 805A1, 805B1 of a patient's right leg 100A which is injured in this exemplary case. Meanwhile, the display 1505 can also include an average oxygenation level 1510 of fifty-three at the same instant of time that is determined from the two compartment sensor arrays 805A2, 805B2 of a patient's left leg 100B which is uninjured in this exemplary case. The display 1505 can also provide oxygenation values that it is receiving from each of the individual sensors 405 in a first sensor array 805 not illustrated. For the injured right leg 100A illustrated in the display, the oxygenation levels vary between thirty-two and forty-four. However, in the exemplary embodiment illustrated in FIG. 15B, there are three individual sensors 405 (not illustrated in this Figure) of the sensor array 805A1 that are not producing any oxygenation values which have been provided with the letter “H” to denote a possible hematoma. For the uninjured leg 100B, the individual compartment sensors 405 (not illustrated) of the two sensor arrays 805A2, 805B2 have provided oxygenation levels that range between 50 and 54 which are believed to be in the normal range for normal blood flow. Also, While individual sensors 405 that are not illustrated here (such as those described in connection with FIG. 4A above), one of ordinary skill recognizes that such individual compartment sensors 405 can be substituted anywhere were the compartment array sensors 805 are shown. Referring now to FIG. 16, this Figure illustrates a display 1600 of the display device 420 for an instant of time after the display of FIG. 15B and which can be used to monitor hematomas and/or blood flow according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. The display 1600 illustrates that the hematoma or absence of healthy blood flow condition being tracked by sensor arrays 805A1, 805B1 (of FIG. 15A) is expanding. The display 1600 can include a warning message 1605 such as “WARNING—HEMATOMA EXPANDING!” to alert the medical practitioner of the changing conditions of the compartments 905 of interest in the injured or traumatized area. In FIG. 16, the average oxygenation level 1515 of the injured leg 100A decreased in value from thirty-six to twenty-four. Further, the number of individual sensors 405 (not illustrated but values shown) detecting a hematoma or lack of healthy blood flow condition increased from two sensors detecting the condition in FIG. 15B to seven sensors detecting the condition in FIG. 16 as indicated by the “H” values on display 1505. Meanwhile, the average oxygenation level 1515 of the uninjured left leg 100B changed slightly from fifty-three to fifty-two. With the display 1600 that provides the compartment sensors 405 with “H” values in combination with the central scan depth markers 415 provided on the sensor arrays 805, the medical practitioner can easily locate the physical sites on the leg 100 that contain the hematoma or lack of healthy blood flow. These positions can also be used by the medical practitioner to locate appropriate amputation level for diabetics or peripheral vascular disease, since peripheral vascular disease is typically worse distally (closer to the toes) and gradually improves closer to the knee. The compartment sensor 405 or more specifically the array system 805 can be used to aid a clinician or surgeon in determining the level of amputation for peripheral vascular disease and or diabetes mellitus. By obtaining multiple readings at different levels from the knee to the ankle, the surgeon can determine the appropriate level for amputation. The level of amputation is important since if the tissue is not well perfused, the surgical wound will not heal and require revision surgery and more of the patient's leg must be removed. Referring now to FIG. 17, this Figure illustrates a sensor design for measuring the optical density of skin according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. The depth of tissue measurement using NIRS is based on separation of the optical transmitter 510 and the optical receiver (see FIGS. 18A-B). In order to obtain readings of only the skin (very shallow depths), the separation between the optical transmitter 510 and optical receiver 515 would have to be very small and which may not be feasible. In this exemplary embodiment, the sensor 405 can comprise a material 1705 of known optical density that can be positioned between the substrate 530 and the skin 1710. In this way, the light mean paths 710A, 710B will only penetrate upper layers of the leg 100, such as the skin layers 1710. The thickness of the known material 1705 can be varied to adjust for different desired scan depths made by the light mean paths 710A, 710B. Since the optical density of the material 1705 is known, then any near infrared light absorption will be attributable to the layers of tissue of interest. And in this case, the optical density of the skin 1710 can be determined. According to a further exemplary embodiment, one of the photoreceptors 702A, 702B can be removed from the optical receiver 515 in order to decrease the depth of the scan. For example, if the second photoreceptor 702A was removed, the depth of the scan would only extend as deep as the light mean path 710B for the photoreceptor 702B. The inventor has recognized that skin pigmentation can affect the oxygenation values of a patient that uses near-infrared compartment sensors 405. This effect on oxygenation levels is also acknowledged in the art. See an article published by Wassenar et al. in 2005 on near-infrared system (NIRS) values. As with solar light, skin pigmentation caused by the biochemical melanin is a major factor in light absorption. In the inventor's research, skin pigmentation has been demonstrated to be a significant factor in measuring oxygenation levels among patients. The inventor has discovered that there was approximately a ten point difference when comparing low pigmentation subjects (Caucasians, Hispanics & Asians) with higher pigmented subjects (African American). The pigmented subjects had average scores of approximately ten points lower when compared to non-pigmented subjects. See Table 1 below that lists data on the difference between measured oxygenation levels of uninjured patients due to skin pigmentation. TABLE #1 Difference in measured oxygenation levels between White and Dark Pigmentation Skinned Subjects Avg White Dark Diff p value Anterior 60 51 9 <0.0001 Lateral 61 52 9 <0.0001 Deep 66 53 13 <0.0001 Post Sup 66 52 14 <0.0001 Post N = 10 (White) and 17 (Dark) (This study compared 10 white subjects to 17 darker pigmented subjects) Statistics used a non paired, two tail student t-test for p-values P values show very statistically significant differences between white (Caucasian, Asian & Hispanic) vs. Dark (African American) subjects The p-value can be described as the chance that these findings were due to chance alone. In all four compartments, the chance of finding the difference (9-14) in average value between the two groups (dark and white) was less than 0.01% or less than 1 out of 10,000. In other words the likelihood of these findings occurring by chance alone is very unlikely. By convention, statistically significant findings are considered to be less than 5% or a p-value of <0.05 in comparison. See APPENDIX A for the raw data that supports this data. Conventional studies (Wassenar et al., 2005 and Kim et al., 2000) have showed that when subjects increase their activity, dark pigmented people tend to have higher rates of loss of signal. There have been no attempts as of this writing to account for skin pigmentation, or optical density, in oxygenation levels detected with sensors like the compartment sensor 405 discussed above. Therefore, the design illustrated in FIGS. 17-18 have been developed by the inventor to account for pigmentation optical density. With the embodiments of FIGS. 17-18, skin pigmentation influences can be calibrated and accounted for when measuring oxygenation levels with sensors 405 that use near infrared light absorption principles. In this way, true or more accurate oxygenation levels of subcutaneous tissue such as muscle, cerebral matter or organ tissue may be obtained. This calibration or pigmentation accounting would also allow for comparison of values between different patients, since each individual will likely have different skin pigmentation values. Referring now to FIG. 18A, this Figure illustrates a sensor 405 that can penetrate two layers of skin 1805A, 1805B to obtain optical density values according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. The distance D1 between the optical transmitter 510 and optical receiver 515 can be predetermined based on the scan depth 620A that is desired. Referring now to FIG. 18B, this Figure illustrates a sensor 405 that can penetrate one layer of skin 1805A according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. This figure demonstrates how the depth of measurement for oxygenation levels using the sensors 405 that operate according to near infrared light absorption principles is usually directly proportional to the optical transmitter and optical receiver separation distance D. In FIG. 18B, the separation distance D2 is smaller than that of the separation distance D1 of FIG. 18A. Accordingly, the central scan depth 620B of FIG. 18B is also shorter than the central scan depth 620A of FIG. 18A. According to one exemplary embodiment of the invention, the separation D1 and D2 between the optical transmitter 510 and optical receiver 515 can range between approximately five millimeters to two centimeters. This separation distance D can be optimized to obtain an accurate reading of only the skin in the particular area of interest. One of ordinary skill in the art recognizes that skin is not a constant depth or thickness throughout a human body. Therefore, the depth 620 of the scan of a sensor 405 for which it is designed (ie. the leg for compartment syndromes) may preferably be designed to vary to obtain an accurate optical density value for skin in that specific body location. Referring now to FIG. 18C, this figure illustrates a modified compartment monitoring system 1800 that can correlate skin pigmentation values with skin optical density values in order to provide offset values for oxygenation levels (derived from near infrared light absorption principles) across different subjects who have different skin pigmentation according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. The system 1800 can comprise a central processing unit of the display device 420 or any general purpose computer. The CPU of the display device 420 can be coupled to a compartment sensor 405′ that has been modified to include a skin pigment sensor 1820. The skin pigment sensor 1820 may be provided with a known reflectance and that can be used to calibrate the compartment sensor 405′ based on relative reflectance of skin pigment which can affect data generated from oxygenation scans. For example, the skin sensor 1820 can comprise a narrow-band simple reflectance device, a tristimulus colorimetric device, or scanning reflectance spectrophotometer. Conventional skin sensors available as of this writing include mexameter-18 (CK-electronic, Koln, Germany), chromameters, and DermaSpectrometers. Other devices appropriate and well suited for the skin sensor 1820 are found in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,070,092 issued in the name of Kazama et al; 6,308,088 issued in the name of MacFarlane et al; and 7,221,970 issued in the name of Parker, the entire contents of these patents are hereby incorporated by reference. The skin sensor 1820 can determine a standardized value for skin pigmentation of a patient by evaluating the melanin and hemoglobin in the patient's skin. Once the skin melanin or pigment value is determined it can be correlated to its calculated absorption or reflectance (effect) on the oxygenation levels using a predetermined calibration system, such as the skin pigment table 1825 illustrated in FIG. 18C. From the skin pigment table 1825, the CPU 420 can identify or calculate an oxygenation offset value that can be incorporated in tissue hemoglobin concentration calculations for deep tissue oxygenation scans. Accounting for skin pigmentation will usually allow for information or values to be compared across different subjects with different skin pigmentation as well as using the number as an absolute value instead of monitoring simple changes in value over time. Referring now to FIG. 19, this figure is a functional block diagram of the major components of a compartment monitoring system 1900 that can monitor a relationship between blood pressure and oxygenation values according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. The compartment monitoring system 1900 can include a CPU 420A of a display device 420B that is coupled to compartment sensors 405, a blood pressure probe 440, and a blood pressure monitor 445. The CPU 420A may also be coupled to a voice synthesizer 1905 and a speaker 1907 for providing status information and alarms to a medical practitioner. The CPU 420A can receive data from the blood pressure monitor 445 in order to correlate oxygenation levels with blood pressure. The CPU 420A can activate an alarm, such as an audible or visual alarm (or both) with the voice synthesizer 1905 and speaker or displaying a warning message on the display device 420B when the diastolic pressure of a patient drops. It has been discovered by the inventor that perfusion can be significantly lowered or stopped at low diastolic pressures and when compartment pressures are greater than the diastolic pressure. According to one exemplary embodiment, in addition to activating an alarm, the CPU 420A of the compartment monitoring system 1900 can increase a frequency of data collection for oxygenation levels and/or blood pressure readings when a low blood pressure condition is detected by the system 1900. Referring now to FIG. 20, this figure is an exemplary display 2005 that can be provided on the display device 420 and which provides current blood pressure values 2020 and oxygenation levels 2025 of a compartment of interest according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. Display 2005 can be accessed by activation of the mode switch 1305 of FIG. 14. In addition to displaying current blood pressure values 2020 and oxygenation levels 2025, the display 2005 can further include graphs that plot a blood pressure curve 2035 and an oxygenation level curve 2040. The blood pressure curve 2035 can represent blood pressure data taken over time that is plotted against the time axis 2030 (X-axis) and the blood pressure axis 2010 (first Y-axis values). The oxygenation level curve 2040 can represent oxygenation levels taken over time that is plotted against the time axis 2030 (X-axis) and the oxygenation level axis 2010 (second Y-axis values). In this way, the relationship between blood pressure and potential compartment pressure based on the oxygenation levels can be directly tracked and monitored by a medical practitioner. As noted above, it has been discovered by the inventor that perfusion can be significantly lowered or stopped at low diastolic pressures and when compartment pressures are greater than the diastolic pressure. So when the blood pressure of a patient starts to drop and if the oxygenation levels of a compartment being tracked also start to drop, the CPU 420A can sound an audible alarm and display a warning message 2035 to the medical practitioner to alert him or her of this changing condition. This correlation between hemoglobin concentration (oxygenation levels) and diastolic pressure can be used to estimate intra-compartmental pressures without having to use invasive, conventional needle measurements. Additionally, a running average of oxygenation values over a certain time period can be calculated and displayed. The time period could be altered by the m between multiple time periods from seconds to minutes to even hours. The purpose of the running average would be to limit the amount of variability of the oxygenation values displayed on the screen. The current instantaneous value that is displayed in existing models is very labile. By using a running average, the trends can be monitored and the instantaneous changes can be smoothed out. This ability to decrease volatility would be important to prevent continual alert triggering if an alarm value was set by the medical practitioner. In addition, with blood pressure input as described above, the diastolic, systolic and/or mean arterial pressure (MAP) can be displayed (not illustrated) against time on the same graph. Using the two data series of oxygenation and diastolic blood pressure, an estimate of perfusion pressure (diastolic pressure minus intra-compartmental pressure) can also be estimated by the CPU 420A. Referring now to FIG. 21, this figure is a functional block diagram that illustrates material options for a compartment sensor 405 according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. Functional block 2105 indicates that the structure of the compartment sensor can be made with sterile materials. For example, the substrate 530 (not illustrated) of the sensor 405 may be made of anyone or combination of the following materials: various polymers such as the polyurethanes, polyethylenes, polyesters, and polyethers or the like may be used. Alternatively, each compartment sensor can be made with a sterile coating 2110 that encapsulates the compartment sensor 405. The sterile coating can be applied during manufacturing of the sensor 405 or it can be applied after manufacturing and provided as a container or sealable volume. Additionally, once the unit is constructed and finished, the device can be sterilized using one or more off multiple processes including but not limited to chemical, heat, gas or irradiation sterilization. Referring now to FIG. 22, this figure illustrates an exemplary clinical environment of a compartment sensor 405 where the sensor 405 can be positioned within or between a dressing 2205 and the skin 1805 of a patient according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. Since the inventive compartment sensor 405 can be made with or enclosed by sterile materials as noted in FIG. 21 above, the compartment sensor 405 or an sensor array 805 can be positioned between a dressing 2205 and a skin layer 1805 of a patient intra-operatively. In this way, a medical practitioner can monitor a compartment 905 of interest without the need to remove the dressing 2205 or adjust the position of the compartment sensor 405. Case Studies Using Compartment Sensors 405 and Conventional Pressure Measuring Methods Case I In 2007, a 44 year old Caucasian male fell 20 feet sustaining an isolated closed proximal tibia fracture with extension into the knee. Initial treatment included external fixation for stabilization on the day of injury. During surgery the compartments were firm but compressible. At post operative check revealed that the compartments were more firm. There was mild pain with passive stretch, though the patient was diffusely painful throughout both lower extremities. Intra-compartmental pressures were measured for all four compartments using a conventional needle method with a Striker device (Stryker Surgical, Kalamazoo, Mich.). The anterior and lateral pressures measured 50 mm Hg and the superficial and deep posterior compartments were 48 mm Hg. The diastolic pressure was 90 mm Hg resulting in a 40 mm Hg perfusion pressure. Tissue oxygenation (StO2) or oxygenation levels were evaluated using two compartment sensors 405. The oxygenation levels were approximately 80% in all four compartments. The compartment sensors 405 were placed on the lateral and deep posterior compartments for continual monitoring, which maintained oxygenation values near 80%. Higher percentage oxygenation levels indicate more perfusion and higher oxy-hemoglobin concentrations. All clinical decisions were based of the clinical symptoms and pressure measurements and not on the oxygenation levels. Two hours passed and compartment pressures were repeated. The anterior and lateral compartments remained at 50 mm Hg. The superficial and deep posterior compartments rose to 50 mm Hg as well. The patient's diastolic pressure remained at 90 mm Hg maintaining 40 mm Hg of perfusion pressure. The oxygenation values remained near 80% for both the lateral and deep posterior compartments. Clinical symptoms were monitored closely throughout the night. Approximately 24 hours after the initial injury, the patient became more symptomatic and began requiring more pain medication. Intra-compartmental measurements were repeated. The anterior and lateral compartments remained at 51 mm Hg. The superficial and deep posterior compartments measured 61 mm Hg and 63 mm Hg respectively. However, the diastolic pressure dropped to 74 mm Hg decreasing the perfusion pressure to 11 mm Hg. Based on the pressure measurements and clinical symptoms, the patient underwent fasciotomy and was found to have no gross evidence of muscle necrosis or neuromuscular sequelae at late follow up. Throughout the monitoring period, the lateral compartment maintained an oxygenation level of approximately 80%. The oxygenation levels in the deep posterior compartment began in the eighties and started to drop approximately three hours after the second compartment pressure measurement. At time of fasciotomy, the oxygenation level for the deep posterior compartment was 58%. The gradual decline in muscle oxygenation mirrored the decrease in perfusion pressure over an extended period of time. This first case suggests that the compartment sensors 405 can be used to continually monitor an injured extremity. Initially, the patient had elevated intra-compartmental pressures, but the perfusion pressure was greater than 30 mm Hg. The ensuing increase in clinical symptoms and decrease in perfusion pressure correlated with the gradual decrease in oxygenation levels. Impaired perfusion was reflected in a decline in the oxygenation levels. These results are consistent with a previous study by Garr et al. who showed a strong correlation between oxygenation levels and perfusion pressures in a pig model. This case also demonstrates the ability of compartment sensors 405 to differentiate between compartments in the leg since the oxygenation levels in the lateral compartment remained elevated while the deep posterior values declined. Case II Also in 2007, a 32 year old Hispanic male sustained an isolated, closed Schatzker VI tibial plateau fracture after falling from a scaffold. On initial evaluation, the patient had tight compartments, but there were no clinical symptoms of compartment syndrome. Active and passive range of motion resulted in no significant pain. Based on the concerns for the tense leg, intra-compartmental pressure measurements were obtained using a Stryker device. All compartments were greater than 110 mm Hg. The patient's blood pressure was 170/112 mm Hg. The decision to perform a four compartment fasciotomy was made. The compartment sensors 405 were placed on the deep posterior compartment as well as the lateral compartment for continual monitoring. The lateral compartment was unable to give a consistent reading due to hematoma interference. The initial reading for the deep posterior was an oxygenation level of 65%. The deep posterior tissue oxygenation level steadily declined from 65% to 55% over the hour of preoperative preparation. Upon intubation, a sharp drop in the oxygenation levels from 55% to 43% was observed. The anesthesia record showed a concomitant drop in blood pressure at the time of induction from 171/120 mm Hg to 90/51 mm Hg. The patient underwent an uneventful fasciotomy and external fixation. Tissue examination showed no gross signs of muscle necrosis and at nine months follow-up there were no signs of sequelea. The oxygenation level monitoring of the compartment was acutely responsive and showed real time changes to a decline in perfusion pressure in an injured extremity. The responsiveness of the compartment sensors 405 to intra-compartmental perfusion pressure is demonstrated by this second case study. This patient was initially asymptomatic even though his compartments were over 110 mm Hg in all compartments. The oxygenation levels from the compartment sensors 405 were able to detect gradual perfusion declines over the hour prior to fasciotomy. Prior to induction of anesthesia, the patient was able to maintain some tissue oxygenation by maintaining a high diastolic blood pressure. Once the patient was anesthetized during intubation, the diastolic pressure was significantly reduced. The oxygenation levels of the compartments dropped within thirty seconds of induction because the slight perfusion gradient was completely abolished by the induced hypotension. Case III In 2007, a 62 year old Asian male suffered a closed midshaft tibia fracture in a motor vehicle crash. The patient was unresponsive and hypotensive at the scene of the accident and intubated prior to arrival. Upon presentation, the patient was hypotensive with a blood pressure of 90/55 mm Hg. The injured leg was clinically tight on examination. Oxygenation levels were measured for all four compartments. The oxygenation levels were approximately at 50% for the anterior and lateral compartments while the two posterior compartments were approximately at 80%. The compartment sensors 405 were placed on the anterior and superficial posterior compartments for continued monitoring. Intra-compartmental pressures were measured at 50 mm Hg and 52 mm Hg in the anterior and lateral compartments respectively using the conventional Striker device (needle pressure measuring method). The superficial and deep compartment pressures were 19 mm Hg and 20 mm Hg respectively. After the patient was stabilized by the trauma team, he underwent fasciotomy. There were no gross signs of muscle necrosis and no complications at 7 months follow-up. Muscle oxygenation was able to differentiate between compartments with hypoperfusion and adequate perfusion in a hypotensive and intubated patient. This third case is evidence that the compartment sensors 405 are useful in assessing established or existing compartment syndromes. The compartment sensors 405 can provide useful information in patients that are unable to give feedback during a clinical examination such as this patient who was intubated and hypotensive upon examination. These findings correlate with the findings by Arbabi et al. who demonstrated oxygenation levels to be responsive in hypotensive and hypoxic pigs in a laboratory setting. The compartment sensors 405 can distinguish between different compartments and their respective perfusions. Clinically, in this case, the whole leg was tense, but intra-compartmental pressures were only elevated in the anterior and lateral compartments. The oxygenation levels measured by the compartment sensors 405 were proportional to the perfusion pressure with low values in the anterior and lateral compartments, but elevated values in the two posterior compartments. Conclusion for Three Case Studies: These three cases suggest that compartment sensors 405 are responsive and proportional to perfusion pressures within the injured extremity. These findings support previous studies documenting the importance of perfusion pressure and not an absolute value in the diagnosis of compartment syndrome. The compartment sensors can distinguish between compartments and is useful in the unresponsive, intubated and hypotensive patient. Lastly, the compartment sensors 404 have the potential to offer a continual, noninvasive and real time monitoring system that is sensitive in the early compartment syndrome setting. In all three cases, a difference in oxygenation levels was demonstrated prior to any irreversible tissue injury. Case IV A 60 year old Middle Eastern male was shot in the right thigh. Initially the thigh was swollen but the patient was comfortable. After approximately 12 hours after the initial injury the patient began to complain of increasing pain and required more pain medication. The thigh was more tense upon clinical exam. The patient was taken to the OR for fracture fixation and potential fasciotomy of the thigh. NIRS sensors were placed on the anterior, posterior and medial (adductors) compartments of the thigh. Values for the injured side were similar or decrease when compared to the uninjured side. As previously described, injured tissue should show increased values due to hyperemia. The injured side anterior, posterior and medial values were 54, 53 and 63 respectively. The uninjured values for the anterior, posterior and medial were 51, 55 and 63 respectively. The compartment pressures were measured in all three compartments. The intra-compartmental pressures for the anterior, posterior and adductors were 44, 59 and 30 respectively. Once the patient was induced for anesthesia and the patient's blood pressure dropped from 159/90 to 90/61, the patients NIRS values dropped within in 30 seconds of the his blood pressure drop. Once the blood pressure was dropped and the perfusion pressure was eliminated, the new values for the anterior, posterior and medial compartments were 29, 40 and 35. Study: Sphygmomanometer Model & Invention's Sensitivity & Responsiveness A study was conducted to determine the sensitivity and responsiveness of the inventive compartment monitoring system 400. Specifically, the purpose of the study was to evaluate the invention over the anterior compartment with a cuff around the thigh at different pressures (simulating a compartment Syndrome) to show responsiveness to increasing pressures in the leg. The inventor's hypothesis was that the inventive compartment monitoring system 400 will show normal oxygenation at levels below pressures equivalent to compartment syndrome. Once pressures become equal to the diastolic blood pressure, it was believed the inventive system 400 would show significant deoxygenation because the capillary perfusion pressure will be passed. Continued monitoring will be obtained until a plateau or nadir is obtained. Materials & Methods: Thigh Cuff Pressures: 0 mmHg: Baseline; Increase cuff by 10 mmHg and hold for 10 minutes; At the end of each ten minute period blood pressure and NIRS values were obtained; Repeat incremental increases until obtain decreased oxygenation level readings; and Observe post release response & time to return to baseline Outcomes: It was confirmed that the compartment monitoring system 400 is sensitive to changing pressures. A correlation with decreased perfusion was discovered once the pressure approaches diastolic pressure. The inventive system 400 does not reflect complete vascular compromise until tourniquet pressure supersedes systolic blood pressure because of venous congestion. These findings are consistent with previously described studies. Statistical Analysis: A significant difference is observed once tourniquet pressure equals the diastolic pressure (Perfusion pressure of zero). The venous congestion phenomenon which has been described with the tourniquet model for compartment syndromes maintains some flow until cuff pressure is raised to above systolic pressure (no flow). Venous congestion is the phenomenon when the higher systolic blood pressure is able to overcome the tourniquet pressure applied to the leg during that burst of pressure created by the heart's contraction when the tourniquet compression is above diastolic pressure but below systolic pressure. Referring now to FIG. 23, this figure is a graph 2300 of perfusion pressure plotted against oxygenation levels (O2) of the study conducted to determine the sensitivity and responsiveness of the inventive compartment monitoring system 400. The section between points A and B show the combined points of all subjects studied during the study when the tourniquet pressure was below the diastolic pressure. As shown in the graph, the grouping is mostly flat and does not show any decrease as the tourniquet pressure is increased. After point B between point B and C, the tourniquet pressure is above the diastolic pressure and the perfusion pressure becomes zero or negative. During this section of the graph, there is a significant drop in muscle oxygenation. The data points in FIG. 23 use the actual compartment monitoring values, which as described above, can vary based on skin pigmentation. Therefore, there is a wider range of values in oxygenation numbers and a wider spread of data points. See APPENDIX B for the raw data that supports this graph 2300. Referring now to FIG. 24, this figure is a graph 2400 of perfusion pressure plotted against a change in the oxygenation levels (O2) from a baseline for each subject of the study conducted to determine the sensitivity and responsiveness of the inventive compartment monitoring system 400. In the FIG. 24, the change from baseline was used instead of the absolute number presented by the compartment sensor. The effects of pigment were removed when change from baseline values was used. Baseline was defined as the value before the tourniquet was placed. The spread between data points is much less. As shown again between points A and B, there is a very small and gradual decrease in tissue oxygenation until point B (moving from high perfusion pressures to lower perfusion pressures or from right to left). Once the perfusion pressure, becomes zero or negative, the change from baseline was much larger and more rapid. Both graphs show how the tissue oxygenation is highly sensitive to perfusion pressure and the critical point is when the perfusion pressure changes from positive to negative. As described above, the diagnosis of compartment syndrome is based on the perfusion pressure (diastolic pressure minus compartment pressure). Therefore, the compartment monitoring system 400 has the capability to show real-time changes in perfusion prior to any irreversible tissue damage. See APPENDIX B for the raw data that supports this graph 2300. This study supports the theory that oxygenation levels measure with the compartment sensors 405 decrease as perfusion pressure also decreases (Perfusion pressure=diastolic−cuff pressure). The study also indicates that there are no significant changes in measured oxygenation levels until there is increase above the diastolic pressure. The findings of this study as illustrated in FIGS. 23 and 24 correlate with previous studies using other determinants of flow (Xenon clearance; Clayton, 1977; Dahn, 1967; Heppenstall, 1986; Matava, 1994). Study of Established Acute Compartment Syndromes: Based on the clinical evaluation in established acute compartment syndrome patients the diagnosis of compartment syndrome was made. Its purpose was to evaluate the ability of the inventive compartment monitoring system 400 to detect hypoperfusion in the different compartments of the lower leg. This evaluation was made to demonstrate the invention's sensitivity to increased pressures versus uninjured legs. Hypothesis: There will be a significant difference between the injured and uninjured values of the compartment monitoring system 400. There will also be an inverse relationship between compartment pressures and measured oxygenation levels by the sensors 405. In other words, the oxygenation values would be directly proportional to perfusion pressures. Material & Methods: Oxygenation levels and pressure measurements for each compartment in established compartment syndromes were obtained. Readings for both legs were compared for each compartment. Unknowns: How will thick subcutaneous fat affect the compartment sensors 405? What values will we obtain for the posterior compartments? Preliminary Results: Hyperemia (increased oxygenation levels) for fractures without any compartment syndrome symptoms has been demonstrated by the inventors studies (Table #3 and #4). In early compartment syndromes, the oxygenation values were equal between the two different legs. Once the compartment syndrome became advanced, and the perfusion pressure was decreased or eliminated, the oxygenation values in the injured leg dropped below the uninjured leg. There was some difficulty in obtaining oxygenation levels over a hematoma. Therefore, when oxygenation values between the two legs become equal, there should be concern for a compartment syndrome and fasciotomy should be considered. Once the injured levels drop below the uninjured leg, a fasciotomy should be performed. Oxygenation levels are extremely responsive to changes in perfusion in regards to pressure changes. Compartment sensors 405 can differentiate between compartments. Oxygenation levels can work and are accurate in intubated patients. Oxygenation levels do respond over extended time periods and over very short periods of time and rapid changes in intra-compartmental pressures. Oxygenation levels and hyperemia are maintained at least two to three days post injury or surgery. Post-operative values are also high in the operated on leg—˜69-72 (Standard deviation of 9-12) with an average difference of 15-17%. The compartment sensors 405 work as a noninvasive tool. Oxygenation levels can be monitored by sensors 405 over extended periods of time. Compartment sensors 405 do respond to changes in perfusion both gradual and sudden. The sensors 405 can differentiate between different compartments. TABLE #2 Comparison of Oxygenation Levels between Injured Limb and Non-injured Limb p Avg Injured Uninjured Diff value Anterior 46 54 −6 0.07 Lateral 45 54 −9 0.01 Deep 54 68 −14 0.05 Post Sup 50 60 −10 0.04 Post Significant difference using one tailed, paired student t-test was used for statistical analysis. In three out of four compartments, the p-value showed statistical significance (p-value<0.05). The one compartment that was not less than 0.05, the anterior compartment, the p-value was 0.07 which is very close to 0.05. As described below, the normal situation should be the opposite. The injured side should be and is shown to be significantly higher when compared to the uninjured side. The p-value can be described as the chance that these findings were due to chance alone. By convention, statistically significant findings are considered to be less than 5% or a p-value of <0.05 in comparison. This means that there is a 5% chance that these findings are due to chance alone and that there is no difference between the two groups. See APPENDIX A for the raw data that supports this data. Study of Fracture Hyperemia with Inventive Compartment Monitoring System 400 A study of fracture hyperemia with the inventive compartment monitoring system 400 was made. The purpose of this study was to examine non compartment syndrome patients with fractures of the lower leg. Hypothesis: The injured leg will show a hyperemic response to injury and have elevated blood flow causing an increase in oxygenation values. Materials & Methods: Compare uninjured leg to injured leg to see if there is a statistical and reproducible increase at time of injury. The data is important to describe normal fracture response to compare with compartment syndrome response. Results: Patients have approximately 15 pts higher on the injured side compared to the uninjured side. Time of measurement was approximately 16 hours post injury (range 2,52). TABLE #3 Oxygenation Values for Injured versus Uninjured Lower Leg Measurements. Avg Injured Uninjured Diff p value Anterior 69 55 14 <0.0001 Lateral 70 55 15 <0.0001 Deep 74 57 17 <0.0001 Post Sup 70 56 14 <0.0001 Post N = 26 (there were 26 subjects examined in this study.) Statistical analysis calculated p-values using a two tailed, paired student t-test. In normal lower leg fracture situations without vascular injury or compartment syndrome, comparison between injured and uninjured legs show that the injured leg should be significantly higher with and average elevation of between 14 and 17 points. This finding is consistent with the hyperemia associated with injury. This effect is a long lasting effect that lasts over 48 hours after injury and surgery as seen by these results. The p-value can be described as the chance that these findings were due to chance alone. In all four compartments, the chance of finding the difference (14-17) in average value between the two groups (injured and uninjured) was less than 0.01% or less than 1 out of 10,000. In other words the likelihood of these findings occurring by chance alone is very unlikely. By convention, statistically significant findings are considered to be less than 5% or a p-value of <0.05 in comparison. See APPENDIX A for the raw data that supports this data. TABLE #4 Oxygenation Values for Injured versus Uninjured Lower Leg Measurements 2 Days After Surgery. Avg Injured Uninjured Diff p value Anterior 71 55 16 <0.0001 Lateral 70 54 16 <0.0001 Deep 73 58 15 <0.0001 Post Sup 73 56 17 <0.0001 Post N = 17 (This study included 17 patients) Average time of measurement was 71 hours after injury and 44 hours after operation The p-value can be described as the chance that these findings were due to chance alone. In all four compartments, the chance of finding the difference (15-17) in average value between the two groups (injured and uninjured) was less than 0.01% or less than 1 out of 10,000. In other words the likelihood of these findings occurring by chance alone is very unlikely. By convention, statistically significant findings are considered to be less than 5% or a p-value of <0.05 in comparison. See APPENDIX A for the raw data that supports this data. TABLE #5 Uninjured Controls Comparing Right and Left Leg Differences. Avg Avg Right Left Diff Val Anterior 55 54 1 55 Lateral 56 54 2 56 Deep 60 58 2 59 Post Sup 59 58 1 58 Post N = to 25 (There were 25 patients included in this study.) No difference was found between right and left sides. These findings are important for two different reasons. First, the difference between the two legs was very small (on average between 1 or 2 points). Therefore, the other findings that show significant differences between legs cannot be explained as normal variance. Uninjured patients have oxygenation values between the two legs that are typically very similar (within 1-5 points of each other). Second, normal oxygenation values for uninjured subjects were in the high 50's. This value varied based on pigmentation of the skin as showed above. See APPENDIX A for the raw data that supports this data. Exemplary Method for Monitoring Oxygenation Levels of a Compartment Referring now to FIG. 25, this figure is logic flow diagram illustrating an exemplary method 2500 for monitoring oxygenation levels of a compartment according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. The processes and operations of the inventive compartment monitoring system 400 described below with respect to the logic flow diagram may include the manipulation of signals by a processor and the maintenance of these signals within data structures resident in one or more memory storage devices. For the purposes of this discussion, a process can be generally conceived to be a sequence of computer-executed steps leading to a desired result. These steps usually require physical manipulations of physical quantities. Usually, though not necessarily, these quantities take the form of electrical, magnetic, or optical signals capable of being stored, transferred, combined, compared, or otherwise manipulated. It is convention for those skilled in the art to refer to representations of these signals as bits, bytes, words, information, elements, symbols, characters, numbers, points, data, entries, objects, images, files, or the like. It should be kept in mind, however, that these and similar terms are associated with appropriate physical quantities for computer operations, and that these terms are merely conventional labels applied to physical quantities that exist within and during operation of the computer. It should also be understood that manipulations within the computer are often referred to in terms such as listing, creating, adding, calculating, comparing, moving, receiving, determining, configuring, identifying, populating, loading, performing, executing, storing etc. that are often associated with manual operations performed by a human operator. The operations described herein can be machine operations performed in conjunction with various input provided by a human operator or user that interacts with the computer. In addition, it should be understood that the programs, processes, methods, etc. described herein are not related or limited to any particular computer or apparatus. Rather, various types of general purpose machines may be used with the following process in accordance with the teachings described herein. The present invention may comprise a computer program or hardware or a combination thereof which embodies the functions described herein and illustrated in the appended flow charts. However, it should be apparent that there could be many different ways of implementing the invention in computer programming or hardware design, and the invention should not be construed as limited to any one set of computer program instructions. Further, a skilled programmer would be able to write such a computer program or identify the appropriate hardware circuits to implement the disclosed invention without difficulty based on the flow charts and associated description in the application text, for example. Therefore, disclosure of a particular set of program code instructions or detailed hardware devices is not considered necessary for an adequate understanding of how to make and use the invention. The inventive functionality of the claimed computer implemented processes will be explained in more detail in the following description. Further, certain steps in the processes or process flow described in the logic flow diagram must naturally precede others for the present invention to function as described. However, the present invention is not limited to the order of the steps described if such order or sequence does not alter the functionality of the present invention. That is, it is recognized that some steps may be performed before, after, or in parallel other steps without departing from the scope and spirit of the present invention. Referring again to FIG. 25, Step 2501 is the first step in the process 2500 for monitoring oxygenation levels of a compartment according to one exemplary embodiment of the invention. In step 2501, a compartment sensor 405 may be manufactured from sterile materials as described above in connection with FIG. 21. Alternatively, a compartment sensor 405 can be encapsulated with sterile materials so that it can be used in a surgical environment or so that it can be place adjacent to wounds (or both). In step 2503, a central scan depth marker 415 can be provided on a compartment sensor 405. In step 2506, an alignment mechanism 410 can also be provided on the compartment sensor 405 to allow a medical practitioner to orient a sensor 405 along a longitudinal axis of a compartment of interest. In step 2509, an expansion device 535 may be provided between two or more grouped compartment sensors 405 as illustrated in FIG. 5A. In step 2512, the processor and display device 420 may receive input from a user on the type of compartment that is to be monitored by the inventive system 400. In step 2515 and in response to the input of step 2512, the display device 420 can display a location of the selected compartment of interest such as illustrated in FIG. 14D. The display device 420 can also display the longitudinal axis 450 of the compartment of interest. Next, in step 2518, the display device 420 may display an ideal or optimal position for the compartment sensor 405 along the longitudinal axis of the compartment of interest as illustrated in FIG. 14D. In step 2521, with the information from steps 2515-2518, the medical practitioner can identify a proper position of the compartment sensor on a patient through orienting the alignment mechanism 410 with the longitudinal axis of the compartment and by using the central scan depth marker 415. In step 2527, the compartment sensor 405 can be placed on the patient. In step 2530, the compartment sensor can obtain a skin pigment value of the patient's skin through using a skin sensor 1820 as illustrated in FIG. 18C or thorough using a shallow sensor 405 as illustrated in FIG. 17. In step 2533, the processor 420A can determine an oxygenation offset value based on the skin pigment value obtained in step 2530. Next, in step 2536, the offset value from step 2533 can be used during oxygenation level monitoring. In step 2539, the blood pressure of the patient can be monitored with a probe 440 and blood pressure monitor as illustrated in FIGS. 4 and 19. In step 2542, the system 400 can monitor the oxygenation levels of one or more compartments of interest over time. In step 2545, the system 400 can also monitor the oxygenation levels of healthy compartments to obtain a baseline while monitoring the compartments adjacent to an injury or trauma as illustrated in FIG. 15B. In step 2547, the oxygenation levels of compartments of interest can be displayed on the display device 420 as illustrated in FIGS. 10, 14C, 15B-C, 16, and 20. In step 2550, the blood pressure of the patient can also be displayed on the display device as illustrated in FIG. 20. In step 2553, the display device 420 and its processor can monitor the relationship between the blood pressure values and oxygenation levels as illustrated in FIG. 20. In step 2556, the display device 420 can activate an alarm in the form of an audible or visual message (or both), when the oxygenation levels drop below a predetermined value or if a significant change in the levels is detected as illustrated in FIG. 20. In step 2559, the display device can also activate an alarm in the form of an audible or visual message (or both), when both the oxygenation levels and blood pressure drop simultaneously or if one of them falls below a predetermined threshold value as described in connection with FIG. 20. In step 2562, the display device 420 and its processor can increase a frequency of data collection for oxygenation levels and blood pressure values if both values drop. The exemplary process then ends. Alternative Exemplary Embodiments The inventive compartment monitoring system 400 could also be used for free flap as well as tissue transfer monitoring. Currently skin color and capillary refill are used to evaluate flap viability. This practice requires repeated examinations and subjective criteria. The conventional method requires leaving skin exposed or taking down dressings which can be very labor intensive. As a solution to the conventional approach, a sensor 405 can be sterilized and it can record average oxygenation levels over time. The sensor 405 can be placed on the flap (free or transferred). The compartment sensor 405 can also be used to monitor oxygenation of tissue transferred for vascular patency. Specifically, for hand or any upper extremity surgery, the compartment sensor can be used to monitor the progress of revascularization of fingers, hands and arms based on measured oxygenation levels. The sensor 405 can be applied to the injured extremity once vascular repair has been performed in order to continue monitoring of vascular repair. A baseline of a corresponding uninjured or healthy extremity can be made once repair to the injured extremity is done—before closure—in order to get a baseline value while looking at the repair. Sensors 405 for this application will also need to be sterilized and be able to conduct scans with depths of at least 0.5 centimeters. It should be understood that the foregoing relates only to illustrate the embodiments of the invention, and that numerous changes may be made therein without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention as defined by the following claims. APPENDIX A Compartment Syndrome Patients Anterior Lateral Pt Injur Unin Diff ICP PP Injur Unin Diff ICP PP 1 66 58 8 78 −13 58 65 −7 79 −14 2 35 50 −15 170 −70 41 49 −8 176 −76 3 15 41 −26 107 −37 15 40 −25 104 −34 4 46 44 2 72 4 34 49 −15 82 −6 5 45 47 −2 71 18 53 53 0 71 18 6 56 64 −6 59 −4 55 61 −6 57 −2 7 8 58 66 −8 142 −44 51 64 −13 142 −44 9 50 51 −1 57 1 53 54 −1 55 3 Avg 46.4 52.6 −6 94.5 −18.1 45 54.4 −9.38 95.8 −19.4 Std D 15.8 9.16 10.6 41.6 29.5 14.5 8.58 8.16 42.9 30.3 pVal 0.07 0.01 Rang 66, 15 41, 66 8, −26 15, 58 40, 65 0, −25 Deep Posterior Superficial Posterior Pt Injur Unin Diff ICP PP Injur Unin Diff ICP PP 1 76 −11 58 57 1 84 −19 2 116 −16 43 67 −24 115 −15 3 104 −34 47 45 2 99 −29 4 57 19 32 56 −24 71 5 5 56 33 56 55 1 61 28 6 46 67 −21 63 −8 55 64 −9 62 −7 7 56 61 −5 61 10 62 59 3 59 12 8 59 75 −16 135 −37 50 77 −27 110 −12 9 Avg 53.7 67.7 −14 83.5 −5.5 50.4 60 −9.63 82.6 −4.63 Std D 6.81 7.02 8.19 30.6 24.7 9.64 9.49 13.3 22.8 18.5 pVal 0.05 0.04 Rang 46, 59 61, 75 −5, −21 32, 62 45, 77 3, −27 Non Compartment Syndrome Initial Injury Study Anterior Lateral Deep Post Sup Posterior Pt Injured Uninjured Diff Injured Uninjured Diff Injured Uninjured Diff Injured Uninjured Diff 1 70 65 5 70 58 12 77 68 9 2 64 54 10 61 56 5 72 57 15 3 58 47 11 49 44 5 49 43 6 4 77 63 14 82 66 16 83 61 22 79 66 13 5 82 58 24 78 59 19 72 63 9 73 56 17 6 62 54 8 61 53 8 66 49 17 63 51 12 7 64 48 16 68 46 22 76 52 24 64 44 20 8 70 62 8 73 57 16 80 59 21 87 64 23 9 62 47 15 71 53 18 74 52 22 66 53 13 10 73 60 13 75 52 23 71 52 19 72 56 16 11 73 58 15 88 51 37 88 62 26 80 52 28 12 63 53 10 61 50 11 72 57 15 73 61 12 13 78 73 5 82 75 7 86 70 16 81 71 10 14 67 57 10 70 62 8 74 64 10 71 62 9 15 71 46 25 63 43 20 71 43 28 69 46 23 16 77 47 30 66 55 11 66 54 12 62 57 5 17 55 46 9 62 48 14 62 51 11 63 45 18 18 82 58 24 79 64 15 90 75 15 79 74 5 19 54 49 5 60 47 13 54 52 2 57 50 7 20 79 71 8 90 81 9 87 72 15 86 69 17 21 70 49 21 65 47 18 64 45 19 61 52 9 22 78 44 34 76 43 33 82 54 28 69 48 21 23 74 65 9 76 63 13 78 61 17 73 65 8 24 68 53 15 66 56 10 77 58 19 70 55 15 25 62 51 11 68 53 15 60 51 9 60 50 10 26 68 53 15 66 56 10 77 58 19 70 55 15 Avg 69.3 55 14.2 70.2 55.3 14.9 74.3 57.2 17.2 70.2 56.5 13.7 Med 70 53.5 12 69 54 13.5 74 57 17 70.5 55.5 13 Std D 7.93 7.94 7.75 9.47 9.27 7.69 9.48 8.14 6.5 8.99 8.72 6.03 pVal 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 Non Compartment Syndrome 2 Days Post-Op Anterior Lateral Deep Post Sup Posterior Pt Injured Uninjured Diff Injured Uninjured Diff Injured Uninjured Diff Injured Uninjured Diff 1 79 51 28 75 54 21 69 47 22 67 43 24 2 56 47 9 51 45 6 58 46 12 56 48 8 3 82 52 30 78 47 31 82 59 23 88 50 38 4 63 55 8 65 54 11 74 58 16 70 58 12 5 62 50 12 63 47 16 63 58 5 62 54 8 6 61 50 11 62 54 8 68 60 8 81 55 26 7 69 61 8 71 64 7 79 69 10 75 68 7 8 68 42 26 65 39 26 75 41 34 62 44 18 9 85 73 12 79 62 17 95 75 20 93 73 20 10 71 62 9 72 58 14 66 61 5 74 61 13 11 83 70 13 82 67 15 87 71 16 88 72 16 12 77 47 30 66 55 11 66 54 12 62 57 5 13 64 56 8 62 50 12 67 56 11 63 51 12 14 70 49 21 80 55 25 73 63 10 65 54 11 15 84 64 20 90 63 27 88 64 24 88 63 25 16 60 47 13 63 51 12 64 51 13 76 43 33 17 71 63 8 61 57 4 87 62 25 63 60 3 Avg 70.9 55.2 15.6 69.7 54.2 15.5 74.2 58.5 15.6 72.5 56.1 16.4 Med 70 52 12 66 54 14 73 59 13 70 55 13 Std D 9.3 8.84 8.31 9.85 7.37 8 10.5 8.97 7.95 11.5 9.35 10 pVal 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 Uninjured Subjects (Normal NIRS Values) Anterior Lateral Deep Post Sup Posterior Pt R L Diff AV R L Diff AV R L Diff AV R L Diff AV 1 50 46 4 4 46 48 −2 2 48 49 −1 1 40 40 0 0 2 58 56 2 2 60 60 0 0 63 60 3 3 64 57 7 7 3 49 47 2 2 48 50 −2 2 47 44 3 3 47 44 3 3 4 59 60 −1 1 60 57 3 3 58 61 −3 3 58 61 −3 3 5 54 51 3 3 51 48 3 3 55 51 4 4 55 52 3 3 6 55 52 3 3 58 53 5 5 68 65 3 3 69 63 6 6 7 56 57 −1 1 52 58 −6 6 52 62 −10 10 64 67 −3 3 8 54 57 −3 3 56 57 −1 1 61 61 0 0 55 60 −5 5 9 49 42 7 7 50 43 7 7 55 49 6 6 52 52 0 0 10 48 44 4 4 51 46 5 5 72 60 12 12 51 46 5 5 11 71 65 6 6 73 68 5 5 75 76 −1 1 69 75 −6 6 12 48 50 −2 2 48 53 −5 5 49 54 −5 5 47 49 −2 2 13 45 50 −5 5 46 51 −5 5 47 46 1 1 54 53 1 1 14 59 51 8 8 60 52 8 8 59 55 4 4 61 57 4 4 15 48 56 −8 8 50 55 −5 5 56 58 −2 2 49 55 −6 6 16 42 43 −1 1 44 43 1 1 43 42 1 1 46 37 9 9 17 54 56 −2 2 55 60 −5 5 64 60 4 4 67 62 5 5 18 54 54 0 0 51 47 4 4 52 54 −2 2 59 53 6 6 19 42 43 −1 1 48 42 6 6 52 47 5 5 42 48 −6 6 20 68 65 3 3 70 67 3 3 73 68 5 5 74 71 3 3 21 62 61 1 1 61 55 6 6 68 67 1 1 68 70 −2 2 22 49 46 3 3 52 48 4 4 66 55 11 11 64 66 −2 2 23 67 62 5 5 70 65 5 5 88 81 7 7 77 70 7 7 24 74 68 6 6 74 69 5 5 68 65 3 3 76 67 9 9 25 66 64 2 2 74 71 3 3 70 71 −1 1 71 66 5 5 Avg 55.2 53.8 1.4 3.32 56.3 54.6 1.68 4.16 60.4 58.4 1.92 3.92 59.2 57.6 1.52 4.32 T avg 54.5 55.5 59.4 58.4 Std D 8.81 7.73 3.83 2.29 9.4 8.5 4.35 1.95 10.9 9.83 4.74 3.21 10.8 10.2 4.81 2.48 White vs. Dark Pigmented Skin Comparison Anterior Lateral Deep Post Sup Posterior Pt R L Diff AV R L Diff AV R L Diff AV R L Diff AV Affrican American 1 50 46 4 4 46 48 −2 2 48 49 −1 1 40 40 0 0 3 49 47 2 2 48 50 −2 2 47 44 3 3 47 44 3 3 7 56 57 −1 1 52 58 −6 6 52 62 −10 10 64 67 −3 3 8 54 57 −3 3 56 57 −1 1 61 61 0 0 55 60 −5 5 9 49 42 7 7 50 43 7 7 55 49 6 6 52 52 0 0 10 48 44 4 4 51 46 5 5 72 60 12 12 51 46 5 5 11 71 65 6 6 73 68 5 5 75 76 −1 1 69 75 −6 6 12 48 50 −2 2 48 53 −5 5 49 54 −5 5 47 49 −2 2 13 45 50 −5 5 46 51 −5 5 47 46 1 1 54 53 1 1 14 59 51 8 8 60 52 8 8 59 55 4 4 61 57 4 4 15 48 56 −8 8 50 55 −5 5 56 58 −2 2 49 55 −6 6 16 42 43 −1 1 44 43 1 1 43 42 1 1 46 37 9 9 17 54 56 −2 2 55 60 −5 5 64 60 4 4 67 62 5 5 18 54 54 0 0 51 47 4 4 52 54 −2 2 59 53 6 6 19 42 43 −1 1 48 42 6 6 52 47 5 5 42 48 −6 6 26 49 46 3 3 49 48 1 1 42 41 1 1 44 42 2 2 27 60 53 7 7 52 54 −2 2 42 48 −6 6 46 46 0 0 Avg 51.3 50.7 0.53 51.9 51.5 0.33 55.5 54.5 1 53.5 53.2 0.33 51 51.7 55 53.4 White 2 58 56 2 2 60 60 0 0 63 60 3 3 64 57 7 7 4 59 60 −1 1 60 57 3 3 58 61 −3 3 58 61 −3 3 5 54 51 3 3 51 48 3 3 55 51 4 4 55 52 3 3 6 55 52 3 3 58 53 5 5 68 65 3 3 69 63 6 6 20 68 65 3 3 70 67 3 3 73 68 5 5 74 71 3 3 21 62 61 1 1 61 55 6 6 68 67 1 1 68 70 −2 2 22 49 46 3 3 52 48 4 4 66 55 11 11 64 66 −2 2 23 67 62 5 5 70 65 5 5 88 81 7 7 77 70 7 7 24 74 68 6 6 74 69 5 5 68 65 3 3 76 67 9 9 25 66 64 2 2 74 71 3 3 70 71 −1 1 71 66 5 5 Avg 61.2 58.5 2.7 2.9 63 59.3 3.7 3.7 67.7 64.4 3.3 4.1 67.6 64.3 3.3 4.7 59.9 61.2 66.1 66 Diff 8.85 9.45 11.1 12.6 Test 0.000070 0.000091 0.000068 0.000005 Compartment Syndrome Patients Demographics Pt Diast Early Late Fx Locatio Mech e p Inj Ht Wt BMI Side Sex Race Age 1 65 1 T/F P MVC 6 66 165 26.629 L M B 15 2 100 1 T/F M PvA 8 68 210 31.927 R M B 22 3 70 1 T/F P GSW 5 73 170 22.426 L M B 19 4 76 1 T/F M PvA 10 71 165 23.01 R M B 59 5 89 1 P 6 MVC 4 74 220 28.243 L M B 59 6 55 1 P 6 MVC 10 69 210 31.008 L M B 23 7 71 1 P 6 Fall 28 67 155 24.274 L M W 44 8 98 1 P 6 Fall 6 68 200 30.407 L M H 32 9 58 1 T/F M MVC 13 66 150 24.208 L M A 62 Avg 75.8 10 69.111 182.78 26.904 37.222 Std D 16.5 7.3314 2.9345 26.939 3.6333 19.025 Non Compartment Syndrome Demographics Initial Injury Study Time Time p Loca- Pt Mech Ht Wt BMI Side Sex Race Age % O2 Injur op Syst Diast Fx Open Tsch tion 1 MVC 71 185 25.799 R M B 18 0 12 T/F 1 M 2 MVC 60 165 32.221 R F B 45 0 52 T/F 2 M 3 MVC 68 202 30.711 R F B 35 0 7 123 67 T/F 3A 3 M 4 MVC 67 230 36.019 R M W 45 0 10 125 56 T/F 2 M 5 MVC 67 130 20.359 L M B 18 0 31 134 79 T/F 1 M 6 Fall 72 205 27.8 R M W 60 0 15 120 69 SchVI 2 P 7 Fall 69 161 23.773 L M B 26 0 16 129 76 Pilon 2 D 8 PvA 71 170 23.708 R M W 31 0 11 141 59 T/F 1 M 9 Fall 67 215 33.67 L M B 45 0 18 151 95 Pilon 2 D 10 Fall 66 195 31.47 R M B 30 0 5 117 58 Pilon 2 D 11 MVC 67 140 21.925 R M B 52 0 48 T/F 3 P 12 MVC 72 210 28.478 L M B 55 0 9 183 113 T/F 1 2 D 13 MVC 66 175 28.243 R F W 46 0 12 106 58 T/F 3A 2 M 14 MVC 73 280 36.938 R M B 27 0 17 129 65 T/F 2 M 15 Fall 67 155 24.274 L M W 44 0 14 133 76 T/F 3 P 16 Fall 73 205 27.044 L M B 28 0 2 114 60 T/F 2 2 M 17 MVC 72 175 23.732 L M W 21 100 8 80 24 T/F 1 M 18 MVC 75 345 43.117 R M W 42 0 14 131 85 SchV 2 P 19 MVC 68 175 26.606 R F B 42 0 9 163 88 Pilon 2 1 D 20 MVC 70 190 27.259 R M W 22 0 21 153 93 Pilon 2 2 D 21 PvA 70 170 24.39 R M B 54 100 32 140 75 T/F 3A 3 M 22 PvA 68 168 25.542 L M B 38 0 2 131 78 T/F 3 M 23 Blow 71 195 27.194 L M H 29 0 19 137 67 T/F 1 M 24 MVC 68 165 25.085 L M B 26 0 13 148 87 Sch V 2 P 25 MVC 64 210 36.042 R F B 23 0 5 123 49 T/F 1 M 26 MVC 68 165 25.085 L M B 26 0 13 148 87 Sch V 2 P Avg 68.8 191.58 28.326 10-L 5 8 35.692 2 15.962 133 72.348 3-Plat 7 7-1's 5-P Med 15-R 20 17 17-T/F 13-2's 14-M Std D 3.21 43.706 5.3403 12.315 12.389 20.596 18.527 5-pilon 5-3's 6-D pVal Non Compartment Syndrome 2 Days Post-Op Demographics Time Time p Pt Mech Ht Wt BMI Side Sex Race Age Surgery Injur op Syst Diast Fx Open Tsch Location 1 GSW 71 212 29.565 L M B 32 IMN 60 36 148 84 T/F 3 M 2 PvA 69 175 25.84 R M H 34 IMN 130 119 116 65 T/F 3A 3 M 3 MVC 67 130 20.359 L M B 18 IMN 75 43 135 73 T/F 1 M 4 Fall 72 205 27.8 R M W 60 ExF 48 35 101 57 SkVI 2 P 5 MVC 74 200 25.676 R M B 48 ORIF 96 45 148 103 F 2 1 D 6 Fall 69 161 23.773 L M B 26 ORIF 133 40 134 77 Pilon 2 D 7 MVC 62 115 21.031 L F W 22 ORIF 90 44 107 67 Pilon 1 D 8 PvA 75 170 21.246 R M B 47 IMN 43 31 131 86 T/F 2 2 D 9 Fall 64 170 29.177 L F W 51 ExF 47 41 144 79 Pilon 2 D 10 PvA 71 170 23.708 R M W 31 IMN 82 40 148 84 T/F 1 M 11 MVC 66 175 28.243 R F W 46 IMN 60 42 112 61 T/F 3A 3 M 12 Fall 73 205 27.044 L M B 28 IMN 42 32 135 71 T/F 2 3 M 13 MVC 68 175 26.606 R F B 42 ExF 64 37 122 79 Pilon 1 D 14 PvA 70 170 24.39 R M B 54 ExF 56 33 119 55 T/F 3A 3 M 15 MVC 70 190 27.259 R M W 22 ExF 58 46 105 68 T/F 2 3 D 16 PvA 68 168 25.542 L M B 38 IMN 53 42 115 65 T/F 3 m 17 MVC 68 165 25.085 L M B 26 ExF 87 27 137 85 Sch V 2 P Avg 69.2 173.88 25.432 36.765 72 43.118 126.88 74.059 Med Std D 3.4 25.085 2.7582 12.612 27.868 20.285 15.898 12.351 pVal Uninjured Subjects (Normal NIRS Values) Demographics Time p Inj Pt Ht Wt BMI Sex Race Age Injury wk Syst Diast 1 64 130 22.312 F B 18 none 108 67 2 72 175 23.732 M W 28 none 117 65 3 69 180 26.578 M B 33 fing Fx 10 139 87 4 67 185 28.972 M W 36 none 124 78 5 60 110 21.481 F H 28 none 124 78 6 70 175 25.107 M W 32 none 125 71 7 66 200 32.277 M B 29 none 144 92 8 68 200 30.407 M B 32 none 125 65 9 68 188 28.582 M B 58 none 150 81 10 69 192 28.35 M B 48 Clav fx 6 149 51 11 66 200 32.277 F B 58 none 143 81 12 71 180 25.102 M B 28 none 125 85 13 66 142 22.917 F B 34 none 126 89 14 62 196 35.845 F B 24 none 124 75 15 69 186 27.464 F B 42 none 132 90 16 63 138 24.443 M B 39 none 119 70 17 57 132 28.561 F B 43 none 151 91 18 71 175 24.405 M B 21 none 123 68 19 69 160 23.625 M B 21 none 133 78 20 76 265 32.253 M W 26 none 144 87 21 67 160 25.057 M W 25 none 146 70 22 63 117 20.723 F W 51 none 120 73 23 74 230 29.527 M W 32 none 123 69 24 72 195 26.444 M W 33 none 118 77 25 72 205 27.8 M W 23 none 124 98 Avg 67.6 176.64 26.97 33.68 8 130.24 77.44 T avg Std D 4.43 35.222 3.7986 11.022 2.8284 12.011 10.863 White vs. Dark Pigmented Skin Comparison Demographics Affrican American 1 64 130 22.312 F B 18 none 108 67 3 69 180 26.578 M B 33 fing Fx 10 139 87 7 66 200 32.277 M B 29 none 144 92 8 68 200 30.407 M B 32 none 125 65 9 68 188 28.582 M B 58 none 150 81 10 69 192 28.35 M B 48 Clav fx 6 149 51 11 66 200 32.277 F B 58 none 143 81 12 71 180 25.102 M B 28 none 125 85 13 66 142 22.917 F B 34 none 126 89 14 62 196 35.845 F B 24 none 124 75 15 69 186 27.464 F B 42 none 132 90 16 63 138 24.443 M B 39 none 119 70 17 57 132 28.561 F B 43 none 151 91 18 71 175 24.405 M B 21 none 123 68 19 69 160 23.625 M B 21 none 133 78 5 69 150 22.149 M H 24 ROH arm 2 120 80 8 63 98 17.358 F B 25 MC fx 2 120 81 Avg 66.5 173.27 27.543 132.73 78 White 2 72 175 23.732 M W 28 none 117 65 4 67 185 28.972 M W 36 none 124 78 5 60 110 21.481 F H 28 none 124 78 6 70 175 25.107 M W 32 none 125 71 20 76 265 32.253 M W 26 none 144 87 21 67 160 25.057 M W 25 none 146 70 22 63 117 20.723 F W 51 none 120 73 23 74 230 29.527 M W 32 none 123 69 24 72 195 26.444 M W 33 none 118 77 25 72 205 27.8 M W 23 none 124 98 Avg 69.3 181.7 26.11 126.5 76.6 Diff Test indicates data missing or illegible when filed APPENDIX B Tourniquet Study Data INVOS Diff Perfusion from Baseline Subject INVOS pressure (PP) 1 67 71 0 69 65 2 63 56 −4 62 36 −5 61 26 −6 59 17 −8 56 5 −11 55 −1 −12 31 −11 −36 16 −21 −51 15 −35 −52 2 65 88 0 66 75 1 64 63 −1 63 58 −2 57 48 −8 58 43 −7 60 35 −5 60 15 −5 58 4 −7 53 −13 −12 28 0 −37 20 −34 −45 3 63 74 0 66 59 3 67 49 4 65 42 2 66 27 3 65 15 2 64 10 1 61 2 −2 58 −11 −5 52 −6 −11 33 −28 −30 20 −34 −43 4 72 71 0 79 60 7 74 48 2 71 41 −1 71 32 −1 73 21 1 71 20 −1 70 5 −2 68 −9 −4 65 −13 −7 63 −26 −9 47 −32 −25 39 −46 −33 5 69 86 0 70 73 1 72 59 3 69 55 0 69 43 0 66 32 −3 66 20 −3 64 13 −5 62 −1 −7 59 −7 −10 35 −20 −34 22 −31 −47 6 58 72 0 60 59 2 58 49 0 61 39 3 58 27 0 58 19 0 57 6 −1 53 −4 −5 48 −14 −10 23 −25 −35 15 −31 −43 7 67 73 0 68 64 1 68 64 1 68 44 1 68 28 1 66 27 −1 65 9 −2 63 4 −4 61 −7 −6 46 −18 −21 15 −25 −52 8 65 54 0 65 40 0 64 26 −1 63 15 −2 62 4 −3 59 1 −6 41 −10 −24 24 −19 −41 16 −26 −49 9 68 67 0 71 59 3 70 47 2 67 41 −1 65 27 −3 64 19 −4 64 10 −4 63 −4 −5 61 −8 −7 51 −18 −17 24 −23 −44 15 −40 −53 10 69 69 0 66 57 −3 62 46 −7 64 39 −5 64 27 −5 63 17 −6 61 5 −8 62 −1 −7 57 −13 −12 53 −23 −16 39 −33 −30 33 −38 −36 11 62 67 0 60 55 −2 60 45 −2 58 33 −4 58 29 −4 53 15 −9 52 4 −10 43 −5 −19 20 −12 −42 15 −21 −47 12 71 66 0 69 57 −2 68 49 −3 64 42 −7 65 29 −6 62 28 −9 61 12 −10 58 −1 −13 50 −9 −21 40 −17 −31 28 −26 −43 24 −37 −47 13 67 69 0 69 59 2 67 48 0 68 41 1 65 28 −2 64 21 −3 63 8 −4 63 5 −4 57 −9 −10 50 −21 −17 23 −26 −44 15 −37 −52 14 67 68 0 68 53 1 65 45 −2 64 35 −3 63 21 −4 63 16 −4 61 5 −6 59 −3 −8 54 −13 −13 40 −23 −27 34 −35 −33 33 −38 −34 15 70 52 0 70 43 0 70 29 0 69 19 −1 68 10 −2 65 2 −5 59 −10 −11 42 −16 −28 36 −27 −34 34 −35 −36 33 −35 −37 16 72 77 0 71 63 −1 68 49 −4 68 45 −4 66 27 −6 66 24 −6 63 9 −9 60 −3 −12 53 −7 −19 45 −25 −27 40 −28 −32 38 −34 −34 17 61 76 0 59 66 −2 58 59 −3 61 50 0 59 37 −2 58 29 −3 58 19 −3 59 12 −2 55 10 −6 45 −9 −16 24 −19 −37 18 74 69 0 74 61 0 73 48 −1 73 39 −1 73 28 −1 71 17 −3 69 12 −5 67 3 −7 64 −7 −10 45 −21 −29 39 −28 −35 36 −37 −38 19 72 67 0 73 54 1 74 45 2 74 37 2 73 29 1 71 16 −1 69 7 −3 67 −3 −5 66 −15 −6 60 −21 −12 52 −33 −20 49 −43 −23 48 −44 −24 20 70 78 0 70 70 0 70 54 0 69 45 −1 68 28 −2 66 24 −4 62 16 −8 60 3 −10 59 −8 −11 53 2 −17 32 −16 −38 25 −35 −45	A	A61	A61B	5	02
11735009	US20070254456A1-20071101	METHOD FOR MANUFACTURING SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE	ACCEPTED	20071018	20071101		[]	H01L2130	["H01L2130"]	8900970	20070413	20141202	438	458000	75592.0	HENRY	CALEB	[{"inventor_name_last": "MARUYAMA", "inventor_name_first": "Junya", "inventor_city": "Ebina,", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "JINBO", "inventor_name_first": "Yasuhiro", "inventor_city": "Atsugi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "SHOJI", "inventor_name_first": "Hironobu", "inventor_city": "Tokyo", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]	A technique for peeling an element manufactured through a process at relatively low temperature (lower than 500° C.) from a substrate and transferring the element to a flexible substrate (typically, a plastic film). With the use of an existing manufacturing device for a large glass substrate, a molybdenum film (Mo film) is formed over a glass substrate, an oxide film is formed over the molybdenum film, and an element is formed over the oxide film through a process at relatively low temperature (lower than 500° C.). Then, the element is peeled from the glass substrate and transferred to a flexible substrate.	1. A method for manufacturing a semiconductor device, comprising the steps of: forming a molybdenum film over a substrate; forming a molybdenum oxide film over the molybdenum film; forming an insulating film over the molybdenum oxide film; forming a semiconductor film having an amorphous structure over the insulating film; separating the insulating film and the semiconductor film having an amorphous structure from the substrate; and disposing the insulating film and the semiconductor film having an amorphous structure over a flexible substrate after the separation. 2. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 1, wherein the molybdenum film is formed in contact with the substrate. 3. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 1, wherein the molybdenum oxide film is formed in contact with the molybdenum film. 4. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 1, further comprising a step of partially performing laser light irradiation before the separation. 5. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 1, wherein the substrate is selected from the group consisting of a glass substrate, a ceramic substrate, and a quartz substrate. 6. A method for manufacturing a semiconductor device, comprising the steps of: forming a molybdenum film over a substrate; forming a molybdenum oxide film over the molybdenum film; forming an insulating film over the molybdenum oxide film; forming a semiconductor film including an organic compound over the insulating film; separating the insulating film and the semiconductor film including an organic compound from the substrate; and disposing the insulating film and the semiconductor film including an organic compound over a flexible substrate after the separation. 7. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 6, wherein the molybdenum film is formed in contact with the substrate. 8. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 6, wherein the molybdenum oxide film is formed in contact with the molybdenum film. 9. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 6, further comprising a step of partially performing laser light irradiation before the separation. 10. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 6, wherein the substrate is selected from the group consisting of a glass substrate, a ceramic substrate, and a quartz substrate. 11. A method for manufacturing a semiconductor device, comprising the steps of: forming a molybdenum film over a substrate; forming a molybdenum oxide film over the molybdenum film; forming an insulating film over the molybdenum oxide film; forming a first electrode over the insulating film; forming a light emitting layer over the first electrode; forming a second electrode over the light emitting layer; separating the insulating film, the first electrode, the light emitting layer, and the second electrode from the substrate; and disposing the insulating film, the first electrode, the light emitting layer, and the second electrode over a flexible substrate after the separation. 12. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 11, wherein the molybdenum film is formed in contact with the substrate. 13. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 11, wherein the molybdenum oxide film is formed in contact with the molybdenum film. 14. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 11, further comprising a step of partially performing laser light irradiation before the separation. 15. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 11, wherein the substrate is selected from the group consisting of a glass substrate, a ceramic substrate, and a quartz substrate. 16. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 11, wherein the light emitting layer comprises an organic compound or an inorganic compound. 17. A method for manufacturing a semiconductor device, comprising the steps of: forming a molybdenum film over a substrate; forming a molybdenum oxide film over the molybdenum film; forming a conductive layer over the molybdenum oxide film by a printing method; baking the conductive layer; forming an insulating film to cover the conductive layer; separating the insulating film and the conductive layer from the substrate; and disposing the insulating film and the conductive layer over a flexible substrate after the separation. 18. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 17, wherein the conductive layer is an antenna. 19. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 17, wherein the conductive layer is formed in contact with the molybdenum oxide film. 20. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 17, wherein the molybdenum film is formed in contact with the substrate. 21. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 17, wherein the molybdenum oxide film is formed in contact with the molybdenum film. 22. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 17, further comprising a step of partially performing laser light irradiation before the separation. 23. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 17, wherein the substrate is selected from the group consisting of a glass substrate, a ceramic substrate, and a quartz substrate.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a semiconductor device which has a circuit including a thin film transistor (hereinafter referred to as a TFT) and a method for manufacturing the semiconductor device. For example, the present invention relates to an electronic device which has as a component an electro-optical device typified by a liquid crystal display panel or a light emitting display device including an organic light emitting element. Note that the term “semiconductor device” in this specification refers to a device in general that can operate by utilizing semiconductor characteristics, and an electro-optical device, a semiconductor circuit, and an electronic device are all included in the semiconductor device. 2. Description of the Related Art In recent years, attention has been focused on a technique for forming a thin film transistor (TFT) with the use of a semiconductor thin film (with a thickness of approximately several to several hundred nanometers) which is formed over a substrate having an insulating surface. The thin film transistor is widely applied to an electronic device such as an IC or an electro-optical device, and its development especially as a switching element of an image display device is rushed. Various applications using such an image display device have been devised. In particular, application to a portable device has attracted attention. Currently, a glass substrate or a quartz substrate is often used; however, these substrates have the disadvantages of being fragile and heavy. Moreover, it is difficult to increase the size of a glass substrate or a quartz substrate, so that these substrates are unsuitable for mass production. Consequently, a TFT element is attempted to be formed over a substrate having flexibility, typically, a flexible plastic film. Thus, several techniques have been proposed to peel an element formed over a glass substrate from the substrate and transfer the peeled element to another base material such as a plastic film. The assignee of this application has proposed peeling and transferring techniques disclosed in References 1 and 2. Reference 1 discloses a peeling technique in which a silicon oxide film serving as a peeling layer is removed by wet etching. Reference 2 discloses a peeling technique in which a silicon film serving as a peeling layer is removed by dry etching. In addition, the assignee of this application has proposed a peeling and transferring technique disclosed in Reference 3. Reference 3 discloses a peeling technique in which, when a metal layer (Ti, Al, Ta, W, Mo, Cu, Cr, Nd, Fe, Ni, Co, Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir) is formed over a substrate and an oxide layer is stacked thereover, a metal oxide layer of the metal layer is formed at the interface between the metal layer and the oxide layer and this metal oxide layer is used for peeling in a later step. [Reference 1] Japanese Published Patent Application No. H08-288522 [Reference 2] Japanese Published Patent Application No. H08-250745	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention discloses a technique for separating (in other words, peeling) an element which is formed through a process at relatively low temperature (lower than 500° C.), typically a TFT using an amorphous silicon film or the like, a TFT using an organic semiconductor film, a light emitting element, or a passive element (such as a sensor, an antenna, a resistor, or a capacitor) from a glass substrate and disposing (in other words, transferring) the element to a flexible substrate (typically, a plastic film). Although a TFT using an amorphous silicon film or the like or a TFT using an organic semiconductor film can be formed directly over a plastic film, a special manufacturing apparatus is required to handle a plastic film because of its softness. For mass production, a manufacturing apparatus which supplies a plastic film by a roll-to-roll method is needed. In a case of forming a TFT using an amorphous silicon film or the like or a TFT using an organic semiconductor film directly over a plastic film, the plastic film may change its quality by exposure to a solvent or an etching gas used during the process of manufacturing the TFT. In a case of forming a TFT using ZnO directly over a plastic film, the plastic film changes its quality when exposed to plasma which is generated by a sputtering method or the like. Further, a plastic film may contaminate an element by absorbing or releasing moisture or the like during the process of manufacturing a TFT. Furthermore, a plastic film has lower heat resistance and is more significantly expanded and contracted due to heat as compared to a glass substrate, but it is difficult to finely control all treatment temperatures during the manufacturing process. A feature of the present invention is to form a molybdenum film (Mo film) over a glass substrate and an oxide film over the molybdenum film; to form an element which is formed through a process at relatively low temperature (lower than 500° C.) (a TFT using an amorphous silicon film or the like, a TFT using an organic semiconductor film, a light emitting element, or a passive element (such as a sensor, an antenna, a resistor, or a capacitor)) over the oxide film; to peel the element from the glass substrate; and to transfer the element to a flexible substrate. Molybdenum has the disadvantage of being inferior in heat resistance to tungsten. For example, a molybdenum film causes peeling when subjected to heat treatment at 500° C. or higher; therefore, the temperature during the manufacturing process is preferably lower than 500° C. Further, a molybdenum film formed by a sputtering method is fragile, and is particularly fragile at the crystal grain boundary in a polycrystalline state. In the present invention, this molybdenum film having a fragile property is used to cause peeling. With the use of a molybdenum film having a fragile property, peeling can be performed with high yield even in a case of using a relatively large substrate. In peeling an element including an organic compound (such as a light emitting element or an organic TFT) which is formed over a metal layer over a glass substrate, the element may be peeled not near the metal layer but in or at the interface of a layer including an organic compound because the organic compound has low adhesion, which may damage the element including an organic compound. A material layer formed by a printing method also has low adhesion; therefore, peeling may similarly occur in or at the interface of the material layer. However, in a case of employing a peeling method of the present invention in which a molybdenum film is used, peeling can be performed by weak force relative to other metals because a molybdenum film is fragile. Further, since heat treatment, laser light irradiation, or the like is not particularly necessary for the peeling, the process can be simplified. In tape peel test in which peeling was performed by attaching tape immediately after formation of a silicon oxide film over a molybdenum film, peeling of the silicon oxide film could be confirmed. In other words, peeling can be performed without heat treatment. Note that FIG. 4A is a photograph showing a result of this tape peel test. FIG. 4B shows a schematic diagram of the photograph. Note that a sample shown in FIG. 4A was formed by stacking a silicon oxynitride film with a thickness of 100 nm over a glass substrate, a molybdenum film (with a thickness of 50 nm) thereover, and a silicon oxide film (200 nm) by a sputtering method. As shown in FIG. 4B , peeling with tape 1003 was confirmed in a region 1002 . Note that a substrate 1001 , over which a molybdenum film is formed entirely, has a mirror surface; therefore, the appearance of a ceiling (such as a hose) at the time of shooting is shown in the photograph of FIG. 4A . In addition, it was also confirmed that peeling could be performed even in a case of performing heat treatment as long as it is lower than 500° C. From these test results and characteristics of a molybdenum film, it can be said that molybdenum is a more suitable material than other metals for peeling and transferring an element including an organic compound, or the like. In addition, molybdenum has the advantages of having lower vapor pressure and releasing less gas than other metal elements. Therefore, contamination of an element formed over a molybdenum film can be minimized. Although it is described that a molybdenum film is formed over a glass substrate, there is no limitation to a glass substrate, and a quartz substrate, a ceramic substrate, a semiconductor substrate, or the like can also be used. According to the present invention, an element such as a TFT formed using an existing manufacturing apparatus for a large glass substrate can be transferred to a flexible substrate. Therefore, equipment cost can be significantly reduced. One aspect of the present invention disclosed in this specification is a method of forming an element such as an amorphous TFT over a flexible substrate. A molybdenum film is formed over a substrate; a molybdenum oxide film is formed over the molybdenum film; an insulating film is formed over the molybdenum oxide film; a semiconductor film having an amorphous structure is formed over the insulating film; and the insulating film and the semiconductor film having an amorphous structure are peeled from the substrate and transferred to a flexible substrate. An experiment was conducted as to whether or not a semiconductor film having an amorphous structure could be peeled without heat treatment. A silicon oxynitride film with a thickness of 100 nm was formed over a glass substrate; a molybdenum film (with a thickness of 50 nm) was formed thereover; and a silicon oxide film (200 nm) was formed by a sputtering method. After that, a silicon oxynitride film with a thickness of 100 nm was formed by a PCVD method, and an amorphous silicon film (54 nm) was formed thereover. When tape was attached to and peeled from a part of an experiment substrate 1 formed as described above, the peeling could be performed as shown in FIG. 15A . As shown in FIG. 15B , which is a schematic diagram of FIG. 15A , peeling with tape could be confirmed in a region 1002 . Note that a substrate 1001 , over which the molybdenum film is formed entirely, has a mirror surface; therefore, the appearance of a ceiling (such as a hose) at the time of shooting is shown in the photograph of FIG. 15A . In tape peel test similarly conducted to an experiment substrate 2 to which heat treatment was performed, peeling could be performed as shown in FIG. 16A . As shown in FIG. 16B , which is a schematic diagram of FIG. 16A , peeling with tape could be confirmed in a region 1002 . A feature of the present invention is not to form an amorphous TFT by sequentially stacking material layers over a flexible substrate but to peel an element such as an amorphous TFT formed over a glass substrate, a ceramic substrate, or a quartz substrate from the substrate and fix the element to a flexible substrate. Note that treatment for fixing the element to the flexible substrate may be performed either before or after the peeling. Further, the element may be fixed between two flexible substrates. Another aspect of the present invention is a method of forming an element such as an organic TFT over a flexible substrate. A molybdenum film is formed over a substrate; a molybdenum oxide film is formed over the molybdenum film; an insulating film is formed over the molybdenum oxide film; a semiconductor film including an organic compound is formed over the insulating film; and the insulating film and the semiconductor film including an organic compound are peeled from the substrate and transferred to a flexible substrate. Still another aspect of the present invention is a method of forming a light emitting element such as an organic light emitting element or an inorganic light emitting element over a flexible substrate. A molybdenum film is formed over a substrate; a molybdenum oxide film is formed over the molybdenum film; an insulating film is formed over the molybdenum oxide film; a first electrode is formed over the insulating film; a light emitting layer including an organic compound or an inorganic compound is formed over the first electrode; a second electrode is formed over the light emitting layer; and the insulating film, the first electrode, the light emitting layer, and the second electrode are peeled from the substrate and transferred to a flexible substrate. Yet another aspect of the present invention is a method of forming a passive element such as an antenna over a flexible substrate. A molybdenum film is formed over a substrate; a molybdenum oxide film is formed over the molybdenum film; an antenna is printed by a printing method over the molybdenum oxide film; the antenna is baked; an insulating film is formed to cover the antenna; and the insulating film and the antenna are peeled from the substrate and transferred to a flexible substrate. According to the above aspect, the antenna is preferably formed in contact with the molybdenum oxide film. Since molybdenum oxide which is exposed after the peeling is a semiconductor, electrical connection can be obtained by placing a terminal portion of another element substrate to overlap a part of the antenna. In this case, the molybdenum oxide film is preferably thin and formed as a natural oxide film. According to each of the above aspects, the molybdenum film is preferably formed in contact with the substrate because a process can be simplified. However, when the adhesion between the substrate and the molybdenum film is poor, a material film serving as a buffer layer (such as a silicon oxynitride film or a molybdenum nitride film) may be formed between the substrate and the molybdenum film. According to each of the above aspects, pretreatment may be performed to promote the peeling, and for example, laser light irradiation is preferably performed partially before the peeling. Specifically, a solid-state laser (a pulse-excited Q-switch Nd:YAG laser) may be used, a second harmonic (532 nm) or a third harmonic (355 nm) of a fundamental wave may be used, and relatively weak laser light (with an irradiation energy of a laser light source of 1 mJ to 2 mJ) may be used for the irradiation. The present invention can be applied regardless of an element structure, for example a TFT structure. For example, a top-gate TFT, a bottom-gate (inverted staggered) TFT, or a forward staggered TFT can be used. Further, there is no limitation to a single-gate transistor, and a multi-gate transistor having a plurality of channel formation regions, for example a double-gate transistor, may be used. According to the present invention, a large display device using a flexible substrate can be manufactured, and not only a passive-matrix liquid crystal display device or a passive-matrix light emitting device but also an active-matrix liquid crystal display device or an active-matrix light emitting device can be manufactured. Note that the term “molybdenum film” in this specification refers to a film which mainly contains molybdenum, and is not particularly limited as long as a composition ratio of molybdenum in the film is 50% or more. In order to increase mechanical strength of the film, Co, Sn, or the like may be added. A molybdenum film may also contain nitrogen in order to reduce its fragility. The term “flexible substrate” refers to a plastic film substrate, for example a plastic substrate of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethersulfone (PES), polyethylene naphthalate (PEN), polycarbonate (PC), nylon, polyetheretherketone (PEEK), polysulfone (PSF), polyetherimide (PEI), polyarylate (PAR), polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), or the like. According to the present invention, a peeling step can be carried out smoothly even in a case of using a large substrate with a diagonal length of more than 1 m.	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a semiconductor device which has a circuit including a thin film transistor (hereinafter referred to as a TFT) and a method for manufacturing the semiconductor device. For example, the present invention relates to an electronic device which has as a component an electro-optical device typified by a liquid crystal display panel or a light emitting display device including an organic light emitting element. Note that the term “semiconductor device” in this specification refers to a device in general that can operate by utilizing semiconductor characteristics, and an electro-optical device, a semiconductor circuit, and an electronic device are all included in the semiconductor device. 2. Description of the Related Art In recent years, attention has been focused on a technique for forming a thin film transistor (TFT) with the use of a semiconductor thin film (with a thickness of approximately several to several hundred nanometers) which is formed over a substrate having an insulating surface. The thin film transistor is widely applied to an electronic device such as an IC or an electro-optical device, and its development especially as a switching element of an image display device is rushed. Various applications using such an image display device have been devised. In particular, application to a portable device has attracted attention. Currently, a glass substrate or a quartz substrate is often used; however, these substrates have the disadvantages of being fragile and heavy. Moreover, it is difficult to increase the size of a glass substrate or a quartz substrate, so that these substrates are unsuitable for mass production. Consequently, a TFT element is attempted to be formed over a substrate having flexibility, typically, a flexible plastic film. Thus, several techniques have been proposed to peel an element formed over a glass substrate from the substrate and transfer the peeled element to another base material such as a plastic film. The assignee of this application has proposed peeling and transferring techniques disclosed in References 1 and 2. Reference 1 discloses a peeling technique in which a silicon oxide film serving as a peeling layer is removed by wet etching. Reference 2 discloses a peeling technique in which a silicon film serving as a peeling layer is removed by dry etching. In addition, the assignee of this application has proposed a peeling and transferring technique disclosed in Reference 3. Reference 3 discloses a peeling technique in which, when a metal layer (Ti, Al, Ta, W, Mo, Cu, Cr, Nd, Fe, Ni, Co, Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir) is formed over a substrate and an oxide layer is stacked thereover, a metal oxide layer of the metal layer is formed at the interface between the metal layer and the oxide layer and this metal oxide layer is used for peeling in a later step. [Reference 1] Japanese Published Patent Application No. H08-288522 [Reference 2] Japanese Published Patent Application No. H08-250745 [Reference 3] Japanese Published Patent Application No. 2003-174153 SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention discloses a technique for separating (in other words, peeling) an element which is formed through a process at relatively low temperature (lower than 500° C.), typically a TFT using an amorphous silicon film or the like, a TFT using an organic semiconductor film, a light emitting element, or a passive element (such as a sensor, an antenna, a resistor, or a capacitor) from a glass substrate and disposing (in other words, transferring) the element to a flexible substrate (typically, a plastic film). Although a TFT using an amorphous silicon film or the like or a TFT using an organic semiconductor film can be formed directly over a plastic film, a special manufacturing apparatus is required to handle a plastic film because of its softness. For mass production, a manufacturing apparatus which supplies a plastic film by a roll-to-roll method is needed. In a case of forming a TFT using an amorphous silicon film or the like or a TFT using an organic semiconductor film directly over a plastic film, the plastic film may change its quality by exposure to a solvent or an etching gas used during the process of manufacturing the TFT. In a case of forming a TFT using ZnO directly over a plastic film, the plastic film changes its quality when exposed to plasma which is generated by a sputtering method or the like. Further, a plastic film may contaminate an element by absorbing or releasing moisture or the like during the process of manufacturing a TFT. Furthermore, a plastic film has lower heat resistance and is more significantly expanded and contracted due to heat as compared to a glass substrate, but it is difficult to finely control all treatment temperatures during the manufacturing process. A feature of the present invention is to form a molybdenum film (Mo film) over a glass substrate and an oxide film over the molybdenum film; to form an element which is formed through a process at relatively low temperature (lower than 500° C.) (a TFT using an amorphous silicon film or the like, a TFT using an organic semiconductor film, a light emitting element, or a passive element (such as a sensor, an antenna, a resistor, or a capacitor)) over the oxide film; to peel the element from the glass substrate; and to transfer the element to a flexible substrate. Molybdenum has the disadvantage of being inferior in heat resistance to tungsten. For example, a molybdenum film causes peeling when subjected to heat treatment at 500° C. or higher; therefore, the temperature during the manufacturing process is preferably lower than 500° C. Further, a molybdenum film formed by a sputtering method is fragile, and is particularly fragile at the crystal grain boundary in a polycrystalline state. In the present invention, this molybdenum film having a fragile property is used to cause peeling. With the use of a molybdenum film having a fragile property, peeling can be performed with high yield even in a case of using a relatively large substrate. In peeling an element including an organic compound (such as a light emitting element or an organic TFT) which is formed over a metal layer over a glass substrate, the element may be peeled not near the metal layer but in or at the interface of a layer including an organic compound because the organic compound has low adhesion, which may damage the element including an organic compound. A material layer formed by a printing method also has low adhesion; therefore, peeling may similarly occur in or at the interface of the material layer. However, in a case of employing a peeling method of the present invention in which a molybdenum film is used, peeling can be performed by weak force relative to other metals because a molybdenum film is fragile. Further, since heat treatment, laser light irradiation, or the like is not particularly necessary for the peeling, the process can be simplified. In tape peel test in which peeling was performed by attaching tape immediately after formation of a silicon oxide film over a molybdenum film, peeling of the silicon oxide film could be confirmed. In other words, peeling can be performed without heat treatment. Note that FIG. 4A is a photograph showing a result of this tape peel test. FIG. 4B shows a schematic diagram of the photograph. Note that a sample shown in FIG. 4A was formed by stacking a silicon oxynitride film with a thickness of 100 nm over a glass substrate, a molybdenum film (with a thickness of 50 nm) thereover, and a silicon oxide film (200 nm) by a sputtering method. As shown in FIG. 4B, peeling with tape 1003 was confirmed in a region 1002. Note that a substrate 1001, over which a molybdenum film is formed entirely, has a mirror surface; therefore, the appearance of a ceiling (such as a hose) at the time of shooting is shown in the photograph of FIG. 4A. In addition, it was also confirmed that peeling could be performed even in a case of performing heat treatment as long as it is lower than 500° C. From these test results and characteristics of a molybdenum film, it can be said that molybdenum is a more suitable material than other metals for peeling and transferring an element including an organic compound, or the like. In addition, molybdenum has the advantages of having lower vapor pressure and releasing less gas than other metal elements. Therefore, contamination of an element formed over a molybdenum film can be minimized. Although it is described that a molybdenum film is formed over a glass substrate, there is no limitation to a glass substrate, and a quartz substrate, a ceramic substrate, a semiconductor substrate, or the like can also be used. According to the present invention, an element such as a TFT formed using an existing manufacturing apparatus for a large glass substrate can be transferred to a flexible substrate. Therefore, equipment cost can be significantly reduced. One aspect of the present invention disclosed in this specification is a method of forming an element such as an amorphous TFT over a flexible substrate. A molybdenum film is formed over a substrate; a molybdenum oxide film is formed over the molybdenum film; an insulating film is formed over the molybdenum oxide film; a semiconductor film having an amorphous structure is formed over the insulating film; and the insulating film and the semiconductor film having an amorphous structure are peeled from the substrate and transferred to a flexible substrate. An experiment was conducted as to whether or not a semiconductor film having an amorphous structure could be peeled without heat treatment. A silicon oxynitride film with a thickness of 100 nm was formed over a glass substrate; a molybdenum film (with a thickness of 50 nm) was formed thereover; and a silicon oxide film (200 nm) was formed by a sputtering method. After that, a silicon oxynitride film with a thickness of 100 nm was formed by a PCVD method, and an amorphous silicon film (54 nm) was formed thereover. When tape was attached to and peeled from a part of an experiment substrate 1 formed as described above, the peeling could be performed as shown in FIG. 15A. As shown in FIG. 15B, which is a schematic diagram of FIG. 15A, peeling with tape could be confirmed in a region 1002. Note that a substrate 1001, over which the molybdenum film is formed entirely, has a mirror surface; therefore, the appearance of a ceiling (such as a hose) at the time of shooting is shown in the photograph of FIG. 15A. In tape peel test similarly conducted to an experiment substrate 2 to which heat treatment was performed, peeling could be performed as shown in FIG. 16A. As shown in FIG. 16B, which is a schematic diagram of FIG. 16A, peeling with tape could be confirmed in a region 1002. A feature of the present invention is not to form an amorphous TFT by sequentially stacking material layers over a flexible substrate but to peel an element such as an amorphous TFT formed over a glass substrate, a ceramic substrate, or a quartz substrate from the substrate and fix the element to a flexible substrate. Note that treatment for fixing the element to the flexible substrate may be performed either before or after the peeling. Further, the element may be fixed between two flexible substrates. Another aspect of the present invention is a method of forming an element such as an organic TFT over a flexible substrate. A molybdenum film is formed over a substrate; a molybdenum oxide film is formed over the molybdenum film; an insulating film is formed over the molybdenum oxide film; a semiconductor film including an organic compound is formed over the insulating film; and the insulating film and the semiconductor film including an organic compound are peeled from the substrate and transferred to a flexible substrate. Still another aspect of the present invention is a method of forming a light emitting element such as an organic light emitting element or an inorganic light emitting element over a flexible substrate. A molybdenum film is formed over a substrate; a molybdenum oxide film is formed over the molybdenum film; an insulating film is formed over the molybdenum oxide film; a first electrode is formed over the insulating film; a light emitting layer including an organic compound or an inorganic compound is formed over the first electrode; a second electrode is formed over the light emitting layer; and the insulating film, the first electrode, the light emitting layer, and the second electrode are peeled from the substrate and transferred to a flexible substrate. Yet another aspect of the present invention is a method of forming a passive element such as an antenna over a flexible substrate. A molybdenum film is formed over a substrate; a molybdenum oxide film is formed over the molybdenum film; an antenna is printed by a printing method over the molybdenum oxide film; the antenna is baked; an insulating film is formed to cover the antenna; and the insulating film and the antenna are peeled from the substrate and transferred to a flexible substrate. According to the above aspect, the antenna is preferably formed in contact with the molybdenum oxide film. Since molybdenum oxide which is exposed after the peeling is a semiconductor, electrical connection can be obtained by placing a terminal portion of another element substrate to overlap a part of the antenna. In this case, the molybdenum oxide film is preferably thin and formed as a natural oxide film. According to each of the above aspects, the molybdenum film is preferably formed in contact with the substrate because a process can be simplified. However, when the adhesion between the substrate and the molybdenum film is poor, a material film serving as a buffer layer (such as a silicon oxynitride film or a molybdenum nitride film) may be formed between the substrate and the molybdenum film. According to each of the above aspects, pretreatment may be performed to promote the peeling, and for example, laser light irradiation is preferably performed partially before the peeling. Specifically, a solid-state laser (a pulse-excited Q-switch Nd:YAG laser) may be used, a second harmonic (532 nm) or a third harmonic (355 nm) of a fundamental wave may be used, and relatively weak laser light (with an irradiation energy of a laser light source of 1 mJ to 2 mJ) may be used for the irradiation. The present invention can be applied regardless of an element structure, for example a TFT structure. For example, a top-gate TFT, a bottom-gate (inverted staggered) TFT, or a forward staggered TFT can be used. Further, there is no limitation to a single-gate transistor, and a multi-gate transistor having a plurality of channel formation regions, for example a double-gate transistor, may be used. According to the present invention, a large display device using a flexible substrate can be manufactured, and not only a passive-matrix liquid crystal display device or a passive-matrix light emitting device but also an active-matrix liquid crystal display device or an active-matrix light emitting device can be manufactured. Note that the term “molybdenum film” in this specification refers to a film which mainly contains molybdenum, and is not particularly limited as long as a composition ratio of molybdenum in the film is 50% or more. In order to increase mechanical strength of the film, Co, Sn, or the like may be added. A molybdenum film may also contain nitrogen in order to reduce its fragility. The term “flexible substrate” refers to a plastic film substrate, for example a plastic substrate of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethersulfone (PES), polyethylene naphthalate (PEN), polycarbonate (PC), nylon, polyetheretherketone (PEEK), polysulfone (PSF), polyetherimide (PEI), polyarylate (PAR), polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), or the like. According to the present invention, a peeling step can be carried out smoothly even in a case of using a large substrate with a diagonal length of more than 1 m. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIGS. 1A to 1E are cross-sectional views showing a manufacturing process of a liquid crystal display device (Embodiment Mode 1). FIGS. 2A to 2D are cross-sectional views showing a manufacturing process of a light emitting device (Embodiment Mode 2). FIGS. 3A and 3B are diagrams each showing an example of a cross-sectional structure of an organic TFT (Embodiment Mode 2). FIGS. 4A and 4B are a photograph and a schematic diagram showing results of a tape peel test, respectively. FIG. 5A is a top view and FIGS. 5B and 5C are cross-sectional views of a passive-matrix light emitting device (Embodiment Mode 3). FIG. 6 is a perspective view of a passive-matrix light emitting device (Embodiment Mode 3). FIG. 7 is a top view of a passive-matrix light emitting device (Embodiment Mode 3). FIGS. 8A and 8B are top views of a passive-matrix light emitting device (Embodiment Mode 3). FIG. 9 is a cross-sectional view of a passive-matrix light emitting device (Embodiment Mode 3). FIGS. 10A to 10D are cross-sectional views showing a manufacturing process of an antenna, and FIG. 10E is a perspective view showing a manufacturing process of a semiconductor device. FIGS. 11A to 11D are top views each showing a semiconductor device functioning as a wireless chip. FIG. 12A is a block diagram illustrating a semiconductor device obtained by the present invention, and FIG. 12B is a diagram showing an example of an electronic device. FIGS. 13A to 13G are diagrams each showing an example of a semiconductor device. FIGS. 14A to 14C are diagrams each showing an example of an electronic device. FIGS. 15A and 15B are a photograph and a schematic diagram showing a result of a tape peel test, respectively. FIGS. 16A and 16B are a photograph and a schematic diagram showing a result of a tape peel test, respectively. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Embodiment modes and embodiments of the present invention will be described hereinafter. Embodiment Mode 1 An example of manufacturing a liquid crystal display device is explained here with reference to FIGS. 1A to 1E. First, a molybdenum film 102 is formed over a substrate 101. The substrate 101 used here is a glass substrate. The molybdenum film 102 is a molybdenum film formed by a sputtering method with a thickness of 30 nm to 200 nm. Since the substrate may be fixed for a sputtering method, the thickness of the molybdenum film on the edge portion of the substrate tends to be nonuniform. Therefore, the molybdenum film on the edge portion is preferably removed by dry etching. Next, a molybdenum oxide film 103 is formed by oxidation of a surface of the molybdenum film 102. The molybdenum oxide film 103 may be formed by oxidation of the surface with the use of pure water or ozone water or with the use of oxygen plasma. Alternatively, the molybdenum oxide film 103 may be formed by heating in an atmosphere including oxygen. FIG. 1A shows a cross-sectional view at a stage where the steps up to here are completed. A first conductive film is formed over the molybdenum oxide film 103, and a mask is formed over the first conductive film. The first conductive film is formed using a single layer or a stacked layer of an element selected from Ta, W, Ti, Al, Cu, Cr, Nd, and the like, or an alloy material or a compound material mainly containing the element. The first conductive film is appropriately formed by a sputtering method, an evaporation method, a CVD method, a coating method, or the like. Next, a gate electrode 104 is formed by etching the first conductive film with the use of the mask. Then, a first insulating film 105 functioning as a gate insulating film is formed over the gate electrode 104. The first insulating film 105 used here is an insulating film such as a silicon oxide film, a silicon nitride film, or a silicon oxynitride film. The first insulating film 105 may alternatively be a film obtained by applying and baking a solution including polysilazane or a siloxane polymer, a photo-curing organic resin film, a thermosetting organic resin film, or the like. Next, a semiconductor film 106 having an amorphous structure is formed over the first insulating film 105. The semiconductor film 106 having an amorphous structure is formed using an amorphous semiconductor film or a microcrystalline semiconductor film produced by a vapor deposition method, a sputtering method, or a thermal CVD method using a semiconductor material gas typified by silane or germane. This embodiment mode describes an example of using an amorphous silicon film as the semiconductor film. The semiconductor film may be formed using ZnO or oxide of zinc gallium indium produced by a sputtering method or a pulsed laser deposition (PLD) method. In that case, the gate insulating film is preferably formed using oxide including aluminum or titanium. A semiconductor film containing an impurity element imparting one conductivity type is formed. Here, an amorphous semiconductor film 107 containing an impurity element imparting n-type conductivity is formed with a thickness of 20 nm to 80 nm. The amorphous semiconductor film 107 containing an impurity element imparting n-type conductivity is entirely formed by a plasma CVD method, a sputtering method, or the like. FIG. 1B shows a cross-sectional view at a stage where the steps up to here are completed. Then, an island-like semiconductor layer and a conductive semiconductor layer are obtained by patterning using a photolithography technique. Note that instead of a photolithography technique, a mask may be formed by a droplet discharge method or a printing method (such as relief printing, planography, intaglio printing, or screen printing), and etching may be performed selectively. After that, a source electrode 112 and a drain electrode 113 are formed by selectively discharging a composition including a conductive material (such as silver (Ag), gold (Au), copper (Cu), tungsten (W), or aluminum (Al)) by a droplet discharge method. Note that instead of a droplet discharge method, the source electrode 112 and the drain electrode 113 may be formed by forming a metal film (such as Ta, W, Ti, Al, Cu, Cr, or Nd) by a sputtering method and performing patterning using a photolithography technique. Then, conductive semiconductor layers 110 and 111 are formed using the source electrode 112 and the drain electrode 113 as masks. A semiconductor layer 109 is formed by etching the upper semiconductor layer using the source electrode 112 and the drain electrode 113 as masks to expose a part of the lower semiconductor layer and by further removing a portion of an upper portion of the lower semiconductor layer. The exposed portion of the semiconductor layer 109 functions as a channel formation region of a TFT. A protective film 114 is formed to prevent impurity contamination of the channel formation region of the semiconductor layer 109. The protective film 114 is formed using a material mainly containing silicon nitride or silicon nitride oxide by a sputtering method or a PCVD method. In this embodiment mode, hydrogenation treatment is carried out after the protective film is formed. In this manner, a TFT 108 is manufactured. An interlayer insulating film 115 is formed over the protective film 114. The interlayer insulating film 115 is formed using a resin material such as an epoxy resin, an acrylic resin, a phenol resin, a novolac resin, a melamine resin, or a urethane resin. Alternatively, it may be formed using an organic material such as benzocyclobutene, parylene, or permeable polyimide, a compound material produced by polymerization of a siloxane-based polymer or the like, a composition material including a water-soluble homopolymer and a water-soluble copolymer, or the like. The interlayer insulating film 115 may be an insulating film such as a silicon oxide film, a silicon nitride film, or a silicon oxynitride film, or may be formed by stacking any of these insulating films and a resin material. The protective film 114 and the interlayer insulating film 115 are selectively removed by patterning using a photolithography technique to form a contact hole reaching the drain electrode 113. A first electrode 116 is formed by selectively discharging a composition including a conductive material (such as silver (Ag), gold (Au), copper (Cu), tungsten (W), or aluminum (Al)) by a droplet discharge method to be electrically connected to the drain electrode 113. A second electrode 117, which generates an electric field parallel to a substrate plane with the first electrode 116, is also formed by a droplet discharge method. Note that the first electrode 116 and the second electrode 117 are preferably positioned at a regular interval, and the shape of the electrode when seen from above may be pectinate. An orientation film 118 is formed to cover the first electrode 116 and the second electrode 117. FIG. 1C shows a cross-sectional view at a stage where the steps up to here are completed. A flexible substrate 121 is fixed using a liquid crystal material, here a polymer dispersed liquid crystal, so as to face the substrate 101. The polymer dispersed liquid crystal can be roughly divided into two types depending on the dispersion state of liquid crystal and a polymer material. One of these two types is that in which droplets of liquid crystal are dispersed in a polymer material and liquid crystal is discontinuous (called PDLC). The other is that a polymer material forms a network in liquid crystal and liquid crystal is continuous (called PNLC). Note that although either type may be used in this embodiment mode, PDLC is used here. In this embodiment mode, a polymer material 119 including liquid crystal 120 fixes the flexible substrate 121. If necessary, a sealant may be provided to surround the polymer material 119. Further, if necessary, a spacer (such as a bead spacer, a column spacer, or a fiber) may be used to control the thickness of the polymer material 119. The TFT 108 and the flexible substrate 121 are peeled from the molybdenum film 102 and the substrate 101. The peeling can be performed by weak force relative to other metals because the molybdenum film is fragile. FIG. 1D is a diagram showing that separation occurs at the interface between the molybdenum oxide film 103 and the molybdenum film 102. However, separation may occur anywhere between the gate electrode 104 and the substrate 101 that does not destroy the TFT. Separation may be caused in the molybdenum film or the molybdenum oxide film, at the interface between the substrate and the molybdenum film, or at the interface between the gate electrode and the molybdenum oxide film. Note that in a case of manufacturing a transmissive liquid crystal display device, when separation is caused at the interface between the substrate and the molybdenum film and the molybdenum film remains, the molybdenum film is preferably removed later. As shown in FIG. 1E, a flexible substrate 123 is fixed using an adhesive layer 122 to the side on which the peeling has been caused, in order to increase mechanical strength of a liquid crystal display device. Note that the flexible substrate 121 and the flexible substrate 123 are preferably formed using materials having the same thermal expansion coefficient in order to maintain a constant substrate interval independently of temperature change. If the liquid crystal display device has sufficient mechanical strength, the flexible substrate 123 may be omitted. Through the above-described steps, an active-matrix liquid crystal display device using an amorphous-silicon TFT can be manufactured. A conductive film formed by a droplet discharge method has low adhesion. However, in a case of employing the peeling method of the present invention in which a molybdenum film is used, peeling can be performed near the molybdenum film (in this embodiment mode, at the interface between the molybdenum oxide film 103 and the molybdenum film 102) even when a conductive film formed by a droplet discharge method is used as a part of a wiring. This embodiment mode describes an example of forming the gate electrode 104 on the molybdenum oxide film. When a terminal electrode is formed over the same layer and using the same material as the gate electrode on the periphery of a pixel portion, the terminal electrode can be connected to an external terminal such as an FPC through the molybdenum oxide film which also functions as a semiconductor material. In this case, electrical connection can be made by placing an FPC so as to overlap the terminal electrode after peeling. Further in this case, external connection is achieved by providing not only a gate electrode but also a terminal electrode over the same layer and using the same material as the gate electrode separately, and connecting the terminal electrode to a source wiring, a common wiring, or a capacitor wiring. In addition, a driver IC may be connected to the terminal electrode through the molybdenum oxide film. After external connection is achieved as described above, sealing may be performed using another flexible substrate 123. Sealing with the flexible substrate 123 enables an FPC or an IC to be fixed more firmly. Alternatively, an electrophoretic display may be manufactured using electronic ink instead of the polymer dispersed liquid crystal. In that case, after formation of the first electrode 116 and the second electrode 117, electronic ink may be applied by a printing method and then baked, and the flexible substrate 121 may be fixed. Then, the substrate may be peeled, and sealing may be performed using another flexible substrate. Embodiment Mode 2 Described here with reference to FIGS. 2A to 2D is an example of manufacturing an active-matrix light emitting device using an organic TFT. First, a molybdenum film 202 is formed over a substrate 201. The substrate 201 used here is a glass substrate. The molybdenum film 202 is a molybdenum film formed by a sputtering method with a thickness of 30 nm to 200 nm. Next, a molybdenum oxide film 203 is formed by oxidation of a surface of the molybdenum film 202. The molybdenum oxide film 203 may be formed by oxidation of the surface with the use of pure water or ozone water or with the use of oxygen plasma. Alternatively, the molybdenum oxide film 203 may be formed by heating in an atmosphere including oxygen. Further alternatively, it may be formed in a later step of forming an insulating film. When a silicon oxide film or a silicon oxynitride film is formed as the insulating film by a plasma CVD method, the surface of the molybdenum film 202 is oxidized; accordingly, the molybdenum oxide film 203 is formed. Then, an insulating film 204 is formed over the molybdenum oxide film 203. The insulating film 204 is an insulating film such as a silicon oxide film, a silicon nitride film, or silicon oxynitride film (SiOxNy). A typical example of the insulating film 204 has a two-layer structure of a silicon nitride oxide film formed having a thickness of 50 nm to 100 nm by a PCVD method using SiH4, NH3, and N2O as reactive gases and a silicon oxynitride film formed having a thickness of 100 nm to 150 nm using SiH4 and N2O as reactive gases. One layer of the insulating film 204 is preferably a silicon nitride film (SiN film) or a silicon nitride oxide film (SiNxOy film (x>y)) having a thickness of 10 nm or less. Alternatively, a three-layer structure, in which a silicon nitride oxide film, a silicon oxynitride film, and a silicon nitride film are sequentially stacked, may be employed. Although the example of forming the insulating film 204 as a base insulating film is given here, the insulating film 204 may be omitted if not necessary. FIG. 2A shows a cross-sectional view at a stage where the steps up to here are completed. A conductive layer serving as a gate electrode is formed over the insulating film 204. It is acceptable as long as a material used for the conductive layer is a metal to have an insulating property by being nitrided and/or oxidized. In particular, tantalum, niobium, aluminum, copper, or titanium is preferable. Further, tungsten, chromium, nickel, cobalt, magnesium, or the like can also be given as an example. There is no particular limitation on a method of forming the conductive layer. The conductive layer may be formed by forming a film by a sputtering method, an evaporation method, or the like and then processing the film into a desired shape by an etching method or the like. Alternatively, it may be formed by an ink-jet method or the like using droplets including a conductive material. The conductive layer is then nitrided and/or oxidized to form a gate insulating film 212 of nitride, oxide, or oxynitride of the above-mentioned metal. Note that a part of the conductive layer other than the gate insulating film 212 which is obtained by insulating a part of the conductive layer functions as a gate electrode 211. A semiconductor layer 213 is formed to cover the gate insulating film 212. An organic semiconductor material for forming the semiconductor layer 213 may be either a low-molecular or high-molecular organic material as long as it has a carrier transport property and possibly causes a change in carrier density by electric field effect. There is no particular limitation on kinds thereof. Examples are: a polycyclic aromatic compound, a conjugated double bond compound, a metal phthalocyanine complex, a charge-transfer complex, condensed ring tetracarboxylic acid diimides, oligothiophenes, fullerenes, carbon nanotube, and the like. It is possible to use, for example, polypyrrole, polythiophene, poly(3-alkylthiophene), polyphenylenevinylene, poly(p-phenylenevinylene), polyaniline, polydiacetylene, polyazulene, polypyrene, polycarbazole, polyselenophene, polyfuran, poly(p-phenylene), polyindole, polypyridazine, naphthacene, hexacene, heptacene, pyrene, chrysene, perylene, coronene, terrylene, ovalene, quaterrylene, circumanthracene, triphenodioxazine, triphenodithiazine, hexacene-6,15-quinone, polyvinylcarbazole, polyphenylenesulfide, polyvinylenesulfide, polyvinylpyridine, naphthalenetetracarboxylic acid diimide, anthracenetetracarboxylic acid diimide, C60, C70, C76, C78, C84, or a derivative thereof. In addition, specific examples thereof are: tetracene, pentacene, sexithiophene (6T), copper phthalocyanine, bis-(1,2,5-thiadiazolo)-p-quinobis(1,3-dithiole), rubrene, poly(2,5-thienylene vinylene) (PTV), poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) (P3HT), are poly(9,9′-dioctylfluorene-co-bithiophene) (F8T2), which are generally referred to as p-type semiconductors; 7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ), 3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (PTCDA), 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (NTCDA), N,N′-dioctyl-3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylic diimide (PTCDI-C8H), copper hexadecafluorophthalocyanine (F16CuPc), N,N′-2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5,6,6,7,7,8,8,8-pentadecafluorooctyl-1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetracarboxy lic diimide (NTCDI-C8F), 3′,4′-dibutyl-5,5″-bis(dicyanomethylene)-5,5″-dihydro-2,2′:5′,2″-terthiophene) (DCMT), and methanofullerene[6,6]-phenyl C6, butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM), which are generally referred to as n-type semiconductors; and the like. Note that characteristics of a p-type or n-type organic semiconductor are not peculiar to the substance but depend on the relation with an electrode which injects carriers or the intensity of an electric field at the time of the injection. The semiconductor material can be used as either a p-type or n-type semiconductor, while it has a tendency to easily become one of them. Note that a p-type semiconductor is more preferable in this embodiment mode. Films of these organic semiconductor materials can be formed by an evaporation method, a spin coating method, a droplet discharge method, or the like. Then, a buffer layer 214 is formed over the semiconductor layer 213 to improve adhesion and interfacial chemical stability. The buffer layer 214 may be formed using a conductive organic material (an organic compound having an electron accepting property such as 7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ) or 2,3,5,6-tetrafluoro-7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane (F4-TCNQ)) or a composite material of an organic compound and metal oxide. Note that the buffer layer 214 may be omitted if not necessary. Conductive layers 215, one of which functions as a source electrode and the other as a drain electrode, are formed over the buffer layer 214. Although a material used for the conductive layers 215 is not particularly limited, a metal such as gold, platinum, aluminum, tungsten, titanium, copper, tantalum, niobium, chromium, nickel, cobalt, or magnesium or an alloy containing any of them can be used. Other examples of the material used for the conductive layers 215 are conductive high-molecular compounds such as polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyacetylene, and polydiacetylene, and the like. Note that a method of forming the conductive layers 215 is not particularly limited unless the semiconductor layer 213 is decomposed. The conductive layers 215 may be formed by forming a film by a sputtering method, an evaporation method, or the like and then processing the film into a desired shape by an etching method or the like. Alternatively, the conductive layers 215 may be formed by an ink-jet method using droplets including a conductive material. Through the above steps, an organic transistor 227 can be manufactured. A film of an organic insulating material such as polyimide, polyamic acid, or polyvinyl phenyl may be formed in contact with a lower surface of the semiconductor layer 213. With such a structure, orientation of the organic semiconductor material can further be improved, and adhesion between the gate insulating film 212 and the semiconductor layer 213 can further be improved. A method for manufacturing a light emitting device using the organic transistor 227 is described below. An interlayer insulating film 228 is formed to cover the organic transistor 227. The interlayer insulating film 228 is selectively etched to form a contact hole reaching one of the conductive layers 215. A first electrode 210 is formed to be electrically connected to the one of the conductive layers 215. A partition 221 is formed to cover an end portion of the first electrode 210. The partition 221 is formed using an insulating material and functions to insulate between a plurality of first electrodes 210 adjacent to each other. A light emitting layer 222 is formed over a region of the first electrode 210 which is not in contact with the partition 221. In many cases, the light emitting layer 222 is formed using a single layer or a stacked layer of an organic compound or a single layer or a stacked layer of an inorganic compound. However, in this specification, it is also considered that an inorganic compound is used for a part of a film made of an organic compound. There is no limitation on a stacking method of layers in a light emitting element. Any method that achieves stacking may be selected, such as a vacuum evaporation method, a spin coating method, an ink-jet method, or a dip coating method. A second electrode 223 is formed over the light emitting layer 222. A portion in which the first electrode 210, the second electrode 223, and the light emitting layer 222 overlap each other constitutes a light emitting element. Note that this light emitting element includes an anode, a cathode, and a layer containing an organic compound or a layer containing an inorganic compound, which generates electroluminescence by application of an electric field (hereinafter referred to as an EL layer). An inorganic EL element using an inorganic thin film of ZnS:Mn or an organic EL element using an organic thin film formed by evaporation is particularly bright, shows high-efficiency electroluminescence, and is suitable for application to a display. Note that there is no particular limitation on the structure of the light emitting element. Then, a protective film 224 is formed over the second electrode 223. Note that the protective film 224 may be omitted if not necessary. A flexible substrate 225 is fixed over the protective film 224 with an adhesive layer 226. A sealant may be provided to surround the adhesive layer 226 in order to strengthen sealing. FIG. 2B shows a cross-sectional view at a stage where the steps up to here are completed. Next, the organic transistor 227 and the flexible substrate 225 are peeled from the molybdenum film 202, the molybdenum oxide film 203, and the substrate 201. FIG. 2C is a diagram showing that separation occurs at the interface between the molybdenum oxide film 203 and the insulating film 204. Then, as shown in FIG. 2D, a flexible substrate 206 is fixed using an adhesive layer 205 to the side on which the peeling has been caused, in order to increase mechanical strength of the light emitting device. If the light emitting device has sufficient mechanical strength, the flexible substrate 206 may be omitted. Through the above-described steps, an active-matrix light emitting device using an organic transistor can be manufactured. For example, a light emitting layer formed by an evaporation method has low adhesion. However, in a case of employing the peeling method of the present invention in which a molybdenum film is used, peeling can be performed near the molybdenum film (in this embodiment mode, at the interface between the molybdenum oxide film 203 and the insulating film 204) even when a light emitting layer formed by an evaporation method is used. The structure of the organic transistor is not limited to that shown in FIG. 2C and may be that shown in FIG. 3A or 3B. FIG. 3A shows a structure called a bottom-contact structure. Note that the same reference numeral is used to denote a part in common with FIGS. 2A to 2D. When the bottom-contact structure is employed, a step of photolithography or the like can easily be employed to perform microfabrication of a source wiring and a drain wiring. Therefore, the structure of the organic transistor may be selected appropriately in consideration of its advantage and disadvantage. The molybdenum film 202, the molybdenum oxide film 203, and the insulating film 204 are stacked over the substrate 201. A gate electrode 331 is formed over the insulating film 204. There is no particular limitation on a material used for the gate electrode 331. An example is: a metal such as gold, platinum, aluminum, tungsten, titanium, copper, molybdenum, tantalum, niobium, chromium, nickel, cobalt, or magnesium; an alloy thereof; a conductive high-molecular compound such as polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyacetylene, or polydiacetylene; polysilicon doped with an impurity; or the like. There is no particular limitation on a method of forming the gate electrode 331. The gate electrode 331 may be formed by forming a film by a sputtering method, an evaporation method, or the like and then processing the film into a desired shape by an etching method or the like. Alternatively, it may be formed by an ink-jet method or the like using droplets including a conductive material. Then, an insulating film 332 is formed to cover the gate electrode 331. The insulating film 332 is formed using an inorganic insulating material such as silicon oxide, silicon nitride, or silicon oxynitride. Note that the insulating film 332 can be formed by a coating method such as a dipping method, a spin coating method, or a droplet discharge method; a CVD method; a sputtering method; or the like. This insulating film 332 may be subjected to nitridation treatment and/or oxidation treatment using high-density plasma. High-density plasma nitridation can provide a silicon nitride film containing nitrogen at higher concentration. High-density plasma is generated using a high-frequency microwave, for example, 2.45 GHz. With the use of such high-density plasma, oxygen (or a gas including oxygen), nitrogen (or a gas including nitrogen), or the like is activated by plasma excitation and reacted with the insulating film. High-density plasma, a feature of which is low electron temperature, has low kinetic energy of active species; therefore, a film can be formed with less plasma damage and fewer defects as compared with a conventional plasma treatment. In addition, surface roughness of the insulating film 332 can be reduced by using high-density plasma, so that carrier mobility can be increased. Further, orientation of an organic semiconductor material used for forming a semiconductor layer over the insulating film 332 functioning as a gate insulating film can be improved. Next, a source electrode 314 and a drain electrode 315 are formed over the insulating film 332. A semiconductor layer 313 is then formed between the source electrode 314 and the drain electrode 315. The semiconductor layer 313 can be formed using the same material as that of the semiconductor layer 213 shown in FIG. 2B. After an organic transistor having such a structure is formed, the organic transistor is peeled and transferred to a flexible substrate. The structure of FIG. 3B is also described. FIG. 3B shows a structure called a top-gate structure. Note that the same reference numeral is used to denote a part in common with FIGS. 2A to 2D. The molybdenum film 202, the molybdenum oxide film 203, and the insulating film 204 are stacked over the substrate 201. A source electrode 414 and a drain electrode 415 are formed over the insulating film 204. A semiconductor layer 413 is formed between the source electrode 414 and the drain electrode 415. An insulating film 442 is formed to cover the semiconductor layer 413, the source electrode 414, and the drain electrode 415. A gate electrode 441 is formed over the insulating film 442. The gate electrode 441 overlaps the semiconductor layer 413 with the insulating film 442 interposed therebetween. After an organic transistor having such a structure is formed, the organic transistor is peeled and transferred to a flexible substrate. Thus, even organic transistors having various structures can be peeled and transferred to a flexible substrate according to the present invention. For example, a semiconductor layer formed by a coating method has low adhesion. However, in a case of employing the peeling method of the present invention in which a molybdenum film is used, peeling can be performed near the molybdenum film (in this embodiment mode, at the interface between the molybdenum oxide film 203 and the insulating film 204) even when a semiconductor layer formed by a coating method is used. The organic transistor may be replaced by a transistor, a semiconductor film of which is formed using ZnO or oxide of zinc gallium indium by a sputtering method or a PLD method. In that case, the structure of FIG. 3A or 3B can be employed. When ZnO or oxide of zinc gallium indium is used for the semiconductor layer, the gate insulating film is preferably formed using oxide including aluminum or titanium. The present invention is also useful in forming a transistor through a process which includes a step of exposing a substrate to plasma as described above. After a transistor is formed over a substrate which can withstand plasma, the transistor can be peeled and transferred to a flexible substrate. This embodiment mode can be freely combined with Embodiment Mode 1. For example, a liquid crystal display device can be manufactured using the organic transistor described in Embodiment Mode 2 instead of the amorphous TFT described in Embodiment Mode 1. Further, a light emitting device can be manufactured using the amorphous TFT described in Embodiment Mode 1 instead of the organic transistor described in Embodiment Mode 2. Embodiment Mode 3 An example of manufacturing a passive-matrix light emitting device over a flexible substrate is described here with reference to FIGS. 5A to 9. In a passive (simple-matrix) light emitting device, a plurality of anodes arranged in stripes (strip-form) are provided perpendicularly to a plurality of cathodes arranged in stripes. A light emitting layer or a fluorescent layer is interposed at each intersection. Therefore, a pixel at an intersection of an anode selected (to which a voltage is applied) and a cathode selected emits light. FIG. 5A shows a top view of a pixel portion before sealing. FIG. 5B shows a cross-sectional view taken along a dashed line A-A′ in FIG. 5A. FIG. 5C shows a cross-sectional view taken along a dashed line B-B′. A molybdenum film 502, a molybdenum oxide film 503, and an insulating film 504 are stacked over a first substrate 501 similarly to Embodiment Mode 2. A plurality of first electrodes 513 are arranged in stripes at regular intervals over the insulating film 504. A partition 514 having openings each corresponding to a pixel is provided over the first electrodes 513. The partition 514 having openings is formed using an insulating material (a photosensitive or nonphotosensitive organic material (polyimide, acrylic, polyamide, polyimide amide, or benzocyclobutene) or an SOG film (such as a SiOx film including an alkyl group)). Note that each opening corresponding to a pixel is a light emitting region 521. A plurality of inversely tapered partitions 522 parallel to each other are provided over the partition 514 having openings to intersect with the first electrodes 513. The inversely tapered partitions 522 are formed by a photolithography method using a positive-type photosensitive resin, of which portion unexposed to light remains as a pattern, and by adjusting the amount of light exposure or the length of development time so that a lower portion of a pattern is etched more. FIG. 6 shows a perspective view immediately after formation of the plurality of inversely tapered partitions 522 parallel to each other. Note that the same reference numerals are used to denote the same portions as those in FIGS. 5A to 5C. The thickness of each of the inversely tapered partitions 522 is set to be larger than the total thickness of a stacked film including a light emitting layer, and a conductive film. When a stacked film including a light emitting layer, and a conductive film are stacked over the first substrate having the structure shown in FIG. 6, they are separated into a plurality of regions which are electrically isolated from each other, so that stacked films 515R, 515G, and 515B each including a light emitting layer, and second electrodes 516 are formed as shown in FIGS. 5A to 5C. The second electrodes 516 are electrodes in stripe form which are parallel to each other and extend along a direction intersecting with the first electrodes 513. Note that the stacked films each including a light emitting layer and the conductive films are also formed over the inversely tapered partitions 522; however, they are separated from the stacked films 515R, 515G, and 515B each including a light emitting layer and the second electrodes 516. This embodiment mode describes an example of forming a light emitting device, which provides three kinds of light emission (R, G, B) and is capable of performing full color display, by selectively forming the stacked films 515R, 515G, and 515B each including a light emitting layer. The stacked films 515R, 515G, and 515B each including a light emitting layer are formed into a pattern of stripes parallel to each other. Alternatively, stacked films each including a light emitting layer which emits light of the same color may be formed over the entire surface to provide monochromatic light emitting elements, so that a light emitting device capable of performing monochromatic display or a light emitting device capable of performing area color display may be provided. Still alternatively, a light emitting device capable of performing full color display may be provided by combining a light emitting device which provides white light emission with color filters. FIG. 7 shows a top view of a light emitting module mounted with an FPC or the like. Note that the light emitting device in this specification refers to an image display device, a light emitting device, or a light source (including a lighting system). Further, the light emitting device includes any of the following modules in its category: a module in which a connector such as an FPC (Flexible Printed Circuit), a TAB (Tape Automated Bonding) tape, or a TCP (Tape Carrier Package) is attached to a light emitting device; a module having a TAB tape or a TCP provided with a printed wiring board at the end thereof; and a module having an IC (Integrated Circuit) directly mounted over a light emitting device by a COG (Chip On Glass) method. In a pixel portion for displaying images, scan lines and data lines intersect with each other perpendicularly as shown in FIG. 7. The first electrodes 513 in FIGS. 5A to 5C correspond to scan lines 603 in FIG. 7, the second electrodes 516 correspond to data lines 602, and the inversely tapered partitions 522 correspond to partitions 604. Light emitting layers are interposed between the data lines 602 and the scan lines 603, and an intersection portion indicated by a region 605 corresponds to one pixel. Note that the scan lines 603 are electrically connected at their ends to connection wirings 608, and the connection wirings 608 are connected to an FPC 609b through an input terminal 607. The data lines 602 are connected to an FPC 609a through an input terminal 606. Then, a first flexible substrate is fixed using a first adhesive layer. Light emitting elements are peeled from a first substrate 601. A second flexible substrate is then fixed using a second adhesive layer to the side on which the peeling has been caused, in order to seal the light emitting device more firmly. If necessary, a polarizing plate, a circularly polarizing plate (including an elliptically polarizing plate), a retardation plate (a quarter-wave plate or a half-wave plate), or an optical film such as a color filter may be appropriately provided over a light emitting surface. Further, the polarizing plate or the circularly polarizing plate may be provided with an anti-reflection film. For example, anti-glare treatment may be carried out by which reflected light can be diffused by projections and depressions on the surface so as to reduce the glare. Through the above-described steps, a flexible passive-matrix light emitting device can be manufactured. An FPC is preferably mounted over a hard substrate because thermocompression bonding is performed at the time of the mounting. According to the present invention, after an FPC is mounted, the light emitting device can be peeled and transferred to a flexible substrate. FIG. 7 shows an example where a driver circuit is not provided over a substrate. Hereinafter, an example of a method for manufacturing a light emitting module mounted with an IC chip including a driver circuit is described with reference to FIGS. 8A and 8B. First, a molybdenum film, a molybdenum oxide film, and an insulating film are stacked over a first substrate 701 similarly to Embodiment Mode 2. Over this insulating film, data lines 702 (also functioning as anodes), each of which has a stacked-layer structure of a reflective metal film as a lower layer and a transparent conductive oxide film as an upper layer, are formed. At the same time, connection wirings 708, 709a, and 709b, and input terminals are formed. Next, a partition having openings each corresponding to a pixel 705 is provided. A plurality of inversely tapered partitions 704 parallel to each other are provided over the partition having openings to intersect with the data lines 702. FIG. 8A shows a top view at a stage where the steps up to here are completed. When a stacked film including a light emitting layer, and a transparent conductive film are stacked, they are separated into a plurality of regions which are electrically isolated from each other as shown in FIG. 8B, so that stacked layers each including a light emitting layer, and scan lines 703 made of the transparent conductive film are formed. The scan lines 703 made of the transparent conductive film are electrodes in stripe form which are parallel to each other and extend along a direction intersecting with the data lines 702. Then, a data line side IC 706 and a scan line side IC 707, in each of which a driver circuit for transmitting a signal to the pixel portion is formed, are mounted on the periphery of (outside) the pixel portion by a COG method. The mounting may be performed using TCP or a wire bonding method other than the COG method. TCP is a TAB tape mounted with an IC, and a TAB tape is connected to a wiring over an element formation substrate and an IC is mounted. Each of the data line side IC 706 and the scan line side IC 707 may be formed using a silicon substrate. Alternatively, it may be that a driver circuit is formed using TFTs over a glass substrate, a quartz substrate, or a plastic substrate. Although described here is an example in which a single IC is provided on one side, a plurality of ICs may be provided on one side. Note that the scan lines 703 are electrically connected at their ends to the connection wirings 708, and the connection wirings 708 are connected to the scan line side IC 707. This is because it is difficult to provide the scan line side IC 707 over the inversely tapered partitions 704. The data line side IC 706 provided with the aforementioned structure is connected to an FPC 711 through the connection wirings 709a and an input terminal 710. The scan line side IC 707 is connected to an FPC through the connection wirings 709b and an input terminal. Further, an IC chip 712 (such as a memory chip, a CPU chip, or a power source circuit chip) is mounted to achieve higher integration. Next, a first flexible substrate is fixed using a first adhesive layer to cover the pixel portion. Light emitting elements are peeled from the first substrate 701. Then, a second flexible substrate is fixed using a second adhesive layer to the side on which the peeling has been caused, in order to seal the light emitting device more firmly. FIG. 9 shows an example of a cross-sectional structure after the second flexible substrate is fixed, which is taken along a dashed line C-D of FIG. 8B. A base insulating film 811 is provided over a second flexible substrate 810 with a second adhesive layer 819 interposed therebetween. A lower layer 812 is a reflective metal film, and an upper layer 813 is a transparent conductive oxide film. The upper layer 813 is preferably formed using a conductive film having a high work function. For example, it is possible to use a film including a transparent conductive material such as indium tin oxide (ITO), indium tin oxide containing Si elements (ITSO), or IZO (Indium Zinc Oxide) obtained by mixing indium oxide with zinc oxide (ZnO), or a compound of a combination of such conductive materials. The lower layer 812 is formed using Ag, Al, or an Al alloy film. A partition 814 for insulating between adjacent data lines is made of a resin, and regions surrounded by the partition correspond to and have the same area as light-emitting regions. Scan lines 816 (cathodes) are formed to intersect with data lines (anodes). The scan lines 816 (cathodes) are formed using a transparent conductive film made of ITO, indium tin oxide containing Si elements (ITSO), or IZO obtained by mixing indium oxide with zinc oxide (ZnO). Since this embodiment mode describes an example of a top-emission light emitting device where light is emitted through a first flexible substrate 820, it is important for the scan lines 816 to be transparent. A pixel portion, in which a plurality of light emitting elements are arranged at intersections of the scan lines and the data lines with a stacked film 815 including a light emitting layer interposed therebetween, is sealed with the first flexible substrate 820 and filled with a first adhesive layer 817. The first adhesive layer 817 may be formed using an ultraviolet-curing resin, a thermosetting resin, a silicone resin, an epoxy resin, an acrylic rein, a polyimide resin, a phenol resin, PVC (polyvinyl chloride), PVB (polyvinyl butyral), or EVA (ethylene vinyl acetate). A terminal electrode is formed at an end portion of the second flexible substrate 810, and an FPC (flexible printed circuit) 832 to be connected to an external circuit is attached to this portion. Although the terminal electrode is formed by a stack of a reflective metal film 830, a transparent conductive oxide film 829, and a conductive oxide film extending from the scan line 816, or a stack of a reflective metal film 827 and a transparent conductive oxide film 826, the present invention is not particularly limited to this example. The FPC 832 can be mounted by a connecting method using an anisotropic conductive material or a metal bump, or a wire bonding method. In FIG. 9, connection is achieved using an anisotropic conductive adhesive material 831. On the periphery of the pixel portion, an IC chip 823 in which a driver circuit for transmitting a signal to the pixel portion is formed is electrically connected by anisotropic conductive materials 824 and 825. In order to form a pixel portion capable of performing color display, 3072 data lines and 768 scan lines are required for the XGA display class. Such number of the data lines and scan lines are segmented per several blocks at an end portion of the pixel portion and provided with lead wirings, and then gathered in accordance with the pitch of output terminals of ICs. Through the above-described steps, a light emitting module mounted with an IC chip, which is sealed with the second flexible substrate 810 and the first flexible substrate 820, can be manufactured. An IC chip is preferably mounted over a hard first substrate because thermocompression bonding is performed at the time of the mounting. According to the present invention, after an IC chip is mounted, the light emitting module can be peeled and transferred to a flexible substrate. Embodiment Mode 4 This embodiment mode describes an example of manufacturing a semiconductor device which functions as a wireless chip. The semiconductor device described in this embodiment mode has the feature of being capable of reading and writing data without contact. Data transmission methods are broadly classified into three categories: an electromagnetic coupling method in which communication is performed by mutual induction with a pair of coils disposed to face each other; an electromagnetic induction method in which communication is performed by an inductive electromagnetic field; and an electric wave method in which communication is performed by using electric waves. Any of these methods may be employed. An antenna that is used for data transmission can be provided in two ways. One is to provide an antenna over an element substrate provided with a plurality of elements and memory elements, and the other is to provide a terminal portion over an element substrate provided with a plurality of elements and memory elements and connect an antenna provided over another substrate to the terminal portion. Hereinafter, this embodiment mode describes a manufacturing method in the case of connecting an antenna provided over another substrate to a terminal portion over an element substrate. First, a molybdenum film 902 and a molybdenum oxide film 903 are stacked over a heat-resistant substrate 901 similarly to Embodiment Mode 1. FIG. 10A shows a cross-sectional view of the substrate after the steps up to here are completed. A glass substrate is used as the heat-resistant substrate 901. This heat-resistant substrate is not limited to a glass substrate. It is acceptable as long as the substrate withstands a baking temperature (approximately 300° C.) of a conductive layer formed by a coating method and does not change its shape significantly. Note that a plastic substrate with low heat resistance may bend when heat treatment is performed at 300° C. for 30 minutes; therefore, a plastic substrate is unsuitable for the heat-resistant substrate 901. Next, a conductive layer 904 functioning as an antenna is formed over the molybdenum oxide film 903 as shown in FIG. 10B. The conductive layer 904 functioning as an antenna is formed by discharging droplets or a paste including a conductive material such as gold, silver, or copper by a droplet discharge method (such as an ink-jet method or a dispenser method) and drying and baking the droplets or paste. When the conductive layer 904 is formed by a droplet discharge method, the number of steps can be reduced and corresponding cost can also be reduced. Alternatively, the conductive layer 904 may be formed using a screen printing method. In the case of employing a screen printing method, the conductive layer 904 functioning as an antenna is formed by selectively printing a conductive paste in which conductive particles each having a particle size of several nanometers to several tens of micrometers are dissolved or dispersed in an organic resin. As the conductive particle, a fine particle or a dispersive nanoparticle of one or more metals selected from silver (Ag), gold (Au), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd), tantalum (Ta), molybdenum (Mo), titanium (Ti), and the like or silver halide can be used. In addition, the organic resin included in the conductive paste can be one or more organic resins each functioning as a binder, a solvent, a dispersant, or a coating of the metal particle. Typically, an organic resin such as an epoxy resin or a silicon resin can be used. In forming the conductive layer, baking is preferably performed after the conductive paste is applied. Alternatively, fine particles mainly containing solder or lead-free solder may be used; in this case, it is preferable to use fine particles each having a particle size of 20 μm or less. Solder or lead-free solder has the advantages of low cost and the like. Other than the above-mentioned materials, ceramic, ferrite, or the like may be used for an antenna. In a case of manufacturing an antenna by a screen printing method or a droplet discharge method, the antenna is formed in a desired shape and then baked. The baking temperature is 200° C. to 300° C. Although the baking is possible at a temperature lower than 200° C., the conductivity of the antenna cannot be secured and the communication distance of the antenna may also be shortened in that case. In view of these points, the antenna is preferably formed over another substrate, that is, a heat-resistant substrate and then peeled and transferred to an element substrate. When a memory element using an organic material is provided over the element substrate, the memory element may change its quality depending on a baking temperature of the antenna, which may affect data writing or the like. In view of this point, it is advantageous to connect an antenna provided over another substrate to a terminal portion of an element substrate. Alternatively, an antenna may be formed using a gravure printing or the like besides a screen printing method or may be formed using a conductive material by a plating method or the like. Since the antenna formed by a plating method may have poor adhesion depending on a plating material or plating conditions, it is effective to use the peeling method of the present invention in which a molybdenum film is used. Next, a flexible substrate 906 is attached using a resin layer 905 in order to protect the conductive layer 904 as shown in FIG. 10C. Then, the heat-resistant substrate 901 and the molybdenum film 902 can be peeled and separated from the molybdenum oxide film 903, the conductive layer 904, the resin layer 905, and the flexible substrate 906 as shown in FIG. 10D. Note that the separation may occur in the molybdenum oxide film 903, at the interface between the molybdenum oxide film 903 and the conductive layer 904, or at the interface between the molybdenum oxide film 903 and the resin layer 905. If sufficient adhesion between the flexible substrate 906 and the conductive layer 904 is secured with the resin layer 905, the peeling can be performed by pulling the flexible substrate 906 after the resin layer 905 is fixed. By the peeling method of the present invention in which a molybdenum film is used, the peeling can be performed only by application of relatively weak force, which leads to an increase in yield. Since only relatively weak force is applied in the peeling method of the present invention in which a molybdenum film is used, a change in shape of the flexible substrate 906 at the time of the peeling can be suppressed and damage to the conductive layer 904 can also be reduced. Then, an element substrate 907 is positioned in contact with a side on which the conductive layer 904 is provided as shown in FIG. 10E. Since the molybdenum oxide film 903 also has a characteristic of a semiconductor, electrical connection can be made when a terminal portion of the element substrate is positioned to overlap the conductive layer 904. It is needless to say that electrical connection between the terminal portion of the element substrate and the conductive layer 904 can be made by pressure bonding using an anisotropic conductive material. FIG. 10E shows an example of providing the element substrate 907 which has a smaller area than the flexible substrate 906; however, there is no particular limitation. An element substrate having approximately the same area as the flexible substrate 906 may be provided, or an element substrate having a larger area than the flexible substrate 906 may be provided. Lastly, another flexible substrate is attached to cover the antenna and the element substrate 907 for protection; thus, a semiconductor device functioning as a wireless chip is completed. Note that the another flexible substrate may be omitted if not necessary. Here, an electromagnetic coupling method or an electromagnetic induction method (for example, a 13.56 MHz band) is employed as the signal transmission method in the semiconductor device. In order to utilize electromagnetic induction caused by a change in magnetic field density, the conductive layer functioning as an antenna in FIG. 10E is formed to have an annular shape (for example, a loop antenna) or a spiral shape when seen from above. However, the shape is not particularly limited. Alternatively, a microwave method (for example, a UHF band (860 to 960 MHz band), a 2.45 GHz band, or the like) can be employed as the signal transmission method in the semiconductor device. In that case, the length, shape, or the like of the conductive layer functioning as an antenna may be appropriately set in consideration of a wavelength of an electromagnetic wave used for signal transmission. Each of FIGS. 11A to 11D shows an example of a conductive layer 912 functioning as an antenna and a chip semiconductor device 913 including an integrated circuit, which are formed over a flexible substrate 911. For example, the conductive layer 912 functioning as an antenna may be formed to have a linear shape (for example, a dipole antenna (see FIG. 11A)), a flat shape (for example, a patch antenna (see FIG. 11B)), or a ribbon shape (see FIG. 11C or 11D) when seen from above. The shape of the conductive layer functioning as an antenna is not limited to a linear shape, and the conductive layer may be formed to have a curved shape, a meander shape, or a combination thereof in consideration of a wavelength of an electromagnetic wave. A structure of the semiconductor device obtained through the above-mentioned steps is described with reference to FIG. 12A. As shown in FIG. 12A, a semiconductor device 1120 obtained according to the present invention functions to exchange data without contact, and includes a power supply circuit 1111, a clock generation circuit 1112, a data demodulation or modulation circuit 1113, a control circuit 1114 which controls another circuit, an interface circuit 1115, a memory circuit 1116, a data bus 1117, an antenna 1118, a sensor 1121, and a sensor circuit 1122. The power supply circuit 1111 generates various kinds of power to be supplied to circuits in the semiconductor device 1120, based on an AC signal inputted from the antenna 1118. The clock generation circuit 1112 generates various kinds of clock signals to be supplied to circuits in the semiconductor device 1120, based on the AC signal inputted from the antenna 1118. The data demodulation or modulation circuit 1113 functions to demodulate or modulate data to be exchanged with a reader/writer 1119. The control circuit 1114 functions to control the memory circuit 1116. The antenna 1118 functions to transmit and receive an electric wave. The reader/writer 1119 communicates with and controls the semiconductor device, and controls the processing of data thereof. Note that the structure of the semiconductor device is not limited to the above structure. For example, the semiconductor device may be additionally provided with another component such as a limiter circuit of power source voltage or hardware dedicated to cryptographic processing. A feature of the memory circuit 1116 is to include a memory element in which an organic compound layer or a phase change layer is interposed between a pair of conductive layers. Note that the memory circuit 1116 may include only the memory element in which an organic compound layer or a phase change layer is interposed between a pair of conductive layers or may include a memory circuit having another structure. The memory circuit having another structure corresponds to one or more of, for example, a DRAM, an SRAM, a FeRAM, a mask ROM, a PROM, an EPROM, an EEPROM, and a flash memory. The sensor 1121 is formed by a semiconductor element such as a resistor element, a capacitive coupling element, an inductive coupling element, a photovoltaic element, a photoelectric conversion element, a thermoelectric element, a transistor, a thermistor, or a diode. The sensor circuit 1122 detects a change of impedance, reactance, inductance, voltage, or current and outputs a signal to the control circuit 1114 after analog-digital conversion (A/D conversion). This embodiment mode can be freely combined with Embodiment Mode 1 or 2. For example, electrical connection can be made by attachment of a peeled element substrate (flexible substrate) where an integrated circuit is formed using the TFT obtained in Embodiment Mode 1 or 2, and a flexible substrate provided with the antenna obtained in this embodiment mode. According to the present invention, a semiconductor device functioning as a chip including a processor circuit (hereinafter also referred to as a processor chip, a wireless chip, a wireless processor, a wireless memory, or a wireless tag) can be formed. The application of the semiconductor device obtained by the present invention is wide-ranging. For example, the semiconductor device of the present invention can be used while being provided in paper money, coins, securities, certificates, bearer bonds, packing containers, books, recording media, personal belongings, vehicles, food, clothing, health products, commodities, medicine, electronic devices, and the like. Paper money and coins are money distributed to the market and include ones valid like money in a certain area (cash voucher), memorial coins, and the like. Securities refer to checks, certificates, promissory notes, and the like, and can be provided with a chip 90 including a processor circuit (see FIG. 13A). Certificates refer to driver's licenses, certificates of residence, and the like, and can be provided with a chip 91 including a processor circuit (see FIG. 13B). Personal belongings refer to bags, glasses, and the like, and can be provided with a chip 97 including a processor circuit (see FIG. 13C). Bearer bonds refer to stamps, rice coupons, various gift certificates, and the like. Packing containers refer to wrapping paper for food containers and the like, plastic bottles, and the like, and can be provided with a chip 93 including a processor circuit (see FIG. 13D). Books refer to hardbacks, paperbacks, and the like, and can be provided with a chip 94 including a processor circuit (see FIG. 13E). Recording media refer to DVD software, video tapes, and the like, and can be provided with a chip 95 including a processor circuit (see FIG. 13F). Vehicles refer to wheeled vehicles such as bicycles, ships, and the like, and can be provided with a chip 96 including a processor circuit (see FIG. 13G). Food refers to food articles, drink, and the like. Clothing refers to clothes, footwear, and the like. Health products refer to medical instruments, health instruments, and the like. Commodities refer to furniture, lighting equipment, and the like. Medicine refers to medical products, pesticides, and the like. Electronic devices refer to liquid crystal display devices, EL display devices, television devices (TV sets and thin TV sets), cellular phones, and the like. The semiconductor device obtained according to the present invention is fixed to an article by being mounted on a printed board, being attached to a surface of the article, being embedded in the article, or the like. For example, the semiconductor device is fixed to an article by being embedded in paper in the case of a book, or by being embedded in an organic resin in the case of a package made of the organic resin. The semiconductor device of the present invention achieves smallness, thinness, and lightness, and therefore does not harm the design of the article itself. In addition, by providing paper money, coins, securities, bearer bonds, certificates, and the like with the semiconductor devices obtained according to the present invention, an authentication function can be provided, and this authentication function can be utilized to prevent falsification. Further, by providing containers for wrapping, recording media, personal belongings, food, clothing, commodities, electronic devices, and the like with the semiconductor device obtained according to the present invention, a system such as an inspection system becomes more efficient. Next, one mode of the electronic device mounted with the semiconductor device obtained according to the present invention is described with reference to a drawing. The electronic device given as an example here is a cellular phone, which includes casings 2700 and 2706, a panel 2701, a housing 2702, a printed wiring board 2703, operation buttons 2704, and a battery 2705 (see FIG. 12B). The panel 2701 is detachably incorporated in the housing 2702, and the housing 2702 is fitted into the printed wiring board 2703. The shape and size of the housing 2702 are changed appropriately in accordance with the electronic device into which the panel 2701 is to be incorporated. On the printed wiring board 2703, a plurality of packaged semiconductor devices are mounted; the semiconductor device obtained according to the present invention can be used as one of the packaged semiconductor devices. The plurality of semiconductor devices mounted on the printed wiring board 2703 have any function of a controller, a central processing unit (CPU), a memory, a power supply circuit, an audio processing circuit, a transmitting/receiving circuit, and the like. The panel 2701 is connected to the printed wiring board 2703 via a connection film 2708. The above-described panel 2701, housing 2702, and printed wiring board 2703 are contained together with the operation buttons 2704 and the battery 2705, inside the casings 2700 and 2706. A pixel region 2709 in the panel 2701 is provided so as to be viewed through an opening window provided in the casing 2700. As described above, the semiconductor device obtained according to the present invention has features of being thin and lightweight because a flexible substrate is used. These features make it possible to efficiently use the limited space inside the casings 2700 and 2706 of the electronic device. The semiconductor device of the present invention includes a memory element with a simple structure in which an organic compound layer is interposed between a pair of conductive layers; therefore, an inexpensive electronic device using the semiconductor device can be provided. Note that the shapes of the casings 2700 and 2706 are mere examples of exterior shape of the cellular phone; the electronic devices according to this embodiment mode can be changed into various modes in accordance with the function or application. The present invention with the above-described structure is described more in detail in the following embodiments. Embodiment 1 The liquid crystal display device or the light emitting device obtained according to the present invention can be used for various modules (such as an active-matrix liquid crystal module, an active-matrix EL module, and an active-matrix electrochromic (EC) module). That is, the present invention can be applied to all electronic devices incorporating them in display portions. Examples of such electronic devices are as follows: a camera such as a video camera or a digital camera, a head mounted display (goggle type display), a car navigation system, a projector, a car stereo component, a personal computer, a portable information terminal (a mobile computer, a cellular phone, an electronic book, or the like), and the like. Examples thereof are shown in FIGS. 14A to 14C. FIGS. 14A and 14B each show a television set. A display panel may employ any of the following modes: a case where only a pixel portion is formed and a scan line side driver circuit and a signal line side driver circuit are mounted by a TAB method; a case where only the pixel portion is formed and the scan line side driver circuit and the signal line side driver circuit are mounted by a COG method; a case where a TFT is formed, the pixel portion and the scan line side driver circuit are formed over the same substrate, and the signal line side driver circuit is separately mounted as a driver IC; a case where the pixel portion, the signal line driver circuit, and the scan line driver circuit are formed over the same substrate; and the like. As a structure of another external circuit, a video signal amplifier circuit that amplifies a video signal among signals received by a tuner, a video signal processing circuit that converts the signal outputted from the video signal amplifier circuit into a chrominance signal corresponding to each color of red, green, and blue, a control circuit that converts the video signal into a signal which meets the input specification of a driver IC, and the like are provided on an input side of the video signal. The control circuit outputs respective signals to a scan line side and a signal line side. In a case of digital driving, a signal dividing circuit may be provided on the signal line side and an input digital signal may be divided into a plurality of pieces to be supplied. An audio signal among the signals received by the tuner is transmitted to an audio signal amplifier circuit and the output is supplied to a speaker through an audio signal processing circuit. A control circuit receives control information of a receiving station (reception frequency) or sound volume from an input portion and transmits a signal to the tuner or the audio signal processing circuit. Such a display module is incorporated in a casing as shown in FIG. 14A or 14B, thereby a television device can be completed. A display panel provided with components up to an FPC is also referred to as a display module. A main screen 2003 is formed using the display module, and a speaker portion 2009, an operation switch, and the like are provided as accessory equipment. In such a manner, a television device can be completed. As shown in FIG. 14A, a display panel 2002 using a display element is incorporated in a casing 2001, and general TV broadcast can be received by a receiver 2005. Further, by connection to a communication network with or without wires via a modem 2004, one-way (from a sender to a receiver) or two-way (between a sender and a receiver or between receivers) information communication can also be carried out. The television device can be operated by using a switch built in the casing or a remote control unit 2006. This remote control unit 2006 may also be provided with a display portion 2007 for displaying output information. Further, the television device may include a sub-screen 2008 formed using a second display panel for displaying channels, volume, or the like, in addition to the main screen 2003. In this structure, the main screen 2003 may be formed using an EL display panel having a superior viewing angle, and the sub-screen 2008 may be formed using a liquid crystal display panel capable of displaying images with less power consumption. In order to reduce the power consumption preferentially, the main screen 2003 may be formed using a liquid crystal display panel, and the sub-screen 2008 may be formed using an EL display panel such that the sub-screen can flash on and off. FIG. 14B shows a television device having a large display portion with a size of, for example, 20 to 80 inches. The television device includes a casing 2010, a display portion 2011, a keyboard portion 2012 that is an operation portion, a speaker portion 2013, and the like. The present invention is applied to the manufacturing of the display portion 2011. The display portion of FIG. 14B is formed using a flexible substrate which can be curved; thus, the television device has a curved display portion. Since the shape of a display portion can be freely designed as described above, a television device having a desired shape can be manufactured. Since the display device can be formed through a simplified process in accordance with the present invention, a cost reduction can also be achieved. Therefore, the television device using the present invention can be formed at low cost even when formed to have a large-area display portion. It is needless to say that the present invention is not limited to the television device, and can be applied to various uses as large-area display media such as an information display board at a train station, an airport, or the like, and an advertisement display board on the street, as well as a monitor of a personal computer. FIG. 14C shows a portable information terminal (electronic book device), which includes a main body 3001, display portions 3002 and 3003, a memory medium 3004, an operating switch 3005, an antenna 3006, and the like. The peeling method of the present invention can be applied to the display portions 3002 and 3003. The weight of the portable information terminal can be reduced by using a flexible substrate. When an antenna is formed over a flat substrate and incorporated instead of the antenna shown in FIG. 14C, the peeling method of the present invention can be employed. This embodiment can be freely combined with any one of Embodiment Modes 1 to 3. Embodiment 2 This embodiment describes an example of using an electrophoretic display device as the display portion described in Embodiment 1. Typically, an electrophoretic display device is applied to the display portion 3002 or the display portion 3003 of the portable information terminal (electronic book device) shown in FIG. 14C. The electrophoretic display device (electrophoretic display) is also called electronic paper and has the advantage of being as easy as paper to be read, and consuming less power and being thinner and lighter in weight than other display devices. A variety of modes of electrophoretic displays can be considered, but the electrophoresis display of this embodiment is a device in which a plurality of microcapsules each including first particles having a positive charge and second particles having a negative charge are dispersed in a solvent or a solute, and an electrical field is applied to the microcapsules so that the particles in the microcapsules move in opposite directions from each other, and only a color of the particles gathered on one side is displayed. Note that the first particles or the second particles include a dye, and does not move in a case where there is no electric field. Also, the first particles have a color which is different from that of the second particles (the particles may also be colorless). Thus, the electrophoretic display utilizes a so-called dielectrophoretic effect, in which a substance with high dielectric constant moves to a region with high electric field. The electrophoretic display does not require a polarizing plate and an opposite substrate, which are necessary for a liquid crystal display device, so that the thickness and weight thereof are about half. That which the microcapsules are dispersed in a solvent is called electronic ink, and this electronic ink can be printed on a surface of glass, plastic, fabric, paper, or the like. Color display is also possible with the use of a color filter or particles including a coloring matter. In addition, a display device can be completed by appropriately providing a plurality of the microcapsules over a substrate to be interposed between two electrodes, and can perform display by application of electric field to the microcapsules. For example, the active-matrix substrate obtained in Embodiment Mode 1 can be used. Although electronic ink can be printed directly over a plastic substrate, it is preferable in a case of the active-matrix type to form an element and electronic ink over a glass substrate, peel the glass substrate, and attach the element and the electronic ink to a plastic substrate that is a flexible substrate according to Embodiment Mode 1 or 2, rather than forming an element over a plastic substrate which is sensitive to heat and an organic solvent. This is because a manufacturing process can be carried out under a wide range of conditions. Note that the first particles and the second particles in the microcapsule may be formed of one of a conductive material, an insulating material, a semiconductor material, a magnetic material, a liquid crystal material, a ferroelectric material, an electroluminescent material, an electrochromic material, and a magnetophoretic material or a composite material thereof. This embodiment can be freely combined with any one of Embodiment Modes 1 to 3 and Embodiment 1. According to the present invention, an element such as a TFT formed using an existing manufacturing apparatus for a large glass substrate can be transferred to a flexible substrate. Therefore, equipment cost can be significantly reduced. In addition, the peeling method of the present invention has almost no limitation on a process; accordingly, various elements can be transferred to a flexible substrate. This application is based on Japanese Patent Application serial no. 2006-126708 filed in Japan Patent Office on Apr. 28, 2006, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference.	H	H01	H01L	21	30
11862320	US20080249869A1-20081009	METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR PRESENTING DISINCENTIVE MARKETING CONTENT TO A CUSTOMER BASED ON A CUSTOMER RISK ASSESSMENT	ACCEPTED	20080924	20081009		[]	G06Q3000	["G06Q3000", "G06F1730", "G06Q1000"]	8775238	20070927	20140708	705	014000	63621.0	BROWN	ALVIN	[{"inventor_name_last": "Angell", "inventor_name_first": "Robert Lee", "inventor_city": "Salt Lake City", "inventor_state": "UT", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Kraemer", "inventor_name_first": "James R.", "inventor_city": "Santa Fe", "inventor_state": "NM", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A computer implemented method, apparatus, and computer usable program product for managing a level of marketing disincentives directed towards a customer using a risk assessment score. In one embodiment, a risk assessment score for a customer associated with a retail facility is retrieved. The risk assessment score is analyzed to determine whether the customer is a desirable customer or an undesirable customer. In response to the risk assessment score indicating that the customer is an undesirable customer, aggressive marketing disincentives targeted to the undesirable customer are generated. If the risk assessment score indicates the customer is a desirable customer, marketing incentives targeted to the desirable customer are generated.	1. A computer implemented method for managing a level of marketing directed towards a customer using a risk assessment score, the computer implemented method comprising: retrieving a risk assessment score for a customer associated with a retail facility; comparing the risk assessment score to a threshold score to determine whether the customer is an undesirable customer; and responsive to the risk assessment score indicating that the customer is an undesirable customer, initiating aggressive marketing disincentives targeted to the undesirable customer. 2. The computer implemented method of claim 1 further comprising: responsive to a determination that the risk assessment score is greater than an upper threshold score, identifying the customer as an undesirable customer and initiating the aggressive marketing disincentives, wherein the aggressive marketing disincentives are marketing initiatives intended to decrease an amount of time the customer spends shopping in the retail facility. 3. The computer implemented method of claim 1 further comprising: responsive to a determination that the risk assessment score is less than an lower threshold score, identifying the customer as a highly desirable customer; and initiating aggressive marketing incentives targeted to the customer. 4. The computer implemented method of claim 1 wherein initiating the aggressive marketing incentives further comprises: notifying an employee associated with the retail facility to assist the customer. 5. The computer implemented method of claim 1 wherein initiating the aggressive marketing incentives further comprises: providing the customer with a display device, wherein customized marketing messages are presented to the customer on the display device, wherein the customized marketing messages present competitive product pricing and preferred product offers, and wherein the display device provides the customer with a map and locations of items in the retail facility to improve a shopping experience of the customer. 6. The computer implemented method of claim 1 further comprising: responsive to a determination that the risk assessment score is less than an upper threshold score and greater than a lower threshold score, identifying the customer as a moderately desirable customer; and initiating moderate marketing incentives targeted to the customer, wherein moderate marketing incentives comprises marketing incentives that are cheaper to generate and present to the customer than aggressive marketing incentives. 7. The computer implemented method of claim 1 wherein the aggressive marketing disincentives targeted to the undesirable customer further comprises: informing a set of employees associated with the retail facility that the customer is an undesirable customer and directing the set of employees to avoid offering assistance unless assistance is requested by the customer. 8. The computer implemented method of claim 1 wherein the aggressive marketing disincentives targeted to the undesirable customer further comprises: displaying disincentive marketing messages to the customer, wherein a disincentive marketing message comprises uncompetitive product pricing and undesirable product offers. 9. The computer implemented method of claim 1 wherein the aggressive marketing disincentives targeted to the undesirable customer further comprises: creating a negative ambiance in an area of the retail facility associated with the customer. 10. The computer implemented method of claim 9 wherein creating a negative ambiance further comprises shining harsh or bright lights in an area of the retail facility occupied by the customer. 11. The computer implemented method of claim 9 wherein creating a negative ambiance further comprises playing subliminal messages over a sound system, wherein the subliminal messages encourage the customer to leave the retail facility. 12. The computer implemented method of claim 10 wherein creating a negative ambiance further comprises playing music over a sound system, wherein the music is designed to encourage the customer to feel uncomfortable. 13. The computer implemented method of claim 11 wherein creating a negative ambiance further comprises adjusting a temperature in an area of the retail facility to an uncomfortable temperature, wherein an uncomfortable temperature is at least one of a temperature that is colder than a predetermined temperature, higher than a predetermined comfortable temperature, and a humidity that is higher than a predetermined comfortable humidity level. 14. A computer program product comprising: computer usable program code for managing a level of marketing directed towards a customer using a risk assessment score, the computer program product comprising: computer usable program code for retrieving a risk assessment score for a customer associated with a retail facility; computer usable program code for comparing the risk assessment score to a threshold score to determine whether the customer is an undesirable customer; and computer usable program code for generating aggressive marketing disincentives targeted to the undesirable customer in response to the risk assessment score indicating that the customer is an undesirable customer. 15. The computer program product of claim 14 further comprising: computer usable program code for identifying the customer as an undesirable customer and initiating the aggressive marketing disincentives in response to a determination that the risk assessment score is greater than an upper threshold score, wherein the aggressive marketing disincentives are intended to decrease an amount of time the customer spends shopping in the retail facility. 16. The computer program product of claim 14 further comprising: computer usable program code for identifying the customer as a highly desirable customer in response to a determination that the risk assessment score is less than an lower threshold score; and computer usable program code for initiating aggressive marketing incentives targeted to the customer. 17. The computer program product of claim 14 further comprising: computer usable program code for identifying the customer as a moderately desirable customer in response to a determination that the risk assessment score is less than an upper threshold score and greater than a lower threshold score; and computer usable program code for initiating moderate marketing incentives targeted to the customer, wherein moderate marketing incentives comprises marketing incentives that are cheaper to generate and present to the customer than aggressive marketing incentives. 18. The computer program product of claim 14 further comprising: computer usable program code for informing a set of employees associated with the retail facility that the customer is an undesirable customer and directing the set of employees to avoid offering assistance unless assistance is requested by the undesirable customer. 19. The computer program product of claim 14 further comprising: computer usable program code for displaying disincentive marketing messages to the undesirable customer, wherein a disincentive marketing message comprises uncompetitive product pricing and undesirable product offers. 20. The computer program product of claim 14 wherein the computer usable code for initiating the aggressive marketing disincentives targeted to the undesirable customer further comprises: computer usable program code for creating a negative ambiance in an area of the retail facility associated with the customer, wherein creating the negative ambiance is accomplished by performing at least one of shining bright lights in an area of the retail facility occupied by the customer, playing subliminal messages over a sound system, wherein the subliminal messages encourage the customer to leave the retail facility, playing music over a sound system, wherein the music is designed to encourage the customer to leave, and adjusting a temperature in an area of the retail facility to an uncomfortable temperature, wherein an uncomfortable temperature is at least one of a temperature that is colder than a predetermined temperature, higher than a predetermined comfortable temperature, and a humidity that is higher than a predetermined comfortable humidity level. 21. A data processing system for managing a level of marketing directed towards a customer using a risk assessment score, the data processing system comprising: a bus system; a communications system connected to the bus system; a memory connected to the bus system, wherein the memory includes computer usable program code; and a processing unit connected to the bus system, wherein the processing unit executes the computer usable program code to retrieve a risk assessment score for a customer associated with a retail facility; compare the risk assessment score to a threshold score to determine whether the customer is an undesirable customer; identify the customer as an undesirable customer in response to a determination that the risk assessment score is greater than an upper threshold score, and generate aggressive marketing disincentives targeted to the undesirable customer, wherein the aggressive marketing disincentives are marketing initiatives intended to decrease an amount of time the customer spends shopping in the retail facility 22. The data processing system of claim 21 wherein the processor unit further executes the computer usable program code to identify the customer as an undesirable customer and initiating the aggressive marketing disincentives in response to a determination that the risk assessment score is greater than an upper threshold score, wherein the aggressive marketing disincentives are intended to decrease an amount of time the customer spends shopping in the retail facility. 23. The data processing system of claim 21 wherein the processor unit further executes the computer usable program code to identify the customer as a moderately desirable customer in response to a determination that the risk assessment score is less than an upper threshold score and greater than a lower threshold score and initiate moderate marketing incentives targeted to the customer, wherein moderate marketing incentives comprises marketing incentives that are cheaper to generate and present to the customer than aggressive marketing incentives. 24. The data processing system of claim 21 wherein the processor unit further executes the computer usable program code to create a negative ambiance in an area of the retail facility associated with the customer, wherein creating the negative ambiance is accomplished by performing at least one of shining bright lights in an area of the retail facility occupied by the undesirable customer, playing subliminal messages over a sound system, wherein the subliminal messages encourage the undesirable customer to leave the retail facility, playing music over a sound system, wherein the music is designed to encourage the undesirable customer to leave, and adjusting a temperature in an area of the retail facility to an uncomfortable temperature, wherein an uncomfortable temperature is at least one of a temperature that is colder than a predetermined temperature, higher than a predetermined comfortable temperature, and a humidity that is higher than a predetermined comfortable humidity level. 25. A system for managing a level of marketing directed towards a customer using a risk assessment score, the system comprising: a risk assessment engine, wherein the risk assessment engine retrieves a risk assessment score for a customer associated with a retail facility and compare the risk assessment score to a threshold score to determine whether the customer is an undesirable customer; and a disincentives generating engine, wherein the disincentives generating engine generates aggressive marketing disincentives targeted to the undesirable customer in response to the risk assessment score indicating that the customer is an undesirable customer.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention is related generally to an improved data processing system, and in particular to a method and apparatus for processing digital video data. More particularly, the present invention is directed to a computer implemented method, apparatus, and computer usable program product for presenting marketing disincentives to a customer based on a risk assessment score for the customer. 2. Description of the Related Art In the past, merchants frequently had a personal relationship with their customers. The merchant often knew their customers' names, address, marital status, ages of their children, hobbies, place of employment, character, anniversaries, birthdays, likes, dislikes and personal preferences. The merchant was able to use this information to cater to customer needs and push sales of items the customer might be likely to purchase based on the customer's personal situation. The merchant was also able to determine whether a customer was a good customer that should receive special marketing efforts, a credit risk or bad customer that should not receive special marketing offers, or a customer that posed a risk or threat to the store or other customers based on the merchant's personal knowledge of the customer's character, reputation, and criminal history. However, with the continued growth of large cities, the corresponding disappearance of small, rural towns, and the increasing number of large, impersonal chain stores with multiple employees, the merchants and employees of retail businesses rarely recognize regular customers, and almost never know the customer's name or any other details regarding their customer's personal preferences that might assist the merchant or employee in marketing efforts directed toward a particular customer. One solution to this problem is directed toward using data mining techniques to gather customer profile data. The customer profile data is used to generate marketing strategies for marketing products to customers. Customer profile data typically includes information provided by the customer in response to a questionnaire or survey, such as the name, address, telephone number, and gender of customers, as well as products preferred by the customer. Demographic data regarding a customer's age, sex, income, career, interests, hobbies, and consumer preferences may also be included in customer profile data. However, these methods only provide limited and generalized marketing strategies that are directed towards a fairly large segment of the population without taking into account actual customer reactions to product placement in a particular retail store or to other environmental factors that may influence product purchases by customers. In an attempt to better monitor customers in large retail stores, these stores frequently utilize cameras and other audio and/or video monitoring devices to record customers inside the retail store or in the parking lot. A store detective may watch one or more monitors displaying closed circuit images of customers in various areas inside the store to identify shoplifters. However, these solutions require a human user to review the audio and video recordings. In addition, the video and audio recordings are typically used only for store security. Thus, current solutions do not utilize all of the potential dynamic customer data elements that may be available for identifying customers that should be marketed to, customers that should be encouraged to shop at the retail facility, customers that should not receive marketing content, and customers that should be discouraged from shopping at the retail facility. The data elements currently being utilized to generate marketing strategies only provide approximately seventy-five percent (75%) of the needed customer data.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The illustrative embodiments provide a computer implemented method, apparatus, and computer usable program product for managing a level of marketing disincentives directed towards a customer using a risk assessment score. In one embodiment, a risk assessment score for a customer associated with a retail facility is retrieved. The risk assessment score is analyzed to determine whether the customer is a desirable customer or an undesirable customer. In response to the risk assessment score indicating that the customer is an undesirable customer, aggressive marketing disincentives targeted to the undesirable customer are generated. If the risk assessment score indicates the customer is a desirable customer, marketing incentives targeted to the desirable customer are generated.	CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation-in-part of patent application U.S. Ser. No. 11/695,983, filed Apr. 3, 2007, titled “Method and Apparatus for Providing Customized Digital Media Marketing Content Directly to a Customer”, which is incorporated herein by reference. The present invention is also related to the following applications entitled Identifying Significant Groupings of Customers for Use in Customizing Digital Media Marketing Content Provided Directly to a Customer, application Ser. No. 11/744,024, filed May 3, 2007; Generating Customized Marketing Messages at a Customer Level Using Current Events Data, application Ser. No. 11/769,409, file Jun. 24, 2007; Generating Customized Marketing Messages Using Automatically Generated Customer Identification Data, application Ser. No. 11/756,198, filed May 31, 2007; Generating Customized Marketing Messages for a Customer Using Dynamic Customer Behavior Data, application Ser. No. 11/771,252, filed Jun. 29, 2007, Retail Store Method and System, Robyn Schwartz, Publication No. US 2006/0032915 A1 (filed Aug. 12, 2004); Business Offering Content Delivery, Robyn R. Levine, Publication No. US 2002/0111852 (filed Jan. 16, 2001) all assigned to a common assignee, and all of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention is related generally to an improved data processing system, and in particular to a method and apparatus for processing digital video data. More particularly, the present invention is directed to a computer implemented method, apparatus, and computer usable program product for presenting marketing disincentives to a customer based on a risk assessment score for the customer. 2. Description of the Related Art In the past, merchants frequently had a personal relationship with their customers. The merchant often knew their customers' names, address, marital status, ages of their children, hobbies, place of employment, character, anniversaries, birthdays, likes, dislikes and personal preferences. The merchant was able to use this information to cater to customer needs and push sales of items the customer might be likely to purchase based on the customer's personal situation. The merchant was also able to determine whether a customer was a good customer that should receive special marketing efforts, a credit risk or bad customer that should not receive special marketing offers, or a customer that posed a risk or threat to the store or other customers based on the merchant's personal knowledge of the customer's character, reputation, and criminal history. However, with the continued growth of large cities, the corresponding disappearance of small, rural towns, and the increasing number of large, impersonal chain stores with multiple employees, the merchants and employees of retail businesses rarely recognize regular customers, and almost never know the customer's name or any other details regarding their customer's personal preferences that might assist the merchant or employee in marketing efforts directed toward a particular customer. One solution to this problem is directed toward using data mining techniques to gather customer profile data. The customer profile data is used to generate marketing strategies for marketing products to customers. Customer profile data typically includes information provided by the customer in response to a questionnaire or survey, such as the name, address, telephone number, and gender of customers, as well as products preferred by the customer. Demographic data regarding a customer's age, sex, income, career, interests, hobbies, and consumer preferences may also be included in customer profile data. However, these methods only provide limited and generalized marketing strategies that are directed towards a fairly large segment of the population without taking into account actual customer reactions to product placement in a particular retail store or to other environmental factors that may influence product purchases by customers. In an attempt to better monitor customers in large retail stores, these stores frequently utilize cameras and other audio and/or video monitoring devices to record customers inside the retail store or in the parking lot. A store detective may watch one or more monitors displaying closed circuit images of customers in various areas inside the store to identify shoplifters. However, these solutions require a human user to review the audio and video recordings. In addition, the video and audio recordings are typically used only for store security. Thus, current solutions do not utilize all of the potential dynamic customer data elements that may be available for identifying customers that should be marketed to, customers that should be encouraged to shop at the retail facility, customers that should not receive marketing content, and customers that should be discouraged from shopping at the retail facility. The data elements currently being utilized to generate marketing strategies only provide approximately seventy-five percent (75%) of the needed customer data. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The illustrative embodiments provide a computer implemented method, apparatus, and computer usable program product for managing a level of marketing disincentives directed towards a customer using a risk assessment score. In one embodiment, a risk assessment score for a customer associated with a retail facility is retrieved. The risk assessment score is analyzed to determine whether the customer is a desirable customer or an undesirable customer. In response to the risk assessment score indicating that the customer is an undesirable customer, aggressive marketing disincentives targeted to the undesirable customer are generated. If the risk assessment score indicates the customer is a desirable customer, marketing incentives targeted to the desirable customer are generated. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The novel features believed characteristic of the invention are set forth in the appended claims. The invention itself, however, as well as a preferred mode of use, further objectives and advantages thereof, will best be understood by reference to the following detailed description of an illustrative embodiment when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a pictorial representation of a network of data processing systems in which illustrative embodiments may be implemented; FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a digital customer marketing environment in which illustrative embodiments may be implemented; FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a data processing system in which illustrative embodiments may be implemented; FIG. 4 is a block diagram of a data processing system for analyzing dynamic customer data in accordance with an illustrative embodiment; FIG. 5 is a block diagram of a dynamic marketing message assembly transmitting a project based customized marketing message to a set of display devices in accordance with an illustrative embodiment; FIG. 6 is a block diagram of an identification tag reader for identifying items selected by a customer in accordance with an illustrative embodiment; FIG. 7 is a block diagram illustrating an external marketing manager for generating current events data in accordance with an illustrative embodiment; FIG. 8 is a block diagram illustrating a smart detection engine for generating customer identification data and selected item data in accordance with an illustrative embodiment; FIG. 9 is a block diagram of a shopping container in accordance with an illustrative embodiment; FIG. 10 is a block diagram of a shelf in a retail facility in accordance with an illustrative embodiment; FIG. 11 is a block diagram illustrating a set of risk assessment factors used to generate a risk assessment score for a customer in accordance with an illustrative embodiment; FIG. 12 is a block diagram illustrating a risk assessment engine for generating a risk assessment score for a customer in accordance with an illustrative embodiment; FIG. 13 is a flowchart illustrating a process for monitoring for a change in biometric readings associated with a customer in accordance with an illustrative embodiment; FIG. 14 is a flowchart illustrating a process for generating dynamic data for a customer in accordance with an illustrative embodiment; FIG. 15 is a flowchart illustrating a process for identifying an undesirable customer in accordance with an illustrative embodiment; FIG. 16 is a flowchart illustrating a process for generating a risk assessment score in accordance with an illustrative embodiment; FIG. 17 is a flowchart illustrating a process for updating a risk assessment score in accordance with an illustrative embodiment; FIG. 18 is a flowchart illustrating a process for preferred customer marketing in accordance with an illustrative embodiment; FIG. 19 is a flowchart illustrating a process for marketing disincentives in accordance with an illustrative embodiment; and FIG. 20 is a flowchart illustrating a process for generating a customized marketing message using dynamic data in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT With reference now to the figures and in particular with reference to FIGS. 1-3, exemplary diagrams of data processing environments are provided in which illustrative embodiments may be implemented. It should be appreciated that FIGS. 1-3 are only exemplary and are not intended to assert or imply any limitation with regard to the environments in which different embodiments may be implemented. Many modifications to the depicted environments may be made. With reference now to the figures, FIG. 1 depicts a pictorial representation of a network of data processing systems in which illustrative embodiments may be implemented. Network data processing system 100 is a network of computers in which embodiments may be implemented. Network data processing system 100 contains network 102, which is the medium used to provide communications links between various devices and computers connected together within network data processing system 100. Network 102 may include connections, such as wire, wireless communication links, or fiber optic cables. In the depicted example, server 104 and server 106 connect to network 102 along with storage area network (SAN) 108. Storage area network 108 is a network connecting one or more data storage devices to one or more servers, such as servers 104 and 106. A data storage device, may include, but is not limited to, tape libraries, disk array controllers, tape drives, flash memory, a hard disk, and/or any other type of storage device for storing data. Storage area network 108 allows a computing device, such as client 110 to connect to a remote data storage device over a network for block level input/output. In addition, clients 110 and 112 connect to network 102. These clients 110 and 112 may be, for example, personal computers or network computers. In the depicted example, server 104 provides data, such as boot files, operating system images, and applications to clients 110 and 112. Clients 110 and 112 are clients to server 104 in this example. Digital customer marketing environment 114 is a retail environment that is connected to network 102. A customer may view, select order, and/or purchase one or more items in digital customer marketing environment 114. Digital customer marketing environment 114 may include one or more facilities, buildings, or other structures for wholly or partially containing items. The items in digital customer marketing environment 114 may include, but are not limited to, consumables, comestibles, clothing, shoes, toys, cleaning products, household items, machines, any type of manufactured items, entertainment and/or educational materials, as well as entrance or admittance to attend or receive an entertainment or educational activity or event. Items for purchase could also include services, such as, without limitation, dry cleaning services, food delivery services, automobile repair services, vehicle detailing services, personal grooming services, such as manicures and haircuts, cooking demonstrations, or any other services. Comestibles include solid, liquid, and/or semi-solid food and beverage items. Comestibles may be, but are not limited to, meat products, dairy products, fruits, vegetables, bread, pasta, pre-prepared or ready-to-eat items, as well as unprepared or uncooked food and/or beverage items. For example, a comestible includes, without limitation, a box of cereal, a steak, tea bags, a cup of tea that is ready to drink, popcorn, pizza, candy, or any other edible food or beverage items. An entertainment or educational activity, event, or service may include, but is not limited to, a sporting event, a music concert, a seminar, a convention, a movie, a ride, a game, a theatrical performance, and/or any other performance, show, or spectacle for entertainment or education of customers. For example, entertainment or educational activity or event could include, without limitation, the purchase of seating at a football game, purchase of a ride on a roller coaster, purchase of a manicure, or purchase of admission to view a film. Digital customer marketing environment 114 may also includes a parking facility for parking cars, trucks, motorcycles, bicycles, or other vehicles for conveying customers to and from digital customer marketing environment 114. A parking facility may include an open air parking lot, an underground parking garage, an above ground parking garage, an automated parking garage, and/or any other area designated for parking customer vehicles. For example, digital customer marketing environment 114 may be, but is not limited to, a grocery store, a retail store, a department store, an indoor mall, an outdoor mall, a combination of indoor and outdoor retail areas, a farmer's market, a convention center, a sports arena or stadium, an airport, a bus depot, a train station, a marina, a hotel, fair grounds, an amusement park, a water park, and/or a zoo. Digital customer marketing environment 114 encompasses a range or area in which marketing messages may be transmitted to a digital display device for presentation to a customer within digital customer marketing environment. Digital multimedia management software is used to manage and/or enable generation, management, transmission, and/or display of marketing messages within digital customer marketing environment. Examples of digital multimedia management software include, but are not limited to, Scala® digital media/digital signage software, EK3® digital media/digital signage software, and/or Allure digital media software. In the depicted example, network data processing system 100 is the Internet with network 102 representing a worldwide collection of networks and gateways that use the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite of protocols to communicate with one another. At the heart of the Internet is a backbone of high-speed data communication lines between major nodes or host computers, consisting of thousands of commercial, governmental, educational and other computer systems that route data and messages. Of course, network data processing system 100 also may be implemented as a number of different types of networks, such as, without limitation, an intranet, an Ethernet, a local area network (LAN), and/or a wide area network (WAN). Network data processing system 100 may also include additional data storage devices in addition to or instead of storage area network 108, such as, without limitation, one or more hard disks, compact disks (CD), compact disk rewritable (CD-RW), flash memory, compact disk read-only memory (CD ROM), non-volatile random access memory (NV-RAM), and/or any other type of storage device for storing data. FIG. 1 is intended as an example, and not as an architectural limitation for different embodiments. Network data processing system 100 may include additional servers, clients, data storage devices, and/or other devices not shown. For example, server 104 may also include devices not depicted in FIG. 1, such as, without limitation, a local data storage device. In another embodiment, digital customer marketing environment 114 includes one or more servers located on-site at digital customer marketing environment. In this example, network 102 is optional. In other words, if one or more servers and/or data processing systems are located at digital customer marketing environment 114, the illustrative embodiments are capable of being implemented without requiring a network connection to computers located remotely to digital customer marketing environment 114. A merchant, owner, operator, manager or other employee associated with digital customer marketing environment 114 typically wants to market products or services to customers in the most convenient and efficient manner possible so as to maximize resulting purchases by the customer and increase sales, profits, and/or revenue. Therefore, the aspects of the illustrative embodiments recognize that it is advantageous for the merchant to have as much information as possible describing one or more customers and to anticipate items that the customer may wish to purchase prior to the customer selecting those items for purchase in order to identify the best items to market to the customer and personalize the merchant's marketing strategy to that particular customer. Therefore, the illustrative embodiments provide a computer implemented method, apparatus, and computer program product for managing a level of marketing disincentives directed towards a customer using a risk assessment score. In one embodiment, a risk assessment score for a customer associated with a retail facility is retrieved. The risk assessment score is analyzed to determine whether the customer is a desirable customer or an undesirable customer. In response to the risk assessment score indicating that the customer is an undesirable customer, aggressive marketing disincentives targeted to the undesirable customer are generated. If the risk assessment score indicates the customer is a desirable customer, marketing incentives targeted to the desirable customer are generated. FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a digital customer marketing environment in which illustrative embodiments may be implemented. Digital customer marketing environment 200 is a marketing environment, such as digital customer marketing environment 114 in FIG. 1. Retail facility 202 is a facility for wholly or partially storing, enclosing, or displaying items for marketing, viewing, selection, order, and/or purchase by a customer. For example, retail facility 202 may be, without limitation, a retail store, supermarket, grocery store, a marketplace, a food pavilion, a book store, clothing store, department store, or shopping mall. Retail facility 202 may also include, without limitation, a sports arena, amusement park, water park, convention center, trade center, or any other facility for housing, storing, displaying, offering, providing, and/or selling items. In this example, retail facility 202 is a grocery store or a department store. Detectors 204-210 are devices for gathering data associated with a set of customers, including, but not limited to, at least one camera, motion sensor device/motion detector, sonar detection device, microphone, sound/audio recording device, audio detection device, a voice recognition system, a heat sensor/thermal sensor, a seismograph, a pressure sensor, a device for detecting odors, scents, and/or fragrances, a radio frequency identification (RFID) tag reader, a global positioning system (GPS) receiver, and/or any other detection device for detecting a presence of a human, animal, object, and/or vehicle located outside of retail facility 202. A set of customers is a set of one or more customers. A vehicle is any type of vehicle for conveying people, animals, or objects to a destination. A vehicle may include, but is not limited to, a car, bus, truck, motorcycle, boat, airplane, or any other type of vehicle. A heat sensor is any known or available device for detecting heat, such as, but not limited to, a thermal imaging device for generating images showing thermal heat patterns. A heat sensor can detect body heat generated by a human or animal and/or heat generated by a vehicle, such as an automobile or a motorcycle. A set of heat sensors may include one or more heat sensors. A motion detector may be implemented in any type of known or available motion detector device. A motion detector device may include, but is not limited to, one or more motion detector devices using a photo-sensor, radar or microwave radio detector, or ultrasonic sound waves. A motion detector using ultrasonic sound waves transmits or emits ultrasonic sound waves. The motion detector detects or measures the ultrasonic sound waves that are reflected back to the motion detector. If a human, animal, or other object moves within the range of the ultrasonic sound waves generated by the motion detector, the motion detector detects a change in the echo of sound waves reflected back. This change in the echo indicates the presence of a human, animal, or other object moving within the range of the motion detector. In one example, a motion detector device using a radar or microwave radio detector may detect motion by sending out a burst of microwave radio energy and detecting the same microwave radio waves when the radio waves are deflected back to the motion detector. If a human, animal, or other object moves into the range of the microwave radio energy field generated by the motion detector, the amount of energy reflected back to the motion detector is changed. The motion detector identifies this change in reflected energy as an indication of the presence of a human, animal, or other object moving within the motion detectors range. A motion detector device, using a photo-sensor, detects motion by sending a beam of light across a space into a photo-sensor. The photo-sensor detects when a human, animal, or object breaks or interrupts the beam of light as the human, animal, or object by moving in-between the source of the beam of light and the photo-sensor. These examples of motion detectors are presented for illustrative purposes only. A motion detector in accordance with the illustrative embodiments may include any type of known or available motion detector and is not limited to the motion detectors described herein. A pressure sensor detector may be, for example, a device for detecting a change in weight or mass associated with the pressure sensor. For example, if one or more pressure sensors are imbedded in a sidewalk, Astroturf, or floor mat, the pressure sensor detects a change in weight or mass when a human customer or animal steps on the pressure sensor. The pressure sensor may also detect when a human customer or animal steps off of the pressure sensor. In another example, one or more pressure sensors are embedded in a parking lot, and the pressure sensors detect a weight and/or mass associated with a vehicle when the vehicle is in contact with the pressure sensor. A vehicle may be in contact with one or more pressure sensors when the vehicle is driving over one or more pressure sensors and/or when a vehicle is parked on top of one or more pressure sensors. In this example, detectors 204-210 are located at locations along an outer perimeter of digital customer marketing environment 200. However, detectors 204-210 may be located at any position outside retail facility 202 to detect customers before the customers enter retail facility 202 and/or when customers exit retail facility 202. Detectors 204-210 are connected to an analysis server on a data processing system, such as network data processing system 100 in FIG. 1. The analysis server is illustrated and described in greater detail in FIG. 6 below. The analysis server includes software for analyzing digital images and other data captured by detectors 204-210 to track and/or visually identify retail items, containers, and/or customers outside retail facility 202. Attachment of identifying marks may be part of this visual identification in the illustrative embodiments. In this example, four detectors, detectors 204-210, are located outside retail facility 202. However, any number of detectors may be used to detect, track, and/or gather dynamic data associated with customers outside retail facility 202. For example, a single detector, as well as two or more detectors may be used outside retail facility 202 for tracking customers entering and/or exiting retail facility 202. The dynamic customer data gathered by the one or more detectors in detectors 204-210 is referred to herein as external data. Camera 212 is an image capture device that may be implemented as any type of known or available camera, including, but not limited to, a video camera for taking moving video images, a digital camera capable of taking still pictures and/or a continuous video stream, a stereo camera, a web camera, and/or any other imaging device capable of capturing a view of whatever appears within the camera's range for remote monitoring, viewing, or recording of a distant or obscured person, object, or area. Various lenses, filters, and other optical devices such as zoom lenses, wide angle lenses, mirrors, prisms and the like may also be used with camera 212 to assist in capturing the desired view. Camera 212 may be fixed in a particular orientation and configuration, or it may, along with any optical devices, be programmable in orientation, light sensitivity level, focus or other parameters. Programming data may be provided via a computing device, such as server 104 in FIG. 1. Camera 212 may also be a stationary camera and/or non-stationary camera. A non-stationary camera is a camera that is capable of moving and/or rotating along one or more directions, such as up, down, left, right, and/or rotate about an axis of rotation. Camera 212 may also be capable of moving to follow or track a person, animal, or object in motion. In other words, the camera may be capable of moving about an axis of rotation in order to keep a customer, animal, or object within a viewing range of the camera lens. In this example, detectors 204-210 are non-stationary digital video cameras. Camera 212 may be coupled to and/or in communication with the analysis server. In addition, more than one image capture device may be operated simultaneously without departing from the illustrative embodiments of the present invention. Retail facility 202 may also optionally include set of detectors 213 inside retail facility 202. Set of detectors 213 is a set of one or more detectors, such as detectors 204-210. Set of detectors 213 are detectors for gathering dynamic data inside retail facility 202. The dynamic data gathered by set of detectors 213 includes, without limitation, grouping data, identification data, and/or customer behavior data. The dynamic data associated with a customer that is captured by one or more detectors in set of detectors 213 is referred to herein as internal data. Set of detectors 213 may be located at any location within retail facility 202. In addition, set of detectors 213 may include multiple detectors located at differing locations within retail facility 202. For example, a detector in set of detectors 213 may be located, without limitation, at an entrance to retail facility 202, on one or more shelves in retail facility 202, and/or on one or more doors or doorways in retail facility 202. In one embodiment, set of detectors 213 includes one or more cameras or other image capture devices for tracking and/or identifying items, containers for items, shopping containers, customers, shopping companions of the customer, shopping carts, and/or store employees inside retail facility 202. Display devices 214 are multimedia devices for displaying marketing messages to customers. Display devices 214 may be any type of display device for presenting a text, graphic, audio, video, and/or any combination of text, graphics, audio, and video to a customer. In this example, display devices 214 are located inside retail facility 202. Display devices 214 may be one or more display devices located within retail facility 202 for use and/or viewing by one or more customers. The images shown on display devices 214 are changed in real time in response to various events such as, without limitation, the time of day, the day of the week, a particular customer approaching the shelves or rack, items already placed inside container 220 by the customer, and dynamic data for the customer. Display devices 216 located outside retail facility 216 include at least one display device. The display device(s) may be, without limitation, a display screen or a kiosk located in a parking lot, queue line, and/or other area outside of retail facility 202. Display devices 216 outside retail facility 202 may be used in the absence of display devices 214 inside retail facility 202 or in addition to display devices 214. Display device 226 may be operatively connected to a data processing system via wireless, infrared, radio, or other connection technologies known in the art, for the purpose of transferring data to be displayed on display device 226. The data processing system includes the analysis server for analyzing dynamic external customer data obtained from detectors 204-210 and set of detectors 213, as well as static customer data obtained from one or more databases storing data associated with customers. Biometric devices 218 are one or more biometric devices for gathering biometric data associated with one or more customers. Biometric devices 218 include, without limitation, a fingerprint scanner, a retinal scanner, a voice analysis device, a device for measuring heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, body temperature, or a device for capturing any other biometric reading associated with a customer. Container 220 is a container for holding, carrying, transporting, or moving one or more items. For example, container 220 may be, without limitation, a shopping cart, a shopping bag, a shopping basket, and/or any other type of container for holding items. In this example, container 220 is a shopping cart. In this example in FIG. 2, only one container 220 is depicted. However, any number of containers may be used inside and/or outside retail facility 202 for holding, carrying, transporting, or moving items selected by customers. Container 220 may also optionally include identification tag 224. Identification tag 224 is a tag for identifying container 220, locating container 220 within digital customer marketing environment 200, either inside or outside retail facility 202, and/or associating container 220 with a particular customer. For example, identification tag 224 may be a radio frequency identification (RFID) tag, a universal product code (UPC) tag, a global positioning system (GPS) tag, and/or any other type of identification tag for identifying, locating, and/or tracking a container. Container 220 may also include display device 226 coupled to, mounted on, attached to, or imbedded within container 220. Display device 226 is a multimedia display device for displaying textual, graphical, video, and/or audio marketing messages to a customer. For example, display device 226 may be a digital display screen or personal digital assistant attached to a handle, front, back, or side member of container 220. Container 220 may optionally include an identification tag reader (not shown) for receiving data from identification tags 230 associated with retail items 228. Retail items 228 are items of merchandise for sale. Retail items 228 may be displayed on a display shelf (not shown) located in retail facility 202. Other items of merchandise may be for sale, such as, without limitation, food, beverages, shoes, clothing, household goods, decorative items, or sporting goods, may be hung from display racks, displayed in cabinets, on shelves, or in refrigeration units (not shown). Any other type of merchandise display arrangement known in the retail trade may also be used in accordance with the illustrative embodiments. For example, display shelves or racks may include, in addition to retail items 228, various advertising displays, images, or postings. Retail items 228 may be viewed or identified by the illustrative embodiments using an image capture device or other detector in set of detectors 213. To facilitate identification, items may have attached identification tags 230. Identification tags 230 are tags associated with one or more retail items for identifying the item and/or location of the item. For example, identification tags 230 may be, without limitation, a bar code pattern, such as a universal product code (UPC) or European article number (EAN), a radio frequency identification (RFID) tag, or other optical identification tag, depending on the capabilities of the image capture device and associated data processing system to process the information and make an identification of retail items 228. In some embodiments, an optical identification may be attached to more than one side of a given item. Biometric device 222 is a device coupled or mounted to container 220 for gathering biometric readings associated with the customer using container 220. The data processing system, discussed in greater detail in FIG. 3 below, includes associated memory which may be an integral part, such as the operating memory, of the data processing system or externally accessible memory. Software for tracking objects may reside in the memory and run on the processor. The software is capable of tracking retail items 228, as a customer removes an item in retail items 228 from its display position and places the item into container 220. Likewise, the tracking software can track items which are being removed from container 220 and placed elsewhere in the retail store, whether placed back in their original display position or anywhere else including into another container. The tracking software can also track the position of container 220 and the customer. The software can track retail items 228 by using data from one or more of detectors 204-210 located externally to retail facility, internal data captured by one or more detectors in set of detectors 213 located internally to retail facility 202, such as identification data received from identification tags 230 and/or identification data received from identification tag 224. The software in the data processing system keeps a list of which items have been placed in each shopping container, such as container 220. The list is stored in a database, such as, without limitation, a spreadsheet, relational database, hierarchical database or the like. The database may be stored in the operating memory of the data processing system, externally on a secondary data storage device, locally on a recordable medium such as a hard drive, floppy drive, CD ROM, DVD device, remotely on a storage area network, such as storage area network 108 in FIG. 1, or in any other type of storage device. The lists of items in container 220 are updated frequently enough to maintain a dynamic, accurate, real time listing of the contents of each container as customers add and remove items from containers, such as container 220. The listings of items in containers are also made available to whatever inventory system is used in retail facility 202. Such listings represent an up-to-the-minute view of which items are still available for sale, for example, to on-line shopping customers or customers physically located at retail facility 202. The listings may also provide a demand side trigger back to the supplier of each item. In other words, the listing of items in customer shopping containers can be used to update inventories, determine current stock available for sale to customers, and/or identification of items that need to be restocked or replenished. At any time, the customer using container 220 may request to see a listing of the contents of container 220 by entering a query at a user interface to the data processing system. The user interface may be available at a kiosk, computer, personal digital assistant, or other computing device connected to the data processing system via a network connection. The user interface may also be coupled to a display device, such as, at a display device in display devices 214, display devices 216, or display device 226 associated with container 220. The customer may also make such a query after leaving the retail store. For example, a query may be made using a portable device or a home computer workstation. The listing is then displayed at a location where it may be viewed by the customer on a display device. The listing may include the quantity of each item in container 220, as well as the brand, price of each item, discount or amount saved off the regular price of each item, and a total price for all items in container 220. Other data may also be displayed as part of the listing, such as, additional incentives to purchase one or more other items. When the customer is finished shopping, the customer may proceed to a point-of-sale checkout station. The checkout station may be coupled to the data processing system, in which case, the items in container 220 are already known to the data processing system due to the dynamic listing of items in container 220 that is maintained as the customer shops in digital customer marketing environment 200. Thus, there is no need for an employee, customer, or other person to scan each item in container 220 to complete the purchase of each item, as is commonly done today. In this example, the customer merely arranges for payment of the total, for example by use of a smart card, credit card, debit card, cash, or other payment method. In some embodiments, it may not be necessary to empty container 220 at the retail facility at all if container 220 is a minimal cost item which can be kept by the customer. In other embodiments, container 220 belongs to the customer. The customer brings container 220 to retail facility 202 at the start of the shopping session. In another embodiment, container 220 belongs to retail facility 202 and must be returned before the customer leaves digital customer marketing environment 200. In another example, when the customer is finished shopping, the customer may complete checkout either in-aisle or from a final or terminal-based checkout position in the store using a transactional device which may be integral with container 220 or associated temporarily to container 220. The customer may also complete the transaction using a consumer owned computing device, such as a laptop, cellular telephone, or personal digital assistant that is connected to the data processing system via a network connection. The customer may also make payment by swiping a magnetic strip on a card, using any known or available radio frequency identification (RFID) enabled payment device, or using a biometric device for identifying the customer by the customer's fingerprint, voiceprint, thumbprint, and/or retinal pattern. In such as case, the customer's account is automatically charged after the customer is identified. The transactional device may also be a portable device such as a laptop computer, palm device, or any other portable device specially configured for such in-aisle checkout service, whether integral with container 220 or separately operable. In this example, the transactional device connects to the data processing system via a network connection to complete the purchase transaction at check out time. Checkout may be performed in-aisle or at the end of the shopping trip whether from any point or from a specified point of transaction. As noted above, checkout transactional devices may be stationary shared devices or portable or mobile devices offered to the customer from the store or may be devices brought to the store by the customer, which are compatible with the data processing system and software residing on the data processing system. Set of speakers 232 is a set of one or more speakers in a sound system. Set of speakers are used to create an ambiance in retail facility 202 by performing acts such as, without limitation, playing subliminal messages over a sound system, wherein the subliminal messages encourage the undesirable customer to leave the retail facility, playing music over a sound system to encourage the undesirable customer to leave, playing music designed to soothe or relax a customer, or other actions. Set of lights 234 is a set of one or more lights in retail facility 202. Set of lights 234 are used to create an ambiance by performing actions such as, but not limited to, shining bright lights in an area of the retail facility occupied by the undesirable customer, shining red lights, flashing lights, softening a lighting level to create a more relaxed or soothing atmosphere, or other actions. Thus, in this depicted example, when a customer enters digital customer marketing environment but before the customer enters retail facility 202, such as a retail store, the customer is detected and identified by one or more detectors in detectors 204-210 to generate external data. The customer identification may be an exact identification of the customer by name, identification by an identifier, or an anonymous identification that is used to track the customer even though the customer's exact name and identity is not known. If the customer takes a shopping container before entering retail facility 202, the shopping container is also identified. In some embodiments, the customer may be identified through identification of container 220. An analysis server in a data processing system associated with retail facility 202 begins performing data mining on available static customer data, such as, but not limited to, customer profile information and demographic information, for use in generating customized marketing messages targeted to the customer. In one embodiment, the customer is presented with customized digital marketing messages on one or more display devices in display devices 216 located externally to retail facility 202 before the customer enters retail facility 202. The customer is tracked using image data and/or other detection data captured by detectors 204-210 as the customer enters retail facility 202. The customer is identified and tracked inside retail facility 202 by one or more detectors inside the facility, such as set of detectors 213. When the customer enters retail facility 202, the customer is typically offered, provided, or permitted to take shopping container 220 for use during shopping. When the customer takes a shopping container, such as container 220, the analysis server uses data from set of detectors 213, such as, identification data from identification tags 230 and 224, to track container 220 and items selected by the customer and placed in container 220. As a result, an item selected by the customer, for example, as the customer removes the item from its stationary position on a store display, is identified. The selected item may be traced visually by a camera, tracked by another type of detector in set of detectors 213 and/or using identification data from identification tags 230. The item is tracked until the customer places it in container 220 to form a selected item. Thus, a selected item is identified when a customer removes an item from a store display, such as a shelf, display counter, basket, or hanger. In another embodiment, the selected item is identified when the customer places the item in the customer's shopping basket, shopping bag, or shopping cart. Container 220 may contain a digital media display, such as display device 226, mounted on container 220 and/or customer may be offered a handheld digital media display device, such as a display device in display devices 214. In the alternative, the customer may be encouraged to use strategically placed kiosks running digital media marketing messages throughout retail facility 202. Display device 226, 214, and/or 216 may include a verification device for verifying an identity of the customer. For example, display device 214 may include a radio frequency identification tag reader 232 for reading a radio frequency identification tag, a smart card reader for reading a smart card, or a card reader for reading a specialized store loyalty or frequent customer card. Once the customer has been verified, the data processing system retrieves past purchase history, total potential wallet-share, shopper segmentation information, customer profile data, granular demographic data for the customer, and/or any other available customer data elements using known or available data retrieval and/or data mining techniques. These customer data elements are analyzed using at least one data model to determine appropriate digital media content to be pushed, on-demand, throughout the store to customers viewing display devices 214, 216, and/or display device 226. The customer is provided with incentives to use display devices 214, 216, and/or display device 226 to obtain marketing incentives, promotional offers, and discounts for items. When the customer has finished shopping, the customer may be provided with a list of savings or “tiered” accounting of savings over the regular price of purchased items if a display device had not been used to view and use customized digital marketing messages. In this example, a single container and a single customer is described. However, the aspects of the illustrative embodiments may also be used to track multiple containers and multiple customers simultaneously. In this case, the analysis server will store a separate listing of selected items for each active customer. As noted above, the listings may be stored in a database. The listing of items in a given container is displayed to a customer, employee, agent, or other customer in response to a query. The listing may be displayed to a customer at any time, either while actively shopping, during check-out, or after the customer leaves retail facility 202. This process provides an intelligent guided selling methodology to optimize customer throughput in the store, thereby maximizing or optimizing total retail content and/or retail sales, profit, and/or revenue for retail facility 202. It will be appreciated by one skilled in the art that the words “optimize”, “optimization” and related terms are terms of art that refer to improvements in speed and/or efficiency of a computer program, and do not purport to indicate that a computer program has achieved, or is capable of achieving, an “optimal” or perfectly speedy/perfectly efficient state. Next, FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a data processing system in which illustrative embodiments may be implemented. Data processing system 300 is an example of a computer, such as server 104 or client 110 in FIG. 1, in which computer usable code or instructions implementing the processes may be located for the illustrative embodiments. In this example, data is transmitted from data processing system 300 to the retail facility over a network, such as network 102 in FIG. 1. In another embodiment, data processing system 300 is located on-site at the retail facility. In the depicted example, data processing system 300 employs a hub architecture including a north bridge and memory controller hub (MCH) 302 and a south bridge and input/output (I/O) controller hub (ICH) 304. Processing unit 306, main memory 308, and graphics processor 310 are coupled to north bridge and memory controller hub 302. Processing unit 306 may contain one or more processors and even may be implemented using one or more heterogeneous processor systems. Graphics processor 310 may be coupled to the MCH through an accelerated graphics port (AGP), for example. In the depicted example, local area network (LAN) adapter 312 is coupled to south bridge and I/O controller hub 304 and audio adapter 316, keyboard and mouse adapter 320, modem 322, read only memory (ROM) 324, universal serial bus (USB) ports and other communications ports 332, and PCI/PCIe devices 334 are coupled to south bridge and I/O controller hub 304 through bus 338, and hard disk drive (HDD) 326 and CD-ROM drive 330 are coupled to south bridge and I/O controller hub 304 through bus 340. PCI/PCIe devices may include, for example, Ethernet adapters, add-in cards, and PC cards for notebook computers. PCI uses a card bus controller, while PCIe does not. ROM 324 may be, for example, a flash binary input/output system (BIOS). Hard disk drive 326 and CD-ROM drive 330 may use, for example, an integrated drive electronics (IDE) or serial advanced technology attachment (SATA) interface. A super I/O (SIO) device 336 may be coupled to south bridge and I/O controller hub 304. An operating system runs on processing unit 306 and coordinates and provides control of various components within data processing system 300 in FIG. 3. The operating system may be a commercially available operating system such as Microsoft® Windows® XP (Microsoft and Windows are trademarks of Microsoft Corporation in the United States, other countries, or both). An object oriented programming system, such as the Java™ programming system, may run in conjunction with the operating system and provides calls to the operating system from Java programs or applications executing on data processing system 300. Java and all Java-based trademarks are trademarks of Sun Microsystems, Inc. in the United States, other countries, or both. Instructions for the operating system, the object-oriented programming system, and applications or programs are located on storage devices, such as hard disk drive 326, and may be loaded into main memory 308 for execution by processing unit 306. The processes of the illustrative embodiments may be performed by processing unit 306 using computer implemented instructions, which may be located in a memory such as, for example, main memory 308, read only memory 324, or in one or more peripheral devices. In some illustrative examples, data processing system 300 may be a personal digital assistant (PDA), which is generally configured with flash memory to provide non-volatile memory for storing operating system files and/or customer-generated data. A bus system may be comprised of one or more buses, such as a system bus, an I/O bus and a PCI bus. Of course the bus system may be implemented using any type of communications fabric or architecture that provides for a transfer of data between different components or devices attached to the fabric or architecture. A communications unit may include one or more devices used to transmit and receive data, such as a modem or a network adapter. A memory may be, for example, main memory 308 or a cache such as found in north bridge and memory controller hub 302. A processing unit may include one or more processors or CPUs. Referring now to FIG. 4, a block diagram of a data processing system for analyzing dynamic data to generate customized marketing messages is shown in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. Data processing system 400 is a data processing system, such as data processing system 100 in FIG. 1 and/or data processing system 300 in FIG. 3. Analysis server 402 is any type of known or available server for analyzing dynamic customer data elements for use in generating customized digital marketing messages. Analysis server 402 may be a server, such as server 104 in FIG. 1 or data processing system 300 in FIG. 3. Analysis server 402 includes set of data models 404 for analyzing dynamic customer data elements and static customer data elements. Set of data models 404 is one or more data models created a priori or pre-generated for use in analyzing customer data objects for personalizing content of marketing messages presented to the customer. Set of data models 404 includes one or more data models for identifying customer data objects and determining relationships between the customer data objects. The data models in set of data models 404 are generated using at least one of a statistical method, a data mining method, a causal model, a mathematical model, a marketing model, a behavioral model, a psychological model, a sociological model, or a simulation model. Profile data 406 is data regarding one or more customers. In this example, profile data 406 includes point of contact data, profiled past data, current actions data, transactional history data, certain click-stream data, granular demographics 408, psychographic data 410, registration e.g. customer provided data, and account data and/or any other data regarding a customer. Point of contact data is data regarding a method or device used by a customer to interact with a data processing system of a merchant or supplier and/or receive customized marketing message 430 for display. The customer may interact with the merchant or supplier using a computing device or display terminal having a user interface for inputting data and/or receiving output. The device or terminal may be a device provided by the retail facility and/or a device belonging to or provided by the customer. For example, the display or access device may include, but is not limited to, a cellular telephone, a laptop computer, a desktop computer, a computer terminal kiosk, or personal digital assistant (PDA). If display device 432 is a display device associated with the retail facility, details and information regarding display device 432 will be known to analysis server 402. However, if display device 432 is a display device belonging to the customer or brought to the retail facility by the customer, analysis server 402 may identify the type of display device using techniques such as interrogation commands, cookies, or any other known or equivalent technique. From the type of device other constraints may be determined such as display size, resolution, refresh rate, color capability, keyboard entry capability, other entry capability such as pointer or mouse, speech recognition and response, language constraints, and any other fingertip touch point constraints and assumptions about customer state of the display device. For example, someone using a cellular phone may have a limited time window for making phone calls and be sensitive to location and local time of day, whereas a casual home browser may have a greater luxury of time and faster connectivity. An indication of a location for the point of contact may also be determined. For example, global positioning system (GPS) coordinates of the customer may be determined if the customer device has such a capability whether by including a real time global positioning system receiver or by periodically storing global positioning system coordinates entered by some other method. Other location indications may also be determined such as post office address, street or crossroad coordinates, latitude-longitude coordinates or any other location indicating system. Analysis server 402 may also determine the connectivity associated with the customer's point of contact. For example, the customer may be connected to the merchant or supplier in any of a number ways such as a modem, digital modem, network, wireless network, Ethernet, intranet, or high speed lines including fiber optic lines. Each way of connection imposes constraints of speed, latency, and/or mobility which can then also be determined. The profiled past comprises data that may be used, in whole or in part, for individualization of customized marketing message 430. Global profile data may be retrieved from a file, database, data warehouse, or any other data storage device. Multiple storage devices and software may also be used to store profile data 406. Some or all of the data may be retrieved from the point of contact device, as well. The profiled past may comprise an imposed profile, global profile, individual profile, and demographic profile. The profiles may be combined or layered to define the customer for specific promotions and marketing offers. In the illustrative embodiments, a global profile includes data on the customer's interests, preferences, and affiliations. The profiled past may also comprise retrieving purchased data. Various firms provide data for purchase which is grouped or keyed to presenting a lifestyle or life stage view of customers by block or group or some other baseline parameter. The purchased data presents a view of one or more customers based on aggregation of data points such as, but not limited to geographic block, age of head of household, income level, number of children, education level, ethnicity, and purchasing patterns. The profiled past may also include navigational data relating to the path the customer used to arrive at a web page which indicates where the customer came from or the path the customer followed to link to the merchant or supplier's web page. Transactional data of actions taken is data regarding a transaction. For example, transaction data may include data regarding whether the transaction is a first time transaction or a repeat transaction, and/or how much the customer usually spends. Information on how much a customer generally spends during a given transaction may be referred to as basket share. Data voluntarily submitted by the customer in responding to questions or a survey may also be included in the profiled past. Current actions, also called a current and historical record, are also included in profile data 406. Current actions are data defining customer behavior. One source of current actions is listings of the purchases made by the customer, payments and returns made by the customer, and/or click-stream data from a point of contact device of the customer. Click-stream data is data regarding a customer's navigation of an online web page of the merchant or supplier. Click-stream data may include page hits, sequence of hits, duration of page views, response to advertisements, transactions made, and conversion rates. Conversion rate is the number of times the customer takes action divided by the number of times an opportunity is presented. In this example, profiled past data for a given customer is stored in analysis server 402. However, in accordance with the illustrative embodiments, profiled past data may also be stored in any local or remote data storage device, including, but not limited to, a device such as storage area network 108 in FIG. 1 or read only memory (ROM) 324 and/or compact disk read only memory (CD-ROM) 330 in FIG. 3. Granular demographics 408 is a source of static customer data elements. Static customer data elements are data elements that do not tend to change in real time, such as a customer's name, date of birth, and address. Granular demographics 408 provides a detailed demographics profile for one or more customers. Granular demographics 408 may include, without limitation, ethnicity, block group, lifestyle, life stage, income, and education data. Granular demographics 408 may be used as an additional layer of profile data 406 associated with a customer. Psychographic data 410 refers to an attitude profile of the customer. Examples of attitude profiles include, without limitation, a trend buyer, a time-strapped person who prefers to purchase a complete outfit, a cost-conscious shopper, a customer that prefers to buy in bulk, or a professional buyer who prefers to mix and match individual items from various suppliers. Dynamic data 412 is data that includes dynamic customer data elements that are changing in real-time. For example, dynamic customer data elements could include, without limitation, the current contents of a customer's shopping basket, the time of day, the day of the week, whether it is the customer's birthday or other holiday observed by the customer, customer's responses to marketing messages and/or items viewed by the customer, customer location, the customer's current shopping companions, the speed or pace at which the customer is walking through the retail facility, and/or any other dynamically changing customer information. Dynamic data 412 includes external data, grouping data, customer identification data, customer behavior data, and/or current events data. Dynamic data 412 is processed and/or analyzed to generate customized marketing messages. Processing dynamic data 412 includes, but is not limited to, filtering dynamic data 412 for relevant data elements, combining dynamic data 412 with other dynamic customer data elements, comparing dynamic data 412 to baseline or comparison models for external data, and/or formatting dynamic data 412 for utilization and/or analysis in one or more data models in set of data models 404. The processed dynamic data 412 is analyzed and/or further processed using one or more data models in set of data models 404. Dynamic data 412 may include customer identification data. Customer identification data identifies the customer without human input. In this case, the customer identification data may be generated by performing, without limitation, facial recognition analysis on an image of a face of the customer, license plate recognition analysis on an image of a vehicle license plate, a fingerprint analysis on a fingerprint of the customer, and voice analysis on a sound file. A customer profile can then be retrieved from profile data 406 using the customer identification data in dynamic data 412. Biometric data 414 is captured by a set of one or more biometric devices associated with a customer. Biometric devices include, without limitation, a fingerprint scanner, a retinal scanner, a voice analysis device, a device for measuring heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, body temperature, or a device for capturing any other biometric reading associated with a customer. The biometric data is gathered in real-time as the customer is shopping at the retail facility. Biometric data 414 is received by analysis server 402 from the set of biometric devices. The biometric data is data describing a set of physiological responses of the customer. Biometric readings associated with the customer that are captured by the biometric device(s) are analyzed by analysis server 402 to identify biometric readings that exceed a threshold change to form biometric data 414. If the customer was viewing an item or a marketing message when the change in the biometric reading occurred, analysis server 402 associates the change in the biometric reading with the item or the marketing message to form biometric data 414. If the customer was interacting with another customer, an employee of the retail facility, a child, or an animal, analysis server 402 associates the change in the biometric reading with the another customer, the employee, the child, or the animal to form biometric data 414. Threshold 420 is a threshold risk assessment score that is used to determine when risk assessment score 421 indicates a customer poses a potential threat to the store. The potential threat posed by the customer to the retail facility includes, but is not limited to, a risk of the customer shoplifting, stealing from other customers or employees, committing theft from the store or other customers, committing violence on employees, other customers, or self-inflicted violence, failing to pay bills, defaulting on loans, disrupting operations of the retail facility, criminal activities, threatening customers, panhandling, and loitering. Risk assessment engine 422 is software for performing a risk assessment analysis of a customer. In this example, analysis server 402 parses dynamic data 412 associated with a customer to identify patterns of events. Dynamic data 412 includes metadata describing an appearance and behavior of the customer. Risk assessment engine 422 analyzes the patterns of events to identify risk assessment factors for the customer. Risk assessment engine 422 performs a risk assessment analysis using the risk assessment factors for the customer to generate risk assessment score 421 for the customer. Risk assessment score 421 is a ranking that indicates a potential risk posed by the customer to the retail facility. A different risk assessment score is generated for each customer. Risk assessment engine 422 also retrieves a customer profile for the customer. The customer profile includes static customer data elements describing the customer, such as, but not limited to, the customer's criminal record, credit rating, past incidents in the retail store, and other details regarding the customer's past actions and record. Risk assessment engine 422 analyzes dynamic data 412 and biometric data 414, with the customer profile data to identify the risk assessment factors for the customer. In another embodiment, risk assessment engine 422 analyzes the risk assessment factors using at least one of a statistical method, a data mining method, and pre-generated manual input to generate weighted risk factors. Risk assessment engine 422 generates risk assessment score 421 using the weighted risk assessment factors and cohort data for the customer. Cohort data is data describing the customer, such as the customer's appearance and behavior. The cohort data may describe the customer as wearing a trench coat in warm weather or wearing sunglasses indoors. If dynamic data 412 includes grouping data that indicates the customer is shopping with one or more other people or animals, risk assessment score 421 is generated for each member of the group. Grouping data for the customer describes a group associated with the customer. The group may be, for example, a group of parents with children, teenagers, children, minors unaccompanied by adults, minors accompanied by adults, grandparents with grandchildren, senior citizens, couples, friends, coworkers, a customer shopping with a pet, a customer with a large dog, a customer with an unrestrained animal, and a customer shopping alone. If risk assessment score 421 for the customer is greater than threshold 420, risk assessment engine 422 identifies the customer as an undesirable customer that may pose a potential threat to the store. In response, risk assessment engine 422 initiates aggressive marketing disincentives targeted towards to the undesirable customer. Aggressive marketing disincentives are marketing initiatives intended to decrease an amount of time the customer spends shopping in the retail facility. The aggressive disincentives include, without limitation, informing a set of employees associated with the retail facility that the customer is an undesirable customer and directing the set of employees to avoid offering assistance unless assistance is requested by the customer, providing disincentive marketing messages to the customer that include uncompetitive product pricing and undesirable product offers, and creating a negative ambiance in an area of the retail facility associated with the customer. Creating a negative ambiance further comprises shining harsh or bright lights in an area of the retail facility occupied by the customer, playing subliminal messages over a sound system that encourage or prompt the customer to leave the retail facility, playing music over a sound system, wherein the music is designed to encourage the customer to feel uncomfortable, and/or adjusting a temperature in an area of the retail facility to an uncomfortable temperature, wherein an uncomfortable temperature is at least one of a temperature that is colder than a predetermined temperature, higher than a predetermined comfortable temperature, and a humidity that is higher than a predetermined comfortable humidity level. If risk assessment score 421 indicates the customer is a highly desirable customer, risk assessment engine initiates marketing incentives targeted towards the customer. The marketing incentives include, without limitation, notifying an employee associated with the retail facility to assist the customer and generating customized marketing messages for the customer that include competitive product pricing and preferred product offers. A display device may also be provided to the customer that provides a map and/or locations of items in the retail facility to improve a shopping experience of the customer. If risk assessment score 421 indicates the customer is a neutral or moderately desirable customer, risk assessment engine 422 initiates moderate marketing efforts directed towards the customer that are cheaper to generate and present to the customer than aggressive marketing incentives. Content server 423 is any type of known or available server for storing modular marketing messages 424. Content server 423 may be a server, such as server 104 in FIG. 1 or data processing system 300 in FIG. 3. Modular marketing messages 424 are two or more self contained marketing messages that may be combined with one or more other modular marketing messages in modular marketing messages 424 to form a customized marketing message for display to the customer. Modular marketing messages 424 can be quickly and dynamically assembled and disseminated to the customer in real-time. In this illustrative example, modular marketing messages 424 are pre-generated. In other words, modular marketing messages 424 are preexisting marketing message units that are created prior to analyzing dynamic data 412 associated with a customer using one or more data models to generate a personalized marketing message for the customer. Two or more modular marketing messages are combined to dynamically generate customized marketing message 430, customized or personalized for a particular customer. Although modular marketing messages 424 are pre-generated, modular marketing messages 424 may also include templates imbedded within modular marketing messages for adding personalized information, such as a customer's name or address, to the customized marketing message. Derived marketing messages 426 is a software component for determining which modular marketing messages in modular marketing messages 424 should be combined or utilized to dynamically generate customized marketing message 430 for the customer in real time. Derived marketing messages 426 uses the output generated by analysis server 402 as a result of analyzing dynamic data 412 associated with a customer using one or more appropriate data models in set of data models 404 to identify one or more modular marketing messages for the customer. The output generated by analysis server 402 from analyzing dynamic data 412 using appropriate data models in set of data models 404 includes marketing message criteria for the customer. In other words, dynamic data 412 is analyzed to generate personal marketing message criteria. Derived marketing messages 426 uses the marketing message criteria for the customer to select one or more modular marketing messages in modular marketing messages 424. A customized marketing message is generated using personalized marketing message criteria that are identified using the dynamic data. Personalized marketing message criteria are criterion or indicators for selecting one or more modular marketing messages for inclusion in the customized marketing message. The personalized marketing message criteria may include one or more criterion. The personalized marketing message criteria may be generated, in part, a priori or pre-generated and in part dynamically in real-time based on the dynamic data for the customer and/or any available static customer data associated with the customer. Dynamic data 412 includes external data gathered outside the retail facility and/or dynamic data gathered inside the retail facility. If an analysis of dynamic data 412 indicates that the customer is shopping with a large dog, the personal marketing message criteria may include criteria to indicate marketing of pet food and items for large dogs. Because people with large dogs often have large yards, the personal marketing message criteria may also indicate that yard items, such as yard fertilizer, weed killer, or insect repellant may should be marketed. The personal marketing message criteria may also indicate marketing elements designed to appeal to animal lovers and pet owners, such as incorporating images of puppies, images of dogs, phrases such as “man's best friend”, “puppy love”, advice on pet care and dog health, and/or other pet friendly images, phrases, and elements to appeal to the customer's tastes and interests. Derived marketing messages 426 uses the output of one or more data models in set of data models 404 that were used to analyze dynamic data 412 associated with a customer to identify one or more modular marketing messages to be combined together to form the personalized marketing message for the customer. For example, a first modular marketing message may be a special on a more expensive brand of peanut butter. A second modular marketing message may be a discount on jelly when peanut butter is purchased. In response to marketing message criteria that indicates the customer frequently purchases cheaper brands of peanut butter, the customer has children, and the customer is currently in an aisle of the retail facility that includes jars of peanut butter, derived marketing messages 426 will select the first marketing message and the second marketing message based on the marketing message criteria for the customer. Dynamic marketing message assembly 428 is a software component for combining the one or more modular marketing messages selected by derived marketing messages 426 to form customized marketing message 430. Dynamic marketing message assembly 428 combines modular marketing messages selected by derived marketing messages 426 to create appropriate customized marketing message 430 for the customer. In the example above, after derived marketing messages 426 selects the first modular marketing message and the second modular marketing message based on the marketing message criteria, dynamic marketing message assembly 428 combines the first and second modular marketing messages to generate a customized marketing message offering the customer a discount on both the peanut butter and jelly if the customer purchases the more expensive brand of peanut butter. In this manner, dynamic marketing message assembly 428 provides assembly of customized marketing message 430 based on output from the data models analyzing dynamic data. Customized marketing message 430 is a unique one-to-one customized marketing message for a specific customer. Customized marketing message 430 is generated using dynamic data 412 and/or static customer data elements, such as the customer's demographics and psychographics, to achieve this unique one-to-one marketing. Customized marketing message 430 is generated for a particular customer based on dynamic customer data elements, such as grouping data, customer identification data, current events data, and customer behavior data. For example, if modular marketing messages 424 include marketing messages identified by numerals 1-20, customized marketing message 430 may be generated using marketing messages 2, 8, 9, and 19. In this example, modular marketing messages 2, 8, 9, and 19 are combined to create a customized marketing message that is generated for display to the customer rather than displaying the exact same marketing messages to all customers. Customized marketing message 430 is displayed on display device 432. Customized marketing message 430 may include advertisements, sales, special offers, incentives, opportunities, promotional offers, rebate information and/or rebate offers, discounts, and opportunities. An opportunity may be a “take action” opportunity, such as asking the customer to make an immediate purchase, select a particular item, request a download, provide information, or take any other type of action. Customized marketing message 430 may also include content or messages pushing advertisements and opportunities to effectively and appropriately drive the point of contact customer to some conclusion or reaction desired by the merchant. Customized marketing message 430 is formed in a dynamic closed loop manner in which the content delivery depends on dynamic data 412, as well as other dynamic customer data elements and static customer data, such as profile data 406 and granular demographics 408. Therefore, all interchanges with the customer may sense and gather data associated with customer behavior, which is used to generate customized marketing message 430. Display device 432 is a multimedia display for presenting customized marketing messages to one or more customers. Display device 432 may be a multimedia display, such as, but not limited to, display devices 214, 216, and 226 in FIG. 2. Display device 432 may be, for example, a personal digital assistant (PDA), a cellular telephone with a display screen, an electronic sign, a laptop computer, a tablet PC, a kiosk, a digital media display, a display screen mounted on a shopping container, and/or any other type of device for displaying digital messages to a customer. Thus, a merchant has a capability for interacting with the customer on a direct one-to-one level by sending customized marketing message 430 to display device 432. Customized marketing message 430 may be sent and displayed to the customer via a network. For example, customized marketing message 430 may be sent via a web site accessed as a unique uniform resource location (URL) address on the World Wide Web, as well as any other networked connectivity or conventional interaction including, but not limited to, a telephone, computer terminal, cell phone or print media. Display device 432 may be a display device mounted on a shopping cart, a shopping basket, a shelf or compartment in a retail facility, included in a handheld device carried by the customer, or mounted on a wall in the retail facility. In response to displaying customized marketing message 430, a customer can select to print the customized marketing message 430 as a coupon and/or as a paper or hard copy for later use. In another embodiment, display device 432 automatically prints customized marketing message 430 for the customer rather than displaying customized marketing message 430 on a display screen or in addition to displaying customized marketing message 430 on the display screen. In another embodiment, display device 432 provides an option for a customer to save customized marketing message 430 in an electronic form for later use. For example, the customer may save customized marketing message 430 on a hand held display device, on a flash memory, a customer account in a data base associated with analysis server 402, or any other data storage device. In this example, when customized marketing message 430 is displayed to the customer, the customer is presented with a “use offer now” option and a “save offer for later use” option. If the customer chooses the “save offer” option, the customer may save an electronic copy of customized marketing message 430 and/or print a paper copy of customized marketing message 430 for later use. In this example, customized marketing message 430 is generated and delivered to the customer in response to the customer choosing selected item 420. FIG. 5 is a block diagram of a dynamic marketing message assembly transmitting a customized marketing message to a set of display devices in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. Dynamic marketing message assembly 500 is a software component for combining two or more modular marketing messages into a customized marketing message for a customer. Dynamic marketing message assembly 500 may be a component such as dynamic marketing message assembly 428 in FIG. 4. Dynamic marketing message assembly 500 transmits a customized marketing message, such as customized marketing message 430 in FIG. 4, to one or more display devices in a set of display devices. In this example, the set of display devices includes, but is not limited to, digital media display device 502, kiosk 504, personal digital assistant 506, cellular telephone 508, and/or electronic sign 510. A set of display devices in accordance with the illustrative embodiments may include any combination of display devices and any number of each type of display device. For example, a set of display devices may include, without limitation, six kiosks, fifty personal digital assistants, and no cellular telephones. In another example, the set of display devices may include electronic signs and kiosks but no personal digital assistants or cellular telephones. Digital media display device 502 is any type of known or available digital media display device for displaying a marketing message. Digital media display device 502 may include, but is not limited to, a monitor, a plasma screen, a liquid crystal display screen, and/or any other type of digital media display device. Kiosk 504 is any type of known or available kiosk. In one embodiment, a kiosk is a structure having one or more open sides, such as a booth. The kiosk includes a computing device associated with a display screen located inside or in association with the structure. The computing device may include a user interface for a user to provide input to the computing device and/or receive output. For example, the user interface may include, but is not limited to, a graphical user interface (GUI), a menu-driven interface, a command line interface, a touch screen, a voice recognition system, an alphanumeric keypad, and/or any other type of interface. Personal digital assistant 506 is any type of known or available personal digital assistant (PDA). Cellular telephone 508 is any type of known or available cellular telephone and/or wireless mobile telephone. Cellular telephone 508 includes a display screen that is capable of displaying pictures, graphics, and/or text. Additionally, cellular telephone 508 may also include an alphanumeric keypad, joystick, and/or buttons for providing input to cellular telephone 508. The alphanumeric keypad, joystick, and/or buttons may be used to initiate various functions in cellular telephone 508. These functions include for example, activating a menu, displaying a calendar, receiving a call, initiating a call, displaying a customized marketing message, saving a customized marketing message, and/or selecting a saved customized marketing message. Electronic sign 510 is any type of electronic messaging system. For example, electronic sign 510 may include, without limitation, an outdoor electronic light emitting diode (LED) display, moving message boards, variable message signs, tickers, electronic message centers, video boards, and/or any other type of electronic signage. The display device may also include, without limitation, a laptop computer, a smart watch, a digital message board, a monitor, a tablet PC, a printer for printing the customized marketing message on a paper medium, or any other output device for presenting output to a customer. A display device may be located externally to the retail facility to display marketing messages to the customer before the customer enters the retail facility. In another embodiment, the customized marketing message is displayed to the customer on a display device inside the retail facility after the customer enters the retail facility and begins shopping. Turning now to FIG. 6, a block diagram of an identification tag reader for identifying items selected by a customer is shown in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. Item 600 is any type of item, such as retail items 228 in FIG. 2. Identification tag 602 associated with item 600 is a tag for providing information regarding item 600 to identification tag reader 604. Identification tag 602 is a tag such as a tag in identification tags 230 in FIG. 2. Identification tag 602 may be a bar code, a radio frequency identification tag, a global positioning system tag, and/or any other type of tag. Radio Frequency Identification tags include read-only identification tags and read-write identification tags. A read-only identification tag is a tag that generates a signal in response to receiving an interrogate signal from an item identifier. A read-only identification tag does not have a memory. A read-write identification tag is a tag that responds to write signals by writing data to a memory within the identification tag. A read-write tag can respond to interrogate signals by sending a stream of data encoded on a radio frequency carrier. The stream of data can be large enough to carry multiple identification codes. In this example, identification tag 602 is a radio frequency identification tag. Identification tag reader 604 is any type of known or available device for retrieving information from identification tag 602. Identification tag reader 604 may be, but is not limited to, a radio frequency identification tag reader or a bar code reader, such as identification tag reader 232 in FIG. 2. A bar code reader is a device for reading a bar code, such as a universal product code. In this example, identification tag reader 604 provides identification data 606, item data 610, and/or location data 612 to an analysis server, such as analysis server 402 in FIG. 4. Identification data 608 is data regarding the product name and/or manufacturer name of item 600 selected for purchase by a customer. Item data 610 is information regarding item 600, such as, without limitation, the regular price, sale price, product weight, and/or tare weight for item 600. Identification data 608 is used to identify items selected by the customer for purchase. Location data 612 is data regarding a location of item 600 within the retail facility and/or outside the retail facility. For example, if identification tag 602 is a bar code, the item associated with identification tag 602 must be in close physical proximity to identification tag reader 604 for a bar code scanner to read a bar code on item 600. Therefore, location data 612 is data regarding the location of identification tag reader 604 currently reading identification tag 602. However, if identification tag 602 is a global positioning system tag, a substantially exact or precise location of item 600 may be obtained using global positioning system coordinates obtained from the global positioning system tag. Identifier database 606 is a database for storing any information that may be needed by identification tag reader 604 to read identification tag 602. For example, if identification tag 602 is a radio frequency identification tag, identification tag will provide a machine readable identification code in response to a query from identification tag reader 604. In this case, identifier database 606 stores description pairs that associate the machine readable codes produced by identification tags with human readable descriptors. For example, a description pair for the machine readable identification code “10141014111111” associated with identification tag 602 would be paired with a human readable item description of item 600, such as “orange juice.” An item description is a human understandable description of an item. Human understandable descriptions are for example, text, audio, graphic, or other representations suited for display or audible output. FIG. 7 is a block diagram illustrating an external marketing manager for generating current events data in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. External marketing manager 700 is a software component for collecting current news items 702, competitor marketing data 704, holidays, seasonal events, seasonal celebrations, and/or events data 706, and/or any other current events or news data from a set of sources. The set of sources may include one or more sources. A source may be, without limitation, a newspaper, catalog, a web page or other network resource, a television program or commercial, a flier, a pamphlet, a book, a booklet, a news board, a coupon board, a news group, a blog, a magazine, a religious calendar, a secular calendar, or any other paper or electronic source of information. A source may also include information provided by a human user. External marketing manager 700 stores current news items 702, competitor marketing data 704, holidays and/or events data 706, and/or any other current events or news data in data storage device 708 as external marketing data 710. Data storage device 708 may be implemented as any type of data storage device, including, without limitation, a hard disk, a database, a main memory, a flash memory, a random access memory (RAM), a read only memory (ROM), or any other data storage device. In this example, external marketing manager 700 filters or processes external marketing data 710 to form current events data 720. Filtering external marketing data 710 may include selecting data items or data objects associated with marketing one or more items to a customer. A data item or data object associated with marketing one or more items is a data element that may influence a customer's decision to purchase a product. For example, the occurrence of a sporting event may influence the items purchased by a customer, such as pizza, potato chips, beer, and big screen television sets. A data element indicating the occurrence of a holiday or religious event, such as Christmas or Thanksgiving, may also influence the items purchased by a customer. For example, as Thanksgiving approaches, customers are more likely to purchase turkey and pumpkin pie. At Easter, customers are more likely to purchase ham, chocolate bunnies, and Easter eggs. A data element indicating that a storm or hurricane is approaching may influence projects such as installing storm shutters and generators. These data elements that may influence customer purchases and sales of items are selected to form current events data 720. Current events data 720 is then sent to an analysis server, such as analysis server 402 in FIG. 4 for use in identifying items likely to be of interest to customers, as well as personalizing marketing messages to a customer. In this example, external marketing manager 700 filters external marketing data 710 for relevant data elements to form current events data 720 without intervention by a human user. In another embodiment, a human user filters external marketing data 710 manually to generate current events data 720. The analysis server uses the current events data to identify an event of interest to the customer that occurs within a predetermined period of time. For example, if a customer profile and dynamic data indicates that the customer is Catholic and current events data 720 indicates Mardi Gras is approaching, the analysis server can identify items associated with Mardi Gras, such as King Cake, Mardi Gras beads, and masks. FIG. 8 is a block diagram illustrating a smart detection engine for generating customer identification data and selected item data in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. Smart detection system 800 is a software architecture for analyzing camera images and other detection data to form dynamic data 820. In this example, the detection data is video images captured by a camera. However, the detection data may also include, without limitation, pressure sensor data captured by a set of pressure sensors, heat sensor data captured by a set of heat sensors, motion sensor data captured by a set of motion sensors, audio captured by an audio detection device, such as a microphone, or any other type of detection data described herein. Audio/video capture device 802 is a device for capturing video images and/or capturing audio. Audio/video capture device 802 may be, but is not limited to, a digital video camera, a microphone, a web camera, or any other device for capturing sound and/or video images. Audio data 804 is data associated with audio captured by audio/video capture device 802, such as human voices, vehicle engine sounds, dog barking, horns, and any other sounds. Audio data 804 may be a sound file, a media file, or any other form of audio data. Audio/video capture device 802 captures audio associated with a set of one or more customers inside a retail facility and/or outside a retail facility to form audio data 804. Video data 806 is image data captured by audio/video capture device 802. Video data 806 may be a moving video file, a media file, a still picture, a set of still pictures, or any other form of image data. Video data 806 is video or images associated with a set of one or more customers inside a retail facility and/or outside a retail facility. For example, video data 806 may include images of a customer's face, an image of a part or portion of a customer's car, an image of a license plate on a customer's car, and/or one or more images showing a customer's behavior. An image showing a customer's behavior or appearance may show a customer wearing a long coat on a hot day, a customer walking with two small children which may be the customer's children or grandchildren, a customer moving in a hurried or leisurely manner, or any other type of behavior or appearance attributes of a customer, the customer's companions, or the customer's vehicle. Audio/video capture device 802 transmits audio data 804 and video data 806 to smart detection engine 808. Audio data 804 and video data 806 may be referred to as detection data. Smart detection engine 808 is software for analyzing audio data 804 and video data 806. In this example, smart detection engine 808 processes audio data 804 and video data 806 into data and metadata to form dynamic data 820. Dynamic data 820 includes, but not limited to, external data 810, customer identification data 814, grouping data 816, customer event data 818, and current events data 822. Customer grouping data is data describing a customer's companions, such as children, parents, siblings, peers, friends, and/or pets. Processing the audio data 804 and video data 806 may include filtering audio data 804 and video data 806 for relevant data elements, analyzing audio data 804 and video data 806 to form metadata describing or categorizing the contents of audio data 804 and video data 806, or combining audio data 804 and video data 806 with other audio data, video data, and data associated with a group of customers received from cameras. Smart detection engine 808 uses computer vision and pattern recognition technologies to analyze audio data 804 and/or video data 806. Smart detection engine 808 includes license plate recognition technology which may be deployed in a parking lot or at the entrance to a retail facility where the license plate recognition technology catalogs a license plate of each of the arriving and departing vehicles in a parking lot associated with the retail facility. Smart detection engine 808 includes behavior analysis technology to detect and track moving objects and classify the objects into a number of predefined categories. As used herein, an object may be a human customer, an item, a container, a shopping cart or shopping basket, or any other object inside or outside the retail facility. Behavior analysis technology could be deployed on various cameras overlooking a parking lot, a perimeter, or inside a facility. Face detection/recognition technology may be deployed in parking lots, at entry ways, and/or throughout the retail facility to capture and recognize faces. Badge reader technology may be employed to read badges. Radar analytics technology may be employed to determine the presence of objects. Events from access control technologies can also be integrated into smart detection engine 808. The events from all the above detection technologies are cross indexed into a single repository, such as multi-mode database. In such a repository, a simple time range query across the modalities will extract license plate information, vehicle appearance information, badge information, and face appearance information, thus permitting an analyst to easily correlate these attributes. Smart detection system 800 may be implemented using any known or available software for performing voice analysis, facial recognition, license plate recognition, and sound analysis. In this example, smart detection system 800 is implemented as IBM® smart surveillance system (S3) software. The data gathered from the behavior analysis technology, license plate recognition technology, face detection/recognition technology, badge reader technology, radar analytics technology, and any other video/audio data received from a camera or other video/audio capture device is received by smart detection engine 808 for processing into dynamic data 820. FIG. 9 is a block diagram of a shopping container in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. Shopping container 900 is a container for carrying, moving, or holding items selected by a customer, such as container 220 in FIG. 2. In this example, container 900 is a shopping cart. Display device 902 is a multimedia display device for presenting or displaying customized digital marketing messages to one or more customers, such as display devices 226 in FIG. 2 or display device 430 in FIG. 4. In this example, display device is coupled to shopping container 900. Display device 902 displays customized digital marketing messages received from a derived marketing messages device, such as derived marketing messages 626 in FIG. 6. Biometric device 904 is any type of known or available device for measuring a physiological response or trait associated with a customer. Biometric device 904 is a biometric device, such as, without limitation, biometric device 222 in FIG. 2. Biometric device 904 may be a biometric device for measuring a customer's heart rate over a given period of time, a change in voice stress for the customer's voice, a change in blood pressure, and/or a change in pupil dilation that does not correlate or correspond to a change in an ambient lighting level. In this example, biometric device 904 is coupled to shopping container 900. Biometric device 904 monitors biometric readings of a customer and detects changes in the biometric readings of the customer that exceeds a threshold change. In this example, biometric device 904 is a device for measuring a customer's heart rate over time. Biometric device 904 obtains the customer's pulse rate by measuring the customer's finger pulse. In another embodiment, biometric device 904 may also identify a customer based on a fingerprint scan, voiceprint analysis, and/or retinal scan. For example, biometric device 904 may dynamically identify the customer by scanning the customer's fingerprint and/or analyzing fingerprint data associated with the customer to determine the customer's identity. In one example, biometric device 904 may, but is not required to, connected to a remote data storage device storing data to retrieve customer fingerprint data for use in identifying a given customer using the customer's fingerprint. Biometric device 904 may be connected to the remote data storage device via a wireless network connection, such as network 102 in FIG. 1. In this example, biometric device 904 is coupled, attached, or imbedded in a handle of shopping container 900. However, biometric device 904 may be coupled, attached, or imbedded in or on any part or member of shopping container 900. In another embodiment, biometric device 904 is coupled, attached, associated with, or imbedded within display device 902. In this example, display device 902 may use biometric device 904 to dynamically identifying the customer by scanning the customer's fingerprint and/or analyzing data associated with the customer's fingerprint to determine the customer's identity. FIG. 10 is a block diagram of a shelf in a retail facility in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. Shelf 1000 is any type of device for showing, displaying, storing, or holding items. Shelf 1000 may be a shelf in a refrigerator or a freezer, as well as a shelf at room temperature. Shelf 1000 includes biometric sensors 1002-1008 for detecting biometric data associated with a customer. When a customer is standing in proximity to shelf 1000, such as when a customer is shopping, browsing, and/or selecting one or more items for purchase, biometric sensors 1002-1008 monitor biometric readings associated with the customer, such as, without limitation, the customer's heart rate, respiration rate, body temperature, pupil dilation, fingerprint, thumbprint, and/or any other biometric data. The customer's positive and negative reactions to customized marketing messages and/or items offered for sale are determined by analyzing the biometric data gathered by biometric sensors 1002-1008. FIG. 11 is a block diagram illustrating a set of risk assessment factors used to generate a risk assessment score for a customer in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. Risk assessment factors are factors that are used to generate total risk assessment score 1124 for a customer. The risk assessment factors are used to determine the potential risk a customer poses to the retail facility. Risk assessment factors includes factors such as, but not limited to, a customer's credit score 1102, amount of revenue per transaction 1104 generated by the customer, coupons/discounts/price matching 1106 and other indicators that a customer is cost-conscious, sale items purchased per transaction/price sensitivity 1108 of the customer, name brands versus generic brands 1110 purchased by the customer, shoplifting/criminal history 1112, customer history/customer loyalty to the retail facility 1114, customer income 1116, frequency of transactions/regularity of patronage 1118, product returns 1120, and/or customer complaints 1122 made by the customer. Risk assessment factors could include all these risk factors or only some of these risk factors. Risk assessment factors could also include additional factors not shown in FIG. 11, such as number of items returned, number of service calls made, number of items exchanged, number of children brought into the retail facility during shopping trips, number of civil lawsuits filed against retail facilities, history of frivolous lawsuits filed against businesses, liens against the customer's property, a history of lawsuits against the retail facility that were settled out of court, and any other factors that could indicate whether a customer is a desirable customer or a customer that poses a potential risk or threat to the store. FIG. 12 is a block diagram illustrating a risk assessment engine for generating a risk assessment score for a customer in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. Risk assessment engine 1200 is a risk assessment engine for identifying risk assessment factors and generating risk assessment scores for customers, such as risk assessment engine 422 in FIG. 4. Risk assessment engine 1200 generates risk assessment factors 1202 based on a customer profile, such as profile data 406 in FIG. 4, credit history and credit rating, bankruptcy filings, civil and criminal lawsuits, data regarding the customer's past purchases, exchanges, and returns, criminal records, court records, and other publicly available information regarding the customer. Risk assessment engine 1200 processes risk assessment factors 1202 in derived model 1204 to generate weighted risk assessment factors 1206. Derived model 1204 processes risk assessment factors 1202 using at least one of a statistical method, a data mining method, and/or pre-generated manual input from users to generate weighted risk assessment factors 1206. Weighted risk assessment factors 1206 take into account the fact that some risk factors are more important than others. For example, if a customer has a history of shoplifting, this factor is of more importance than a risk factor that indicates the customer makes frequent customer complaints. Weighted risk assessment factors 1206 are processed with cohort data 1208 to generate weighted risk assessment score 1210. Cohort data 1208 is data describing the customer, such as the customer's appearance and behavior. The cohort data may describe the customer as wearing a trench coat in warm weather or wearing sunglasses indoors. Cohort data 1208 may also include data describing behavior of the customer, such as, without limitation, walking fast, walking slowly, carrying a large bag, loitering, pacing, or any other behaviors and/or behavior patterns of the customer. Cohort data 1208 may also include profile data for the customer, such as, profile data 406 in FIG. 4. Turning now to FIG. 13, a flowchart illustrating a process for monitoring for a change in biometric readings associated with a customer is depicted in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. The process may be implemented by a device for measuring physiological responses and/or traits of a customer, such as biometric devices 218 in FIG. 2 and/or biometric device 904 in FIG. 9. The process begins by monitoring biometric readings of a customer obtained from a set of one or more biometric devices (step 1302). The process makes a determination as to whether a change in the biometric readings that exceeds a threshold change has been detected (step 1304). If a change exceeding the threshold is not detected, the process terminates thereafter. Returning to step 1304, if a change exceeding the threshold is detected, the process makes a determination as to whether the customer was viewing an item, a marketing message, or some other identifiable person, place, or thing when the change in biometric readings occurred (step 1306). If the customer was not viewing an item, a marketing message, or some other identifiable person, place, or thing, the process terminates thereafter. Returning to step 1306, if the customer was viewing an item, marketing message, or something else identifiable, the process associates the change in biometric reading with the item, the marketing message, or the identifiable person, place, or thing to form the biometric data (step 1308). The process transmits the biometric data to an analysis server and/or stores the biometric data in a data storage device for later use in generating customized marketing messages in the future (step 1310) with the process terminating thereafter. FIG. 14 is a flowchart illustrating a process for generating dynamic data for a customer in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. The process is implemented by smart detection system 1000 in FIG. 10. The process begins by receiving data for a customer from a set of detectors associated with the retail facility (step 1402). The data may be, without limitation, audio and/or video data from a camera located either inside or outside the retail facility. The process analyzes the data to form dynamic data for the customer (step 1404). The analysis involves using behavior analysis, license plate recognition, facial recognition, badge reader, radar analytics, and other analysis on the data. The process sends the dynamic data to an analysis server and/or stores the dynamic data in a data storage device (step 1406) with the process terminating thereafter. FIG. 15 is a flowchart illustrating a process for identifying an undesirable customer in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. The process is implemented by risk assessment engine 422 in FIG. 4. The process begins by identifying a customer associated with a retail facility (step 1502). The customer may be outside the retail facility, such as, without limitation, in a parking lot, or inside the retail facility. The process retrieves dynamic data for the customer (step 1506). The process retrieves any biometric data for the customer (step 1510). The process performs a risk assessment analysis using the available dynamic data and/or biometric data (step 1512). The process also uses static customer data elements from a customer profile. The risk assessment analysis identifies risk assessment factors using the dynamic data, biometric data, and/or static customer data elements. The process generates a risk assessment score for the customer based on the results of the risk assessment analysis (step 1514). The process makes a determination as to whether the risk assessment score indicates the customer is a desirable customer (step 1516). If the customer is a desirable customer, the process generates marketing incentives targeted to the customer (step 1518) with the process terminating thereafter. If the customer is not a desirable customer, the process generates marketing disincentives (step 1520) with the process terminating thereafter. FIG. 16 is a flowchart illustrating a process for generating a risk assessment score in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. The process is implemented by risk assessment engine 422 in FIG. 4. The process begins by identifying risk assessment factors (step 1602) for the customer. The process analyzes the risk assessment factors using data mining, statistical methods, predefined weighting guidelines, and/or pre-generated manual input from users (step 1604). The process generates the weighted risk factors (step 1606) and analyzes the weighted risk factors with cohort data for the customer (step 1608). The process then generates a weighted risk assessment score for the customer using the weighted risk assessment factors and the cohort data (step 1610) with the process terminating thereafter. FIG. 17 is a flowchart illustrating a process for updating a risk assessment score in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. The process is implemented by risk assessment engine 422 in FIG. 4. The process begins by making a determination as to whether a risk assessment score is available for the customer (step 1702). If a risk assessment score is available, the process retrieves the risk assessment score from a customer profile (step 1704). The process determines if the customer is a desirable customer or an undesirable customer based on the risk assessment score (step 1706). If the score is not available at step 1702, the process generates a risk assessment score using dynamic data for the customer and/or biometric data (step 1710). The process stores the risk assessment score in a customer profile for the customer (step 1712). The process makes a determination as to whether new dynamic data and/or new biometric data for the customer is available (step 1708). If new dynamic data and/or biometric data is not available, the process terminates thereafter. If new data is available, the process performs a risk assessment analysis on the new dynamic data and/or biometric data (step 1714). The process updates the risk assessment score using the results of the risk assessment analysis (step 1716) with the process terminating thereafter. FIG. 18 is a flowchart illustrating a process for preferred customer marketing in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. The process is implemented by risk assessment engine 422 in FIG. 4. The process begins by analyzing a risk assessment score (step 1802) for a customer. The process makes a determination as to whether the risk assessment score is greater than an upper threshold score (step 1804). If the score is greater than the upper threshold, the process identifies the customer as an undesirable customer (step 1806) and initiates marketing disincentives (step 1808) directed towards the customer with the process terminating thereafter. Returning to step 1804, if the score is not greater than the upper threshold, the process makes a determination as to whether the risk assessment score is lower than a lower threshold score (step 1810). If the score is lower than the lower threshold, the process identifies the customer as a highly desirable customer (step 1812) and initiates aggressive marketing incentives targeted to the customer (step 1814) with the process terminating thereafter. Returning to step 1810, if the risk assessment score is lower than the upper threshold and higher than the lower threshold, the process identifies the customer as a moderately desirable/average customer (step 1816). The process initiates moderate marketing incentives targeted to the customer (step 1818) with the process terminating thereafter. In another embodiment, a customer is identified as an undesirable customer is the risk assessment score is lower than a lower threshold. In this case, a customer is identified as a desirable customer if the risk assessment score is greater than an upper threshold. In other words, any type of scoring method and threshold may be used to identify customers that are more likely to cause a risk of financial losses and/or legal problems for the retail facility than other customers. FIG. 19 is a flowchart illustrating a process for marketing disincentives in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. The process is implemented by risk assessment engine 422 in FIG. 4. The process begins by making a determination as to whether to initiate marketing disincentives targeted to the customer (step 1902). If marketing disincentives are initiated, the process generates customized marketing messages for the customer that includes undesirable or uncompetitive product pricing and product offers (step 1904) and directs sales associates/retail store employees to limit customer assistance or provide no customer assistance to the customer (step 1906) with the process terminating thereafter. If marketing disincentives are not initiated, the process generates customized marketing messages including competitive or desirable product pricing and product offers (step 1908) and directs sales associates to focus customer assistance efforts towards the customer (step 1910) with the process terminating thereafter. FIG. 20 is a flowchart illustrating a process for generating a customized marketing message using dynamic data in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. The process in FIG. 20 is implemented by a server, such as analysis server 402 in FIG. 4. The process begins by retrieving any available dynamic data for a customer (step 2004). The dynamic data includes, without limitation, grouping data, external data, customer identification data, vehicle identification data, customer behavior data, and/or any other dynamic customer data elements. The process retrieves any available biometric data (step 2006) for the customer. The process pre-generates or creates in advance, appropriate data models using at least one of a statistical method, data mining method, causal model, mathematical model, marketing model, behavioral model, psychographical model, sociological model, simulations/modeling techniques, and/or any combination of models, data mining, statistical methods, simulations and/or modeling techniques (step 2008). The process analyzes dynamic data using one or more of the appropriate data models to identify a set of personalized marketing message criteria (step 2010). The set of personalized marketing message criteria may include one or more criterion for generating a personalized marketing message. The process makes a determination as to whether to initiate marketing disincentives directed towards the customer (step 2012). If marketing disincentives are not initiated, the process dynamically builds a set of one or more customized marketing messages using the personalized marketing message criteria and marketing incentives (step 2014). If marketing disincentives are initiated, the process dynamically builds a set of one or more customized marketing messages using the personalized marketing message criteria and marketing disincentives (step 2015). The process then transmits the set of customized marketing messages to a display device associated with the customer (step 2016) for presentation of the marketing message to the customer, with the process terminating thereafter. Thus, the illustrative embodiments provide a computer implemented method, apparatus, and computer program product for managing a level of marketing disincentives directed towards a customer using a risk assessment score. In one embodiment, a risk assessment score for a customer associated with a retail facility is retrieved. The risk assessment score is analyzed to determine whether the customer is a desirable customer or an undesirable customer. In response to the risk assessment score indicating that the customer is an undesirable customer, aggressive marketing disincentives targeted to the undesirable customer are generated. If the risk assessment score indicates the customer is a desirable customer, marketing incentives targeted to the desirable customer are generated. The flowcharts and block diagrams in the different depicted embodiments illustrate the architecture, functionality, and operation of some possible implementations of apparatus, methods and computer program products. In this regard, each block in the flowchart or block diagrams may represent a module, segment, or portion of computer usable or readable program code, which comprises one or more executable instructions for implementing the specified function or functions. In some alternative implementations, the function or functions noted in the block may occur out of the order noted in the figures. For example, in some cases, two blocks shown in succession may be executed substantially concurrently, or the blocks may sometimes be executed in the reverse order, depending upon the functionality involved. The invention can take the form of an entirely hardware embodiment, an entirely software embodiment or an embodiment containing both hardware and software elements. In a preferred embodiment, the invention is implemented in software, which includes but is not limited to firmware, resident software, microcode, etc. Furthermore, the invention can take the form of a computer program product accessible from a computer-usable or computer-readable medium providing program code for use by or in connection with a computer or any instruction execution system. For the purposes of this description, a computer-usable or computer readable medium can be any tangible apparatus that can contain, store, communicate, propagate, or transport the program for use by or in connection with the instruction execution system, apparatus, or device. The medium can be an electronic, magnetic, optical, electromagnetic, infrared, or semiconductor system (or apparatus or device) or a propagation medium. Examples of a computer-readable medium include a semiconductor or solid state memory, magnetic tape, a removable computer diskette, a random access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), a rigid magnetic disk and an optical disk. Current examples of optical disks include compact disk-read only memory (CD-ROM), compact disk-read/write (CD-R/W) and DVD. Further, a computer storage medium may contain or store a computer readable program code such that when the computer readable program code is executed on a computer, the execution of this computer readable program code causes the computer to transmit another computer readable program code over a communications link. This communications link may use a medium that is, for example without limitation, physical or wireless. A data processing system suitable for storing and/or executing program code will include at least one processor coupled directly or indirectly to memory elements through a system bus. The memory elements can include local memory employed during actual execution of the program code, bulk storage, and cache memories which provide temporary storage of at least some program code in order to reduce the number of times code must be retrieved from bulk storage during execution. Input/output or I/O devices (including but not limited to keyboards, displays, pointing devices, etc.) can be coupled to the system either directly or through intervening I/O controllers. Network adapters may also be coupled to the system to enable the data processing system to become coupled to other data processing systems or remote printers or storage devices through intervening private or public networks. Modems, cable modem and Ethernet cards are just a few of the currently available types of network adapters. The description of the present invention has been presented for purposes of illustration and description, and is not intended to be exhaustive or limited to the invention in the form disclosed. Many modifications and variations will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art. The embodiment was chosen and described in order to best explain the principles of the invention, the practical application, and to enable others of ordinary skill in the art to understand the invention for various embodiments with various modifications as are suited to the particular use contemplated.	G	G06	G06Q	30	00
11799030	US20080270361A1-20081030	Hierarchical metadata generator for retrieval systems	ACCEPTED	20081016	20081030		[]	G06F1730	["G06F1730"]	7895197	20070430	20110222	707	728000	64146.0	NGUYEN	PHONG	[{"inventor_name_last": "Meyer", "inventor_name_first": "Marek", "inventor_city": "Schwalbach", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Hildebrandt", "inventor_name_first": "Tomas", "inventor_city": "Darmstadt", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}]	A computer-implemented method of locating information in a database of electronic documents includes defining fragments of the documents, associating the fragments with the document from which the fragments originated, and associating metadata with the fragments, where the metadata associated with a fragment includes metadata related to one or more topics of the fragment. A query for one or more documents containing information about a topic is received, and a document is located from the database based on a comparison of the query with the metadata associated with a fragment of the document.	1. A computer-implemented method of locating information in a database of electronic documents, the method comprising: defining fragments of the documents; associating the fragments with the document from which the fragments originated; associating metadata with the fragments, wherein the metadata associated with a fragment includes metadata related to one or more topics of the fragment; receiving a query for one or more documents containing information about a topic; and locating a document from the database based on a comparison of the query with the metadata associated with a fragment of the document. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein defining fragments of the documents comprises defining fragments of the documents based on markup tags that indicate logical components of the documents. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein defining fragments of the documents comprises defining fragments of the documents based on semantic content of different parts of the document. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein dividing the documents into fragments comprises dividing the documents into fragments based on markup tags that indicate logical components of the documents or based on semantic content of different parts of the document, and further comprising: monitoring the frequency with which individual fragments are identified as relevant to search queries; and updating the fragments into which documents are divided based on the monitored frequency with which individual fragments are identified as relevant to search queries. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the metadata associated with at least one fragment is based on a comparison of information in the fragment with information in an electronic encyclopedia. 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the electronic encyclopedia is a wiki database. 7. A computer-implemented method of locating information in a database of electronic documents, the method comprising: defining fragments of the documents; maintaining an order in which the fragments appear in a document; maintaining an association between the fragments and the document from which the fragments originated; associating metadata with the fragments, wherein the metadata associated with a fragment includes metadata related to one or more topics of the fragment; receiving a query for one or more documents containing information about a first topic and about a second topic; locating a document in the database based on a comparison of the query with the metadata associated with a fragment of the document. 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the query includes a request for one or more documents containing information about the first topic that is located within a certain proximity to information about the second topic and wherein locating the document in the database is based on a comparison of the query with the metadata associated with a fragment of the document and with a comparison to the order in which the fragments appear in the document. 9. The method of claim 7, wherein the first topic corresponds to a context of the document and wherein the second topic corresponds to a topic of a fragment. 10. The method of claim 7, wherein dividing the documents into fragments comprises dividing the documents into fragments based on markup tags that indicate logical components of the documents. 11. The method of claim 7, wherein dividing the documents into fragments comprises dividing the documents into fragments based on dissimilarity measures between parts of the documents. 12. The method of claim 7, wherein dividing the documents into fragments comprises dividing the documents into fragments based on markup tags that indicate logical components of the documents or based on dissimilarity measures between parts of the documents, and further comprising: monitoring the frequency with which individual fragments are identified as relevant to search queries; and updating the fragments into which documents are divided based on the monitored frequency with which individual fragments are identified as relevant to search queries. 13. The method of claim 7, wherein the metadata associated with at least one fragment is based on a comparison of information in the fragment with information in an electronic encyclopedia. 14. The method of claim 7, wherein the electronic encyclopedia is a wiki database. 15. A system for locating information in a database of documents, the system comprising: a document splitting engine adapted for defining fragments of the documents; a metadata generation engine adapted for associating metadata with the fragments, wherein the metadata associated with a fragment relates to one or more topics of the fragment; a memory of storing an order in which the fragments appear in a document and for storing an association between the fragments with the document from which the fragments originated; a query engine adapted for receiving a query for one or more documents containing information about a first topic and about a second topic and for locating a document in the database based on a comparison of the query with the metadata associated with a fragment of the document. 16. The system of claim 15, wherein the query includes a request for one or more documents containing information about the first topic that is located within a predetermined proximity to information about the second topic and wherein locating the document in the database is based on a comparison of the query with the metadata associated with a fragment of the document and with a comparison to the order in which the fragments appear in the document. 17. The system of claim 15, wherein the first topic corresponds to a context of the document and wherein the second topic corresponds to a topic of a fragment. 18. The system of claim 15, wherein the document splitting engine is adapted for dividing the documents into fragments based on markup tags that indicate logical components of the documents. 19. The system of claim 15, wherein the document splitting engine is adapted for dividing the documents into fragments based on dissimilarity measures between parts of the documents. 20. The system of claim 15, wherein the metadata engine is adapted for associating metadata with a fragment based on a comparison of information in the fragment with information in a wiki database.	<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>With the advent and proliferation of electronic storage of documents, particularly in networked environment, more and more documents are written, exchanged, modified, and stored. Because of the overwhelming volume of documents that are available to a user, finding a particular document of interest to the user can be very difficult. Therefore, search engines have been developed for locating and retrieving relevant documents. Generally, search engines locate documents through full text searching or through metadata-based searching. In a full text mode, a search engine locates all documents within a specified database that contain the search term(s) specified by the user. In contrast, with metadata-based searching, the search engine looks only for the occurrence of the user's search term(s) in metadata records about documents in the database. Full text searching tends to be overinclusive and often returns too many irrelevant results. One approach to mitigate the overinclusive nature of full text searching is to use ranking methods, such as, for example, Google's® PageRank® method. However, even ranked results often contain too many unsuitable hits in the top positions, sometimes as a result of the ongoing manipulation of search hits. Metadata-based searching provides fewer and generally more relevant search results, but metadata-based searching requires that the contents of a document are described appropriately with relevant metadata tags. However, even when documents are appropriately described, metadata-based has limitations because the metadata used to describe a large document might describe only the main themes and topics of the document but not information about finer-grained details of the documents. Thus, metadata-based searching often is inadequate for locating information in individual parts of a document.	<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In a general aspect, a computer-implemented method of locating information in a database of electronic documents includes defining fragments of the documents, associating the fragments with the document from which the fragments originated, and associating metadata with the fragments, where the metadata associated with a fragment includes metadata related to one or more topics of the fragment. A query for one or more documents containing information about a topic is received, and a document is located from the database based on a comparison of the query with the metadata associated with a fragment of the document. In another general aspect, a computer-implemented method of locating information in a database of electronic documents includes defining fragments of the documents, maintaining an order in which the fragments appear in a document, maintaining an association between the fragments and the document from which the fragments originated, and associating metadata with the fragments, where the metadata associated with a fragment includes metadata related to one or more topics of the fragment. A query is received for one or more documents containing information about a first topic and about a second topic, and a document is located in the database based on a comparison of the query with the metadata associated with a fragment of the document. In a further general aspect, a system for locating information in a database of documents includes a document splitting engine adapted for defining fragments of the documents, a metadata generation engine adapted for associating metadata with the fragments, wherein the metadata associated with a fragment relates to one or more topics of the fragment, a memory of storing an order in which the fragments appear in a document and for storing an association between the fragments with the document from which the fragments originated, and a query engine adapted for receiving a query for one or more documents containing information about a first topic and about a second topic and for locating a document in the database based on a comparison of the query with the metadata associated with a fragment of the document. Implementations can include one or more of the following features. For example, defining fragments of the documents can include defining fragments of the documents based on markup tags that indicate logical components of the documents. Defining fragments of the documents can include defining fragments of the documents based on semantic content of different parts of the document. Dividing the documents into fragments can include dividing the documents into fragments based on markup tags that indicate logical components of the documents or based on semantic content of different parts of the document. In addition, the frequency with which individual fragments are identified as relevant to search queries can be monitored and the fragments into which documents are divided can be updated based on the monitored frequency with which individual fragments are identified as relevant to search queries. The metadata associated with at least one fragment can be based on a comparison of information in the fragment with information in an electronic encyclopedia, for example, a wiki database. The query can include a request for one or more documents containing information about the first topic that is located within a certain proximity to information about the second topic, and locating the document in the database can be based on a comparison of the query with the metadata associated with a fragment of the document and with a comparison to the order in which the fragments appear in the document. The first topic can correspond to a context of the document, and the second topic can correspond to a topic of a fragment. Dividing the documents into fragments can include dividing the documents into fragments based on markup tags that indicate logical components of the documents. Dividing the documents into fragments can include dividing the documents into fragments based on dissimilarity measures between parts of the documents. Dividing the documents into fragments can include dividing the documents into fragments based on markup tags that indicate logical components of the documents or based on dissimilarity measures between parts of the documents. In addition, the frequency with which individual fragments are identified as relevant to search queries can be monitored, and the fragments into which documents are divided can be updated based on the monitored frequency with which individual fragments are identified as relevant to search queries. The details of one or more implementations are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims.	TECHNICAL FIELD This disclosure relates to techniques of automated search and retrieval of information and, in particular, to a hierarchical metadata generator for retrieval systems. BACKGROUND With the advent and proliferation of electronic storage of documents, particularly in networked environment, more and more documents are written, exchanged, modified, and stored. Because of the overwhelming volume of documents that are available to a user, finding a particular document of interest to the user can be very difficult. Therefore, search engines have been developed for locating and retrieving relevant documents. Generally, search engines locate documents through full text searching or through metadata-based searching. In a full text mode, a search engine locates all documents within a specified database that contain the search term(s) specified by the user. In contrast, with metadata-based searching, the search engine looks only for the occurrence of the user's search term(s) in metadata records about documents in the database. Full text searching tends to be overinclusive and often returns too many irrelevant results. One approach to mitigate the overinclusive nature of full text searching is to use ranking methods, such as, for example, Google's® PageRank® method. However, even ranked results often contain too many unsuitable hits in the top positions, sometimes as a result of the ongoing manipulation of search hits. Metadata-based searching provides fewer and generally more relevant search results, but metadata-based searching requires that the contents of a document are described appropriately with relevant metadata tags. However, even when documents are appropriately described, metadata-based has limitations because the metadata used to describe a large document might describe only the main themes and topics of the document but not information about finer-grained details of the documents. Thus, metadata-based searching often is inadequate for locating information in individual parts of a document. SUMMARY In a general aspect, a computer-implemented method of locating information in a database of electronic documents includes defining fragments of the documents, associating the fragments with the document from which the fragments originated, and associating metadata with the fragments, where the metadata associated with a fragment includes metadata related to one or more topics of the fragment. A query for one or more documents containing information about a topic is received, and a document is located from the database based on a comparison of the query with the metadata associated with a fragment of the document. In another general aspect, a computer-implemented method of locating information in a database of electronic documents includes defining fragments of the documents, maintaining an order in which the fragments appear in a document, maintaining an association between the fragments and the document from which the fragments originated, and associating metadata with the fragments, where the metadata associated with a fragment includes metadata related to one or more topics of the fragment. A query is received for one or more documents containing information about a first topic and about a second topic, and a document is located in the database based on a comparison of the query with the metadata associated with a fragment of the document. In a further general aspect, a system for locating information in a database of documents includes a document splitting engine adapted for defining fragments of the documents, a metadata generation engine adapted for associating metadata with the fragments, wherein the metadata associated with a fragment relates to one or more topics of the fragment, a memory of storing an order in which the fragments appear in a document and for storing an association between the fragments with the document from which the fragments originated, and a query engine adapted for receiving a query for one or more documents containing information about a first topic and about a second topic and for locating a document in the database based on a comparison of the query with the metadata associated with a fragment of the document. Implementations can include one or more of the following features. For example, defining fragments of the documents can include defining fragments of the documents based on markup tags that indicate logical components of the documents. Defining fragments of the documents can include defining fragments of the documents based on semantic content of different parts of the document. Dividing the documents into fragments can include dividing the documents into fragments based on markup tags that indicate logical components of the documents or based on semantic content of different parts of the document. In addition, the frequency with which individual fragments are identified as relevant to search queries can be monitored and the fragments into which documents are divided can be updated based on the monitored frequency with which individual fragments are identified as relevant to search queries. The metadata associated with at least one fragment can be based on a comparison of information in the fragment with information in an electronic encyclopedia, for example, a wiki database. The query can include a request for one or more documents containing information about the first topic that is located within a certain proximity to information about the second topic, and locating the document in the database can be based on a comparison of the query with the metadata associated with a fragment of the document and with a comparison to the order in which the fragments appear in the document. The first topic can correspond to a context of the document, and the second topic can correspond to a topic of a fragment. Dividing the documents into fragments can include dividing the documents into fragments based on markup tags that indicate logical components of the documents. Dividing the documents into fragments can include dividing the documents into fragments based on dissimilarity measures between parts of the documents. Dividing the documents into fragments can include dividing the documents into fragments based on markup tags that indicate logical components of the documents or based on dissimilarity measures between parts of the documents. In addition, the frequency with which individual fragments are identified as relevant to search queries can be monitored, and the fragments into which documents are divided can be updated based on the monitored frequency with which individual fragments are identified as relevant to search queries. The details of one or more implementations are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a system for generating hierarchical metadata for documents in a database and for locating information in the documents based on the hierarchical metadata. FIG. 2 is a block diagram of an example network of computing resources for implementing the system of FIG. 1 FIG. 3 is a block diagram of another example network of computing resources for implementing the system of FIG. 1. FIG. 4 is a flowchart illustrating example operations of a method for generating hierarchical metadata for documents in a database and for locating information in the documents based on the hierarchical metadata. FIG. 5 is a flowchart illustrating additional example operations of another method for generating hierarchical metadata for documents in a database and for locating information in the documents based on the hierarchical metadata. DETAILED DESCRIPTION FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a system 100 for generating hierarchical metadata for documents in a database and for searching for information in the documents based on the hierarchical metadata. The system includes a database 102 in which electronic documents can be stored and from which the documents can be retrieved for analysis or for provision to a user. The database 102 can be a physical or logical database and can be localized or distributed. For example, the database 102 can be one or more storage devices, such as document servers, hard disks, or optical disks that store multiple documents, or the database can be implemented in software, such that documents can be loaded into the software application for retrieval. In one implementation, the database 102 can be a hard disk or flash memory device associated with the personal computer of a user 104. In another example, the database 102 can be one or more networked storage devices storing documents that are available to the user 104. For example, the database 102 can be storage device in a local area network (LAN) of a business or organization to which a number of members of the business or organization have access. In another implementation, the database 102 can be a number of storage devices accessible through a wide area network (WAN). For example, the database 102 can be a number of storage devices accessible through the Internet. The database 102 can be known as a physical document database 102 because it stores actual electronic documents and to distinguish it from a virtual document database, discussed below, which can store representations of the electronic documents. The database is linked to a virtual document generator 106 that can access electronic documents in the physical document database 102 to generate metadata and indexing information about the documents in the database. The virtual document generator 106 includes a spider or web crawler engine 108 or automated script that can access the electronic documents in the database 102 by browsing the documents in a methodical, automated manner. The web crawler engine 108 can access the documents in the database 102 and create copies of the documents for further processing by the virtual document generator 106. Documents can be many different types of files that can be parsed by the virtual document generator 106, and can be stored in many different formats (e.g., PDF, DOC, HTML, XML, RAR, ZIP, TXT, PPT, XLS). Using a copy of an electronic document from the physical document database 102, a document splitter engine 110 operates to divide the document into a number of fragments in order to define multiple document fragments for the document. For a structured document, the document splitting engine 110 can divide the document into fragments based on the document's structure. For example, for an HTML document, the document splitting engine 110 can define fragments of the document based on markup tags within the document, such as tags that define paragraphs, sections, chapters and other logical sections of the document. Similarly, for a text document, such as a document formatted in Microsoft's® Word® format, the document splitting engine 110 can divide the document into fragments based on markup tags indicating paragraphs, sections, chapters, pages, etc. In another implementation, the document splitting engine 110 can divide the document into fragments based on the semantic content of different parts of the document. For example, the splitting engine 110 can parse the text of the document to determine where the subject matter of the document changes (e.g., by identifying dissimilarities in the semantic content of different portions of the document) and then can divide the document into fragments that are bounded by the occurrence of such subject matter changes. Thus, in a document about the effect of globalization on various different businesses, the splitting engine 110 may parse the document to determine that the document contains different parts that discuss the effect of globalization on the auto industry, on the software industry, and on the textile and apparel industry, and may define document fragments that correspond to each of the separate topics. Each fragment can be further subdivided into additional finer-grained fragments. For example, in the above example, the fragment of the document about the effect of globalization on the textile and apparel industry might include sub-fragments about labor conditions for workers in developing markets that make textiles and shoes, about deflation of prices for textiles in developed markets, and about trade relations between developed and developing markets. In still another implementation, the splitting engine 110 can divide the document into fragments based on the size of the document and the size of fragments. For example, for a 200 kb text document, the splitting engine 100 may divided the document into equally sized parts, and may define five parts of the document that each are 40 kb in size. The splitting engine 110 associates the fragments with the documents, for example, in an indexed table or other kind of structured database, such that the identification of fragment can be used to identify a document from which the fragment originated or vice versa. In addition, the splitting engine creates and maintains a unique identification number for the document and fragments of the document that distinguishes the document or fragment from all other documents and fragments and maintains an order in which the fragments appear in the document. For example, as shown in Table 1 below, the splitting engine 110, can create an indexed table that includes information about the location of the document (i.e., http://www.website.org/doc1), the number fragments that have been defined for the document, and the location of the fragments within the document (e.g., the paragraph number at which each document begins, as shown in Table 1). For example, as shown in the first line of Table 1, a document may be located at www.website.org/doc1 and may be assigned unique identification number “1982.0.” Also, for example, a third fragment of the document may be defined to begin at the 13th paragraph of the document and end after the 24th paragraph of the document. The third fragment of the document may be assigned unique identification number “1982.3.” Each fragment can be further subdivided into additional finer-grained fragments. For example, in the above example, the fragment of the document about the effect of globalization on the textile and apparel industry might include sub-fragments about labor conditions for workers in developing markets that make textiles and shoes, about deflation of prices for textiles in developed markets, and about trade relations between developed and developing market countries concerning textiles. For example, a document about the effect of globalization on various different businesses that is located by the URL, www.website.org/doc1, may be assigned the unique ID number 1982.0, and a fragment of the document corresponding to a section about the effect of globalization on the textile and apparel industry may be assigned unique ID number 1982.3. Sub-fragments about labor conditions for workers in developing markets, about deflation of prices for textiles in developed markets, and about trade relations between developed and developing markets could be assigned unique ID numbers 1982.3.1, 1982.3.2, and 1982.3.3, respectively. Information associating the document with the fragments and maintaining an order of the fragments can be stored in a virtual document hierarchy database 112 of the system 100. Thus, the virtual document hierarchy database 112 can, but need not, not store copies of the document or fragments, but can instead maintain pointer information in the virtual document hierarchy database 112 that can be used to locate and retrieve the document or fragments of the document from the physical document database 102. TABLE 1 Document http://www.website.org/doc1 1982.0 Fragment Start Paragraph 1 1 1982.1 2 8 1982.2 3 13 1982.3 4 25 1982.4 5 31 1982.5 6 39 1982.6 7 56 1982.7 8 63 1982.8 9 72 1982.9 The virtual document generator also includes an automatic metadata generator engine 114 for automatically generating semantic metadata about the fragments associated with a document. The metadata generator engine 114 can parse a document and/or fragments of the document and automatically generate metadata using a variety of techniques and algorithms. For example, the frequency with which a word occurs in a document or in a fragment can furnish a useful measurement of word's significance to the document or fragment, and therefore a word that appears frequently can be used as a metadata keyword for the document or fragment. Common words used primarily for syntax purposes (e.g., “a,” “and,” “but,” “the,” “his,” “her,” “it,” etc.) in a document or fragment can be maintained in a black list, such that they are excluded from being used as metadata keywords. In another implementation, metadata keywords can be limited to verbs and nouns. The absolute frequency of appearance of a word can be used as a measure of the significance of the word to the document or fragment, or the frequency of the word's occurrence can be compared to the word's usual frequency of use in the language a generally or in the a relevant context to determine the significance of the word and whether the word should be used as a metadata keyword. Ranking of the significance of frequently occurring words in the document or fragment can be augmented by information derived from markup tags in the document or fragment. For example, if a word appears in a title or URL of the document, the significance of the word to the document or fragment may be increased when ranking the word for use as a metadata keyword. In another implementation, the automatic metadata generator engine 114 can automatically generate metadata by parsing the document or fragment and comparing terms or words found in the document or fragment to predefined terms or clusters of terms representing nodes of a classification hierarchy, for example, a Dewey Decimal Classification hierarchy. The Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) hierarchy is considered as a useful classification scheme because it provides a universal and widely-accepted classification scheme covering all subject areas and geographically global information, and the hierarchical nature of the DDC allows for defining metadata for a document or fragment at different levels of granularity. A hierarchy of Java classes can be used to model the DDC hierarchy, and documents and fragments can be filtered through this hierarchy according to which class representatives best match the document's or fragment's contents. For example, when filtering a document about the effects of globalization on business that includes a fragment about the textile and apparel industry, and sub-fragments about labor conditions of textile workers in developing markets, about deflation of prices for textiles in developed markets, and about trade relations between developed and developing markets, metadata keywords about the topic of the document can be assigned based on a match of the document's content with keywords associated with one or more DDC categories that correspond to content about business and globalization. Metadata keywords about topics of a fragment can be assigned to the fragment based on a match of the fragment's content with keywords associated with one or more DDC categories that correspond to content about the textile and apparel business, and metadata keywords can be assigned to the sub-fragments based on a match of the sub-fragments' content with keywords associated with one or more DDC categories that correspond to content about labor conditions of textile workers in developing markets, about deflation of prices for textiles in developed markets, and about trade relations between developed and developing markets. In still another implementation, the automatic metadata generator engine 114 can automatically generate metadata by parsing the document or fragment and comparing terms or words found in the document or fragment to the content of entries of an electronic encyclopedia. In implementation, when a term in the document for fragment matches the title of an entry in the encyclopedia, then important words in the content for the entry in the encyclopedia can be used as keywords for the fragment. Thus, for example, a document or fragment containing the phrase “irrational exuberance,” when parsed by the automatic metadata generator engine 114, may result in some of the following metadata keywords being generated for the document or fragment: “Alan Greenspan”; “Federal Reserve”; “Internet”; “Stock Market”; “Bubble”; “dot.com” and “Silicon Valley.” In another implementation, when a relatively high correlation between the content of the document or fragment and an entry of the electronic encyclopedia exists, then the title of the encyclopedia entry can be used as a metadata keyword, or important words and phrases within the entry can be used as metadata keywords. Thus, for example, if a fragment contains the terms “Alan Greenspan,” “Stock Market,” “Bubble,” “Internet,” and “1990's,” then the phrase “irrational exuberance” may be defined as a metadata keyword for the fragment based on a comparison of the content of the fragment with the content of the content of the entry for “irrational exuberance” in the electronic encyclopedia. The encyclopedia can be an encyclopedia that only a limited number of people can edit or change or can be a more open encyclopedia, such as a wiki that allows visitors to add, remove, edit, and change content, typically without the need for registration. Wikis have been successful at providing a collaborative forum for productive interaction and operation among many users to quickly generate relevant information content. Examples of wikis include the WikiWikiWeb and Wikipedia, which are accessible through the Internet. However, other wikis can also be provided for users of a local area network, e.g., people who work together within an organization or business who develop and maintain a wiki abut information concerning topics or interest or relevance to the organization or business. In addition to metadata about the semantic content of a documents or fragment, the automatic metadata generation engine 114 also can add extra additional descriptive metadata about the document or fragment. For example, the engine 114 can extract metadata about the word count, the MIME type, the initial publication date, the latest revision date, the word count, the creator(s), contributor(s), the publisher, and the language of the document or fragment. Once metadata have been identified or generated for a document or a fragment of a document, the metadata can be associated with the pertinent document or fragment, so that the metadata can be used later to locate and retrieve the document or fragment. In one implementation, the metadata can be stored in an XML document about the document or fragment using the Resource Description Framework (RDF) metadata model. For example, metadata keywords can be stored in an RDF Bag container. The XML document also includes a reference pointer to the related document that is located in the physical document database 102 and to information stored in the virtual document hierarchy database 112 about the order in which fragments occur in the physical document. Thus, such an XML document can function as a virtual document that stores meta-information about a document or fragment of a document that exists in the physical database 102. The XML-formatted virtual documents can be stored in a virtual document database 116 and used by a query engine 118 to search for information about the documents in the physical document database 102. For example, the virtual document database 116 can be queried, and matching results of the query can be mapped to associated physical documents in the database 102. By querying the virtual document database 116 that contains metadata for fragments in addition to metadata for documents, queries can be performed on different levels of granularity. The query engine 118 can also be referred to as a “search engine.” However, it should be understood that although a traditional browser-based search engine is one implementation of the query engine 118, the query engine can be any engine that receives query terms from a user and locates information based on the query terms. For example, metadata assigned to a document about the effect of globalization on various different businesses, can include the keywords “globalization,” “business,” “economics,” “markets,” “free trade,” “tariffs,” and “outsourcing.” However, for a fragment within the document dealing with the negative effects of globalization in the textile and apparel industry, the following metadata keywords might be assigned to the fragment: “globalization,” “textiles” “Nike®,” “Indonesia,” “China,” “sweatshops,” “child labor,” “pollution,” “environment.” Clearly, because the metadata assigned to individual fragments varies according to the content of the fragments and is different from the metadata assigned to the document of which the fragment is a part, querying the database 116 that includes virtual documents for fragments yields different, richer search results than if the database 116 included only virtual documents for entire documents. Thus, by splitting a document into fragments, and possibly sub-fragments, and then assigning metadata to the individual fragments, the system creates a virtual document database 116 that allows for richer searching on various levels of granularity. Moreover, metadata in the XML documents stored in the virtual document database 116 are linked to information in the virtual document hierarchy database 112, so that querying the virtual document database 116 can locate and retrieve documents that include particular combinations of fragments. For example, a user 104 might use the search engine 118 to submit a query for documents or documents containing fragments that include information about both the negative effects of globalization in the textile business and the positive effects of globalization on American financial brokerage businesses (i.e., Wall Street). Such a query could be structured as: {FRAG1.contains.(globali?ation AND textiles AND (Nike OR Indonesia OR China) AND (sweatshop OR “child labor” OR pollution)) AND FRAG2.contains.(globali?ation AND profit AND (“Wall Street” OR “Goldman Sachs” OR “Morgan Stanley” OR “Merrill Lynch” or Lehman))} By running such a query on the database of atomized virtual documents 116, the database may return results that point the user to physical documents in the database 102, which contain fragments that are narrowly focused on each topic of interest to the user, without obtaining too many “false positives,” and without missing too many documents that might be missed if the query were run only on the metadata of the document as a whole. In another implementation, the user 104 may use a hierarchical search extension script 120 of the search engine 118 to query for documents containing fragments about particular topics that occur in documents and that are located within a certain proximity of one another. For example, a user may use the hierarchical search extension script 120 of the search engine 118 to query for documents or fragments of documents contain information about the negative effects of globalization in the textile business adjacent to information about the positive effects of globalization on American financial brokerage businesses. Such a query could be structured as: {FRAG1.contains.(globali?ation AND textiles AND (Nike OR Indonesia OR China) AND (sweatshop OR “child labor” OR pollution)) W/IN=1 FRAG2.contains.(globali?ation AND profit AND (“Wall Street” OR “Goldman Sachs” OR “Morgan Stanley” OR “Merrill Lynch” or Lehman))}, where the operator “W/IN—1” specifies that the fragments identified by FRAG1 and FRAG2 must occur within one fragment position of one another within the physical document. In other words, the fragments containing information the negative effect of globalization on the textile business and the positive effect of globalization on Wall Street must be adjacent to each other to satisfy the search query. When such a hierarchical search query is entered by the user 104 into the search engine 118, the search engine may locate virtual documents and fragments in the database 116 based a matching of the query terms with the metadata for the documents and the fragments. Then, the search engine 118 may invoke the hierarchical search extension script 120 to filter the preliminary search results for documents in which the requested fragments appear consecutively in a document by comparing the metadata of the fragments and documents of the preliminary results with the information stored in the document hierarchy database 112 about the location of the fragments in documents. For example, to determine that two fragments found the in preliminary results are adjacent to each other in a document, the hierarchical search extension script 120 may require that the two fragments have consecutive unique identification numbers (e.g., “1982.2” and “1982.3”). In another implementation, the user 104 may use the hierarchical search extension script 120 of the search engine 118 to query for documents containing fragments about particular topics and that occur within a particular order in a document. For example, the operators “>” and “<” can be used to indicate that a first fragment about a first topic or topics must come before or after a second fragment about a second topic or topics in the physical document. Queries using the search engine 118 supplemented by the hierarchical search extension script 120 can be performed on the document level in addition to just on the fragment level. For example, if a user 104 wishes to locate documents containing a discussion of carbon compounds in the context of biology but does not with to receive many “false positive” results of documents containing a discussion of carbon compounds in the context of chemistry or medicine, the user by submit a query for documents containing a discussion of carbon compounds but that also include metadata indicating that the context of the document overall is related to biology. Thus, an example query could be structured as: {document.contains(‘carbon compounds’) AND context.category=’biology’} The strategy of the document splitter 110 for dividing a document into a number of component fragments can affect how useful the virtual document fragments are to the user 104 when searching for documents in the physical document database 102. The splitter should create fragments that have delimitable contents that are distinguishable from the content of the document itself, such that the metadata for the document and fragments of the document are different. Thus, for example, the fragments may need to be sufficiently small, such that their content is focused on one or more topics that differ from the overall topic(s) of the document. On the other hand, fragments that are too small may result in virtual documents for the fragments that are not useful to the user 104 because they are too narrowly focused and because having too many virtual documents in the metadata database 116 may degrade the performance of the system. To improve the success of the splitting engine 110, a virtual document evaluation engine 122 can receive feedback about usage values of virtual documents in the virtual document database 116 and provide feedback to the splitting engine 110 to improve the quality and utility of the virtual documents in the virtual document database 116. Feedback about the usage value of the virtual documents can be obtained in a variety of ways. For example, the evaluation engine 122 can receive direct feedback from a user 104 about whether a virtual document is useful or not, or feedback can be obtained based on the frequency with which a virtual document is used to locate a physical document for a user, which the user subsequently accesses (e.g., by viewing or downloading the document). If a virtual document about a fragment of a document never results in the document being accessed by the user in a certain amount of time, the evaluation engine 122 may conclude that the splitting algorithm used by the document splitter 110 is not optimized and needs to be refined, for example, by creating fragments that are larger or smaller than the existing fragments or by creating fragments based changes in semantic content of the document as opposed to based on a fixed number of paragraphs in each fragment. In another implementation, if a virtual document about a fragment of a document never results in the document being accessed by the user in a certain amount of time, the evaluation engine 122 may conclude that techniques used by the automatic metadata generator 114 is not optimized and need to be refined to create different semantic metadata for the document or fragment. If the evaluation engine 122 determines that a virtual document has a low usage value to the user, the engine may instruct the document splitter 110 to generate fragments of the document anew using a different algorithm than used previously, or may instruct the automatic metadata generator 114 to generate metadata for the document and fragments of the document anew using a different algorithm than used previously. By monitoring the usage value of virtual documents used to represent documents and fragments in the physical document database 102, the evaluation engine 122 can optimize the splitting and metadata generation algorithms used to determine the metadata records of the virtual documents in the virtual document database 116. Optimization techniques may use common machine learning technologies, such as, for example, support vector machines, artificial neural networks, decisions trees or similar systems. Through the optimization process, the evaluation engine can learn what techniques and algorithms work well for creating virtual documents that are predicted to have relatively high usage values. Finally, after the splitter 110 and the metadata generator 114 operate on a document to prepare metadata about the document and its fragments, the evaluation engine 122 may determine an estimated usage value for virtual documents with metadata representing the document or fragment based on prior measurements of usage values for similar virtual documents (e.g., virtual documents for documents or fragments of a similar size, semantic density, semantic content, MIME type, etc). Then, only those virtual documents with an actual or estimated usage value above a certain threshold may be written to the virtual document database 116. FIG. 2 is a block diagram of an example network 200 of computing resources for implementing the system of FIG. 1. The network can include a client computer 202 (e.g., a personal computer or a laptop computer) connected to a WAN 204 to allow the client computer 202 to interact with a server computer 206. The client computer 202 and the server computer 206 are also connected through the WAN 204 to other network storage servers 208a, 208b, 208c, 208d, and 208e. The network storage servers 208a, 208b, 208c, 208d, and 208e can store electronic documents to serve to a user through the WAN 204, and, thus, the network storage servers can implement the physical document database 102 of FIG. 1. The server computer 206 can implement the spider or web crawler engine 108 for accessing physical documents stored in the physical document database, and can implement the document splitter engine 110, the virtual document hierarchy database 112, the automatic metadata generator engines 114, the virtual document metadata database 116 and the virtual document evaluation engine 122. For example, these various engines and databases can be included in a server that provides backend search engine services to a user. The search engine 118 (e.g., a browser-based search engine) and the hierarchical search engine extension 120 can be implemented on the client computer 202, and a user 104 can use the search engine 118 and extension 120 to address queries to the various engines running on the server computer 206. Based on the query parameters, the server computer 206 then can provide the location of electronic documents in the physical document database 102 matching the query terms to the search engine operating on the client computer 202. FIG. 3 is a block diagram of another example network 300 of computing resources for implementing the system of FIG. 1. The network 300 can include a computer 302 (e.g., a personal computer or a laptop computer) that can function as a client computer when connected to a LAN 304 to allow the client computer 302 to interact with a LAN server computer 306. Other client computers 308 and 310 can also be connected to the LAN 304. The LAN 304 can be connected to a WAN 312 that is connected to one or more servers 314a, 314b, and 314c. In this configuration, the computers 302, 308, and 310 and one or more LAN servers 306 can store electronic documents that can be served to a user. For example, the LAN may belong to a business or organization that stores its electronic documents on one or more of the computers 302, 304, 306, and 310, where the electronic documents are accessible to a number of user of the LAN within the business or organization. Thus, one or more of the computers 302, 304, 306, and 310 can implement the physical document database 102 of FIG. 1. The LAN server 306 can implement the spider or web crawler engine 108 for accessing physical documents stored in the physical document database 102, and can implement the document splitter engine 110, the virtual document hierarchy database 112, the automatic metadata generator engines 114, the virtual document metadata database 116 and the virtual document evaluation engine 122. For example, these various engines and databases can be included in a LAN server that provides backend search engine services to a user having access to the LAN. The search engine 118 (e.g., a browser-based search engine) and the hierarchical search engine extension 120 can be implemented on the client computer 202, and a user 104 use the search engine 118 and extension 120 to address queries to the various engines running on the server computer 306. The server computer 306 then can provide the location of electronic documents in the physical document database 102 matching the query terms to the search engine operating on the client computer 202. In another implementation, one of the client computers 302, 308, or 310 can implement the spider or web crawler engine 108 for accessing physical documents stored in the physical document database 102, and can implement the document splitter engine 110, the virtual document hierarchy database 112, the automatic metadata generator engines 114, the virtual document metadata database 116 and the virtual document evaluation engine 122. For example, these various engines and databases can be implemented in a standalone search application (e.g., a “desktop search”) application running on a computer 302, 308, or 310 that indexes electronic documents accessible to the computer. As shown in FIG. 3, computer 302 can include a memory device (e.g., a hard disk) for storing an executable computer program that implements the various engines described with respect to FIG. 1. Executable code can be loaded into a random access memory 324 as one or more applications 326 and 328 for implementing the engines, and the code can be executed by a processor 330 (e.g., a central processing unit). FIGS. 4 and 5 are flowcharts illustrating example computer-implemented methods 400 and 500, respectively, for locating information in a database of electronic documents. These example methods will be described with reference to FIGS. 1-3. It will be appreciated that the example methods of FIGS. 4 and 5 may be applied to either network 200 or network 300, as well as any number of other arrangements of resources. As shown in FIG. 4, in method 400 fragments of the documents are defined (step 402), e.g., with use of the document splitting engine 110 shown in FIG. 1. Fragments are associated with the document from which the fragments originated (step 404). For example, the document splitting engine 110 can stored a table in the document hierarchy database 112 listing associations between fragments and the physical documents from which the fragments originated. Metadata is associated with the fragments, where the associated metadata includes metadata related to one or more topics of the fragment (step 406). For example, the automatic metadata generation engine 114 can define metadata for a document fragment and associate the metadata with the fragment (e.g., in an XML document stored in the virtual document metadata database 116). A query is received for one or more documents containing information about a topic (step 408), e.g., through the search engine 118, and a document is located from the database based on a comparison of the query with the metadata associated with a fragment of the document (step 410). As shown in FIG. 5, in method 500 fragments of the documents are defined (step 502), e.g., with use of the document splitting engine 110 shown in FIG. 1. An order in which the fragments appear in a document is maintained (step 504) and an association between the fragments and the document from which the fragments originated is maintaining (step 506). For example, the order of the fragments in a document and the association between the fragments and the document from which they originated can be maintained in a table stored in the document hierarchy database 112. Metadata is associated with the fragments, where the associated metadata includes metadata related to one or more topics of the fragment (step 508). A query is received for one or more documents containing information about a topic (step 510), e.g., through the search engine 118, and a document is located from the database based on a comparison of the query with the metadata associated with a fragment of the document (step 512). Implementations of the various techniques described herein may be implemented in digital electronic circuitry, or in computer hardware, firmware, software, or in combinations of them. Implementations may implemented as a computer program product, i.e., a computer program tangibly embodied in an information carrier, e.g., in a machine-readable storage device or in a propagated signal, for execution by, or to control the operation of, data processing apparatus, e.g., a programmable processor, a computer, or multiple computers. A computer program, such as the computer program(s) described above, can be written in any form of programming language, including compiled or interpreted languages, and can be deployed in any form, including as a stand-alone program or as a module, component, subroutine, or other unit suitable for use in a computing environment. A computer program can be deployed to be executed on one computer or on multiple computers at one site or distributed across multiple sites and interconnected by a communication network. Method steps may be performed by one or more programmable processors executing a computer program to perform functions by operating on input data and generating output. Method steps also may be performed by, and an apparatus may be implemented as, special purpose logic circuitry, e.g., an FPGA (field programmable gate array) or an ASIC (application-specific integrated circuit). Processors suitable for the execution of a computer program include, by way of example, both general and special purpose microprocessors, and any one or more processors of any kind of digital computer. Generally, a processor will receive instructions and data from a read-only memory or a random access memory or both. Elements of a computer may include at least one processor for executing instructions and one or more memory devices for storing instructions and data. Generally, a computer also may include, or be operatively coupled to receive data from or transfer data to, or both, one or more mass storage devices for storing data, e.g., magnetic, magneto-optical disks, or optical disks. Information carriers suitable for embodying computer program instructions and data include all forms of non-volatile memory, including by way of example semiconductor memory devices, e.g., EPROM, EEPROM, and flash memory devices; magnetic disks, e.g., internal hard disks or removable disks; magneto-optical disks; and CD-ROM and DVD-ROM disks. The processor and the memory may be supplemented by, or incorporated in special purpose logic circuitry. To provide for interaction with a user, implementations may be implemented on a computer having a display device, e.g., a cathode ray tube (CRT) or liquid crystal display (LCD) monitor, for displaying information to the user and a keyboard and a pointing device, e.g., a mouse or a trackball, by which the user can provide input to the computer. Other kinds of devices can be used to provide for interaction with a user as well; for example, feedback provided to the user can be any form of sensory feedback, e.g., visual feedback, auditory feedback, or tactile feedback; and input from the user can be received in any form, including acoustic, speech, or tactile input. Implementations may be implemented in a computing system that includes a back-end component, e.g., as a data server, or that includes a middleware component, e.g., an application server, or that includes a front-end component, e.g., a client computer having a graphical user interface or a Web browser through which a user can interact with an implementation, or any combination of such back-end, middleware, or front-end components. Components may be interconnected by any form or medium of digital data communication, e.g., a communication network. Examples of communication networks include a local area network (LAN) and a wide area network (WAN), e.g., the Internet. While certain features of the described implementations have been illustrated as described herein, many modifications, substitutions, changes and equivalents will now occur to those skilled in the art. It is, therefore, to be understood that the appended claims are intended to cover all such modifications and changes as fall within the true spirit of the embodiments.	G	G06	G06F	17	30
11804637	US20080283220A1-20081120	Machine having self-cleaning cooling system and method	ACCEPTED	20081105	20081120		[]	F01P1106	["F01P1106", "F01P100"]	8276650	20070518	20121002	165	041000	57885.0	FORD	JOHN	[{"inventor_name_last": "Martin", "inventor_name_first": "Kevin L.", "inventor_city": "Washburn", "inventor_state": "IL", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Callas", "inventor_name_first": "James J.", "inventor_city": "Peoria", "inventor_state": "IL", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Campagna", "inventor_name_first": "Michael J.", "inventor_city": "Chillicothe", "inventor_state": "IL", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A machine includes a heat exchanger for an engine having a heat exchanger core and a filtration system. The filtration system includes a flexible filter sheet coupled with at least one take-up roller and a filter cleaner adapted to clean the filter via compressed air. A method of operating a machine cooling system includes rotating a rotatable drive element coupled with a filter, and cleaning the filter by directing compressed air therethrough.	1. A cooling system for a machine comprising: a heat exchanger core; a housing for said heat exchanger core having a cooling air inlet; and a filtration system comprising a flexible filter extending across said cooling air inlet, at least one rotatable drive element coupled with said filter and a filter cleaner configured to direct compressed air through said filter. 2. The cooling system of claim 1 wherein said at least one rotatable drive element comprises at least one take-up roller for said filter. 3. The cooling system of claim 2 wherein said at least one rotatable drive element comprises a first take-up roller and a second take-up roller, and wherein said filter includes a first end and a second end attached to said first and second take-up rollers, respectively, said filter being configured to scroll in alternating directions across said cooling air inlet. 4. The cooling system of claim 1 wherein said filter cleaner comprises at least one air knife. 5. The cooling system of claim 4 wherein said housing includes a plurality of sides, said cooling air inlet being disposed on one of said sides and said housing having at least one cooling air outlet disposed on another of said sides, and wherein said filter extends across said at least one cooling air outlet. 6. The cooling system of claim 4 wherein said heat exchanger core includes a first core section and a second core section, said cooling system further comprising a fan fluidly positioned between said first and second core sections. 7. The cooling system of claim 6 wherein said fan comprises a tangential fan configured to draw air through said first core section via an inlet passage connecting with said cooling air inlet and configured to blow air through said second core section via an outlet passage connecting with said at least one cooling air outlet, and wherein said filter cleaner further comprises at least one compressed air outlet fluidly connected with said outlet passage. 8. The cooling system of claim 7 wherein said filter cleaner further comprises a collector for debris removed from said filter via said at least one air knife. 9. The cooling system of claim 4 further comprising a first guide roller and a second guide roller positioned at opposite sides of said cooling air inlet and configured to guide said filter between said take-up rollers during scrolling across said cooling air inlet. 10. A machine comprising: a frame; an engine mounted to said frame; and a heat exchanger for said engine comprising a core and a filtration system, said filtration system comprising a flexible filter configured to filter cooling air for said core, at least one rotatable drive element coupled with said filter and a filter cleaner having at least one compressed air outlet configured to direct compressed air through said filter. 11. The machine of claim 10 further comprising ground engaging elements mounted to said frame and coupled with said engine for propelling said machine. 12. The machine of claim 11 further comprising a housing for said heat exchanger mounted to said frame and having a cooling air inlet, wherein said at least one rotatable drive element comprises at least one motorized take-up roller configured to move said filter across said cooling air inlet. 13. The machine of claim 12 comprising a plurality of rollers supporting said filter, including motorized take-up rollers attached to opposite ends of said filter configured to scroll said sheet in alternating directions across said cooling air inlet. 14. The machine of claim 13 further comprising a fan configured to move cooling air from said cooling air inlet through said core in a first direction, said filter cleaner comprising an air knife which includes said at least one compressed air outlet and is configured to direct compressed air through said filter in a direction different from said first direction. 15. The machine of claim 14 wherein said at least one compressed air outlet comprises a plurality of compressed air outlets, said fan comprising a tangential fan configured to compress air within said housing and supply said compressed air to at least one of said plurality of compressed air outlets. 16. The machine of claim 12 further comprising an engine compartment, wherein said heat exchanger comprises a primary surface liquid to gas heat exchanger positioned in said engine compartment. 17. A method of operating a machine cooling system comprising the steps of: positioning a first portion of a flexible filter across a cooling air inlet for a heat exchanger of the machine cooling system; rotating at least one rotatable drive element coupled with the filter to position a different portion thereof across the cooling air inlet; and cleaning the filter at least in part by directing compressed air through the first portion via a filter cleaner of the machine cooling system. 18. The method of claim 17 wherein the rotating step further comprises rolling the filter onto a take-up roller, and wherein the cleaning step further comprises directing compressed air through the filter via an air knife during the rotating step. 19. The method of claim 18 further comprising a step of sensing a pressure drop across the filter, wherein the rotating step further comprises initiating rotating responsive to the sensed pressure drop. 20. A filter for a machine cooling system comprising: a first roller having a first end and a second end and a length extending between said first and second ends, said first roller further including mounting elements adapted to position said first roller in at least one of a predefined orientation and a predefined location relative to a supporting element of the machine cooling system; a second roller also having a first end and a second end and a length extending between said first and second ends, said second roller also further including mounting elements adapted to position said second roller in at least one of a predefined orientation and a predefined location relative to a supporting element of the machine cooling system; a flexible sheet of filter media having a first end attached to said first roller and a second end attached to said second roller, said sheet having a width dimension extending in a direction parallel the length of said rollers and also having a length dimension which is at least about twice its width dimension and oriented perpendicular thereto; and a drive element configured to couple the filter with a rotating drive unit of the machine cooling system.	<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Cooling systems such as radiators and the like are used in a wide variety of machine systems, notably in connection with internal combustion engines. Radiators employing a coolant fluid to extract heat from an engine and transfer the heat to cooling air are well known and widely used. While some means to reject heat is necessary in virtually all engines, such cooling systems occupy precious space and add weight, cost and complexity to engine systems. Cooling system effectiveness typically relates to heat exchange surface area, and thus size and weight of a given system. Engineers have heretofore found it challenging to develop suitable heat exchangers of conventional materials and construction in certain environments where factors such as size and weight are of particular importance. A factor compounding attempts to utilize conventional heat exchangers in engine cooling systems is the recent implementation, and expected future implementation, of relatively more stringent emissions regulations. In some instances, engine manufacturers have turned to aftertreatment technology to reduce certain engine emissions, in many cases resulting in relatively bulky aftertreatment systems consuming volume within an engine compartment previously available for mounting heat exchanger and other cooling system components. Certain types of aftertreatment technology also raise the requirements for engine heat rejection. In other words, the available spatial envelope for cooling systems has shrunk, yet in many instances heat exchangers are now expected to operate more effectively. Relatively smaller, highly efficient heat exchangers for engine cooling systems are now proposed. One drawback of such designs is that the heat exchange surfaces tend to be relatively tightly packed within the heat exchanger core. While certain of these designs work quite effectively, they have relatively smaller spaces for cooling air flow than conventional cores which tend to plug with airborne debris after a relatively brief service life. Debris within the core reduces heat exchanger effectiveness. Relatively fine dust particles stirred up during operation of off-highway construction equipment can be particularly problematic where high efficiency heat exchangers are used in such machines. One strategy for removing debris from heat exchanger cores is to simply halt machine operation, and manually remove debris clogging the heat exchanger core. This approach has been used for decades, but is obviously quite labor intensive and requires frequent machine down time. Many cooling system designers have proposed inhibiting entry of debris into a heat exchanger core with filters. One example of this strategy is known from U.S. Pat. No. 3,344,854 to Boyagian. In Boyagian, a screen of a continuous loop of movable filter material is passed about a heat exchanger core. Incoming debris caught by the screen in Boyagian is circulated to another side of the cooling system by moving the screen so that air passed through the radiator via an engine fan can dislodge materials trapped by the screen. Boyagian's system would appear to be suitable for filtering relatively larger airborne debris such as leaves, straw or chaff, which can be relatively readily filtered via conventional screen material and blown from the screen relatively easily. A system with a highly dense radiator core, however, imparting substantial pressure drops to cooling air flowing therethrough, would likely be poorly served by a system such as Boyagian's as sufficient air velocity for clearing fine particulates would be difficult or impossible to achieve with a conventional engine fan. The present disclosure is directed to one or more of the problems or shortcomings set forth above.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE <EOH>In one aspect, the present disclosure provides a cooling system for a machine. The cooling system includes a heat exchanger core, and a housing for the heat exchanger core having a cooling air inlet. The cooling system further includes a filtration system having a flexible filter extending across the cooling air inlet and at least one rotatable drive element coupled with the filter. The cooling system further includes a filter cleaner configured to direct compressed air through the filter. In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a machine having a frame and an engine mounted to the frame. The machine further includes a heat exchanger for the engine including a core and a filtration system. The filtration system includes a flexible filter configured to filter cooling air for the core, at least one rotatable drive element coupled with the filter and a filter cleaner configured to direct compressed air through the filter. In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a method of operating a machine cooling system including a step of positioning a first portion of a flexible filter across a cooling air inlet for a heat exchanger of the machine cooling system. The method further includes the steps of rotating at least one rotatable drive element coupled with the filter to position a different portion thereof across the cooling air inlet, and cleaning the filter at least in part by directing compressed air through the first portion via a filter cleaner of the machine cooling system. In still another aspect, the present disclosure provides a filter for a machine cooling system. The filter includes a first roller having a first end and a second end and a length extending between the first and second ends. The first roller further includes mounting elements adapted to position the first roller in at least one of a predefined orientation and a predefined location relative to a supporting element of the machine cooling system. The filter further includes a second roller also having a first end and a second end and a length extending between the first and second ends, the second roller also further including mounting elements adapted to position the second roller in at least one of a predefined orientation and a predefined location relative to a supporting element of the machine cooling system. The filter still further includes a flexible sheet of filter media having a first end attached to the first roller and a second end attached to the second roller. The sheet has a width dimension extending in a direction parallel the length of the rollers and also having a length dimension which is at least about twice its width dimension and oriented perpendicular thereto. At least one of the mounting elements includes a drive element configured to couple the corresponding roller with a rotating drive unit of the machine cooling system.	TECHNICAL FIELD The present disclosure relates generally to machine cooling systems, and relates more particularly to a machine cooling system and method wherein a scrolling filter for cooling air is cleaned via compressed air. BACKGROUND Cooling systems such as radiators and the like are used in a wide variety of machine systems, notably in connection with internal combustion engines. Radiators employing a coolant fluid to extract heat from an engine and transfer the heat to cooling air are well known and widely used. While some means to reject heat is necessary in virtually all engines, such cooling systems occupy precious space and add weight, cost and complexity to engine systems. Cooling system effectiveness typically relates to heat exchange surface area, and thus size and weight of a given system. Engineers have heretofore found it challenging to develop suitable heat exchangers of conventional materials and construction in certain environments where factors such as size and weight are of particular importance. A factor compounding attempts to utilize conventional heat exchangers in engine cooling systems is the recent implementation, and expected future implementation, of relatively more stringent emissions regulations. In some instances, engine manufacturers have turned to aftertreatment technology to reduce certain engine emissions, in many cases resulting in relatively bulky aftertreatment systems consuming volume within an engine compartment previously available for mounting heat exchanger and other cooling system components. Certain types of aftertreatment technology also raise the requirements for engine heat rejection. In other words, the available spatial envelope for cooling systems has shrunk, yet in many instances heat exchangers are now expected to operate more effectively. Relatively smaller, highly efficient heat exchangers for engine cooling systems are now proposed. One drawback of such designs is that the heat exchange surfaces tend to be relatively tightly packed within the heat exchanger core. While certain of these designs work quite effectively, they have relatively smaller spaces for cooling air flow than conventional cores which tend to plug with airborne debris after a relatively brief service life. Debris within the core reduces heat exchanger effectiveness. Relatively fine dust particles stirred up during operation of off-highway construction equipment can be particularly problematic where high efficiency heat exchangers are used in such machines. One strategy for removing debris from heat exchanger cores is to simply halt machine operation, and manually remove debris clogging the heat exchanger core. This approach has been used for decades, but is obviously quite labor intensive and requires frequent machine down time. Many cooling system designers have proposed inhibiting entry of debris into a heat exchanger core with filters. One example of this strategy is known from U.S. Pat. No. 3,344,854 to Boyagian. In Boyagian, a screen of a continuous loop of movable filter material is passed about a heat exchanger core. Incoming debris caught by the screen in Boyagian is circulated to another side of the cooling system by moving the screen so that air passed through the radiator via an engine fan can dislodge materials trapped by the screen. Boyagian's system would appear to be suitable for filtering relatively larger airborne debris such as leaves, straw or chaff, which can be relatively readily filtered via conventional screen material and blown from the screen relatively easily. A system with a highly dense radiator core, however, imparting substantial pressure drops to cooling air flowing therethrough, would likely be poorly served by a system such as Boyagian's as sufficient air velocity for clearing fine particulates would be difficult or impossible to achieve with a conventional engine fan. The present disclosure is directed to one or more of the problems or shortcomings set forth above. SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE In one aspect, the present disclosure provides a cooling system for a machine. The cooling system includes a heat exchanger core, and a housing for the heat exchanger core having a cooling air inlet. The cooling system further includes a filtration system having a flexible filter extending across the cooling air inlet and at least one rotatable drive element coupled with the filter. The cooling system further includes a filter cleaner configured to direct compressed air through the filter. In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a machine having a frame and an engine mounted to the frame. The machine further includes a heat exchanger for the engine including a core and a filtration system. The filtration system includes a flexible filter configured to filter cooling air for the core, at least one rotatable drive element coupled with the filter and a filter cleaner configured to direct compressed air through the filter. In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a method of operating a machine cooling system including a step of positioning a first portion of a flexible filter across a cooling air inlet for a heat exchanger of the machine cooling system. The method further includes the steps of rotating at least one rotatable drive element coupled with the filter to position a different portion thereof across the cooling air inlet, and cleaning the filter at least in part by directing compressed air through the first portion via a filter cleaner of the machine cooling system. In still another aspect, the present disclosure provides a filter for a machine cooling system. The filter includes a first roller having a first end and a second end and a length extending between the first and second ends. The first roller further includes mounting elements adapted to position the first roller in at least one of a predefined orientation and a predefined location relative to a supporting element of the machine cooling system. The filter further includes a second roller also having a first end and a second end and a length extending between the first and second ends, the second roller also further including mounting elements adapted to position the second roller in at least one of a predefined orientation and a predefined location relative to a supporting element of the machine cooling system. The filter still further includes a flexible sheet of filter media having a first end attached to the first roller and a second end attached to the second roller. The sheet has a width dimension extending in a direction parallel the length of the rollers and also having a length dimension which is at least about twice its width dimension and oriented perpendicular thereto. At least one of the mounting elements includes a drive element configured to couple the corresponding roller with a rotating drive unit of the machine cooling system. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic view of a machine according to one embodiment; FIG. 2 is a diagrammatic view of a cooling system according to one embodiment; FIG. 3 is a partially sectioned side diagrammatic view of a cooling system according to one embodiment; and FIG. 4 is a diagrammatic view of a portion of a cooling system according to one embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Referring to FIG. 1, there is shown a machine 10 according to one embodiment. Machine 10 may include a frame 12 having ground engaging elements 14, such as tracks. An operator cab 16 may be mounted to frame 12, as well as an implement 18. Machine 10 is shown in the context of a track-type tractor, however, it should be appreciated that the present disclosure is not thereby limited and a wide variety of machines, including both mobile and stationary machines, are contemplated herein. For example, rather than a machine such as a track-type tractor, machine 10 might include a truck or a loader, or any of various other off-highway or on-highway machines. Machine 10 may further include an engine 22 mounted to frame 12 and positioned within an engine compartment 20. A cooling system 24 for engine 22 is further provided, and includes a unique strategy for filtering cooling air, as further described herein. While it is contemplated that cooling system 24 may be implemented in the context of engine cooling, the present disclosure is also not limited in this regard and other machine cooling systems might be constructed and operated according to the teachings set forth herein. Cooling system 24 may include a heat exchanger 26 configured to control a temperature of engine 22 in a conventional manner, for example via circulation of engine coolant to engine 22, and subsequent cooling of the heated coolant fluid with cooling air, as further described herein. Heat exchanger 26 may include a heat exchanger housing 28, the details of which are further described herein. A filtration system 29 comprising a filter 30, such as a flexible sheet of filter media, is configured to filter cooling air for heat exchanger 26. Filter 30 may extend about a plurality of rollers, including at least one rotatable drive roller 34, for example two drive rollers, as well as one or more guide rollers 36. Rollers 34 may comprise take-up rollers about which filter 30 is wrapped as it scrolls across a front of heat exchanger 26. In the illustrated embodiment, filter 30 may be interposed a grill 11 and heat exchanger 26 such that cooling air passing through grill 11 is filtered prior to passing through heat exchanger 26. While rollers 34 and 36 are contemplated to provide one practical implementation strategy for moving filter 30 when desired, the present disclosure is not thereby limited. In other embodiments, filter 30 might be configured with grommets or the like which engage with a toothed rotating member rather than wrapping about take-up rollers. As alluded to above, cooling system 24 may further include a unique means for cleaning filter 30. In one embodiment, filtration system 29 may include a filter cleaner 32 having at least one compressed air outlet (not shown in FIG. 1) which is configured to direct compressed air through filter 30 to remove debris. Filter cleaner 32 may be connected with a source of compressed air 38 via a compressed air supply line 40. Embodiments are contemplated wherein compressed air source 38 comprises a turbocharger for engine 22, permitting compressed air to be siphoned off for use by filter cleaner 32 as needed. In other embodiments, compressed air source 38 might include a stand-alone air compressor, or some other on-board source of compressed air. Referring now also to FIG. 2, there is shown a cooling system 24, similar to that shown in FIG. 1, as it might appear mounted to frame 12 apart from the other components of machine 10. It may be noted from the FIG. 2 illustration that filter 30 includes a first end 50 attached to one take-up roller 34, and a second end 52 attached to another take-up roller 34. Motors 46 such as electric motors may be coupled with take-up rollers 34 to rotate them in alternating directions, rolling filter 30 about the corresponding roller. The embodiment of FIG. 2 is also shown having two filter cleaners 32 each positioned adjacent one of take-up rollers 34. In one embodiment, each filter cleaner 32 may comprise an air knife having a housing 35 extending across filter 30. Each filter cleaner 32 may have at least one compressed air outlet 35, for example a plurality of outlets or a slit, which directs compressed air supplied via supply lines 40 through filter 30 prior to filter 30 being wrapped about the corresponding roller 34. Air will be directed via filter cleaners 32 in a direction different from the incident flow of cooling air. It will typically be desirable to remove debris prior to rolling sheet 30 onto one of rollers 34, and accordingly only one of filter cleaners 32 might be used at any one time, depending upon the direction which filter 30 is being scrolled. A cooling air inlet 44 may be located at one side of housing 28 as shown, such that cooling air may be provided to a heat exchanger core 42 of heat exchanger 26. Housing 28 may also include at least one cooling air outlet 54 positioned downstream of cooling air inlet 44, and also downstream of a fan 48 which is configured to draw cooling air through inlet 44, through core 42, and subsequently push cooling air out through outlet 54. In one exemplary embodiment, fan 48 may push cooling air out of housing 28, and also through filter 30. Although a variety of core designs are possible, heat exchanger core 42 may comprise a high-efficiency primary surface heat exchanger of the type commercially available from Mezzo Technologies of Baton Rouge, La. Such heat exchanger cores have a relatively large number of microchannels through which cooling air can pass to exchange heat across a primary surface with another fluid such as engine coolant. Turning now to FIG. 3, there is shown a cooling system 124 according to another embodiment. Cooling system 124 is suitable for use in applications similar to those of cooling system 24 such as in machine 10, and has certain similarities therewith. Cooling system 124 may include a housing 128 and a flexible filter 130 configured to move across a cooling air inlet 144, and wrap about take-up rollers 134, when scrolled in alternating directions across cooling air inlet 144. Cooling system 124 might also be mounted to a frame 112. In contrast to cooling system 24 described above, cooling system 124 may include a tangential fan 148. A wide variety of fans may be used in connection with cooling systems contemplated herein, however, in instances where relatively dense heat exchanger cores are used which provide correspondingly small flow areas for cooling air, tangential fans may be advantageous, due to their relatively greater effectiveness at moving air across larger pressure drops. Cooling system 124 also differs from cooling system 24 in that rather than a single core, a first core section 142a and a separate second core section 142b are provided. Fan 148 may be configured to draw air from air inlet 144, at a front side 106 of system 124, through first core section 142a and into an inlet passage 145. After passing through first core section 142a, cooling air may be pushed by fan 148 through a second core section 142b and thenceforth out a cooling air outlet 154 at a top side 108 of system 124. Cooling system 124 may also be a primary surface liquid to air heat exchanger, similar to the type described above and suitable for use in cooling an engine system. To this end, a fluid inlet 149 is provided which connects with a fluid passage 151 configured to permit flow of fluids such as engine coolant through each of core sections 142b and 142a, and thenceforth out a fluid outlet 157. Thus, during operation a fluid such as engine coolant may flow through passage 151, while air flows through core sections 142a and 142b to cool the fluid, which may then be subsequently recirculated to further cool an engine or the like. Another feature of cooling system 124 which may differ from cooling system 24 described above relates to the use of fan 148 to supply compressed air for cleaning filter 130. Each core section 142a and 142b may include a plurality of microchannels similar to those described with regard to cooling system 24 above, through which air passes during operation. Rotation of fan 148 may result in compression of air in outlet passage 147 which is subsequently passed through microchannels 131 and out through filter 130. Thus, one means for cleaning filter 130 may be through operation of fan 148 to supply compressed air which is directed through filter 130. Cooling system 124 may also include a filter cleaner 132 similar to that shown and described with regard to cooling system 24. To this end, filter cleaner 132 may be an air knife 132 positioned adjacent take-up roller 134 and configured to direct compressed air through filter 130 prior to its being wrapped about take-up roller 134. A collector housing 133 may also be provided which collects debris removed from filter 130 rather than allowing it to be returned to the air intake stream and again clog filter 130. Motors 146 may also be associated with each of take-up rollers 134, only one motor being shown, to rotate roller 134 similar to the manner described above with regard to cooling system 24. Turning now to FIG. 4, there is shown a filter 30 removed from a machine cooling system according to the present disclosure. One aspect of the present disclosure includes a filter as a replacement unit to be substituted for a worn, clogged, damaged, etc. filter. Numerals alike to those used in reference to the FIG. 1 embodiment, described above, are used to denote similar features in FIG. 4. It should be appreciated, however, that the embodiment shown in FIG. 4 is contemplated to be suitable for use in a variety of machine cooling systems. It will be noted that filter 30, comprising a flexible sheet of filter media, has its first end 50 attached to a first roller 32, and has its second end 52 attached to another roller, also identified via numeral 32. Sheet 30 includes a width W, and has a length L which is at least twice, and may be at least three times, width W. Each of rollers 32 includes a first end 31a and an opposite, second end 31b. A length of each roller 32 extends between its respective ends. It is contemplated that a wide variety of mounting strategies might be used in positioning filter 30 and its associated rollers 32 in a machine cooling system. One means includes positioning rollers 32 in mounting holes 27 in a portion of the cooling system housing 28. To this end, the second ends 31b of each roller 32 may be adapted to position rollers 32, and accordingly sheet 30, at a predefined location relative to housing 28. Each of rollers 32 may further include mounting elements 39 located proximate ends 31b, between ends 31b and sheet 30. Positioning mounting elements 39 as shown and described will enable filter 30 to be positioned at a desired vertical location relative to the portion of housing 28 serving as a support element therefor, when rollers 32 are engaged in holes 27. Each of the first ends 31a of rollers 32 may further include another mounting element 37. Mounting elements 37 may be configured to position and/or locate rollers 32 at predefined orientations relative to a portion of the corresponding machine or cooling system. In one embodiment, each of mounting elements 37 may comprise a non-circular extension, for example having a D-shaped cross section as shown, which will enable the respective mounting elements 37 to serve as drive elements for rollers 32 by engaging with a corresponding part of a drive motor at a predefined orientation. In other embodiments, rather than mounting elements 37 serving as drive elements, filter 30 itself might be equipped with grommets or the like serving as drive elements. It should be appreciated that the present disclosure is not limited to the use of filters such as are shown in FIG. 4, however, as a replacement part it is contemplated to provide one practical implementation strategy, mounting elements 37 may provide a means for positioning each of rollers 32 in a predefined orientation relative to a drive unit, and mounting elements 39 may similarly provide a means to position rollers 32 at predefined vertical locations relative to housing 28. INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY Referring to the drawings generally, cooling system 24, 124 may be operated to cool engine 22. Engine coolant will thus be circulated through core 42, 142a, 142b, having been heated by contact with components of engine 22 in a conventional manner. Cooling air may be drawn through inlet 44, 144 via rotation of fan 28, 128 and ejected out of cooling air outlet 54, 154. While passing through core 42, 142a, 142b, the cooling air may exchange heat with engine coolant. Filter 30 extends across cooling air inlet 44, 144 and thereby intercepts debris such as organic material, dust, etc. rather than allowing it to pass into core 42, 142a, 142b and clog the same. After a period of operation, filter 30, 130 may itself become partially clogged with debris, resulting in a relatively greater pressure drop than is desired, and consequently relatively lower air flow to core 42, 142a, 142b. As is well known in the art, inadequate flow of cooling air to a heat exchanger will degrade its performance. Accordingly, filter 30, 130 will periodically be repositioned to place a different portion thereof across cooling air inlet 44, 144, reestablishing a desired air flow rate. In one embodiment, shown in particular in FIG. 3, a first pressure sensor 160 positioned upstream of filter 130 may output signals indicative of air pressure to an electronic controller 170. A second pressure sensor 162 positioned downstream filter 130 may also output signals indicative of air pressure to controller 170. By subtracting the respective pressures across filter 130, a pressure drop may be determined. By determining pressure drop, controller 170 may determine when air flow to core 142a, 142b is less than a desired air flow, and it is thus time to position clean filter material across inlet 144. A similar strategy might be used with cooling system 24. In other instances, rather than sensing pressure drop, positioning of clean filter material across inlet 44, 144 might take place at predetermined intervals, e.g. after a certain number of hours of operation. Further still, some other means such as visual inspection might be used. In any event, when repositioning of filter 30, 130 such that clean filter material extends across inlet 44, 144 is appropriate, filter 30, 130 may be moved via motors 34, 134 in a desired direction, rolling filter 30 about the corresponding take-up roller 34, 134. Prior to or upon initiating rolling filter 30 about take-up roller 34, 134, filter cleaner 32, 132 may be activated to direct compressed air therethrough, removing debris. When filter 30, 130 has rolled as far as possible onto one take-up roller 34, 134, i.e. when filter 30, 130 has completely unrolled from the opposite take-up roller 34, 134, scrolling may be reversed the next time repositioning of filter material across inlet 44, 144 is needed, and the cleaning and rolling of filter 30, 130 may take place in a reverse direction. As described herein, filter 30, 130 may scroll back and forth across inlet 44, 144, positioning clean filter material in the flow of cooling air for core 42, 142a, 142b when needed. The present description is for illustrative purposes only, and should not be construed to narrow the breadth of the present disclosure in any way. Thus, those skilled in the art will appreciate that various modifications might be made to the presently disclosed embodiments without departing from the spirit and scope of the present disclosure. For example, while the foregoing description discusses scrolling filter 30, 130 back and forth across the respective cooling air inlets 44 and 144, the present disclosure is not limited in this regard. Alternative strategies might be used wherein rather than scrolling back and forth, filter 30, 130 is moved in only one direction across the respective cooling air inlet 44, 144. Thus, a continuous loop of filter might extend around the respective heat exchanger. In such an embodiment, rather than take-up rollers, filter 30, 130 might be guided via some other engagement with at least one drive roller, such as a toothed rotating wheel engaging with grommets in filter 30, 130. Other aspects, features and advantages will be apparent upon an examination of the attached drawings and the appended claims.	F	F01	F01P	11	06
11930128	US20080125120A1-20080529	Registration Messaging in an Unlicensed Mobile Access Telecommunications System	ACCEPTED	20080514	20080529		[]	H04Q720	["H04Q720"]	7974624	20071031	20110705	455	435100	96388.0	LAI	DANIEL	[{"inventor_name_last": "Gallagher", "inventor_name_first": "Michael D.", "inventor_city": "San Jose", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Gupta", "inventor_name_first": "Rajeev", "inventor_city": "Sunnyvale", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Markovic", "inventor_name_first": "Milan", "inventor_city": "Pleasanton", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Shi", "inventor_name_first": "Jianxiong (Jason)", "inventor_city": "Pleasanton", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Baranowski", "inventor_name_first": "Joseph G.", "inventor_city": "Morgan Hill", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]	Methods and messages for performing registration of mobile stations (MS) in an unlicensed mobile access network (UMAN). URR (UMA radio resource) registration messages are exchanged between an MS and a UMA network controller (UNC) operating in the UMAN to register the MS. The MS may access the UMAN via a wireless access point (AP) that is communicatively coupled to the UNC via an IP network. The URR registration messages are sent between the MS and the UNC using an Up interface comprising a set of layered protocols over an underlying IP transport.	1-35. (canceled) 36. A method comprising: establishing a secure link between a particular service region of a first communication network and a network controller of the first communication network for communicatively coupling the particular service region to a licensed wireless second communication network to allow a communication session between a telecommunication device in the particular service region and the second communication network; and sending a plurality of registration messages between the particular service region and the network controller over the secure link including a registration request sent from the particular service region to the network controller, said registration request comprising a set of basic information elements and a set of operating parameters for the telecommunication device. 37. The method of claim 36, wherein the secure link comprises a TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) session between the particular service region and the network controller. 38. The method of claim 36, wherein the basic information elements comprise a protocol discriminator, a skip indicator, and a message type via which the message may be identified. 39. The method of claim 36, wherein the set of operating parameters for the telecommunication device comprises a mobile identity via which the telecommunication device is identified and a state information element for defining an operating state of the telecommunication device. 40. The method of claim 39, wherein the particular service region comprises an access point for wirelessly coupling the telecommunication device at the particular service region to the network controller, wherein the set of operating parameters for the telecommunication device further comprise a media access control (MAC) address of the access point. 41. The method of claim 36, wherein said sending of the plurality of registration messages comprises a registration acknowledgement message sent from the network controller to the particular service region, said registration acknowledgement message comprising the set of basic information elements and a set of operating parameters for the first communication network. 42. The method of claim 41, wherein the set of operating parameters for the first communication network comprises a location area identifier for identifying a plurality of service regions of the first communication network and a cell identifier for identifying the particular service region within the plurality of service regions. 43. The method of claim 36, wherein said sending of the registration acknowledgement message occurs when the telecommunication device is authorized to access the first communication network, the method further comprising sending a registration reject message to the particular service region when the telecommunication device in the particular service region is not authorized to access the first communication network, wherein the registration reject message comprises the set of basic information elements and a cause parameter for specifying a reason for rejection. 44. The method of claim 43, wherein the cause parameter also specifies a redirect address for redirecting the telecommunication device to a different network controller of the first communication network, wherein the address for redirecting the telecommunication device comprises an IP address for the different network controller. 45. A method comprising: from a telecommunication device at a particular service region of a first communication network, identifying a network controller of the first communication network for communicatively coupling the telecommunication device at the particular service region to a licensed wireless second communication network to allow a communication session between the telecommunication device and the second communication network; establishing a secure link with the network controller; and from the telecommunication device, sending a registration request message to the network controller over the secure link comprising a set of basic information elements and a set of operating parameters for the telecommunication device. 46. The method of claim 45, wherein identifying the network controller comprises performing a domain name system query to identify an IP address for communicating with said network controller. 47. The method of claim 45, wherein identifying the network controller comprises identifying a last IP address of a network controller via which the telecommunication device connected to the first communication network. 48. The method of claim 45, wherein identifying the network controller comprises identifying a default IP address of a network controller via which the telecommunication device initially connects to when registering for service with the first communication network. 49. A method comprising: at a network controller of a first communication network that communicatively couples a plurality of service regions of the first communication network to a licensed wireless second communication network, receiving a registration request message from a particular service region of the first communication network; determining from the registration message whether a telecommunication device in the particular service region is permitted access to the first communication network; and from the network controller, sending a registration reject message to the particular service region when the telecommunication device is not authorized to access the first communication network, wherein the registration reject message comprises a set of basic information elements and a cause parameter for specifying a reason for rejection. 50. The method of claim 45, wherein the basic information elements comprise a protocol discriminator, a skip indicator, and a message type via which the message may be identified. 51. The method of claim 45, wherein the cause parameter comprises a redirect address for redirecting the telecommunication device to a different network controller, wherein the redirect address comprises an IP address for the different network controller. 52. The method of claim 45, wherein the cause parameter comprises a rejection due to network congestion. 53. The method of claim 45, wherein the cause parameter comprises a rejection due to the telecommunication device accessing an access point of the first communication network through which said telecommunication device is not authorized to access, said access point for wirelessly coupling the telecommunication device at the particular service region to the network controller. 54. The method of claim 45, wherein the cause parameter comprises a rejection due to an international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI) of the telecommunication device not being allowed for service in the first communication network. 55. A method comprising: at a network controller of a first communication network that communicatively couples a plurality of service regions of the first communication network to a licensed wireless second communication network, registering a telecommunication device at a particular service region of the first communication network to access services of the first communication network; at the network controller, receiving a registration update message from the particular service region, wherein the registration update message comprises a set of basic information elements and a set of updated operating parameters of the telecommunication device. 56. The method of claim 55, wherein the plurality of service regions each comprise an access point for communicatively coupling a telecommunication device to the network controller, wherein the set of updated operating parameters comprises updating the network controller with an identifier for identifying a different access point for a different service region when the telecommunication device changes first network service regions, wherein the identifier for identifying the different access point comprises a media access control (MAC) address of the different access point. 57. The method of claim 55, wherein the set of updated operating parameters comprise updating the network controller with a location area identifier and cell identifier for a service region of the second communication network when the telecommunication device changes second network service regions. 58. A method comprising: at a network controller of a first communication network that communicatively couples a plurality of service regions of the first communication network to a licensed wireless second communication network, registering a telecommunication device at a particular service region of the first communication network to access services the first communication network; at the network controller, detecting an update event initiated by the second communication network; and from the network controller, sending a registration update message to the particular service region, wherein the registration update message comprises a set of basic information elements and updated network information for the first communication network. 59. The method of claim 58, wherein the registration update message comprises a location area identifier when a location area identifier for the particular service region is changed. 60. The method of claim 58, wherein the registration update message comprises a cell identifier when a cell identifier for the particular service region is changed.	<SOH> BACKGROUND INFORMATION <EOH>Licensed wireless systems provide mobile wireless communications to individuals using wireless transceivers. Licensed wireless systems refer to public cellular telephone systems and/or Personal Communication Services (PCS) telephone systems. Wireless transceivers include cellular telephones, PCS telephones, wireless-enabled personal digital assistants, wireless modems, and the like. Licensed wireless systems utilize wireless signal frequencies that are licensed from governments. Large fees are paid for access to these frequencies. Expensive base station (BS) equipment is used to support communications on licensed frequencies. Base stations are typically installed approximately a mile apart from one another (e.g., cellular towers in a cellular network). The wireless transport mechanisms and frequencies employed by typical licensed wireless systems limit both data transfer rates and range. As a result, the quality of service (voice quality and speed of data transfer) in licensed wireless systems is considerably inferior to the quality of service afforded by landline (wired) connections. Thus, the user of a licensed wireless system pays relatively high fees for relatively low quality service. Landline (wired) connections are extensively deployed and generally perform at a lower cost with higher quality voice and higher speed data services. The problem with landline connections is that they constrain the mobility of a user. Traditionally, a physical connection to the landline was required. In the past few years, the use of unlicensed wireless communication systems to facilitate mobile access to landline-based networks have seen rapid growth. For example, such unlicensed wireless systems may support wireless communication based on the IEEE 802.11a, b or g standards (WiFi), or the Bluetooth™ standard. The mobility range associated with such systems is typically on the order of 100 meters or less. A typical unlicensed wireless communication system includes a base station comprising a wireless access point (AP) with a physical connection (e.g., coaxial, twisted pair, or optical cable) to a landline-based network. The AP has a RF transceiver to facilitate communication with a wireless handset that is operative within a modest distance of the AP, wherein the data transport rates supported by the WiFi and Bluetooth™ standards are much higher than those supported by the aforementioned licensed wireless systems. Thus, this option provides higher quality services at a lower cost, but the services only extend a modest distance from the base station. Currently, technology is being developed to integrate the use of licensed and unlicensed wireless systems in a seamless fashion, thus enabling a user to access, via a single handset, an unlicensed wireless system when within the range of such a system, while accessing a licensed wireless system when out of range of the unlicensed wireless system. unlicensed wireless networks and for directing them to an appropriate network controller. In order to support more rapid implementation by various vendors, a standardized set of messages for performing various functions, such at registration, channel activation, handover, and the like are needed.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In accordance with aspects of the present invention, methods and messages for performing registration of mobile stations (MSs) in an unlicensed mobile access network (UMAN) are disclosed. To facilitate the registration of an MS, URR (UMA radio resource) registration messages are exchanged between an MS and one or more UMA network controllers (UNCs) operating in the UMAN. By employing a wireless link using an unlicensed radio frequency, such as an 802.11-based link or a Bluetooth™ link, the MS may access the UMAN via a wireless access point (AP) that is communicatively-coupled to the UNC via an IP network. The URR handover messages are sent between the MS and the UNC using an Up interface comprising a set of layered protocols over an underlying IP transport. The registration methods include both direct registration with a first UNC and redirection to a second UNC for registration, register rejection, and deregistration. In another aspect of the present invention, URR registration messages with specific formats are disclosed. The messages include a URR REGISTER REQUEST message, a URR REGISTER ACK message, a URR REJECTER REJECT/REDIRECT message, a URR REGISTER UPDATE UPLINK message, a URR REGISTER UPDATE DOWNLINK message, and a URR DEREGISTER message. Each of the URR registration messages includes a basic set of information elements (IEs) including a protocol discriminator, a skip indicator, and a message type via which the message may be identified. Further IEs relevant to each particular URR registration message are also disclosed.	CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the priority of provisional patent application Ser. No. 60/571,421, filed May 14, 2004, and entitled “Up Interface Stage 3 Description.” This application is a Continuation in Part of and claims the priority of U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 11/013,883, entitled “Apparatus and Method for Extending the Coverage Area of A Licensed Wireless Communication System Using an Unlicensed Wireless Communication System,” filed Dec. 15, 2004, which is a Continuation in Part of U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 10/688,470, entitled “Apparatus and Method for Extending the Coverage Area of a Licensed Wireless Communication System Using an Unlicensed Wireless Communication System,” filed Oct. 17, 2003. This application is also a Continuation in Part of and claims the priority of U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 11/097,866, entitled “A Method and System for Registering an Unlicensed Mobile Access Subscriber with a Network Controller,” filed Mar. 31, 2005, which claims priority to provisional patent application Ser. No. 60/564,696, filed Apr. 22, 2004 and entitled “UMA Network Controller (UNC) Selection and UMA Location Services Support Mechanisms.” This application is also related to commonly owned U.S. Applications: Ser. No. 10/115,833, entitled “Unlicensed Wireless Communications Base Station to Facilitate Unlicensed and Licensed Wireless Communications with a Subscriber Device, and Method of Operation,” filed Apr. 2, 2002; and application Ser. No. 10/251,901, entitled “Apparatus for Supporting the Handover of a Telecommunication Session between a Licensed Wireless System and an Unlicensed Wireless System,” filed Sep. 20, 2002, the contents of each of which are hereby incorporated by reference. In addition, this application contains common subject matter disclosed in U.S. application Ser. Nos. ______, Attorney Matter Nos. 007090.P032, 007090.P032, 007090.P032, 007090.P032, filed concurrently herewith on May 12, 2005. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The field of invention relates generally to telecommunications. More particularly, this invention relates to messaging employed in an unlicensed mobile access (UMA) telecommunication system that includes both licensed and unlicensed radio infrastructure. BACKGROUND INFORMATION Licensed wireless systems provide mobile wireless communications to individuals using wireless transceivers. Licensed wireless systems refer to public cellular telephone systems and/or Personal Communication Services (PCS) telephone systems. Wireless transceivers include cellular telephones, PCS telephones, wireless-enabled personal digital assistants, wireless modems, and the like. Licensed wireless systems utilize wireless signal frequencies that are licensed from governments. Large fees are paid for access to these frequencies. Expensive base station (BS) equipment is used to support communications on licensed frequencies. Base stations are typically installed approximately a mile apart from one another (e.g., cellular towers in a cellular network). The wireless transport mechanisms and frequencies employed by typical licensed wireless systems limit both data transfer rates and range. As a result, the quality of service (voice quality and speed of data transfer) in licensed wireless systems is considerably inferior to the quality of service afforded by landline (wired) connections. Thus, the user of a licensed wireless system pays relatively high fees for relatively low quality service. Landline (wired) connections are extensively deployed and generally perform at a lower cost with higher quality voice and higher speed data services. The problem with landline connections is that they constrain the mobility of a user. Traditionally, a physical connection to the landline was required. In the past few years, the use of unlicensed wireless communication systems to facilitate mobile access to landline-based networks have seen rapid growth. For example, such unlicensed wireless systems may support wireless communication based on the IEEE 802.11a, b or g standards (WiFi), or the Bluetooth™ standard. The mobility range associated with such systems is typically on the order of 100 meters or less. A typical unlicensed wireless communication system includes a base station comprising a wireless access point (AP) with a physical connection (e.g., coaxial, twisted pair, or optical cable) to a landline-based network. The AP has a RF transceiver to facilitate communication with a wireless handset that is operative within a modest distance of the AP, wherein the data transport rates supported by the WiFi and Bluetooth™ standards are much higher than those supported by the aforementioned licensed wireless systems. Thus, this option provides higher quality services at a lower cost, but the services only extend a modest distance from the base station. Currently, technology is being developed to integrate the use of licensed and unlicensed wireless systems in a seamless fashion, thus enabling a user to access, via a single handset, an unlicensed wireless system when within the range of such a system, while accessing a licensed wireless system when out of range of the unlicensed wireless system. unlicensed wireless networks and for directing them to an appropriate network controller. In order to support more rapid implementation by various vendors, a standardized set of messages for performing various functions, such at registration, channel activation, handover, and the like are needed. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with aspects of the present invention, methods and messages for performing registration of mobile stations (MSs) in an unlicensed mobile access network (UMAN) are disclosed. To facilitate the registration of an MS, URR (UMA radio resource) registration messages are exchanged between an MS and one or more UMA network controllers (UNCs) operating in the UMAN. By employing a wireless link using an unlicensed radio frequency, such as an 802.11-based link or a Bluetooth™ link, the MS may access the UMAN via a wireless access point (AP) that is communicatively-coupled to the UNC via an IP network. The URR handover messages are sent between the MS and the UNC using an Up interface comprising a set of layered protocols over an underlying IP transport. The registration methods include both direct registration with a first UNC and redirection to a second UNC for registration, register rejection, and deregistration. In another aspect of the present invention, URR registration messages with specific formats are disclosed. The messages include a URR REGISTER REQUEST message, a URR REGISTER ACK message, a URR REJECTER REJECT/REDIRECT message, a URR REGISTER UPDATE UPLINK message, a URR REGISTER UPDATE DOWNLINK message, and a URR DEREGISTER message. Each of the URR registration messages includes a basic set of information elements (IEs) including a protocol discriminator, a skip indicator, and a message type via which the message may be identified. Further IEs relevant to each particular URR registration message are also disclosed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The foregoing aspects and many of the attendant advantages of this invention will become more readily appreciated as the same becomes better understood by reference to the following detailed description, when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein like reference numerals refer to like parts throughout the various views unless otherwise specified: The foregoing aspects and many of the attendant advantages of this invention will become more readily appreciated as the same becomes better understood by reference to the following detailed description, when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein like reference numerals refer to like parts throughout the various views unless otherwise specified: FIG. 1A provides an overview of the indoor access network (IAN) mobile service solution in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 1B illustrates protocol layers of a mobile set in accordance with one embodiment; FIG. 1C illustrates a method of protocol conversion in accordance with one embodiment; FIG. 2A illustrates an overview of a level 1, level 2, and level 3 GSM-related protocol architecture for one embodiment of a mobile station that provides unlicensed radio links via Bluetooth signaling; FIG. 2B illustrates an overview of a level 1, level 2, and level 3 GSM-related protocol architecture for one embodiment of a mobile station that provides unlicensed radio links via IEEE 802.11 signaling; FIG. 3A illustrates the Up interface protocol architecture in support of CS Domain signaling, as well as UMA-specific signaling, according to one embodiment; FIG. 3B shows Bluetooth lower layers employed by a mobile station and access point to facilitate physical layer communications; FIG. 3C shows Bluetooth lower layers employed by a mobile station and access point to facilitate physical layer communications; FIG. 3D illustrates the Up CS domain voice bearer protocol architecture in support of GSM voice transmission, according to one embodiment; FIG. 3E illustrates the Up GPRS user plane protocol architecture, according to one embodiment; FIG. 3F illustrates the Up protocol architecture in support of GPRS Signaling, according to one embodiment; FIG. 4 illustrates several possible GSM and UMA coverage scenarios in accordance with one embodiment; FIG. 5 illustrates exemplary mobility management functions in one embodiment; FIG. 6A illustrates a URR Register message exchange corresponding to a successful registration; FIG. 6B illustrates a URR Register message exchange corresponding to a rejected registration; FIG. 6C illustrates a URR Register message exchange under which an MS is redirected from a first UNC to a second UNC; FIGS. 7A and 7B are tables illustrating respective embodiments of a URR REGISTER REQUEST message format; FIG. 8A is a table illustrating one embodiment of a URR REGISTER ACK message format; FIG. 8B is a table illustrating one embodiment of a UMA GSM System Information information element; FIG. 8C is a table illustrating one embodiment of a URR REGISTER ACCEPT message format; FIG. 9 is a table illustrating one embodiment of a URR REGISTER REJECT/REDIRECT message format; FIG. 9B is a tables illustrating one embodiment of a URR REGISTER REJECT message format; FIG. 9C is a table illustrating one embodiment of a URR REGISTER REDIRECT message format; FIG. 10A illustrates a URR message sequence including a URR REGISTER UPDATE UPLINK message and a URR REGISTER REDIRECT message; FIG. 10B illustrates a URR message sequence including a URR REGISTER UPDATE DOWNLINK message, a URR DEREGISTER message, and a URR REGISTER REDIRECT message; FIGS. 11A and 11B are tables illustrating respective embodiments of a URR REGISTER UPDATE UPLINK message format; FIGS. 12A and 12B are tables illustrating respective embodiments of a URR REGISTER UPDATE DOWNLINK message format; FIGS. 13A and 13B are tables illustrating respective embodiments of a URR DEREGISTER message format; FIG. 14 is a table illustrating one embodiment of a lookup table containing 8-bit values corresponding to causes for various URR actions; FIG. 15 illustrates a channel activation message sequence; FIGS. 16A and 16B are tables illustrating respective embodiments of a URR ACTIVATE CHANNEL message format; FIGS. 17A and 17B are tables illustrating respective embodiments of a URR ACTIVATE CHANNEL ACK message format; FIGS. 18A and 18B are tables illustrating respective embodiments of a URR ACTIVATE CHANNEL FAILURE message format; FIGS. 19A and 19B are tables illustrating respective embodiments of a URR ACTIVATE CHANNEL COMPLETE message format; FIG. 20 illustrates a handover message sequence initiated by a mobile station; FIGS. 21A and 21B are tables illustrating respective embodiments of a URR HANDOVER ACCESS message format; FIGS. 22A and 22B are tables illustrating respective embodiments of a URR HANDOVER COMPLETE message format; FIG. 23A illustrates a handover message sequence initiated in response to a URR UPLINK QUALITY INDICATION message sent from a UNC; FIG. 23B illustrates a handover message sequence initiated in response to a URR UPLINK QUALITY INDICATION message sent from a UNC, in accordance with a handover failure; FIG. 24 is a table illustrating one embodiment of a URR UPLINK QUALITY INDICATION message format; FIGS. 25A and 25B are tables illustrating respective embodiments of a URR HANDOVER REQUIRED message format; FIGS. 26A and 26B are table portions illustrating one embodiment of a URR HANDOVER COMMAND message format; FIG. 26C is a table illustrating another embodiment of a URR HANDOVER COMMAND message format; FIGS. 27A and 27B are tables illustrating respective embodiments of a URR HANDOVER FAILURE message format; FIG. 28 illustrates a URR CLEAR REQUEST message sent from a mobile station to a UNC; FIGS. 29A and 29B are tables illustrating respective embodiments of a URR CLEAR REQUEST message format; FIG. 30 illustrates a URR release message sequence initiated by a UNC; FIGS. 31A and 31B are tables illustrating respective embodiments of a URR RR RELEASE message format; FIGS. 32A and 32B are tables illustrating respective embodiments of a URR RR RELEASE COMPLETE message format; FIG. 33 illustrates a URR paging message sequence initiated by a UNC; FIGS. 34A and 34B are tables illustrating respective embodiments of a URR PAGING REQUEST message format; FIGS. 35A and 35B are tables illustrating respective embodiments of a URR PAGING RESPONSE message format; FIG. 36 illustrates a URR classmark message sequence initiated by a UNC; FIGS. 37A and 37B are tables illustrating respective embodiments of a URR CLASSMARK ENQUIRY message format; FIGS. 38A and 38B are tables illustrating respective embodiments of a URR CLASSMARK CHANGE message format; FIG. 39 is a schematic block diagram illustrating one embodiment of a high-level architecture of a UNC; and FIG. 40 is a schematic block diagram illustrating one embodiment of a high-level architecture of a mobile station. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following description, numerous specific details are set forth to provide a thorough understanding of embodiments of the invention. One skilled in the relevant art will recognize, however, that the invention can be practiced without one or more of the specific details, or with other methods, components, materials, etc. In other instances, well-known structures, materials, or operations are not shown or described in detail to avoid obscuring aspects of the invention. Reference throughout this specification to “one embodiment” or “an embodiment” means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment of the present invention. Thus, the appearances of the phrases “in one embodiment” or “in an embodiment” in various places throughout this specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment. Furthermore, the particular features, structures, or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments. In the present description the unlicensed wireless system may be a short-range wireless system, which may be described as an “indoor” solution. However, it will be understood through the application that the unlicensed wireless system includes unlicensed wireless systems that cover not only a portion of a building but also local outdoor regions, such as outdoor portions of a corporate campus serviced by an unlicensed wireless system. The mobile station may, for example, be a wireless phone, smart phone, personal digital assistant, or mobile computer. The “mobile station” may also, for example, be a fixed wireless device providing a set of terminal adapter functions for connecting Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) or Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) terminals to the wireless system. Application of the present invention to this type of device enables the wireless service provider to offer so-called landline replacement service to users, even for user locations not sufficiently covered by the licensed wireless system. The present description is in the context of the UMA (Unlicensed Mobile Access) standardized architecture as promulgated by the UMA consortium. However, the invention is not so limited. Throughout the following description, acronyms commonly used in the telecommunications industry for wireless services are utilized along with acronyms specific to the present invention. A table of acronyms specific to this application is included in Appendix 1. FIG. 1A illustrates an Unlicensed Mobile Access (UMA) architecture 100 in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. UMA architecture 100 enables a user of a mobile station 102 to access a voice and telecommunications network 104 via either a licensed wireless communications session 106, or an unlicensed wireless communication session 108. The telecommunications network 104 includes a mobile switching center (MSC) 110, which provides access to a voice network 112, and a Serving GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) Support Node (SGSN) 114, which provides access to a data network 116. MSC 110 also provides an internal visitor location register (VLR) function. In further detail, the licensed wireless communication session is facilitated by infrastructure provided by a licensed wireless network 118 that includes telecommunications network 104. In the illustrated embodiment, licensed wireless network 118 depicts components common to a GSM-(Global System for Mobile Communication) based cellular network that includes multiple base transceiver stations (BTS) 120 (of which only one is shown for simplicity) that facilitate wireless communication services for various mobile stations 102 via respective licensed radio links 122 (e.g., radio links employing radio frequencies within a licensed bandwidth). Typically, the multiple BTSs 120 are configured in a cellular configuration (one per each cell) that covers a wide service area. The various BTSs 120 for a given area or region are managed by a base station controller (BSC) 124, with each BTS 120 communicatively-coupled to its BSC 124 via a private trunk 126. In general, a large licensed wireless network, such as that provided by a regional or nationwide mobile services provider, will include multiple BSCs 124. Each BSC 124 communicates with telecommunications network 104 through a standard base station controller interface 126. For example, a BSC 124 may communicate with MSC 110 via the GSM A-interface for circuit switched voice services and with SGSN 114 via the GSM Gb interface for packet data services (GPRS). Conventional licensed voice and data networks 104 include protocols to permit seamless handoffs from one recognized BSC 124 to another BSC (not shown). An unlicensed communication session 108 is facilitated via an (wireless) access point (AP) 128 comprising an indoor base station 130. Typically, AP 128 will be located in a fixed structure, such as a home 132 or an office building 134. The service area of indoor base station 130 includes an indoor portion of a building, although it will be understood that the service area of an indoor base station may include an outdoor portion of a building or campus. As indicated by the arrow representing unlicensed communication session 108, the mobile station 102 may be connected to the telecommunications network 114 via a second data path that includes an unlicensed wireless channel 136, access point 128, an access network 138, and an unlicensed mobile access network controller (UNC) 140. The UNC 140 communicates with telecommunications network 104 using a base station controller interface 126B that is similar to base station controller interface 126A, and includes a GSM A interface and Gb interface. AP 128 may include software entities stored in memory and executing on one or more microprocessors (not shown in FIG. 1A) adapted to perform protocol conversion. The unlicensed wireless channel 136 is facilitated by a radio link employing a wavelength (or wavelength range) in an unlicensed, free spectrum (e.g., spectrum around 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, 11-66 GHz). An unlicensed wireless service hosting unlicensed wireless channel 136 may have an associated communication protocol. As examples, the unlicensed wireless service may be a Bluetooth™ compatible wireless service, or a wireless local area network (LAN) (WiFi) service (e.g., the IEEE 802.11a, b, or g wireless standard). This provides the user with potentially improved quality of service in the service regions of the unlicensed wireless service (i.e., within the service range of a corresponding AP). Thus, when a subscriber is within range of the unlicensed AP, the subscriber may enjoy low cost, high speed, and high quality voice and data services. In addition, the subscriber enjoys extended service range since the handset can receive services deep within a building at locations that otherwise may not be reliably serviced by a licensed wireless system. At the same time, the subscriber can roam outside the range of the unlicensed AP without dropping communications. Instead, roaming outside the range of the unlicensed AP results in a seamless handoff (also referred to as a handover) wherein communication services are automatically provided by the licensed wireless system, as described in more detail in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/115,833, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. Mobile station 102 may include a microprocessor and memory (not shown) that stores computer program instructions for executing wireless protocols for managing communication sessions. As illustrated in FIG. 1B, in one embodiment the mobile station 102 includes a layer 1 protocol layer 142, layer 2 protocol layer 144, and a layer 3 signaling protocol layer for the licensed wireless service that includes a radio resource (RR) sublayer 146, a mobility management (MM) sublayer 148, and a call management (CM) layer 150. It will be understood that the level 1, level 2, and level 3 layers may be implemented as software modules, which may also be described as software “entities.” In accordance with a common nomenclature for licensed wireless services, layer 1 is the physical layer, i.e., the physical baseband for a wireless communication session. The physical layer is the lowest layer of the radio interface and provides functions to transfer bit streams over physical radio links. Layer 2 is the data link layer. The data link layer provides signaling between the mobile station and the base station controller. The RR sublayer is concerned with the management of an RR-session, which is the time that a mobile station is in a dedicated mode, as well as the configuration of radio channel, power controller, discontinuous transmission and reception, and handovers. The mobility management layer manages issues that arise from the mobility of the subscriber. The mobility management layer may, for example, deal with mobile station location, security functions, and authentication. The call control management layer provides controls for end-to-end call establishment. These functions for a licensed wireless system are well known by those in the art of wireless communication. The mobile station may also include an unlicensed wireless service physical layer 152 (i.e., a physical layer for unlicensed wireless service such as Bluetooth, WiFi, or other unlicensed wireless channel (e.g., WiMAX)). The mobile station also includes an unlicensed wireless service level 2 link layer 154, and an unlicensed wireless service radio resource sublayer(s) 156. An access mode switch 160 is included for the mobile management 148 and call management layers 150 to access the unlicensed wireless service radio resource sublayer 156 and unlicensed wireless service link layer 154 when the mobile station 102 is within range of an unlicensed AP 128 and to support switching between licensed RR sublayer 146 and unlicensed wireless service RR sublayer 156. The unlicensed radio resource sublayer 156 and unlicensed link layer 154 may include protocols specific to the unlicensed wireless service utilized in addition to protocols selected to facilitate seamless handoff between licensed and unlicensed wireless systems. Consequently, the unlicensed radio resource sublayer 156 and unlicensed link layer 154 need to be converted into a format compatible with a conventional base station controller interface protocol 126 recognized by a MSC, SGSN, or other voice or data network. Referring to FIG. 1C, in one embodiment of the present invention, the mobile station 102, AP 128 and UNC 140 provide an interface conversion function to convert the level 1, level 2, and level 3 layers of the unlicensed service into a conventional base station subnetwork (BSS) interface 126B (e.g., an A-interface or a Gb-interface). As a result of the protocol conversion, a communication session may be established that is transparent to the voice network/data network 104, i.e., the voice/data network 104 uses its standard interface and protocols for the communication session as it would with a conventional communication session handled by a conventional base transceiver station. For example, in some embodiments the mobile station 102 and UNC 140 are configured to initiate and forward location update and service requests. As a result, protocols for a seamless handoff of services that is transparent to voice/data network 104 are facilitated. This permits, for example, a single phone number to be used for both the licensed wireless service and the unlicensed wireless service. Additionally, the present invention permits a variety of services that were traditionally offered only through licensed wireless services to be offered through an unlicensed wireless service. The user thus gets the benefit of potentially higher quality service when their mobile station is located within the area serviced by a high bandwidth unlicensed wireless service while also having access to conventional phone services. The licensed wireless service may comprise any licensed wireless service having a defined BSS interface protocol 126 for a voice/data network 104. In one embodiment, the licensed wireless service is a GSM/GPRS radio access network, although it will be understood that embodiments of the present invention include other licensed wireless services. For this embodiment, the UNC 140 interconnects to the GSM core network via the same base station controller interfaces 126 used by a standard GSM BSS network element. For example, in a GSM application, these interfaces are the GSM A-interface for circuit switched voice services and the GSM Gb interface for packet data services (GPRS). In a UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) application of the invention, the UNC 140 interconnects to the UMTS network using a UMTS Iu-cs interface for circuit switched voice services and the UMTS Iu-ps interface for packet data services. In a CDMA application of the invention, the UNC 140 interconnects with the CDMA network using the CDMA A1 and A2 interfaces for circuit switched voice services and the CDMA A10 and A11 interfaces for packet data services. In a GSM/GPRS embodiment, UNC 140 appears to the GSM/GPRS core network as a GSM BSS network element and is managed and operated as such. In this architecture the principle elements of transaction control (e.g., call processing) are provided by higher network elements; namely the MSC 110 visitor location register (VLR) and the SGSN 114. Authorized mobile stations are allowed access to the GSM/GPRS core network either directly through the GSM radio access network if they are outside of the service area of an AP 128 or via the UMA network system if they are within the service area of an AP. Since a communication session hosted by the UMA architecture 100 is transparent to a voice network 112 or data network 116, the unlicensed wireless service may support all user services that are typically offered by a wireless service provider. In the GSM case, this typically includes the following basic services: Telephony; Emergency call (e.g., E911 calling in North America); Short message, mobile-terminated point-to-point (MT/PP); Short message, mobile-originated point-to-point (MO/PP); GPRS bearer services; and Handover (outdoor-to-indoor, indoor-to-outdoor, voice, data, SMS, SS). Additionally, GSM may also support, various supplementary services that are well-known in the art. FIG. 2A provides an overview of a level 1, level 2, and level 3 GSM-related protocol architecture for one embodiment of mobile station 102 that provides unlicensed radio links via Bluetooth signaling. As illustrated, there are two logical radio resource (RR) management entities: the GSM RR entity 202 and the UMA-RR entity 204. The protocol architecture includes a GSM baseband level 1 layer 206, GSM level 2 link layer (LAPDm) 208, Bluetooth baseband level 1 layer 210, Bluetooth level 2 layers 211 including a layer 2 connection access procedure (L2CAP) layer 212 and a BNEP layer 213, an access mode switch 214, and upper layer protocols 216. When the mobile station is operating in an UMA mode, the UMA-RR entity 204 is the current “serving” RR entity providing service to the mobility management (MM) sublayer via the designated service access point (RR-SAP). The GSM RR entity is detached from the MM sublayer in this mode. The UMA-RR entity 204 provides a new set of functions, and is responsible for several tasks. First the UMA-RR entity is responsible for discovery of UMA coverage and UMA registration. Second, the UMA-RR entity is responsible for emulation of the GSM RR layer to provide the expected services to the MM layer; i.e., create, maintain and tear down RR connections. All existing GSM 04.07 primitives defined for the RR-SAP apply. The plug-in of UMA-RR entity 204 is made transparent to the upper layer protocols in this way. Third, a UMA-RR entity 204 module is responsible for coordination with the GSM RR entity to manage access mode switching and handover, as described in further detail in application Ser. No. 10/688,470 referenced above. FIG. 2B provides an overview of a level 1, level 2, and level 3 GSM-related protocol architecture for one embodiment of mobile station 102 that provides unlicensed radio links via IEEE 802.11 signaling. All of the entities and layers are the same as described above for FIG. 2A, except that the Bluetooth layers have been replaced with an 802.11 PHY layer 218 and an 802.11 MAC layer 220. FIG. 3A illustrates the Up interface protocol architecture in support of circuit switched (CS) Domain signaling, as well as UMA-specific signaling, according to one embodiment. The MSC sublayers are conventional, well known features known in the art in regards to the message transfer part (MTP) interfaces MTP1 302, MTP2 304, and MTP3 306, signaling connection control part (SCCP) 308, base station system application part (BSSAP) 310, mobility management interface 312, and connection management interface 314. The UMA-RR protocol supports the UMA “layer 3” signaling functions via UMA-RR layers 204 provided by each of the mobile station 102 and UNC 140. The UNC 140, acting like a BSC, terminates UMA-RR protocol messages and is responsible for the interworking between these messages and the analogous A-interface messages. The layers below the UMA-RR layer 204 in each of mobile station 104 and UNC 140 include a TCP layer 316, a remote IP layer 318, and an IPSec (IP security) layer 320. As an option, a standard Secure Socket Layer (SSL) protocol running over TCP/IP (not shown) may be deployed in place of IPSec layer 320. Lower-level IP connectivity between mobile station 102 and UNC 140 is supported by appropriate layers hosted by an intervening access point 128 and broadband IP network 138 (i.e., the access network 138 shown in FIG. 1A). The components for supporting the IP transport layer (i.e., the conventional network layer 3 under the seven-layer OSI model) include a transport IP layers 322 for each of the mobile station 104, AP 128, and IP network 138, and an IP layer 322A at UNC 140. At the lowest layers (i.e., the physical and data link layers), mobile station 104 and AP 128 are depicted as providing unlicensed lower layers 324, while each of AP 128, IP network 138, and UNC 140 provide appropriate access layers 326. Typically, access layers 326 will include conventional Ethernet PHY and MAC layers (IEEE 802.3), although this is not limiting. As shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B, the unlicensed layers lower layers 324 will depend on whether the unlicensed radio link uses Bluetooth signaling or IEEE 802.11 signaling. The Bluetooth lower layers depicted in FIG. 3A correspond to the mobile station architecture of FIG. 2A, and include a Bluetooth baseband layer 210, an L2CAP layer 212, and a BNEP layer 213. Meanwhile, the 801.11 lower layers shown in FIG. 3B correspond to the mobile station architecture of FIG. 2B, and include a 802.11 PHY layer 218 and in 802.11 MAC layer 220. FIG. 3D illustrates the Up CS domain voice bearer protocol architecture in support of GSM voice transmission, according to one embodiment. In addition to the like named and referenced components common to the architectures of FIGS. 3D and 3C, facilities are provided for supporting GSM voice transmission. For the MSC 110, these components include conventional components for supporting GSM voice transmissions, and are depicted as physical layers 330 and audio 332, with similar components being deployed in UNC 140. Each of mobile station 102 and UNC 140 now include a GERAN (GSM Edge Radio Access Network) codec 334 and an RTP/UDP layer 336. Under the architecture of FIG. 3D, audio flows over the Up interface according to the RTP framing format defined in RFC 3267 and RFC 3551. When operating in UMA mode, support for AMR FR as specified in TS 26.103 is supported. Other codecs may also be supported, such as G.711. FIG. 3E illustrates the Up GPRS user plane protocol architecture, according to one embodiment. The Up GPRS user plane protocol architecture effectively enables the tunneling of GPRS signaling and data packets through the UNC 140 utilizing the unlicensed spectrum, thus supporting a tunneling function for packet-switched traffic between the mobile station 102 and SGSN 118. As illustrated in FIG. 3E, each of the UNC 140 and SGSN 114 employ conventional facilities for supporting GPRS signaling and data packets, including a physical layer 350, a network service layer 352, and a BSSGP layer 354. Each of mobile station 102 and UNC 140 include a UDP layer 356 and a UMA-RLC layer 358. Each of mobile station 102 and SGSN include an LLC layer 360 and an SNDCP layer 362. Mobile station 102 also includes an IP layer 364. Under the architecture of FIG. 3E, GPRS LLC PDUs carrying data, and higher layer protocols, are carried transparently between the mobile station 102 and SGSN 114. This allows the mobile station to derive all GPRS services in the same manner as if it were in a GERAN BSS. All existing GPRS applications and MMI in mobile station 102 are unchanged. LLC PDUs are carried over UMA-RLC layer 358 from mobile station 102 to UNC 140, which relays the PDUs over to SGSN 114 using BSSGP messaging. The UMA-RLC layer 358 runs directly over the UDP layer 356 to leverage the IP bearer service. FIG. 3F illustrates the Up protocol architecture in support of GPRS Signaling, according to one embodiment. Under this architecture, the GPRS LLC PDUs for signaling on higher layer protocols (including upper layers 366) are carried transparently between MS 102 and SGSN 114. This allows the MS to obtain all GPRS services in the same ways as if it were connected to a GERAN BSS. The GPRS-RLC protocol is replaced with an equivalent (from the upper layer perspective) UMA-RLC protocol. Reliability is ensured by TCP layer 357. As in a GERAN BSS, the UNC, acting like a BSC, terminates the UMA-RLC protocol and inter-works it to the Gb-interface using BSSGP. As noted above, the mobile station may be, for example, a wireless phone, smart phone, personal digital assistant, or mobile computer. The mobile station may also be, for example, a fixed wireless device providing a set of terminal adapter functions for connecting Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) or Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) terminals to the wireless system. Other terminal adapter types than those listed above may be employed with embodiments of the present invention. For example: (1) a terminal adapter that supports cordless telephones rather than POTS phones; (2) a terminal adapter that supports standard Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) telephones; and (3) a terminal adapter that also integrates a corded handset and user interface, such as one would find on a desk phone. In each case, the invention described herein describes how these terminal adapter functions can be connected to the wireless system via the unlicensed network. The use of other standard Bluetooth capabilities together with embodiments of the present invention is possible. For example, there is a Bluetooth standard capability called “SIM Access Profile” that allows one Bluetooth device (e.g., an embedded cell phone subsystem in a car) to access the SIM that is in another Bluetooth device (e.g., the user's normal cell phone), allowing the first device to take on the “personality” associated with the SIM (i.e., that of the user's normal cell phone). The embodiments described above could make use of this standard capability to give the terminal adapter-attached devices (e.g., a POTS phone) the personality of the user's cell phone. Mobility Management The UNC 140 provides functions equivalent to that of a GSM BSC, and as such controls one or more (virtual) UMA cells. In one embodiment, there may be a single UMA cell per UNC and, in an alternative embodiment, there may be one UMA cell per access point connected to a UNC. The latter embodiment may be less desirable due to the large number of APs expected to be used, so the UMA architecture permits flexible groupings of APs into UMA cells. Each UMA cell may be identified by a cell global identifier (CGI), with an unused absolute radio frequency channel number (ARFCN) assigned to each UMA cell. Each UMA cell may be mapped to a physical boundary by associating it with specific GSM location areas served by the MSC. GSM cells within the location areas mapped to a UMA cell are configured with ARFCN-to-CGI mappings for that UMA cell. Further, this ARFCN may be advertised in the BA list by the GSM cells to permit handovers. Note that UMA cells may use the same location area identifiers (LAI) as existing GSM cells, or a new LAI may be used for UMA cells. The latter is useful in reducing paging in GSM cells when a mobile station is known to be registered via an INC. The above discussion applies equally to GPRS routing areas and routing area identifiers (RAIs). UMA CPE Addressing Customer premise equipment (CPE) may include the mobile station and the access point (AP) through which the mobile station may access the UNC for UMA service. UMA CPE addressing parameters may include the parameters described below. The UMA CPE addressing includes the international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI) associated with the SIM in the mobile equipment as a parameter. The IMSI is provided by the UMA mobile station to the UNC when it requests UMA service via the Up interface to the UNC. Unlike the GSM BSC, the UNC manages a context for each mobile station that is operating in UMA mode. Therefore, the UNC maintains a record for each served mobile station. For example, IMSI may be used by the UNC to find the appropriate mobile station record when the UNC receives a BSSMAP paging message. The UMA CPE addressing includes the address associated with the unlicensed interface in the mobile equipment (e.g., 802.11 MAC address) as a parameter. This identifier may be provided by the UMA mobile station to the UNC when it requests UMA service via the Up interface. The UNC may use this address as an alternative to the IMSI to limit the transfer of the IMSI over the Up interface and to assist in the routing of messages. The UMA CPE addressing also includes the temporary logical link identifier (TLLI) assigned to the mobile station by the serving GPRS support node (SGSN) as a parameter. This identifier may be provided via standard Gb-interface procedures. The UNC may track this address for each served mobile station to support GSM Gb-interface procedures (e.g., so that downlink GPRS packets may be routed to the correct mobile station). The UMA CPE addressing also includes the access point ID (AP-ID) as a parameter. The AP-ID may be the MAC address of the unlicensed mode access point through which the mobile station is accessing UMA service. This identifier may be provided by the UMA mobile station to the UNC when it requests UMA service via the Up interface. The AP-ID may be used by the UNC to support location services (e.g., enhanced 911 service) to the user based on the AP from which the service is being accessed. The AP-ID may also be used by the service provider to restrict UMA service access only to authorized APs. Other CPE addressing parameters that may be used depend on the security requirements of the Up interface (e.g., the need to manage UMA mobile station IP addresses for message routing via tunneled IPSec connections, or the need to manage local credentials assigned to the mobile station by the UNC). UMA Cell Identification In order to facilitate the mobility management functions in GSM/GPRS, the coverage area may be split into logical registration areas called location areas (for GSM) and routing areas (for GPRS). Mobile stations may be required to register with the network each time the serving location area (or routing area) changes. One or more location areas identifiers (LAIs) may be associated with each visited location register (VLR) in a carrier's network. Likewise, one or more routing area identifiers (RAIs) may be controlled by a single SGSN. In one embodiment, a GSM cell is identified within the location or routing area by adding a cell identity (CI) to the location or routing area identification. The cell global identification (CGI) is the concatenation of the location area identification and the cell identity. In one embodiment, the cell identity is unique within a location area. An Example UMA Approach to Cell Identification One example of a UMA cell identification approach is described below. In this embodiment, a single UNC provides service for one or more UMA location areas and one or more UMA routing areas, and each UMA location area (or routing area) is distinct from, or the same as, the location area (or routing area) of the overlapping GSM cell. A UMA cell is identified within the UMA location or routing area by adding a cell identity (CI) to the location or routing area identification. The UMA cell global identification (UMA-CGI) is the concatenation of the location area identification and the cell identity. In one embodiment, a UMA cell may be a pre-defined partition of the overall UMA coverage area identified by a UMA-CGI value. Note that cell identification, like UMA information, may be transparent to the AP, such that the AP is not aware of its associated UMA-CGI value. The UMA components (e.g., mobile station and UNC) may support the ability to partition the overall UMA coverage area. A partitioning method may include implementing a one-to-one or a many-to-one correspondence between GSM cell identity and UMA cell identity. Given the identification of a preferred GSM cell in a particular area, it may be possible to determine the corresponding UMA cell identity based, for example, on UNC provisioning. An example of a one-to-one relationship is mapping a GSM cell to a UMA cell. An example of a many-to-one relationship is mapping a GSM location area (and associated GSM cells) to a UMA cell. When a UMA mobile station connects to the UNC for UMA service, it sends the CGI value and (optionally) a path loss criterion parameter (C1) of the current GSM camping cell, as well as the neighbor cells, to the UNC. The UNC maps the GSM camping cell's CGI value to a corresponding UMA cell's CGI value based on mapping logic provisioned in the UNC. This may be a one-to-one mapping (e.g., if there is one UMA cell per GSM cell) or a many-to-one mapping (e.g., if there is one UMA cell per GSM location area). If no GSM coverage is available in the UMA service area, the UNC may assign the mobile station to a default “no GSM coverage” UMA cell. A single UNC may serve one MSC. This does not preclude UNC embodiments that combine multiple UNC “instances,” as defined above, in a single device (for example, a UNC that servers multiple MSCs). Each UNC may also be assigned a unique “UMA-Handover-CGI” value used for GSM-to-UMA handover purposes. For example, this may be the value provisioned in the GSM RAN BSC's ARFCN-to-CGI tables and in the MSCs (e.g., to point to the UNC). UMA Operating Configurations In one embodiment, at least three UMA operating configurations may be identified. In a common core configuration, the UMA LAI and an umbrella GSM RAN LAI (e.g., that serves the subscriber's neighborhood) may be different, and the network may be engineered such that the same core network entities (e.g., MSC and SGSN) serve both the UMA cells and the umbrella GSM cells. One advantage of this configuration is that subscriber movement between the UMA coverage area and the GSM coverage area does not result in inter-system (e.g., MAP) signaling (e.g., location updates and handovers are intra-MSC). In a separate core configuration, the UMA LAI and umbrella GSM RAN LAI are different, and the network may be engineered such that different core network entities serve the UMA cells and the umbrella GSM cells. One advantage of this configuration is that engineering of the UMA and GSM networks can be more independent than in the Common Core Configuration. In a common LAI configuration, the UMA LAI and GSM RAN LAI are the same (e.g., different cells within the same LAI). Advantages of this configuration are that subscriber movement (while idle) between the UMA coverage area and the GSM coverage area may not result in any location update signaling, and that the mobile station can easily switch to GSM mode if UMA mode resources are temporarily unavailable (e.g., to respond to paging). Further details of this and the foregoing separate core configuration are discussed in application Ser. No. 10/688,470. UMA Registration and Deregistration In one embodiment, as described above, a UMA registration process does not employ signaling to the PLMN infrastructure and is contained within the UMA system (i.e., between the mobile station and UNC). The UMA registration process may serve at least two purposes. It may inform the UNC that a mobile station is connected through a particular AP and is available at a particular IP address. The UNC may keep track of this information, for example, for mobile-terminated calling. The registration process may also provide the mobile station with the operating parameters associated with the UMA service on the AP. This may be analogous to the use of the GSM broadcast control channel (BCCH) to transmit system parameters to mobile stations in GSM cells. GSM system information message content that is applicable in UMA mode may be delivered to the mobile station during the UMA registration process. Similarly, a UMA deregistration process may allow the mobile station to explicitly inform the UNC that it is leaving UMA mode, allowing the UNC to free resources that it may have assigned to the mobile station. The UNC may also support implicit UMA deregistration, wherein a secure channel to the mobile station is abruptly terminated. UMA Redirection In one embodiment, as described above, when a UMA mobile station connects to the UNC for UMA service, it may send a CGI value and a path loss criterion parameter (C1) of the current GSM camping cell, as well as the neighbor cells, to the UNC. Using this information, as well as internal database information, the UNC may be able to determine if it is the correct serving UNC for the mobile station, and if it is not the correct serving UNC, to redirect the mobile station to the correct UNC. The correct serving UNC may be the UNC whose UMA service area overlaps the mobile station's umbrella GSM coverage. In one embodiment, the correct serving UNC might be attached to the same MSC as the GSM BSC to which the umbrella GSM cell belongs. In an alternative embodiment, the correct serving UNC might be attached to a different MSC that may hand-over to the MSC that provides umbrella GSM coverage to the mobile station, allowing the UNC to handover calls to and from GSM. It may also enable certain location-based services (e.g., E911 Phase 1) that can be tied to the location of the GSM cell. An internal database used by the UNC may map GSM location areas to serving UNCs and conserve the amount of data that needs to be managed. This database may only need to change when a new UNC or a new GSM location area is added. If no GSM coverage is available when a mobile station connects to the UNC for UMA service, then, under some instances, the UNC may not reliably determine the location of the mobile station for the purposes of assigning the mobile station to the correct serving UNC (e.g., to enable handover and location-based services). The UNC may permit the operator to determine the service policy in this case (e.g., the operator may provide service to the user with certain limitations, possibly with a user interface indication on the mobile station). Additional details on UMA registration and redirection procedures are provided below. UMA Mobile Station Idle Mode Behavior As described above, a UMA device may encounter different radio environments as illustrated in FIG. 4. In a first environment, the GSM and UMA coverage areas are completely separate and non-overlapping. In a second environment, the GSM and UMA coverage is partially overlapping. In a third environment, which may be the most common, the UMA coverage is encapsulated within the GSM coverage. A UMA device may power on in any of these environments and further may transition in a number of attached states. At power on, and when the mobile station is idle and there is no coverage of any type, the mobile station may scan for both GSM and UMA radio coverage. If GSM coverage is detected, then the normal GSM mobility management procedure may be initiated. This condition may apply when no UMA coverage has been detected by the mobile station when GSM coverage is detected, or prior to the completion of the UMA registration process. If UMA coverage is detected, then the UMA mobile station establishes an unlicensed wireless link (e.g., WLAN link) to the AP and monitors signal quality. When the received signal level at the mobile station passes a predefined threshold, the mobile station performs the UMA registration procedure. Based upon the information returned, the mobile station may determine if a full network registration is required, and if so, what type (e.g., GSM or combined GSM/GPRS). This procedure may apply when no GSM coverage exists or when UMA coverage is detected prior to detecting GSM coverage. When the mobile station is idle in GSM coverage, and there is no UMA coverage, the mobile station may periodically scan for UMA coverage. If UMA coverage is detected, the mobile station may initiate the UMA registration procedure described above. When the mobile station is idle in UMA coverage and there is no GSM coverage, the mobile station may continue to perform normal GSM PLMN search procedures. If GSM coverage is detected, the mobile station may send the GSM cell information to the UNC for possible UMA redirection purposes as described above. Alternatively, the mobile station may disable normal GSM PLMN search procedures to conserve power. When the mobile station is idle in UMA coverage, and there is GSM coverage, the mobile station may continue to perform normal GSM cell reselection procedures and may store the identification of the selected GSM cell to speed the transition to GSM mode, if required. Alternatively, the mobile station may disable normal GSM cell reselection procedures to conserve power. At power off in UMA coverage, a detach indication may be sent by the mobile station to the PLMN via the UMAN (e.g., if required by the PLMN network or normally sent by the mobile station at power off). This indication may be encoded per the current GSM mode of operation (e.g., GSM or GPRS). The UMA environment may be an IEEE 802.11 environment. In this case, the mobile station periodically performs an active scan for available 802.11 APs. When an AP is discovered, it may be matched against a stored profile of user preferences and security credentials, in which case the mobile station may automatically associate with the AP. The mobile station may enter low-power sleep mode, waking up periodically to measure signal quality for determining when to trigger UMA registration. The UMA environment may be a Bluetooth environment. In this case, the mobile station previously paired with the Bluetooth AP through which it will access UMA service. Periodically, the mobile station may enter a page scan receive mode, and respond to an AP transmit page to establish a link-level connection. Once a link-level control channel is established, and if the mobile station is not otherwise active, it may enter a low-power Bluetooth state (e.g., park mode) to conserve power. Periodically, the AP may poll the mobile station to allow it to re-enter active-power mode. This periodic traffic may also be used by the mobile station to measure signal quality to determine when to perform the UMA registration procedure. UMA Mobile Station Dedicated Mode Behavior A UMA device engaged in a voice call, a data transaction or a simultaneous voice/data transaction may encounter a transition from GSM coverage to UMA coverage or a transition from UMA coverage to GSM coverage. In one embodiment, when the coverage transitions from GSM to UMA coverage, calls may be handed over transparently between the GSM RAN and the UMAN. In the case of voice, the handover may be accomplished by a handover function. In the case of data, session management controls may provide a common end-user experience to that provided in GPRS. Normal registration actions may occur upon a return to the idle state, if appropriate. When the coverage transitions from UMA to GSM coverage, calls may be handed over transparently between the UMAN and the GSM RAN. In the case of voice, the handover may be accomplished by a handover function. In the case of data, session management controls may provide a common end-user experience to that provided in GPRS. Summary of Key Mobility Management Concepts FIG. 5 illustrates mobility management functions in one example embodiment. In FIG. 5, unlicensed network controller UNC-1 is the serving UNC for the UMA cells associated with GSM location areas LA-11 to LA-23. UNC-1 maps GSM location areas LA-1x to UMA cell UMA CGI-101 and GSM location areas LA-2x to UMA CGI-102. Unlicensed network controller UNC-3 is the serving UNC for the UMA cells associated with GSM location areas LA-31 to LA-33. UNC-3 maps GSM location areas LA-3x to UMA cell UMA CGI-301. Mobile station MS-1 will be in UMA cell UMA-CGI-101 (since GSM LA-x is mapped to UMA-CGI-101). Mobile station MS-2 will be in UMA cell UMA-CGI-102 (since GSM LA-2x mapped to UMA-CGI-102). Mobile station MS-3 will be in UMA cell UMA-CGI-301 (since GSM LA-3x mapped to UMA-CGI-301). If mobile station MS-4 connects to UNC-1, it will be in UMA cell UMA-CGI-199 (no GSM coverage). If MS-4 connects to UNC-3, it will be in UMA cell UMA-CGI-399 (no GSM coverage). Mobile stations MS-1 and MS-2 may connect to UNC-1 without redirection. If mobile station MS-3 attempts to connect to UNC-1, it may be redirected to UNC-3. UMA Radio Resource (URR) Messaging and Message Formats In accordance with aspects of the present invention, details of UMA Radio Resource (URR) messaging and corresponding message formats to support and manage mobility of mobile stations are now disclosed. The particular format of each message is exemplary, and the formats are merely illustrative of information elements that should and/or may be included in a particular implementation, with some of the information elements being optional. The UMA-RR messages are conveyed over the Up interface using the TCP connection. The UMA-RR message format follows the standard GSM layer 3 message structure defined in GSM04.07. Each message consists of the following elements: 1. UMA-RR protocol discriminator—to ease the interworking with the GSM RR protocol, in one embodiment the UMA-RR protocol reuses the same protocol discriminator as the GSM RR, which is the binary sequence of 0110 for bits 3 to 0 of the first octet of every UMA-RR message. It is noted that this is merely exemplary, as other sequences may be used, depending on the particular implementation. 2. Skip Indicator—In one embodiment, Bits 5 to 8 of the first octet of every UMA-RR message contains the skip indicator. An UMA-RR message received with skip indicator other than 0000 shall be ignored. The UMA-RR entity shall always encode the skip indicator as 0000. 3. Message Type—the message type IE (information element) and its use are defined in GSM04.07. The UMA-RR message types for one embodiment are listed in Table 1 below. 4. UMA-RR Connection Indicator (UCI)—In one embodiment, the UCI is used to explicitly indicate the first message on the UMA-RR connection, versus subsequent messages on the connection. This allows the MS and the UNC to synchronize their respective UMA-RR connection states. A UCI is not present in another embodiment. i. The MS normally sets UCI to the value ‘1’ to indicate that the message is the first on the new UMA-RR connection. ii. However, if the UMA connection is for an emergency call, the MS sets UCI to the value ‘9’. This allows the UNC to give priority to emergency call-related UMA-RR connection requests. iii. For all other messages associated with the UMA-RR connection, the MS sets UCI to the value ‘0’. iv. For example, if the MM sublayer in the MS requests a new UMA-RR connection and then sends a CM-SERVICE-REQUEST message, the UMA-RR entity in the MS sets UCI=1. If the MM sublayer reuses an existing UMA-RR connection to send the CM-SERVICE-REQUEST message, the UMA-RR entity in the MS sets UCI=0. The UCI is used to indicate the implicit allocation of resources for a UMA-RR session. 5. Other information elements, as required. i. The Presence column indicates whether an information element is mandatory (“M”), optional (“0”) or conditionally present (“C”). ii. The Format column indicates how the IE is formatted: “TLV” for tag-length-value format, “LV” for length-value and “V” for value only. The tag for the IE is also referred to as the Information Element Identifier (IEI). Mandatory information elements use “V” or “LV” format, depending on whether they are fixed or variable length. Optional and conditional information elements always use “TLV” format. 5. Length Indicator. In one embodiment, a separate Length Indicator IE is used to the length of a given message. In another embodiment, the underlying transport layer is used to provide a length indication for each message. Accordingly, a separate Length Indicator IE is not included in this message format. Both types of formats are illustrated by the URR messages disclosed herein. TABLE 1 MESSAGE NAME MESSAGE TYPE URR REGISTER REQUEST 0011 0011 (0x33) URR REGISTER ACK 0011 0110 (0x36) URR REGISTER REJECT 0011 0111 (0x37) URR ACTIVATE CHANNEL 0010 1110 (0x2E) URR ACTIVATE CHANNEL ACK 0010 1001 (0x29) URR ACTIVATE CHANNEL FAILURE 0010 1111 (0x2F) URR ACTIVATE CHANNEL COMPLETE 0010 1010 (0x2A) URR HANDOVER REQUIRED 0001 0001 (0x11) URR HANDOVER COMMAND 0010 1011 (0x2B) URR HANDOVER COMPLETE 0010 1100 (0x2C) URR HANDOVER FAILURE 0010 1000 (0x28) URR HANDOVER ACCESS 0010 1101 (0x2D) URR RR RELEASE 0000 1101 (0x0D) URR RR RELEASE COMPLETE 0000 1111 (0x0F) URR PAGING REQUEST 0010 0001 (0x21) URR PAGING RESPONSE 0010 0111 (0x27) URR CLASSMARK CHANGE 0001 0110 (0x16) URR CLASSMARK ENQUIRY 0001 0011 (0x13) URR RR CLEAR REQUEST 0011 1111 (0x3F) URR DEREGISTER 0011 1011 (0x3B) URR UPLINK QUALITY INDICATION 0010 0110 (0x26) URR REGISTER UPDATE UPLINK 0011 1100 (0x3C) URR REGISTER UPDATE DOWNLINK 0011 1101 (0x3D) Registration Messages and Messages Formats FIGS. 6A-C show examples of sequences of messages that are passed between an MS and a UNC (via an AP connected therebetween) under various registration scenarios. Messages and associated signals passing between the different elements are shown as horizontal arrows with arrowheads connecting the elements of the communication systems that are involved. When the arrow passes across an element and no arrowhead is shown, then this element functions as a pass through. The particular elements of the system architecture of FIG. 1 that are involved in FIGS. 6A-C are, from left to right, a mobile station (e.g., MS 102), an access point (e.g., WLAN AP 128), a first UNC (e.g., UNC-1 (UNC 140A)) and a second UNC (e.g., UNC-2 (UNC 140B)). Prior to the registration process, various operations are performed to establish a connection with between MS102 and AP 128, and then to establish a connection between MS102 and UNC 140. At step A of FIG. 6A, the MS102 comes into the coverage range of AP 128 and establishes a wireless link with the AP. For example, this wireless link may be a WLAN connection using unlicensed frequencies under the IEEE 802.11 or Bluetooth protocols. At step B, the MS looks for a UNC to establish a connection with. This may be done by performing a DNS (Domain Name System) query for a UNC. This initiates a connection to the first UNC's IP address. The MS may select the first UNC because it is the last UNC IP address that it used or it may be a default UNC or it may be a home UNC that the MS is assigned to for initial registrations, or it may be selected from a cache of connected UNCs indexed by the AP and CGI. At step C, the UNC and the MS establish a secure TCP connection. Note that IPSec security procedures between the MS and UNC are not shown in FIGS. 6A-C. At step D, the MS sends a request for registration embodied as a UMA URR-REGISTER REQUEST message 600 to the UNC. Respective embodiments of URR REGISTER REQUEST message formats 600A and 600B are shown in FIGS. 7A and 7B. For illustrative purposes, each message format illustrated herein includes an Information Element column, a Type/Reference column, a Presence column, a Format column, a Length Column, and a Value column. The message formats may also employ IEI Information Element Identifiers (IEIs), which are not shown herein for simplicity and clarity. It is noted that the actual messages will include a value that identifies the message type or identity, along with appropriate IE values in accordance with each particular message format. Also, as with each of the messages discussed herein, URR REGISTER REQUEST message 600 includes a UMA RR protocol Discriminator IE, a Skip Indicator IE, and a Message Type IE (URR REGISTER REQUEST in this instance). As used herein, these three IEs are referred to as “basic” IEs to indicate they are included in each message format. Additionally, one set of message formats includes a UCI IE, while another set of message formats includes a Length Indicator IE for each message. In addition to the basic IEs, URR REGISTER REQUEST message format 600A includes a mobile identity IE, a GSM RR State IE, a GPRS Class Capability IE, a Cell Identifier List IE, a C1 List IE, an AP Identifier IE, and an AP Location IE. The mobile identity IE is mandatory and uses IMSI or IMEI if IMSI is not available. The GSM RR State IE is included to indicate the current GSM RR entity state. The GPRS Class Capability IE is included to indicate the GPRS Class capability of the MS. The Cell Identifier List IE is included if valid GSM cell information is available to the UMA RR entity. Within this IE, the Cell Identification Discriminator field shall be 0000 indicating the Cell Global Identification (CGI) format is used to identify the cells. The C1 List IE is present only if the “cell identifier list” IE is present. It contains the path loss criterion parameter C1 of each cell in the “Cell Identifier List” IE. The AP Identifier IE contains the MAC address of the unlicensed interface of the AP through which the MS is registering with the UNC. If the AP location is available, the MS can send corresponding information identifying the location of the AP via the AP Location IE, such as street address, latitude and longitude, etc. URR REGISTER REQUEST message format 600B provides similar information in another format. In addition to the basic IEs, this message format includes a the following IEs. The UMA Release Indicator IE is used to identify the UMA Release supported. The UMA Classmark IE is used to provide the network with information concerning aspects of both the licensed and unlicensed radio interfaces, as well as the support for RTP redundancy of the MS equipment. The AP Radio Identity IE and the MS Radio Identity IE are used for transmission of a Bluetooth Device Address (BD_ADDR) or WLAN MAC address for the AP and MS, respectively. The GSM RR State IE is used to indicate the state of the GSM RR entity when the MS is registering for UMA service. The Coverage Indication IE is used to indicate the presence of GSM coverage at the current MS location. A Cell Identity IE shall be included if the MS is in an area with GSM coverage. The Cell Identity value is retrieved from the GSM system information. The most recent Location Area Identification shall be included in the Location Area Identification IE if available in the MS. Similarly, the Routing Area Code (RAC) IE shall be included with a corresponding RAC value if available in the MS. The Geographical Location IE is a variable length IE providing an estimate of a geographic location of a target MS. The AP Location IE is used to indicate the location of the MS or AP (serving the MS) to the network. A Register Reject Cause IE shall be included if the MS reattempts a URR Register Request after failing to connect to a serving UNC, along with a Redirection Counter IE. The conditional Last UNC SGW IP Address IE shall be include if the conditional IE Serving UNC SGW FQDN IE is not included. One of these IEs shall be included if a Register Reject Cause IE is included. Similarly, one of the conditional Last UNC IP Address IE or IE Serving UNC FQDN IE shall be included if a Register Reject Cause IE is included. The AP Service Name IE shall be included if the MS connect via an AP over an unlicensed radio link. The value for this IE will be either the SSID or the PAN Service Name of the unlicensed AP being used. The MS shall include a Registration Indicators IE when attempting to register to a Default UNC. A UMA PLMN List IE shall be included only when attempting to register with the Dafault UNC and if no more PLMNs can be selected from the UMA PLMN List received from the Default UNC. In addition to the foregoing registration content, the URR REGISTER REQUEST message may further include a reason for the connection and information about transmitting base stations that are within range (not shown). In a GSM system, this information is labeled Cell-Info and includes CGI and (optionally) C1 values. In one embodiment, only a single CGI is reported by the MS, representing the GSM cell that the MS has selected using its normal GSM cell selection procedures. This single cell has been selected by the MS to be the “best” GSM cell. Typically, to develop such values, the MS will scan certain designated frequencies to find broadcast channel (BCH) transmissions. The BCH will identify the transmitting base station and contain information about random access and traffic channels that are used by the particular base station. The MS can record the base station identities and measure the quality of the BCH signal as it is received. In GSM systems, the RXLEV (Received Signal Level) is typically measured but other quality measures may be used instead of, or in addition to the RXLEV, including signal to noise ratios, bit error rates, RSSI (Received Signal Strength Indicator) and signal propagation delays. The UNC evaluates the received information about location and selects the appropriate UNC for the MS. This selection may be maintained for as long as the MS remains connected to the same AP. As mentioned above, there are a variety of different ways to select the appropriate UNC. In one embodiment the UNC maps the identification of the AP to a location, to a corresponding MSC and then to a corresponding UNC. In yet another embodiment, the UNC has no location information about base stations or the AP but it has a prior registration from the AP that included location information and selects a UNC on that basis. In the simplest case, the registration request will be honored by the UNC to which it was submitted by having that UNC return a URR REGISTRATION ACK(nowledgement) message 602, an exemplary format 602A of which is shown in FIG. 8A. Optionally, the message is referred to as a URR REGISTRATION ACCEPT message. One embodiment of a URR REGISTRATION ACCEPT message 602C is shown in FIG. 8C. The information elements of URR REGISTRATION ACK message format 602A includes the basic IEs (e.g., Protocol Discriminator, Skip Indicator, Message Type, and UCI), as well as a UMA System Information IE, a GPRS Uplink IP address, a GPRS Uplink UPD port, an Up Parameter Configuration IE, and a Status IE. Details of the formatting of one embodiment of the UMA System Information IE are shown in FIG. 8B. Details of the various fields shown in the UMA System Information IE of FIG. 8C are shown below. GLIR—GSM Location Information Request 0 GSM location information not requested 1 GSM location information requested ATT - Attach/detach allowed 0 IMSI attach/detach not allowed in UMA cell 1 MSs in the UMA cell shall apply IMSI attach and detach procedure TI804 - Timer value 000 0 second, i.e., immediate access mode switching upon receipt of UMA-LINK-DETACH message or link loss 001 5 seconds 010 10 seconds 011 15 seconds 100 20 seconds 101 25 seconds 110 30 seconds 111 35 seconds UMA-CELL-RESELECT-HYSTERESIS 000 0 dB RxLev hysteresis 001 2 dB RxLev hysteresis 010 4 dB RxLev hysteresis 011 6 dB RxLev hysteresis 100 8 dB RxLev hysteresis 101 10 dB RxLev hysteresis 110 12 dB RxLev hysteresis 111 14 dB RxLev hysteresis T3212—Periodic Location Update timer The T3212 timout value field is coded as the binary representation of the timeout value for periodic updating in decihours. Range: 1 to 255 The value 0 is used for infinite timeout value, i.e. periodic updating shall not be used within the UMA cell EC—Emergency Call Allowed 0 Emergency call allowed in the UMA cell to all MSs 1 Emergency call not allowed in the UMA cell except for the MSs that belong to one of the classes between 11 to 15 AC CN—Access Control Class N For a MS with AC C=N access is not barred if the AC CN bit is coded with a ‘0’; N=0, 1, . . . , 9, . . . , 15 TI 811—UMA Channel Activation timer The TI 811 value field is coded as the binary representation of the timeout value in 100 ms resolution. Range: 1-255 (100 ms to 25.5 sec) TI 900—GSM to URR HANDOVER supervision timer The TI 900 value field is coded as the binary representation of the timeout value in 100 ms resolution. Range: 11-255 (1.1 sec to 25.5 sec) UMA-BAND 0000 P-GSM 900 0001 E-GSM 900 0010 R-GSM 900 0011 DCS 1800 0100 PCS 1900 0101 GSM 450 0110 GSM 480 0111 GSM 850 All other values are reserved ECSM—Early Classmark Sending Mode, control the “early classmark sending” behavior 0 Hold the URR CLASSMARK CHANGE message until the first downlink message is received 1 Send the URR CLASSMARK CHANGE message as early as possible after UMA RR connection is established GPRS Ind - GPRS Service Availability 0 GPRS service not available in the UMA cell 1 GPRS service supported in the UMA cell UMA-GPRS-CELL-RESELECT-HYSTERESIS 000 0 dB RxLev hysteresis 001 2 dB RxLev hysteresis 010 4 dB RxLev hysteresis 011 6 dB RxLev hysteresis 100 8 dB RxLev hysteresis 101 10 dB RxLev hysteresis 110 12 dB RxLev hysteresis 111 14 dB RxLev hysteresis NMO—Network Mode of Operation. This field is meaningful only if “GPRS Ind” flag is set to 1 00 Network Mode of Operation I 01 Network Mode of Operation II 10 Network Mode of Operation III 11 Reserved UMA-RAC—Routing Area Code of the UMA cell, see GSM03.03. This field is meaningful only if “GPRS Ind” flag is set to 1 The Up Parameter Configuration IE enables a UNC to configure Up interface parameters such as timers, retry counters, etc. The Status IE provides an indication from the UNC on whether location services are available (based on knowledge of AP's geographical location). This can be used to trigger an icon or other display on the MS. In one embodiment the possible values are: 0 Location Services are Available 1 Location Services are Not Available In general, URR REGISTER ACCEPT message format 602C includes similar information provided in a different format. In addition to the basic IEs, the message format includes the following IEs. The Cell Identity IE and the Location Area Identification IE contain information similar to that discussed above for the URR REGISTER REQUEST message format 600B. The UNC Control Channel Description IE is used to provide various information about the UMA service. The TU3910, TU3906, TU3920, TU4001, and TU4003 Timer IEs are used for various timer purposes, further details of which are discussed in the UMA Protocols Stage 3 specification. The UMA Band IE includes a coded value identifying the applicable band for GSM service. The UNC Cell Description IE is used to provide a minimum description of a UMA cell. The Location Status IE is used to indicate whether the UNC is able to identify the location for the specific MS. The UMA Service Zone IE is included if the network is configured with UMA Service Zone information and contain information about the HPLMN. If the network decides to reject the registration from the MS, the UNC will return an URR REGISTER REJECT message 604 to the MS, as depicted in the message sequence shown in FIG. 6B. A URR REGISTER REJECT/REDIRECT Messageformat 604A that is employed in one embodiment of URR REGISTER REJECT message 604 is shown in FIG. 9A. In addition to the basic IEs, message format 604A includes a UMA RR Cause IE, and optional Redirected UNC Address IE and Redirected SGW (Security Gateway) Address IEs. The RR Cause IE contains a value that is used to specify a reason for the rejection, such as Network Congestion, AP not allowed, Location not allowed, IMSI not allowed, etc. A URR REGISTER REJECT message format 604B shown in FIG. 9B may also be employed under an embodiment that uses separate URR REGISTER REJECT and URR REGISTER REDIRECT messages. The additional IEs in this message format include a Register Reject Cause IE that contains a lookup value from which a reason for the rejection can be identified via a corresponding lookup table (not shown). The TU3907 Timer IE is used to specify the minimum period of time an MS should wait before attempting Registration at the current UNC. The Location Black List Indicator IE shall be included if the Register Reject Cause ‘Location not allowed’ is returned to the MS, and is used to indicate which part of the Location Area Identification is to be added to the Location Black List. The Location Area Identification IE is used to provide an unambiguous identification of location areas within the area covered by the GSM system. The optional Redirected UNC Address IE and Redirected SGW Address IEs in message format 604A may be employed for redirection purposes. For example, a registration message sequence that involves UNC redirection is shown in FIG. 6C. Redirection may be applicable under various circumstances. For example, the location of a given AP might be moved, such that it is more advantageous to access the network via another AP. Similarly, an MS may contain information instructing it to access a default UNC based on a “normal” location of a subscriber—if the subscriber location is different, the default UNC may not be appropriate. Referring to FIG. 6C, at step E a determination to redirect the session to UNC 2 is made by the serving UNC (e.g., UNC 1) and/or the network in view of applicable criteria as described above. At step F, UNC 1 acknowledges the registration request and sends a URR REGISTER REJECT message 604 that contains an address for the selected UNC (UNC 2) and/or the address for the security gateway associated with the UNC to MS102. The address(es) may be in the form of a FQDN (Fully Qualified Domain Name) or in another form, such as an IP address. In another embodiment, a separate URR REGISTER REDIRECT message is used, as shown by a URR REGISTER REDIRECT message format 604C in FIG. 9C. In addition to the basic IEs, this message format will include one of a Serving UNC SGW IP Address IE or Serving UNC SGW FQDN IE, one of a Serving UNC IP Address IE or Serving UNC FQDN IE, a Serving UNC Table Indicator IE, an optional Serving UNC Port Number IE, and a conditional UMA PLMN List IE. At step G, the MS performs a DNS query for the selected UNC. It may also release the TCP connection to the first UNC (UNC 1) and initiate a connection to the second UNC's IP address or SGW address. Accordingly, at step H, a TCP connection is established between the MS and the new UNC (UNC 2) to which the MS was redirected. At step H, the connection is established between the MS and the second UNC. The IPSec tunnel with the original UNC may be reused or a new one may be established (not shown). At step I, the MS may send a second registration request message to the second UNC, as depicted by a URR REGISTER REQUEST message 600′. In a URR-REGISTER-REQUEST type of message, a reason field may carry a value for redirection instead of a normal connection. The information in the registration request may cause the new UNC to apply information that it has to further redirect the MS. Because it is closer to the location of the AP, it may have more or better information on the AP, nearby base stations or network resource allocations and may then further redirect the MS. The reason field may be used to inform the MS about the number of redirections. It may be used to limit the total number of redirections that a MS may experience at a single AP to one or two or any other number. At step J, the connection with the UNC continues along its normal course. This may include registration acknowledgments, call setup and teardown, and any of a variety of different supported voice or data services, including security measures. Registration Update Under various use scenarios, a need to perform a registration update may result. Generally, a registration update procedure may be initiated by an MS (more common) or the network (less common). For example, after an MS has successfully registered to an UNC, the MS may employ a registration update procedure to inform the UNC if the AP (via which the MS is accessing the network) or the overlapping GSM coverage has changed. An example of messaging employed to facilitate an MS-initiated registration update is shown in FIG. 10A. At step A, MS102 has established a connection with UNC 140 in the normal manner described above. At step B, the MS obtains valid cell information. For example, the MS receives information for a local GSM cell. At step C, the MS sends a URR REGISTER UPDATE UPLINK message 1000 to the UNC. The URR REGISTER UPDATE UPLINK message is sent by an MS to a UNC to update registration parameters. FIG. 11A shows one embodiment of URR REGISTER UPDATE UPLINK message format 1000A. In addition to the basic IE's, this message includes a Reason IE, a Cell Identifier List IE, a C1 List IE, an AP identifier IE, and an AP Location IE. The Reason IE is a mandatory IE that specifies whether the reason for the update is due to a cell update or an AP update. A Cell Identifier List IE will be included if GSM cell information (available to the UMA RR entity) has changed since the last registration or update. Within this IE, the Cell Identification Discriminator field shall be 0000 indicating the Cell Global Identification (CGI) format is used to identify the cells. The C1 List IE is present only if the Cell Identifier List IE is present. It contains the path loss criterion parameter C1 of each cell in the Cell Identifier List IE. The AP Identifier IE will be included if the AP through which the MS is communicating with the UNC has changed since the last registration or update. The AP Identifier is the MAC address of the unlicensed interface of the AP through which the MS is communicating with UNC. A message format 1000B illustrative of another embodiment of a URR REGISTER UPDATE UPLINK message is shown in FIG. 11B. This message format includes an AP Radio Identity IE, a Coverage Indication IE, a Cell Identity IE, a Location Area Information IE, a Routing Area Code IE, a Geographical Location IE, and an AP Location IE, each of which are employed for a similar manner discussed above. When receiving a URR REGISTER UPDATE UPLINK message, the network may either accept or reject the registration update, or redirect the MS to another UNC. In one embodiment, if there are not any actions to be taken by the UNC (e.g., a change in the access elements for the MS), the UNC simply accepts the registration update parameters with no reply message. In this case, the URR REGISTER UPDATE UPLINK message is merely informative. If the network rejects the registration update, the network sends a URR DEREGISTER message to the MS. Details of a URR DEREGISTER message are discussed below. Additionally, depending on the registration update information that is sent in the message, the UNC may redirect the MS to another MS using a URR REGISTER REDIRECT message, as depicted by a URR REGISTER REDIRECT message 604′ at step D in FIG. 10A. In response, normal connection procedures would be established with the new UNC to which the MS was redirected, as shown in a step E. FIG. 10B shows various message transfers that may be performed in connection with a network-initiated registration update. As before, at step A MS102 has established a connection with UNC 140 in the normal manner. At step B, a network-initiated update event occurs. At step C, the UNC sends a URR REGISTER UPDATE DOWNLINK message 1002, respective embodiments of which are detailed in message formats 1002A and 1002B of FIGS. 12A and 12B. The URR REGISTER UPDATE DOWNLINK message format 1002A includes a Redirected UNC Address IE, a Redirected SGW Address IE, and a Status IE. The Status IE provides an indication from the UNC on whether location services are available (based on knowledge of the AP's geographical location). This can be used to trigger an icon or other display on the MS. In one embodiment, possible values are: 0 Location Services are Available 1 Location Services are Not Available Many IEs of URR REGISTER UPDATE DOWNLINK message format 1002B are analogous to like-named IEs in URR REGISTER ACCEPT message format 602C. These include a Cell Identity IE, a Location Area Identification IE, a UNC Control Channel Description IE, TU3910, TU3906, TU3920, TU4001, and TU4003 Timer IEs, UNC Cell Description IE, and a Location Status IE Under some conditions, it may be advantageous to have an MS be redirected to re-register with a different UNC in view of the updated registration information. If the network decides to redirect the MS to another UNC, it will send a URR REGISTER REDIRECT message to the MS, as depicted by a URR Register Redirect message 604B at step D. At step E, normal connection procedures are performed to establish a connection with the UNC to which the MS is redirected. Deregistration In general, deregistration may be initiated by an MS (e.g., when deregistering an existing connection) or the network via an appropriate UNC. For instance, the MS should attempt to perform a deregister procedure before leaving an AP, which is facilitated by sending a URR DEREGISTER message from the MS to the UNC. Similarly, the UNC may initiate deregistration of the MS at any time by sending a URR DEREGISTER message to the MS. Exemplary URR DEREGISTER message formats 1300A and 1300B are shown in FIGS. 13A and 13B. URR DEREGISTER message format 1300A includes a URR cause IE in addition to the basic IEs. A lookup table containing an exemplary set of values for the URR cause IE are shown in FIG. 14. Based on the URR cause value, a lookup into the URR cause lookup table may be performed to identify the reason for the deregistration. Meanwhile, URR DEREGISTER message format 1300B includes a Register Reject Cause IE that is employed for a similar function. URR DEREGISTER message format 1300B also includes a Location Black List Indicator IE and a Location Area Identification IE. Channel Activation Channel activation is used to establish a voice or circuit switched data bearer channel. FIG. 15 shows an exemplary message sequence performed in connection with channel activation. At step A, MS102 has established a connection with UNC 140 in the normal manner. At step B, the UNC sends an URR ACTIVATE CHANNEL message 1500 to the MS. In response to receiving a URR ACTIVATE CHANNEL message, the MS attempts to establish a corresponding UMA voice bearer channel. If successful, the MS returns a URR ACTIVATE CHANNEL ACK(nowledge) message 1502, as shown at step C. If the UMA voice bearer channel cannot be established, the MS returns a URR ACTIVATE CHANNEL FAILURE message 1504, as shown at step C′. Upon successful activation, a URR ACTIVATE CHANNEL COMPLETE message 1506 is sent by the UNC to the MS to indicate that the established voice channel between the MS and the UNC is now ready for use, as shown at step D. FIG. 16A shows details of one embodiment of a URR ACTIVATE CHANNEL message format 1500A. In addition to the basic IEs, this message format includes a Channel Mode IE, a UNC SDP IE, and a CIPHER Mode Setting IE. In one embodiment, the Channel Mode IE specifies the following channel modes: 0000 0001 speech full rate or half rate version 1 0010 0001 speech full rate or half rate version 2 0100 0001 speech full rate or half rate version 3 (AMR version 1) The UNC SDP (Session Description Protocol) IE is used for specifying information used to implement the uplink (from MS to UNC) portion of the voice bearer channel. For example, this information may include the network address (IP address), the transport address (port), the transport protocol (e.g., RTP over UDP), the sample size (e.g., 20 ms) and the payload type (among other things). In one embodiment the format of this IE's values are defined in RFCs 2327, 3551 and 3267. The use of a single IE to contain this information is merely exemplary, as such information may also be provided via separate IEs. The optional CIPHER Mode Setting IE appears when the ciphering mode is changed after the MS has switched to the assigned channel. If this information element is omitted, the mode of ciphering is not changed after the channel assignment procedure. FIG. 16B shows another embodiment of a URR ACTIVATE CHANNEL message format 1500B. This message format includes a Channel Mode IE, a Sample Size IE, an IP Address IE, an RTP UDP Port IE, a Payload Type IE, a Multi-rate Configuration IE, an RTP Redundancy IE, and a RTCP UDP Port IE. The RTP UDP Port IE identifies the Real Time Protocol UDP port. The RTCP UDP Port IE identifies the Real Time Control Protocol UDP port. The Payload Type IE is included when the speech codec signaled uses a dynamically assigned Payload Type. FIG. 17A shows one embodiment of a URR ACTIVATE CHANNEL ACK message format 1502A. In addition to the basic IEs, this message format includes an MS SDP IE, an optional Cell Identifier List IE, and a conditional C1 list IE. The MS SDP IE is used for specifying information used to implement the downlink (from UNC to MS) portion of the voice bearer channel. This IE is substantially analogous to the UNC SDP IE discussed above, except that the port and address information now pertains to the MS rather than the UNC. The Cell Identifier List IE will be included if valid GSM cell information is available to the UMA RR entity. Within this IE, the Cell Identification Discriminator field is set to 0000 to indicate the Cell Global Identification (CGI) format is used to identify the cells. The C1 List IE is present only if the Cell Identifier List IE is present. It contains the path loss criterion parameter C1 of each cell in the Cell Identifier List IE. FIG. 17B shows another embodiment of a URR ACTIVATE CHANNEL ACK message format 1502B. In addition to the basic TEs, this message format includes an RTP UDP Port IE, a Sample Size IE, a Payload Type IE, and an RTCP UDP Port IE. FIG. 18A shows one embodiment of a URR ACTIVATE CHANNEL FAILURE message format 1504A. The additional TEs include a UMA RR Cause IE, an optional Cell Identifier List IE, and a conditional C1 List IE. The UMA RR Cause IE contains a coded cause of the failure. Meanwhile, the Cell Identifier List IE and a conditional C1 list IE are the same as above. The URR ACTIVATE CHANNEL FAILURE message format 1504B of FIG. 18B also employs a UMA RR Cause IE. FIGS. 19A and 19B show respective embodiments of URR ACTIVATE CHANNEL COMPLETE message formats 1506A and 1506B. As depicted, each of these message formats only contains their basic IEs, wherein the URR ACTIVATE CHANNEL COMPLETE message is identified by the Message Type values. Handovers There are two primary types of handovers supported by the network: Handover to UMAN, and handover from UMAN. During a handover to UMAN, network access to an MS is handed over from licensed-based radio access network (e.g., GERAN) to UMAN network infrastructure. During a handover from UMAN, the MS access is handed over from the UMAN network infrastructure to the licensed-based radio access network. Handover to UMAN An exemplary message sequence corresponding to a handover to UMAN is shown in FIG. 20. Step A represents an existing connection that has previously been established, such as by using the technique shown in FIG. 6A. At step B, a URR HANDOVER ACCESS message 2000 is sent from MS102 to UNC 140 in response to a corresponding handover order made by the licensed network. If non-signaling mode is indicated in the Channel Mode IE, the UNC initiates Traffic channel assignment, as depicted at step C. If the traffic channel assignment is successful, the MS will return a URR HANDOVER COMPLETE message 2002 to the UNC, as depicted at step D. Respective embodiments of URR HANDOVER ACCESS message formats 2000A and 200B are shown in FIGS. 21A and 21B. In addition to the basic IEs, message format 2000A includes a HANDOVER COMMAND message IE, while message format 2000B includes an analogous Handover to UMAN Command IE. Each of these IEs contains a complete HANDOVER COMMAND layer 3 message (as described below) to provide handover reference used by the UMA Controller for access identification. FIGS. 22A and 22B shows respective embodiment of URR HANDOVER COMPLETE message formats 2002A and 2002B. Each of these message formats includes their basic IEs, and is identified by the value of the message type. Handover from UMAN A handover from the UMAN is performed to transfer a connection between an MS and the UMAN to another radio access network (e.g., GERAN). Message sequences corresponding to successful and unsuccessful handovers from UMAN are respectively shown in FIGS. 23A and 23B. The handover from UMAN procedure begins with a connection established and the MS in a dedicated state, as shown at step A. In response to a URR UPLINK QUALITY INDICATION message 2300 received from the UNC at step B, or if the MS determines a handover is appropriate, the MS sends a URR HANDOVER REQUIRED message 2302 to the UNC at step C. The UNC then sends a URR HANDOVER COMMAND 2304 back to the MS at step D. If the handover from UMAN is unsuccessful, the MS returns a URR HANDOVER FAILURE message 2306, as shown at step E in FIG. 23B. Details of one embodiment of a URR UPLINK QUALITY INDICATION message are shown in FIG. 24. The message may include various information indicative of uplink quality of the bearer channel. The particular format of this information is dependent on the particular implementation. FIG. 25A shows details of one embodiment of a URR HANDOVER REQUIRED message format 2302A. In addition to the standard IEs, this message includes a Channel Mode IE, and Cell Identifier List, and a C1 List. These latter two IEs are the same as discussed above. In one embodiment, the Channel Mode IE defines the channel mode as specified by GSM04.08. FIG. 25B shows details of another embodiment of a URR HANDOVER REQUIRED message format 2302B. This message format includes a GERAN Cell Identifier List IE, a GERAN Received Signal Level List IE, a UTRAN Cell Identifier List IE, and a UTRAN Received Signal Level List IE. The GERAN Cell Identifier List IE contains information identifying applicable GERAN cells. The GERAN Received Signal Level List IE includes information indicating the received signal level for each GERAN cell. Similarly, the UTRAN Cell Identifier List IE and a UTRAN Received Signal Level List IE respectively contain information identifying applicable UTRAN cells and their received signal levels. FIGS. 26A and 26B show details of one embodiment of a URR HANDOVER COMMAND message message format 2304A. This message format is compiled based on the HANDOVER COMMAND message format defined in GSM 04.08/Release 98, with all optional IEs not applicable to the UMA to GSM handover removed. This message format includes a number of IEs in addition to the basic IEs; selected IEs are detailed below. The Synchronization Indication IE is used to identify what type of synchronization is applicable. If this information element does not appear, the assumed value is “non-synchronized”. Four types of handover defined in section 3.4.4.2 of GSM04.08: Non-synchronized, Synchronized, Pre-synchronized, and Pseudo-synchronized. The UMA to GSM handover can be either a non-synchronized or pre-synchronized handover. Synchronized handover and pseudo-synchronized handover require the MS to calculate the timing advance based on known one way delay with the old BTS and the Observed Time Difference between the old and new BTS (more description in annex A of GSM05.10). For a UMA to GSM handover, such variables are unknown. The ROT field of this IE shall be set to 0 so that the MS does not need to report its Observed Time Difference in the HANDOVER COMPLETE message. Mode of the First Channel IE: If this information element is not present, the channel mode of the previously allocated channel shall be assumed. Frequency Channel Sequence, Frequency List, Frequency short list and Mobile Allocation, after time IEs: If at least one of the channel descriptions for after time indicates frequency hopping, one of the following information elements will be present: Frequency Channel Sequence, after time; Frequency list, after time; Frequency Short List, after time; Mobile Allocation, after time. If neither of the Channel Description IEs indicate frequency hopping, if they are not required for the decoding of Channel Description IEs for before time, and if any of the four information elements are present, they will be considered as IEs unnecessary in the message. The Frequency Channel Sequence IE shall not be used unless all the ARFCNs that it indicates are in the P-GSM band. The starting time IE is included when the network wants the MS to change the frequency parameters of the channels more or less at the moment a change of channel occurs. In this case a number of information elements may be included to give the frequency parameters to be used before the starting time. The starting time IE refers to the new cell time. If the starting time IE is present and none of the information elements referring to before the starting time are present, the MS waits and accesses the channels at the indicated time. If the starting time IE is present and at least one of the information elements referring to before the starting time is present, the MS does not wait for the indicated time and accesses the channel using the frequency parameters for before the starting time. If the starting time IE is not present and some of the information elements referring to before the starting time are present, these information elements shall be considered as IEs unnecessary in the message. If the description of the first channel, before time IE is not present, the channel description to apply for before the time, if needed, is given by the description of the first channel, after time IE. If the description of the second channel, after time IE is present, the description of the second channel, before time IE not present, and a description of the configuration for before the time needed, the channel configuration before the starting time is nevertheless of two traffic channels, and the channel description to apply to the second channel before the starting time is given by the description of the second channel, after time IE. If the starting time IE is present and at least one of the channel descriptions for before the starting time indicates frequency hopping, one and only one of the following information elements may be present and applies before the starting time to all assigned channels: Mobile Allocation, before time IE; Frequency Short list, before time IE; Frequency list, before time IE; Frequency channel sequence, before time IE. If the starting time IE is present and at least one of the channel descriptions for before the starting time indicates frequency hopping, and none of the above mentioned IE is present, a frequency list for after the starting time must be present, and this list applies also for the channels before the starting time. Reference cell frequency list: If any of the mobile allocation information elements are present, then the cell channel description IE must be present. It is used to decode the mobile allocation IEs in the message. In addition, if no information elements pertaining to before the starting time is present in the message, the frequency list defined by the cell channel description IE is used to decode the mobile allocation IEs in later messages received in the new cell until reception of a new reference cell frequency list or the new cell is left. The Timing Advance IE element will be present if the “synchronization indication” element indicates a pre-synchronized handover. If not included for a pre-synchronized handover, then the default value as defined in GSM 05.10 shall be used. For other types of handover it shall be considered as an unnecessary information element. The CIPHER Mode Setting IE: If this information element is omitted, the mode of ciphering is not changed after the MS has switched to the assigned channel. The Multi Rate Configuration IE appears if the Mode of the First Channel IE indicates a multi-rate speech codec, and if the assigned configuration is new, i.e. it is different from the MultiRateconfiguration used in the serving cell. If the Mode of the First Channel IE indicates a multi-rate speech codec, and this IE is not included, then the MS shall assume that the MultiRateconfiguration has not changed. FIG. 26C shows an embodiment of a URR HANDOVER COMMAND message format 2304B. In addition to the basic IEs, this message format includes a Handover From UMAN Command IE. IF the target radio access technology is GERAN, the value part of the Handover From UMAN Command IE is coded as the HANDOVER COMMAND message specified in 3GPP TS 44.018, Rel-4: “Mobile radio interface layer 3 specification, Radio Resource Control (RRC) protocol.” FIG. 27A shows details of one embodiment of a URR HANDOVER FAILURE message format 2406A. In addition to the basic IEs, this message includes a UMA RR Cause IE, with an applicable value as defined in the value table of FIG. 14. The URR HANDOVER FAILURE message format 2604B shown in FIG. 27B employs an RR Cause IE for a similar purpose. Release of URR Release of the URR connection and signaling may be initiated by the MS or the UNC. FIG. 28 shows a URR release that is initiated by an MS. At step A, a connection between MS102 and UNC 140 is established, with the MS operating in the dedicated state. To release the URR, the MS sends a URR CLEAR REQUEST message 2800 to the UNC at step B. Details of one embodiment of the URR CLEAR REQUEST message are shown in FIG. 29. This message format includes the basic IEs, with the message identified by the message type value. In response to the URR CLEAR REQUEST message, the UNC sends a release request 2802 to the core network to release resources used for the URR connection, as shown at step C. In response, the core network will initiate the release of the appropriate resources for the URR connection. The release typically results in the sequence shown in FIG. 30. FIG. 29A shows an embodiment of a URR RR CLEAR REQUEST message format 2800A, while FIG. 29B shows an embodiment of a URR CLEAR REQUEST message format 2800B. URR RR CLEAR REQUEST message format 2800A just includes its basic IEs and is identified by its message type value. The URR CLEAR REQUEST message format 2800B further includes an RR Cause IE. FIG. 30 shows a message sequence corresponding to an URR release that is either initiated by the UNC or results when the UNC receives the URR CLEAR REQUEST message. As before, at step A a connection between MS102 and UNC 140 is established, with the MS operating in the dedicated state. At step B, the UNC sends a URR RR RELEASE message 3000 (alternatively called a URR RELEASE message) to the MS. (In further detail, the UNC will typically receive the URR CLEAR REQUEST, sends a Clear Request message to the MSC, then the MSC releases the session, resulting in the UNC sending the URR RELEASE message.) In response, the MS returns a URR RR RELEASE COMPLETE message 3002 (alternatively called a URR RELEASE COMPLETE message) to the UNC at step C. In addition the MS releases all URR resources and any traffic channel resources and then enters a URR-IDLE state. FIGS. 31A and 31B show details of respective embodiments of URR (RR) RELEASE message formats 3000A and 3000B. In addition to the basic IEs, each of these message formats includes a UMA RR Cause IE and an optional GPRS Resumption IE. The UMA RR Cause IE is used to define the reason for the release, via a corresponding value defined in the table of FIG. 14. The GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) Resumption IE is used to indicate whether the UNC has successfully resumed a GPRS session that the MS suspended when it started the URR session. FIGS. 32A and 32B show details of respective embodiments of URR (RR) RELEASE COMPLETE message formats 3002A and 3002B. Each of these message formats includes its basic TEs, with the message identified by the message type value. Paging Messages The UNC initiates paging when it receives a PAGING REQUEST message over the A-interface or a Paging CS message over the Gb-interface. The MS to be paged is identified by the identity received in the request. An exemplary exchange of paging messages is shown in FIG. 33. The sequence starts with UNC 140 sending a URR PAGING REQUEST message 3300 to MS 102 at step A. At step B, the MS returns a URR PAGING RESPONSE message 3302. This message is sent from the MS to the UNC as the first message over the newly established UMA RR session in response to the URR PAGING REQUEST message. FIGS. 34A and 34B show details of respective embodiments of URR PAGING REQUEST message formats 3300A and 3300B. In addition to their basic IEs, each of these message formats includes a Channel Needed IE (used to indicate whether the page is for signaling session establishment or call establishment), and a Mobile Identity IE (used to identify the MS). FIGS. 35A and 35B show details of respective embodiments of URR PAGING RESPONSE message formats 3302A and 3302B. In addition to their basic IEs, each of these message formats includes a Ciphering Key Sequence Number IE, a Channel Needed IE, and a Mobile Identity IE. MG: The purpose of the Ciphering Key Sequence Number information element is to make it possible for the network to identify the ciphering key KC which is stored in the mobile station without invoking an authentication procedure. Kc gets generated and stored when the MS is authenticated (challenged with a random number) by the network. While Kc is not used to encrypt the call when in UMA mode, it may be necessary if the call gets handed over to GSM. If the network does not authenticate every call (e.g., every 3 or 4 calls), the Ciphering Key Sequence Number IE provides a way to select a stored KC value. URR PAGING RESPONSE message format 3302B further includes an Establishment Cause IE, which is used by the MS to indicate the type of the transaction being initiated to the network via a coded value which may be identified by a corresponding lookup table. Classmark Messages Classmark messages are used to enable a UNC to gain information about an MS's capabilities. The classmark interrogation procedure may be initiated when the MS has established a dedicated connection (i.e., the MS is in URR-DEDICATED mode), as shown at step A in FIG. 36. As shown at step B, the UNC initiates the classmark interrogation procedure by sending a URR CLASSMARK ENQUIRY message 3600 to the MS. In response, the MS returns a URR CLASSMARK CHANGE message 3602 at step C. FIG. 37A shows details of one embodiment of a URR CLASSMARK ENQUIRY message format 3600A. The illustrated message format includes the basic IEs, with the message being identified by the message type value. In addition to the basic IEs, the URR CLASSMARK ENQUIRY message format 3600A of FIG. 37B includes a Classmark Enquiry Mask IE. This IE defines the information to be returned to the network. The bit mask defines the specific information to be returned, such as UTRAN specification information and/or requests the sending of the URR CLASSMARK CHANGE message. FIGS. 38A and 38B show details of respective embodiments of URR CLASSMARK CHANGE message formats 3602A and 3602B. In addition to their basic IEs, each of these message formats includes a Mobile State Classmark IE, and an Additional Mobile Station Classmark Information IE. Under message format 3602A, the Mobile State Classmark IE includes the Classmark 2 information corresponding to the frequency band currently being used by the GSM RR entity, as defined by GSM04.08. In one embodiment, an Additional Mobile Station Classmark Information IE will be included if the CM3 bit in the Mobile Station Classmark IE is set to 1. This IE provides additional MS capabilities for Classmark 3 as defined by GSM04.08. The Mobile State Classmark IE and Additional Mobile Station Classmark Information IE of message format 3602B are encoded per the 3GPP TS 24.008, Rel-4 specification: “Mobile radio interface layer 3 specificaton.” UNC Architecture A block diagram illustrating a high level architecture corresponding to one embodiment of a UNC is shown in FIG. 39. At the heart of the UNC architecture is an indoor network controller (INC) 3900. In general, the INC performs operations synonymous to those described above for the UNC. However, as shown in the illustrated UNC architecture, an integrated security gateway server 3902 is included, as well as a media gateway 3904 which is controlled by the INC. Accordingly, each of these elements is shown as a separate element that is employed to facilitate various aspects of the UNC operations described herein. In general, the UNC may provide one or more communication ports to support communications between mobile stations and the UNC (e.g., via and AP 128 and broadband IP network 138 as shown in FIG. 1). For example, in the illustrated embodiment of FIG. 39, security gateway server 3902 is coupled to IP network 138 via an IP port 3906. In addition, IP ports 3908 and 3910 are used to connect INC 3900 and media gateway 3904 to the security gateway server. The security gateway server 3902 performs security and authentication services. It may be an integrated unit (as shown), or may be a separate (physical) unit connected to the UNC via an appropriate communication link. Likewise, media gateway 3904, which serves as a media gateway for voice services provided by the core network, may comprise an integrated unit (as shown) or a separate unit connected to the INC and security gateway servers via appropriate communication links. The INC 3900 includes resources to support (i.e., generate and process) the UP interface messages described herein. These resources are depicted as UP Interface (I/F) logic 3912. Similarly, INC 3900 includes SGSN interface logic 3914 to support communications with SGSN 114 via a Gb port 3916, and MSC interface logic 3918 to support communication with MSC 110 via an SS7 port 3920. Meanwhile, media gateway 3904 includes MSC interface logic 3922 to support communication with MSC 110 via a TDM port 3924. Each of UP interface logic 3912, SGSN interface logic 3914, and MSC interface logic 3918 and 3922 may be implemented via execution of software, built-in programmed hardware, or a combination of the two. For example, UP interface logic 3912 may be facilitated by executing one or more software modules on a processor, wherein the software modules are coded to generate and/or process URR messages. In general, a UNC may be implemented by a single server, multiple distributed servers, and multiple clustered servers. For example, a single server 3926 may be employed for running various software applications to provide the various functions shown in the block diagram of the UNC architecture of FIG. 39. Optionally, some of the functions, such as the security gateway server functions and/or media gateway functions, may be provided by a separate server or servers. In yet another configuration, a blade server 3928 is employed. The blade server includes multiple server blades 3930 that are installed in a common rack or chassis, with each server blade functioning as a separate server, each with its own processor(s), memory, and network interfaces. In one embodiment, the functions provided by each of the security gateway server 3902, INC 3900, and media gateway 3904 are facilitated via execution of software applications and/or modules on respective server blades 3930. Mobile Station Architecture FIG. 40 shows a block diagram illustrating a high-level architecture for one embodiment of a mobile station. The architecture includes a processor 4000 coupled to a non-volatile memory 4002, a licensed RAN antenna sub-system 4004 and an unlicensed RAN antenna sub-system 4006. Non-volatile memory 4002 is used to store software/firmware instructions for performing various functions and operations described herein. These functions and operations are depicted licensed RAN interface logic 4008, WLAN interface logic 4010, and Up interface logic 4012. Licensed RAN antenna subs-system 4004 and licensed RAN interface logic 4008 are employed to facilitate conventional licensed RAN operations. For example, in one embodiment the licensed RAN comprises a GSM network, and thus these components facilitate normal GSM network operations typically employed by GSM-based cellular devices and the like, which are well-known in the cellular communication art. Meanwhile, the unlicensed RAN antenna system 4006 and WLAN interface logic 4010 are used to support an unlicensed wireless channel (i.e., link) 136 with an access point 128 via which UMAN services may be accessed. In general, these blocks represent conventional components and logic employed to support communications over an unlicensed WLAN link. For example, these components are illustrative of components that may be employed to implement the Bluetooth lower layers shown in FIG. 3B for a Bluetooth link, or the 802.11 lower layers shown in FIG. 3C for an 802.11 link. Up interface logic 4012 is used to provide the MS-side Up interface functions and operations described herein. This includes generating and processing various URR messages, as well as providing the various UP interface layers depicted in FIGS. 3A and 3D-F. As discussed above, the various message formats depicted herein are exemplary. However, each message should include a basic set of information elements including a protocol discriminator, a skip indicator, and a message identity. The inclusion of an UCI information element as a basic IE is depicted in the exemplary message formats illustrated herein; however, the UCI IE or a similar IE for indicating whether a message is a first message, other message, or emergency-related is not required and this functionality may be facilitated by other means, such as by maintaining appropriate state information on the communicating devices (i.e., mobile stations and UNCs). Under a proposed implementation, message delineation over a streaming transport (e.g., TCP) is performed by the underlying transport itself. Accordingly, there is not a need to include an information element specifying the length of a variable-length message format. However, this is not meant to be limiting, as the use of an information element for specifying the length of a message is contemplated by the inventors as another means for delineating streamed messages. The formats of the various information elements is also merely exemplary. For example, a given set of information may be provided via a single IE or via multiple IEs. Furthermore, the information contained in the IEs depicted herein may be arranged in other formats and/or grouped in alternate manners. The means for facilitating various message generation and processing operations, as well as various aspects of the Up interface may include execution of software/firmware instructions on an appropriate processing element, such as, but not limited to, a processor, multiple processors, a multi-core processor, a microcontroller, etc. Thus, embodiments of this invention may be used as or to support instructions executed upon some form of processing core or otherwise implemented or realized upon or within a machine-readable medium. A machine-readable medium includes any mechanism for storing or transmitting information in a form readable by a machine (e.g., a computer). For example, a machine-readable medium can include a read only memory (ROM); a random access memory (RAM); a magnetic disk storage media; an optical storage media; and a flash memory device, etc. In addition, a machine-readable medium can include propagated signals such as electrical, optical, acoustical or other form of propagated signals (e.g., carrier waves, infrared signals, digital signals, etc.). For example, in one contemplated implementation, instructions embodied as software upgrades for facilitating UMA messaging may be downloaded to a mobile device via a wireless link, such as a UMAN or GSM link. The above description of illustrated embodiments of the invention, including what is described in the Abstract, is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise forms disclosed. While specific embodiments of, and examples for, the invention are described herein for illustrative purposes, various equivalent modifications are possible within the scope of the invention, as those skilled in the relevant art will recognize. These modifications can be made to the invention in light of the above detailed description. The terms used in the following claims should not be construed to limit the invention to the specific embodiments disclosed in the specification and the drawings. Rather, the scope of the invention is to be determined entirely by the following claims, which are to be construed in accordance with established doctrines of claim interpretation. APPENDIX I Table Of Acronyms AP Access Point ARFCN Absolute RF Channel Number ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM VC ATM Virtual Circuit BA BCCH Allocation BAS Broadband Access System BB Broadband BCCH Broadcast Common Control Channel BRAS Broadband Remote Access System BSC Base Station Controller BSS Base Station Subsystem BSSGP Base Station System GPRS Protocol BSSMAP Base Station System Management Application Part BTS Base Transceiver Station CDMA Code Division Multiple Access CGI Cell Global Identification CIC Circuit Identity Code CLIP Calling Line Presentation CM Connection Management CPE Customer Premises Equipment CS Circuit Switched CVSD Continuos Variable Slope Delta modulation DSL Digital Subscriber Line DSLAM DSL Access Multiplexer DTAP Direct Transfer Application Part ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute FCAPS Fault-management, Configuration, Accounting, Performance, and Security FCC US Federal Communications Commission GERAN GSM Edge Radio Access Network GGSN Gateway GPRS Support Node GMM/SM GPRS Mobility Management and Session Management GMSC Gateway MSC GSM Global System for Mobile Communication GPRS General Packet Radio Service GSN GPRS Support Node GTP GPRS Tunnelling Protocol HLR Home Location Register IAN Indoor Access Network (see also UMA Cell) IAN-RR Indoor Access Network Radio Resource Management IBS Indoor Base Station. IBSAP IBS Application Protocol IBSMAP IBS Management Application Protocol IEP IAN Encapsulation Protocol IETF Internet Engineering Task Force IMEI International Mobile Station Equipment Identity IMSI International Mobile Subscriber Identity INC Indoor Network Controller INC Indoor Network Controller IP Internet Protocol ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network ISP Internet Service Provider ISP IP Internet Service Provider's IP IST IAN Secure Tunnel ISUP ISDN User Part ITP IAN Transfer Protocol LA Location Area LAI Location Area Identification LLC Logical Link Control MAC Medium Access Control MAP Mobile Application Part MDN Mobile Directory Number MG Media Gateway MM Mobility Management MM Mobility Management MS Mobile Station MSC Mobile Switching Center MSC Mobile Switching Center MSISDN Mobile Station International ISDN Number MSRN Mobile Station Roaming Number MTP1 Message Transfer Part Layer 1 MTP2 Message Transfer Part Layer 2 MTP3 Message Transfer Part Layer 3 NAPT Network Address and Port Translation NAT Network Address Translation NS Network Service PCM Pulse Code Modulation PCS Personal Communication Services PCS Personal Communications Services PLMN Public Land Mobile Network POTS Plain Old Telephone Service PPP Point-to-Point Protocol PPPoE PPP over Ethernet protocol PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network P-TMSI Packet Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity QoS Quality of Service RA Routing Area RAC Routing Area Code RAI Routing Area Identification RAI Routing Area Identity RAN Radio Access Network RF Radio Frequency RFC Request for Comment (IETF Standard) RLC Radio Link Control RR Radio Resource Management RTCP Real Time Control Protocol RTCP Real Time Control Protocol RTP Real Time Protocol RTP Real Time Protocol SAP Service Access Point SCCP Signaling Connection Control Part SCO Synchronous Connection-Oriented SDCCH Standalone Dedicated Control Channel SGSN Serving GPRS Support Node SMC Short Message Service Centre SMS Short Message Service SM-SC Short Message Service Centre SMS-GMSC Short Message Service Gateway MSC SMS-IWMSC Short Message Service Interworking MSC SNDCP SubNetwork Dependent Convergence Protocol SS Supplementary Service SSL Secure Sockets Layer TCAP Transaction Capabilities Application Part TCP Transmission Control Protocol TCP Transmission Control Protocol TLLI Temporary Logical Link Identity TMSI Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity TRAU Transcoder and Rate Adaptation Unit TTY Text telephone or teletypewriter UDP User Datagram Protocol UMA Cell Unlicensed Mobile Access Cell (see also IAN) UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunication System UNC UMA Network Controller (see also INC) VLR Visited Location Register VMSC Visited MSC WLAN Wireless Local Area Network WSP IP Wireless Service Provider's IP Network	H	H04	H04Q	7	20
11748296	US20070219163A1-20070920	Compounds Active in Sphingosine 1-Phosphate Signaling	ACCEPTED	20070905	20070920		[]	A61K31675	["A61K31675", "C07F904"]	7560477	20070514	20090714	514	400000	90995.0	VAJDA	KRISTIN	[{"inventor_name_last": "Lynch", "inventor_name_first": "Kevin", "inventor_city": "Charlottesville", "inventor_state": "VA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Macdonald", "inventor_name_first": "Timothy", "inventor_city": "Charlottesville", "inventor_state": "VA", "inventor_country": "US"}]	The present invention relates to S1P analogs that have activity as S1P receptor modulating agents and the use of such compounds to treat diseases associated with inappropriate S1P receptor activity. The compounds have the general structure: wherein R11 is C5-C18 alkyl or C5-C18 alkenyl; Q is C3-C6 optionally substituted cycloalkyl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heterocyclic, C3-C6 optionally substituted aryl C3-C6 optionally substituted heteroaryl or —NH(CO)—; R3 is H, C1-C4 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH or (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R23 is H or C1-C4 alkyl, and R15 is hydroxy, phosphonate, or wherein X and R12 is O or S; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof.	1. A compound having the formula: wherein W is CR27R28 or (CH2)nNH(CO); wherein R27 and R28 are independently H, halo or hydroxy; Y is a bond, CR9R10, carbonyl, NH, O or S; wherein R9 and R10 are independently H, halo, hydroxy or amino; Z is CH2, aryl, halo substituted aryl, or heteroaryl; R11 and R16 are independently C5-C12 alkyl, C5-C12 alkenyl, C5-C12 alkynyl, C5-C12 alkoxy, (CH2)pO(CH2)q, C5-C10 (aryl)R20, C5-C10 (heteroaryl)R20, C5-C10 (cycloalkyl)R20, C5-C10 alkoxy(aryl)R20, C5-C10 alkoxy(heteroaryl)R20 or C5-C10 alkoxy(cycloalkyl)R20; wherein R20 is H or C1-C10 alkyl; R29 is H or halo; R17 is H, halo, NH2, C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy, C1-C6 alkylamino, C1-C6 alkylcyano or C1-C6 alkylthio; R2, and R21 are both NH2; R3 is H, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, or (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R22 is C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH or (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R23 is H, F, CO2H, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, or (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is H, F or PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; R25, R7 and R8 are independently O, S, CHR26, CHR26, NR26, or N; wherein R26 is H, F or C1-C4 alkyl; R15 is hydroxy, phosphonate, or wherein R12 is O, NH or S; X is O, NH or S; y and m are integers independently ranging from 0 to 4; p and q are integers independently ranging from 1 to 10; n is an integer ranging from 0 to 10; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof, with the proviso that W and Y are not both methylene. 2. The compound of claim 1 wherein the compound has the formula: wherein R15 is hydroxy, phosphonate, or wherein X and R12 are independently O or S; R23 and R24 are independently H, F or C1-C4 alkyl; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. 3. The compound of claim 2 wherein y is 0 or 1; n is 1-10; Z is CH2; and R17 is H. 4. The compound of claim 2 wherein y is 0 or 1; n is 0; Z is C5-C6 aryl, or C5-C6 heteroaryl; R16 is C5-C12 alkyl, C2-C12 alkenyl, or C5-C12 alkoxy; and R17 and R23 are each H. 5. The compound of claim 4 wherein Z is C5-C6 aryl; R24 is H; and R21 is C1-C4 alkyl, or (C1-C4 alkyl)OH. 6. The compound of claim 1 wherein the compound has the formula: wherein Z is aryl or heteroaryl; R16 is C5-C12 alkyl, C5-C12 alkenyl, C5-C12 alkynyl or C5-C12 alkoxy; Y is CHOH, CF2, CFH, carbonyl, NH, O or S; W is CR27R28; wherein R27 and R28 are independently H, halo or hydroxy; R21 is C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH or (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R23 is H, F, CO2H, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, or (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is H, F or PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; R15 is hydroxy, phosphonate, or wherein X and R12 are independently O or S; y is an integer ranging from 0 to 4; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. 7. The compound of claim 6 wherein R23 and R24 are both H; R27 and R28 are independently H or F; Z is C5-C6 aryl or C5-C6 heteroaryl; R21 is OH, C1-C4 alkyl, or (C1-C3 alkyl)OH; and y is 0 or 1. 8. The compound of claim 6 wherein the compound has the formula: wherein R15 is hydroxy, phosphonate, or wherein X and R12 are independently O or S; R21 is C1-C3 alkyl or (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; R23 is H, F, C1-C3 alkyl or (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 9. The compound of claim 8 wherein Y is carbonyl, NH or O. 10. The compound of claim 9 wherein R15 is OH; and R23 is H, F or C1-C3 alkyl; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 11. The compound of claim 1 wherein the compound has the formula: wherein R1 is C5-C12 alkyl, C5-C12 alkenyl, C5-C12 alkoxy, or C5-C12 alkynyl; C1-C18 alkyl, C2-C18 alkenyl, C2-C18 alkynyl, C5-C18 alkoxy, R7 and R8 are independently O, S, CHR26, CHR26, NR26, or N; wherein R26 is H, F or C1-C4 alkyl; R25 is N or CH; R2 is NH2; R3 is H, C1-C4 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, or (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R15 is hydroxy, phosphonate, or wherein X and R12 are independently O or S; R23 is H, F, OH, C1-C4 alkyl, CO2H or C1-C4 alkyl; R24 is H, F, C1-C4 alkyl or PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; and y and m are integers independently ranging from 0 to 4; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. 12. The compound of claim 11 wherein m is 0; y is 0 or 1; R25 is CH; R23 is H or F; and R24 is H, F or C1-C4 alkyl. 13. The compound of claim 11 wherein R3 is C1-C3 alkyl or (C1-C4 alkyl)OH. 14. The compound of claim 12 wherein R7 is NH; and X is O; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. 15. The compound of claim 14 wherein y is 0; and R15 is OH. 16. The compound of claim 13 wherein the compound has the formula: wherein R11 is C5-C12 alkyl, C5-C12 alkoxy, or C5-C12 alkenyl; and R8 is N; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. 17. The compound of claim 16 wherein R15 is hydroxy or wherein R12 is O or S; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. 18. The compound of claim 17 wherein R1 is C5-C9 alkyl; R15 is OH and R3 is CH3, CH2CH3, CH2OH, CH2CH2OH or CH2CH2CH2OH. 19. A composition comprising a compound of claim 1, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. 20. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound having the formula wherein R11 is C5-C18 alkyl, C5-C18 alkoxy, or C5-C18 alkenyl; Q is C3-C6 optionally substituted cycloalkyl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heterocyclic, C3-C6 optionally substituted aryl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heteroaryl or —NH(CO)—; R3 is H, C1-C4 alkyl or (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; R23 is H or C1-C4 alkyl, and R15 is hydroxy, phosphonate, or wherein X and R12 is O or S; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. 21. The composition of claim 20 wherein Q is 22. The composition of claim 21 wherein R15 is hydroxy or wherein R12 is O or S. 23. The composition of claim 22 wherein Q is R15 is OH; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. 24. A method of promoting wound healing in a warm blooded vertebrate, said method comprising the step of administering a composition comprising a compound having the formula: wherein R11 is C5-C18 alkyl, C5-C18 alkoxy, or C5-C18 alkenyl; Q is C3-C6 optionally substituted cycloalkyl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heterocyclic, C3-C6 optionally substituted aryl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heteroaryl or —NH(CO)—; R3 is H, C1-C4 alkyl or (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; R23 is H or C1-C4 alkyl, and R15 is hydroxy, phosphonate, or wherein X and R12 are independently O or S; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. 25. The method of claim 24 wherein Q is —NH(CO)—, and R15 is hydroxy or wherein R12 is O or S. 26. The method of claim 25 wherein Q is R15 is OH; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. 27. A method for treating a patient suffering from a disease associated with abnormal cell growth, said method comprising the steps of administering a compound having the formula: wherein R1 is located in the meta or para position and is C5-C18 alkyl, C5-C18 alkoxy, or C5-C18 alkenyl; Q is C3-C6 optionally substituted cycloalkyl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heterocyclic, C3-C6 optionally substituted aryl C3-C6 optionally substituted heteroaryl or —NH(CO)—; R3 is H, C1-C4 alkyl or (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; R23 is H or C1-C4 alkyl, and R15 is hydroxy, phosphonate, or wherein X and R12 are independently O or S; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. 28. The method of claim 27 wherein Q is —NH(CO)—, R15 is hydroxy or wherein R12 is O or S. 29. The method of claim 28 wherein Q is R15 is OH; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof.	<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) has been demonstrated to induce many cellular effects, including those that result in platelet aggregation, cell proliferation, cell morphology, tumor-cell invasion, endothelial cell chemotaxis and endothelial cell in vitro angiogenesis. For these reasons, S1P receptors are good targets for therapeutic applications such as wound healing and tumor growth inhibition. Sphingosine-1-phosphate signals cells in part via a set of G protein-coupled receptors named S1P1, S1P2, S1P3, S1P4, and S1P5 (formerly Edg-1, Edg-5, Edg-3, Edg-6, and Edg-8, respectively). These receptors share 50-55% identical amino acids and cluster with three other receptors (LPA1, LPA2, and LPA3 (formerly Edg-2, Edg-4 and Edg-7)) for the structurally-related lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). A conformational shift is induced in the G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) when the ligand binds to that receptor, causing GDP to be replaced by GTP on the α-subunit of the associated G-proteins and subsequent release of the G-proteins into the cytoplasm. The α-subunit then dissociates from the βγ-subunit and each subunit can then associate with effector proteins, which activate second messengers leading to a cellular response. Eventually the GTP on the G-proteins is hydrolyzed to GDP and the subunits of the G-proteins reassociate with each other and then with the receptor. Amplification plays a major role in the general GPCR pathway. The binding of one ligand to one receptor leads to the activation of many G-proteins, each capable of associating with many effector proteins leading to an amplified cellular response. S1P receptors make good drug targets because individual receptors are both tissue and response specific. Tissue specificity of the S1P receptors is desirable because development of an agonist or antagonist selective for one receptor localizes the cellular response to tissues containing that receptor, limiting unwanted side effects. Response specificity of the S1P receptors is also of importance because it allows for the development of agonists or antagonists that initiate or suppress certain cellular responses without affecting other responses. For example, the response specificity of the S1P receptors could allow for an S1P mimetic that initiates platelet aggregation without affecting cell morphology. Sphingosine-1-phosphate is formed as a metabolite of sphingosine in its reaction with sphingosine kinase and is stored in abundance in the aggregates of platelets where high levels of sphingosine kinase exist and sphingosine lyase is lacking. S1P is released during platelet aggregation, accumulates in serum and is also found in malignant ascites. Biodegradation of S1P most likely proceeds via hydrolysis by ectophosphohydrolases, specifically the sphingosine 1-phosphate phosphohydrolases. The physiologic implications of stimulating individual S1P receptors are largely unknown due in part to a lack of receptor type selective ligands. Therefore there is a need for compounds that have strong affinity and high selectivity for S1P receptor subtypes. Isolation and characterization of S1P analogs that have potent agonist or antagonist activity for S1P receptors has been limited due to the complication of synthesis derived from the lack of solubility of Sip analogs. The present invention is directed to a series of compounds that are active at S1P receptors.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>One embodiment of the present invention is directed to novel sphingosine-1-phosphate analogs, compositions comprising such analogs, and methods of using such analogs as agonist or antagonists of sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor activity to treat a wide variety of human disorders. S1P analogs of the present invention have a range of activities including agonism, with various degrees of selectivity at individual S1P receptor subtypes, as well as compounds with antagonist activity at the S1P receptors. More particularly, the S1P analogs of the present invention include compounds with the general structure: wherein Q is selected from the group consisting of C 3 -C 6 optionally substituted cycloalkyl, C 3 -C 6 optionally substituted heterocyclic, C 3 -C 6 optionally substituted aryl, C 3 -C 6 optionally substituted heteroaryl and R 1 is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkyl(optionally substituted aryl), arylalkyl and arylalkyl(optionally substituted)aryl; R 17 is H, alkyl, alkylaryl or alkyl(optionally substituted aryl); R 18 is N, O, S, CH or together with R 17 form a carbonyl group or a bond; W is NH, CH 2 or (CH 2 ) n NH(CO); R 2 and R 3 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, NH 2 , C 1 -C 6 alkyl, (C 1 -C 4 alkyl)OH, and (C 1 -C 4 alkyl)NH 2 , with the proviso that R 2 and R 3 are not the same and either R 2 or R 3 is NH 2 . R 23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, NH 2 , OH, CO 2 H, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, (C 1 -C 4 alkyl)OH, and (C 1 -C 4 alkyl)NH 2 ; R 24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO 2 H, OH and PO 3 H 2 , or R 23 together with R 24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; R 15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein R 12 is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; X is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; y is an integer ranging from 0-10; n is an integer ranging from 0-4; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts and tautomers of such compounds, with the proviso that R18 and W are not both CH2. Selective agonists and antagonists at S1P receptors will be useful therapeutically in a wide variety of human disorders.	RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority under 35 USC § 119 from International patent Application Serial No. PCT/US2003/023768 filed on 30 Jul. 2003, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/523,337, filed Jan. 28, 2005, U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/399,545, filed Jul. 30, 2002, and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/425,595, filed Nov. 12, 2002, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. US GOVERNMENT RIGHTS This invention was made with United States Government support under Grant No. NIH R01 GM52722 and NIH R01 CA88994 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. BACKGROUND Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) has been demonstrated to induce many cellular effects, including those that result in platelet aggregation, cell proliferation, cell morphology, tumor-cell invasion, endothelial cell chemotaxis and endothelial cell in vitro angiogenesis. For these reasons, S1P receptors are good targets for therapeutic applications such as wound healing and tumor growth inhibition. Sphingosine-1-phosphate signals cells in part via a set of G protein-coupled receptors named S1P1, S1P2, S1P3, S1P4, and S1P5 (formerly Edg-1, Edg-5, Edg-3, Edg-6, and Edg-8, respectively). These receptors share 50-55% identical amino acids and cluster with three other receptors (LPA1, LPA2, and LPA3 (formerly Edg-2, Edg-4 and Edg-7)) for the structurally-related lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). A conformational shift is induced in the G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) when the ligand binds to that receptor, causing GDP to be replaced by GTP on the α-subunit of the associated G-proteins and subsequent release of the G-proteins into the cytoplasm. The α-subunit then dissociates from the βγ-subunit and each subunit can then associate with effector proteins, which activate second messengers leading to a cellular response. Eventually the GTP on the G-proteins is hydrolyzed to GDP and the subunits of the G-proteins reassociate with each other and then with the receptor. Amplification plays a major role in the general GPCR pathway. The binding of one ligand to one receptor leads to the activation of many G-proteins, each capable of associating with many effector proteins leading to an amplified cellular response. S1P receptors make good drug targets because individual receptors are both tissue and response specific. Tissue specificity of the S1P receptors is desirable because development of an agonist or antagonist selective for one receptor localizes the cellular response to tissues containing that receptor, limiting unwanted side effects. Response specificity of the S1P receptors is also of importance because it allows for the development of agonists or antagonists that initiate or suppress certain cellular responses without affecting other responses. For example, the response specificity of the S1P receptors could allow for an S1P mimetic that initiates platelet aggregation without affecting cell morphology. Sphingosine-1-phosphate is formed as a metabolite of sphingosine in its reaction with sphingosine kinase and is stored in abundance in the aggregates of platelets where high levels of sphingosine kinase exist and sphingosine lyase is lacking. S1P is released during platelet aggregation, accumulates in serum and is also found in malignant ascites. Biodegradation of S1P most likely proceeds via hydrolysis by ectophosphohydrolases, specifically the sphingosine 1-phosphate phosphohydrolases. The physiologic implications of stimulating individual S1P receptors are largely unknown due in part to a lack of receptor type selective ligands. Therefore there is a need for compounds that have strong affinity and high selectivity for S1P receptor subtypes. Isolation and characterization of S1P analogs that have potent agonist or antagonist activity for S1P receptors has been limited due to the complication of synthesis derived from the lack of solubility of Sip analogs. The present invention is directed to a series of compounds that are active at S1P receptors. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION One embodiment of the present invention is directed to novel sphingosine-1-phosphate analogs, compositions comprising such analogs, and methods of using such analogs as agonist or antagonists of sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor activity to treat a wide variety of human disorders. S1P analogs of the present invention have a range of activities including agonism, with various degrees of selectivity at individual S1P receptor subtypes, as well as compounds with antagonist activity at the S1P receptors. More particularly, the S1P analogs of the present invention include compounds with the general structure: wherein Q is selected from the group consisting of C3-C6 optionally substituted cycloalkyl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heterocyclic, C3-C6 optionally substituted aryl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heteroaryl and R1 is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkyl(optionally substituted aryl), arylalkyl and arylalkyl(optionally substituted)aryl; R17 is H, alkyl, alkylaryl or alkyl(optionally substituted aryl); R18 is N, O, S, CH or together with R17 form a carbonyl group or a bond; W is NH, CH2 or (CH2)nNH(CO); R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, NH2, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2, with the proviso that R2 and R3 are not the same and either R2 or R3 is NH2. R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, NH2, OH, CO2H, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO2H, OH and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein R12 is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; X is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; y is an integer ranging from 0-10; n is an integer ranging from 0-4; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts and tautomers of such compounds, with the proviso that R18 and W are not both CH2. Selective agonists and antagonists at S1P receptors will be useful therapeutically in a wide variety of human disorders. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1A-1F are graphic representations of [γ-35 S]GTP binding to HEK293T cell membranes (containing different S1P receptors) in response to S1P, VPC23019 and VPC23031. FIG. 1A=S1P1 receptor, FIG. 1B=S1P3 receptor, FIG. 1C—S1P2 receptor, FIG. 1D=S1P4 receptor, FIG. 1E=S1P5 receptor, and FIG. 1F=S1P3 receptor. Each data point represents the mean of three determinations (CPM=counts per minute). FIG. 2A-2E are graphic representations of [γ-35 S]GTP binding to HEK293T cell membranes (containing different S1P receptors) in response to S1P, VPC23065 and VPC23069. FIG. 2A=S1P1 receptor, FIG. 2B=31P3 receptor, FIG. 2C=S1P2 receptor, FIG. 2D=S1P4 receptor, and FIG. 2E=S1P5 receptor. Each data point represents the mean of three determinations (CPM=counts per minute). FIG. 3A-3E are graphic representations of [γ-35 S]GTP binding to HEK293 T cell membranes (containing different S1P receptors) in response to S1P, VPC23075 and VPC23079. FIG. 3A=S1P1 receptor, FIG. 3B=S1P3 receptor, FIG. 3C=S1P2 receptor, FIG. 3D=S1P4 receptor, and FIG. 3E=S1P5 receptor. Each data point represents the mean of three determinations (CPM=counts per minute). FIG. 4A-4E are graphic representations of [γ-35 S]GTP binding to HEK293T cell membranes (containing different S1P receptors) in response to S1P, VPC23087 and VPC23089. FIG. 4A=S1P1 receptor, FIG. 4B=S1P3 receptor, FIG. 4C=S1P2 receptor, FIG. 4D=S1P4 receptor, and FIG. 4E=S1P5 receptor. Each data point represents the mean of three determinations (CPM=counts per minute). FIGS. 5A and 5B. FIG. 5A is a graphic representation of [γ-35 S]GTP binding to HEK293T cell membranes containing the S1P1 receptor, in response to S1P, VPC23087 and VPC23087+S1P. FIG. 5B is a graphic representation of [γ-35 S]GTP binding to HEK293T cell membranes containing the S1P3 receptor, in response to S1P, VPC23089 and VPC23089+S1P. Each data point represents the mean of three determinations (CPM=counts per minute). FIGS. 6A-6D are graphic representations of [γ-35 S]GTP binding to HEK293T cell membranes (containing different S1P receptors) in response to S1P, VPC24289 and VPC24287. FIG. 6A=S1P1 receptor, FIG. 6B=S1P3 receptor, FIG. 6C=S1P4 receptor, and FIG. 6D=S1P5 receptor. Each data point represents the mean of three determinations, wherein the activity of VPC24289 and VPC24287 is measured relative to S1P activity at the specific receptor subtype. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In describing and claiming the invention, the following terminology will be used in accordance with the definitions set forth below. As used herein, the term “purified” and like terms relate to an enrichment of a molecule or compound relative to other components normally associated with the molecule or compound in a native environment. The term “purified” does not necessarily indicate that complete purity of the particular molecule has been achieved during the process. A “highly purified” compound as used herein refers to a compound that is greater than 90% pure. As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” includes any of the standard pharmaceutical carriers, such as a phosphate buffered saline solution, water, emulsions such as an oil/water or water/oil emulsion, and various types of wetting agents. The term also encompasses any of the agents approved by a regulatory agency of the US Federal government or listed in the US Pharmacopeia for use in animals, including humans. As used herein, the term “treating” includes prophylaxis of the specific disorder or condition, or alleviation of the symptoms associated with a specific disorder or condition and/or preventing or eliminating said symptoms. As used herein, an “effective amount” means an amount sufficient to produce a selected effect. For example, an effective amount of an S1P receptor antagonist is an amount that decreases the cell signaling activity of the S1P receptor. As used herein, the term “halogen” or “halo” includes bromo, chloro, fluoro, and iodo. The term “haloalkyl” as used herein refers to an alkyl radical bearing at least one halogen substituent, for example, chloromethyl, fluoroethyl or trifluoromethyl and the like. The term “C1-Cn alkyl” wherein n is an integer, as used herein, represents a branched or linear alkyl group having from one to the specified number of carbon atoms. Typically C1-C6 alkyl groups include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl, pentyl, hexyl and the like. The term “C2-Cn alkenyl” wherein n is an integer, as used herein, represents an olefinically unsaturated branched or linear group having from 2 to the specified number of carbon atoms and at least one double bond. Examples of such groups include, but are not limited to, 1-propenyl, 2-propenyl, 1,3-butadienyl, 1-butenyl, hexenyl, pentenyl, and the like. The term “C2-Cn alkynyl” wherein n is an integer refers to an unsaturated branched or linear group having from 2 to the specified number of carbon atoms and at least one triple bond. Examples of such groups include, but are not limited to, 1-propynyl, 2-propynyl, 1-butynyl, 2-butynyl, 1-pentynyl, and the like. The term “C3-Cn cycloalkyl” wherein n=8, represents cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl, and cyclooctyl. As used herein, the term “optionally substituted” refers to from zero to four substituents, wherein the substituents are each independently selected. Each of the independently selected substituents may be the same or different than other substituents. As used herein the term “aryl” refers to a mono- or bicyclic carbocyclic ring system having one or two aromatic rings including, but not limited to, phenyl, benzyl, naphthyl, tetrahydronaphthyl, indanyl, indenyl, and the like. “Optionally substituted aryl” includes aryl compounds having from zero to four substituents, and “substituted aryl” includes aryl compounds having one to three substituents, wherein the substituents, including alkyl, halo or amino substituents. The term (C5-C8 alkyl)aryl refers to any aryl group which is attached to the parent moiety via the alkyl group. The term “heterocyclic group” refers to a mono- or bicyclic carbocyclic ring system containing from one to three heteroatoms wherein the heteroatoms are selected from the group consisting of oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen. As used herein the term “heteroaryl” refers to a mono- or bicyclic carbocyclic ring system having one or two aromatic rings containing from one to three heteroatoms and includes, but is not limited to, furyl, thienyl, pyridyl and the like. The term “bicyclic” represents either an unsaturated or saturated stable 7- to 12-membered bridged or fused bicyclic carbon ring. The bicyclic ring may be attached at any carbon atom which affords a stable structure. The term includes, but is not limited to, naphthyl, dicyclohexyl, dicyclohexenyl, and the like. The term “lower alkyl” as used herein refers to branched or straight chain alkyl groups comprising one to eight carbon atoms, including methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, n-butyl, t-butyl, neopentyl and the like. The terms 16:0, 18:0, 18:1, 20:4 or 22:6 hydrocarbon refers to a branched or straight alkyl or alkenyl group, wherein the first integer represents the total number of carbons in the group and the second integer represent the number of double bonds in the group. As used herein, an “S1P modulating agent” refers a compound or composition that is capable of inducing a detectable change in S1P receptor activity in vivo or in vitro (e.g., at least 10% increase or decrease in S1P activity as measured by a given assay such as the bioassay described in Example 2). As used herein, the term “EC50 of an agent” refers to that concentration of an agent at which a given activity, including binding of sphingosine or other ligand of an S1P receptor and/or a functional activity of a S1P receptor (e.g., a signaling activity), is 50% maximal for that S1P receptor. Stated differently, the EC50 is the concentration of agent that gives 50% activation, when 100% activation is set at the amount of activity of the S1P receptor which does not increase with the addition of more ligand/agonist and 0% is set at the amount of activity in the assay in the absence of added ligand/agonist. As used herein, the term “phosphate analog” and “phosphonate analog” comprise analogs of phosphate and phosphonate wherein the phosphorous atom is in the +5 oxidation state and one or more of the oxygen atoms is replaced with a non-oxygen moiety, including for example, the phosphate analogs phosphorothioate, phosphorodithioate, phosphoroselenoate, phosphorodiselenoate, phosphoroanilothioate, phosphoranilidate, phosphoramidate, boronophosphates, and the like, including associated counterions, e.g., H, NH4, Na, and the like if such counterions are present. The S1P analogs of the present invention contain one or more asymmetric centers in the molecule. In accordance with the present invention a structure that does not designate the stereochemistry is to be understood as embracing all the various optical isomers, as well as racemic mixtures thereof. The compounds of the present invention may exist in tautomeric forms and the invention includes both mixtures and separate individual tautomers. For example the following structure: is understood to represent a mixture of the structures: The term “pharmaceutically-acceptable salt” refers to salts which retain the biological effectiveness and properties of the S1P analogs of the present invention and which are not biologically or otherwise undesirable. In many cases, the S1P analogs of the present invention are capable of forming acid and/or base salts by virtue of the presence of amino and/or carboxyl groups or groups similar thereto. Pharmaceutically-acceptable base addition salts can be prepared from inorganic and organic bases. Salts derived from inorganic bases, include by way of example only, sodium, potassium, lithium, ammonium, calcium and magnesium salts. Salts derived from organic bases include, but are not limited to, salts of primary, secondary and tertiary amines, such as alkyl amines, dialkyl amines, trialkyl amines, substituted alkyl amines, di(substituted alkyl) amines, tri(substituted alkyl) amines, alkenyl amines, dialkenyl amines, trialkenyl amines, substituted alkenyl amines, di(substituted alkenyl) amines, tri(substituted alkenyl) amines, cycloalkyl amines, di(cycloalkyl) amines, tri(cycloalkyl) amines, substituted cycloalkyl amines, disubstituted cycloalkyl amine, trisubstituted cycloalkyl amines, cycloalkenyl amines, di(cycloalkenyl) amines, tri(cycloalkenyl) amines, substituted cycloalkenyl amines, disubstituted cycloalkenyl amine, trisubstituted cycloalkenyl amines, aryl amines, diaryl amines, triaryl amines, heteroaryl amines, diheteroaryl amines, triheteroaryl amines, heterocyclic amines, diheterocyclic amines, triheterocyclic amines, mixed di- and tri-amines where at least two of the substituents on the amine are different and are selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and the like. Also included are amines where the two or three substituents, together with the amino nitrogen, form a heterocyclic or heteroaryl group. Examples of suitable amines include, by way of example only, isopropylamine, trimethyl amine, diethyl amine, tri(iso-propyl) amine, tri(n-propyl) amine, ethanolamine, 2-dimethylaminoethanol, tromethamine, lysine, arginine, histidine, caffeine, procaine, hydrabamine, choline, betaine, ethylenediamine, glucosamine, N-alkylglucamines, theobromine, purines, piperazine, piperidine, morpholine, N-ethylpiperidine, and the like. It should also be understood that other carboxylic acid derivatives would be useful in the practice of this invention, for example, carboxylic acid amides, including carboxamides, lower alkyl carboxamides, dialkyl carboxamides, and the like. Pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts may be prepared from inorganic and organic acids. Salts derived from inorganic acids include hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, and the like. Salts derived from organic acids include acetic acid, propionic acid, glycolic acid, pyruvic acid, oxalic acid, malic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, maleic acid, fumaric acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, mandelic acid, methanesulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid, p-toluene-sulfonic acid, salicylic acid, and the like. Embodiments One aspect of the present invention is directed to novel S1P analogs that have activity as modulators of S1P receptor activity. Modulators of S1P activity include agents that have either agonist or antagonist activity at the S1P receptor as well as analogs of those compounds that have been modified to resist enzymatic modification (i.e. block modification of the compounds by phosphohydrolases, sphingosine lyases or sphingosine kinases), or provide a suitable substrate for sphingosine kinases to convert an administered form into a more active form. The structure of S1P can be described as a combination of three regions: the phosphate head group, the linker region, and the fatty acid tail. Through structure activity relationships (SAR) of the closely related lysophospholipid, lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), it has been determined that the presence of a phosphate head group is an important feature to allow binding of S1P to its S1P receptors. However, there are exceptions to the requirement for a phosphate head group. In particular a phosphonate, hydroxyl, phosphate or phosphonate group can be substituted for the phosphate head group while retaining activity at the S1P receptor. Based on the SAR of LPA, the linker region of S1P is anticipated to be the area of the molecule that can best accommodate change. Again using the SAR of LPA as a lead, it is presumed that presence of a hydrogen bond donor 5 bonds away from the phosphate is important to binding. From a retrosynthetic standpoint, the linker region may be seen as a functionalized derivative of L-Serine. Due to the long fatty acid chain and charged phosphate head group, S1P has an amphipathic nature that makes it extremely insoluble in organic solvents. Manipulation of the saturation of the fatty acid chain may compromise aggregate formation of the molecule, thereby increasing solubility. One important aspect of the long chain, however, is the length. GTPγS studies that have been completed thus far have demonstrated that an 18 carbon backbone, as is the case in S1P, displays optimal activity compared to 16 and 20 carbon backbones, however the long fatty acid chain can vary from 8 to 25 carbons and still exhibit activity. It is also anticipated that the S stereochemistry of the C-2 amine may have an effect on binding as one would expect from a receptor. Hydrogen bonds from the phosphate head group and the C-2 amine to adjacent argenine and glutamic acid residues on the model receptor have been demonstrated to be important to S1P-receptor binding. In accordance with one embodiment an S1P receptor modulating compound is provided wherein the compound has the general structure: wherein W is CR27R28 or (CH2)nNH(CO); wherein R27 and R28 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, halo and hydroxy; Y is selected from the group consisting of a bond, CR9R10, carbonyl, NH, O or S; wherein R9 and R10 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, halo, hydroxy and amino; Z is CH2, aryl, flourine substituted aryl or heteroaryl; R11 and R16 are independently selected from the group consisting of C1-C18 alkyl, C2-C18 alkenyl, C2-C18 alkynyl, C5-C18 alkoxy, (CH2)pO(CH2)q, C5-C10 (aryl)R20, C5-C10 (heteroaryl)R20, C5-C10 (cycloalkyl)R20, C5-C10 alkoxy(aryl)R20, C5-C10 alkoxy(heteroaryl)R20 and C5-C10 alkoxy(cycloalkyl)R20; wherein R20 is H or C1-C10 alkyl; R29 is H or halo; R17 is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, NH2, C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy, C1-C6 alkylamino, C1-C6 alkylcyano and C1-C6 alkylthio; R2, and R21 are both NH2; R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2, (C1-C4 alkyl)aryl(C0-C4 alkyl) and (C1-C4 alkyl)aryloxyaryl(C0-C4 alkyl); R22 is selected from the group consisting of C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2, (C1-C4 alkyl)aryl(C0-C4 alkyl) and (C1-C4 alkyl)aryloxyaryl(C0-C4 alkyl); R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, NH2, OH, CO2H, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO2H, OH and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; R25, R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, S, CHR26, CR26, NR26, and N; wherein R26 is H or C1-C4 alkyl; R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein R12 is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; X is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; y and m are integers independently ranging from 0 to 4; p and q are integers independently ranging from 1 to 10; n is an integer ranging from 0 to 10; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof, with the proviso that W and Y are not both methylene. In one embodiment, the present invention is directed to an S1P receptor modulating compound is represented by the formula: wherein Z is CH2, aryl or heteroaryl; R16 is selected from the group consisting of C1-C18 alkyl, C2-C18 alkenyl, C2-C18 alkynyl, C5-C18 alkoxy, (CH2)pO(CH2)q, C5-C10 (aryl)R20, C5-C10 (heteroaryl)R20, C5-C10 (cycloalkyl)R20, C5-C10 alkoxy(aryl)R20, C5-C10 alkoxy(heteroaryl)R20 and C5-C10 alkoxy(cycloalkyl)R20, wherein R20 is H or C1-C10 alkyl; R17 is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, NH2, C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy, C1-C6 alkylamino, C1-C6 alkylcyano and C1-C6 alkylthio; R21 is selected from the group consisting of NH2, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2, (C1-C4 alkyl)aryl(C0-C4 alkyl) and (C1-C4 alkyl)aryloxyaryl(C0-C4 alkyl), with the proviso that R2 or R3 is NH2; R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein X and R12 are independently selected from the group consisting of O and S; R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, NH2, OH, CO2H, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO2H, OH and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; p and q are integers independently ranging from 1 to 10; y is an integer ranging from 0 to 4; and n is an integer ranging from 0 to 10; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. In one embodiment the compound of Formula II is provided wherein Z is CH2, y is 0, n is 1-10, and R17 is H. In another embodiment, the compound of Formula II is provided wherein Z is C5-C6 aryl or C5-C6 heteroaryl, y is 0, n is 0, R17 and R23 are each H and R16 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C12 alkyl, C2-C12 alkenyl or C5-C12 alkoxy. In another embodiment, the compound of Formula II is provided wherein Z is C5-C6 aryl or C5-C6 heteroaryl, y is 0, n is 0, R17, R23 and R24 are each H, R16 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C12 alkyl, C2-C12 alkenyl or C5-C12 alkoxy and R15 is hydroxy. In another embodiment of the present invention, an S1P receptor modulating compound is provided wherein the compound is represented by the formula: wherein Z is aryl or heteroaryl; R16 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C18 alkyl, C5-C18 alkenyl, C5-C18 alkynyl and C5-C18 alkoxy; Y is selected from the group consisting of CHOH, CF2, CFH, carbonyl, NH, O and S; W is CR27R28, wherein R27 and R28 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, halo and hydroxy; R21 is selected from the group consisting of NH2, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2, (C1-C4 alkyl)aryl(C0-C4 alkyl) and (C1-C4 alkyl)aryloxyaryl(C0-C4 alkyl); R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, NH2, OH, CO2H, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO2H, OH and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein X and R12 are independently selected from the group consisting of O and S; and y is an integer ranging from 0 to 4; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. In one embodiment the compound of Formula III is provided wherein Z is C5-C6 aryl or C5-C6 heteroaryl, R23 and R24 are both H, R21 is selected from the group consisting of OH, C1-C4 alkyl, and (C1-C3 alkyl)OH; and y is 0. In another embodiment, the compound is represented by the formula: wherein R16 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C12 alkyl, C5-C12 alkenyl and C5-C12 alkynyl; Y is selected from the group consisting of carbonyl, NH and O; R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein X and R12 are independently selected from the group consisting of O and S; R21 is selected from the group consisting of C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R23 and R24 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, OH, F, CO2H or PO3H2 or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group, as well as pharmaceutically acceptable salts and tautomers thereof. In another embodiment, the compound of Formula III is provided wherein Z is C5-C6 aryl; R16 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C18 alkyl and C5-C18 alkenyl; Y is selected from the group consisting of CF2, CFH, carbonyl, NH, O and S; W is CH2; R21 is selected from the group consisting of C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R23 and R24 are both H; y is 0; and R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein R12 is O and S (and in one embodiment R15 is OH), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. In another embodiment of the present invention a S1P receptor modulating compound is provided wherein the compound is represented by the formula: wherein R11 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C12 alkyl, C5-C12 alkenyl and C5-C12 alkynyl; R29, is H or halo; R25, R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, S, CHR26, CR26, NR26, and N; wherein R26 is H, F or C1-C4 alkyl; R2, is selected from the group consisting of H, NH2, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2, (C1-C4 alkyl)aryl(C0-C4 alkyl) and (C1-C4 alkyl)aryloxyaryl(C0-C4 alkyl); R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein X and R12 are independently selected from the group consisting of O and S; R23 and R24 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, OH, F, CO2H, C1-C3 alkyl or PO3H2 or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; m is 1 or 0; and y is an integer ranging from 0 to 4; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. In one embodiment, R29 is H or F; m is 0; y is 1 or 0; R2 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C6 alkyl and (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; R24 is H and R23 is C1-C3 alkyl. In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention a compound of Formula IV, V or VI is provided wherein R23 and R29 are both H; m is 0; R25 is CH2 or CH; R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, CH2 or CH, NH, and N; R2, is selected from the group consisting of H, F, C1-C4 alkyl and (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, C1-C3 alkyl; and y is 1 or 0. In one embodiment of the present invention, an S1P receptor modulating compound is provided wherein the compound is represented by the formula: wherein R11 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C18 alkyl, C5-C18 alkenyl and C5-C18 alkynyl; R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, S, NH and N; R2, is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein X and R12 are independently selected from the group consisting of O and S; R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F and OH; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, OH and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; m is 0; and y is an integer ranging from 0 to 4; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. In one embodiment of the present invention a S1P receptor modulating compound is provided wherein the compound is represented by the formula: wherein R11 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C12 alkyl, C5-C12 alkenyl and C5-C12 alkynyl; R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, S, CH2, CH, NH and N; R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, NH2, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2, (C1-C4 alkyl)aryl(C0-C4 alkyl) and (C1-C4 alkyl)aryloxyaryl(C0-C4 alkyl), with the proviso that R2 and R3 are not the same and either R2 or R3 is NH2; y is 1 or 0 R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein R12 is selected from the group consisting of O and S; R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO2H, C1-C4 alkyl and OH; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, C1-C4 alkyl and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; as well as pharmaceutically acceptable salts or tautomers thereof. In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, a compound of Formula VIII is provided wherein R23 is H; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, C1-C4 alkyl; and R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, NH and N. In another embodiment, a compound of Formula VIII is provided wherein R23 is H; R2 is NH2; and R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C4 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2. Alternatively, in one embodiment a compound of Formula VIII is provided wherein R23 is H; R3 is NH2; and R2 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C4 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2. In another embodiment, a compound of Formula VIII is provided wherein R23 is H; R2 is NH2; and R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C4 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, C1-C4 alkyl; and R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, NH and N. In another embodiment, a compound of Formula VIII is provided wherein R11 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C12 alkyl or C5-C12 alkenyl; R7 and R9 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, NH and N; R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, NH2, C1-C6 alkyl and (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, with the proviso that R2 and R3 are not the same and either R2 or R3 is NH2; y is 0; R15 is hydroxy; R23 is H; and R24 is H, F or C1-C4 alkyl; as well as pharmaceutically acceptable salts or tautomers thereof. In one embodiment of the present invention, a S1P receptor modulating compound is provided wherein the compound is represented by the formula: wherein R11 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C12 alkyl, C5-C12 alkenyl and C5-C12 alkynyl; R8 is O or N; R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of NH2, C1-C6 alkyl and (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, with the proviso that R2 and R3 are not the same and either R2 or R3 is NH2; R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein R12 is selected from the group consisting of O and S; R23 is H or F; and R24 is H, F or C1-C4 alkyl; as well as pharmaceutically acceptable salts or tautomers thereof. In one embodiment the compound of Formula VIII is provided wherein R11 is C5-C12 alkyl or C5-C12 alkenyl; R8 is N; R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of NH2, CH3 and (C1-C3 alkyl)OH, with the proviso that R2 and R3 are not the same and either R2 or R3 is NH2; and R15 is hydroxy; R23 is H; and R24 is H or C1-C4 alkyl as well as pharmaceutically acceptable salts or tautomers thereof. In another embodiment the compound of Formula VIII is provided wherein R11 is C5-C12 alkyl or C5-C12 alkenyl; R8 is N; R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of NH2, CH3 and (C1-C3 alkyl)OH, with the proviso that R2 and R3 are not the same and either R2 or R3 is NH2; and R15 is hydroxy; R23 is H; and R24 is H or CH3 as well as pharmaceutically acceptable salts or tautomers thereof. In one embodiment, a S1P receptor modulating compound is provided wherein the compound is represented by the formula: wherein R11 is C5-C18 alkyl or C5-C18 alkenyl; R8 is N; R2 is NH2; R3 is CH3 or (C1-C3 alkyl)OH and R15 is hydroxy; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. In accordance with one embodiment, an S1P receptor modulating compound is provided wherein the compound has the general structure: wherein R1 is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkyl(optionally substituted aryl), alkyl(optionally substituted cycloalkyl), arylalkyl, and arylalkyl(optionally substituted)aryl; R12 is 0, or R1 and R12 taken together form an optionally substituted heteroaryl; R17 is H, C1-C4 alkyl or (CH2)aryl; R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, NH2, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, —(C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and —(C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; y is an integer from 1-10, and R4 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxyl, phosphate, methylene phosphonate, α-substituted methylene phosphonate, phosphate analogs and phosphonate analogs or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In one embodiment one of the R2 and R3 substituents of Formula XII is NH2. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the compounds of the Formula XII include salts with inorganic acids, such as hydrochloride, hydrobromide and sulfate, salts with organic acids, such as acetate, fumarate, maleate, benzoate, citrate, malate, methanesulfonate and benzenesulfonate salts, and when a carboxy group is present, salts with metals such as sodium, potassium, calcium and aluminium, salts with amines, such as triethylamine and salts with dibasic amino acids, such as lysine. The compounds and salts of the present invention encompass hydrate and solvate forms. In one embodiment, an S1P modulating compound is provided having the general structure: wherein R1 is selected from the group consisting of C8-C22 alkyl, C8-C22 alkenyl, C8-C22 alkynyl and —(CH2)n-Z-R6; R5 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxyl, phosphonate, α-substituted methylene phosphonate, phosphate analogs and phosphonate analogs; y is an integer ranging from 1 to 4; n is an integer ranging from 0 to 10; Z is selected from the group consisting of cycloalkyl, aryl and heteroaryl; and R6 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C12 alkyl, C1-C20 alkoxy, C1-C20 alkylthio, and C1-C20 alkylamino or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. When R5 is an alpha substituted phosphonate, the alpha carbon can be mono- or di-substituted, wherein the substitutions are independently selected from the group consisting of H, OH, F, CO2H, PO3H2, or together with the attached carbon, form a carbonyl. In one embodiment, R1 is C8-C22 alkyl, and more preferably C12-C16 alkyl, y is 1 or 2 and R5 is hydroxy, phosphate or phosphonate. Alternatively, in one embodiment, R1 is —(CH2)n-Z-R6, wherein n is an integer ranging from 1-4, Z is aryl and R6 is C1-C10 alkyl; more preferably, Z is phenyl, R5 is hydroxy, phosphate or phosphonate, and R6 is C6-C10 alkyl. In another embodiment of the present invention, an S1P modulating compound is provided having the general structure: wherein R14 is selected from the group consisting of H, hydroxy, NH2, C8-C22 alkyl, C8-C22 alkenyl, C8-C22 alkynyl and —(CH2)n-Z-R6; R4 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxyl, phosphate, phosphonate, α-substituted methylene phosphonate, phosphate analogs and phosphonate analogs; y is an integer ranging from 1 to 4; m is an integer ranging from 0 to 4; n is an integer ranging from 0 to 10; Z is selected from the group consisting of cycloalkyl, aryl and heteroaryl; and R6 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C12 alkyl, C1-C20 alkoxy, C1-C20 alkylthio, and C1-C20 alkylamino; and R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, S and N. In one embodiment R1 is selected from the group consisting of C8-C22 alkyl, C8-C22 alkenyl and C8-C22 alkynyl, R4 is hydroxyl, phosphate or phosphonate, y is 1 or 2, m is 0 or 1 and either R7 or R8 is N; more preferably, R1 is C4-C10 alkyl, R4 is hydroxyl or phosphate, y is l, m is 0 and R7 and R8 are both N. The present invention also encompasses compounds of the general structure: wherein R9 is selected from the group consisting of —NR1, and —OR1; R1 is selected from the group consisting of C8-C22 alkyl and wherein R6 and R13 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C10 alkyl and C1-C20 alkoxy and R10 is hydroxy, phosphonate, methylene phosphonate or phosphate, with the proviso that when R9 is —NR1, R10 is not phosphate. In one preferred embodiment, R9 is —NR1, R6 is C1-C10 alkyl, R13 is H and R10 is hydroxy, phosphonate, or methylene phosphonate. A GTP[γ35 S] binding assay was developed to analyze directly the activation of individual S1P receptors, and thus allow the identification of S1P receptor agonists and antagonists as well as determine the relative efficacies and potencies at each receptor in a common system. The same results were obtained regardless of whether the recombinant receptor used exogenous G proteins (HEK293T cells) or endogenous G proteins (RH7777 cells). In addition, insect Sf9 cells infected with recombinant baculovirus encoding receptors (e.g. LPA and S1P receptors) and G proteins can also serve as the source of membranes for the broken cells used in the GTPgammaS-35 binding assays. The Sf9 cell and HEK293T cell membranes gave similar results. Furthermore, the activities measured in the broken cell assay predicted the responses seen in whole cell assays. Thus the primary assay used in the present invention for determining compound potency and efficacy is a valid measure of activity at the S1P receptors. The GTP[γ35 S] binding assay has revealed that the compounds of the present invention have the ability to modulate S1P receptor activity (See Examples 2 and 3). More particularly, compounds represented by the following formula display activity as modulators of S1P activity. More particularly, such compounds include those having the structure wherein W is CR27R28 or (CH2)nNH(CO); wherein R27 and R28 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, halo and hydroxy; Y is selected from the group consisting of a bond, CR9R10, carbonyl, NH, O or S; wherein R9 and R10 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, halo, hydroxy and amino; Z is CH2, aryl, halo substituted aryl or heteroaryl; R11 and R16 are independently selected from the group consisting of C1-C18 alkyl, C2-C18 alkenyl, C2-C18 alkynyl, C5-C18 alkoxy, (CH2)pO(CH2)q, C5-C10 (aryl)R20, C5-C10 (heteroaryl)R20, C5-C10 (cycloalkyl)R20, C5-C10 alkoxy(aryl)R20, C5-C10 alkoxy(heteroaryl)R20 and C5-C10 alkoxy(cycloalkyl)R20; wherein R20 is H or C1-C10 alkyl; R29 is H or halo; R17 is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, NH2, C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy, C1-C6 alkylamino, C1-C6 alkylcyano and C1-C6 alkylthio; R2 and R21 are both NH2; R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R22 is selected from the group consisting of C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO2H, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; R25, R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, S, CHR26, CHR26, NR26, and N; wherein R26 is H, F or C1-C4 alkyl; R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein R12 is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; X is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; y and m are integers independently ranging from 0 to 4; p and q are integers independently ranging from 1 to 10; n is an integer ranging from 0 to 10; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof, with the proviso that W and Y are not both methylene. As described in Example 2 compounds having the general structure wherein R9 is selected from the group consisting of —NR1, and —OR1, R1 is C8-C22 alkyl, R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of H and NH2, wherein at least one of R2 and R3 is NH2 and R4 is phosphate all display significant agonist activity at the S1P receptors tested (S1P1, S1P2, S1P3, S1P5), although none were as potent as S1P itself (See Table 1 of Example 2). However, one compound, VPC22135 (wherein R2 is H, R3 is NH2, R4 is phosphate and R9 is —N(CH2)13CH3), approached the potency of S1P at both the human S1P1 and human S1P3 receptors. In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, compound VPC22135 is used as a selective agonist of human S1P1 and human S1P3 receptors. Curiously, this compound has the amino group in the unnatural (R) configuration. Its enantiomer, VPC22053, was more than 1 log order less potent at both the S1P1 and S1P3 receptors. An additional series of compounds have shown activity in modulating S1P receptor activity, however these compounds also displayed selectivity for certain S1P receptor subtypes (See Example 3 and FIGS. 1-5). Each of these compounds (VPC 23019, 23031, 23065, 23069, 23087, 23089, 23075, 23079) are inactive at the S1P2 receptor. Compounds VPC23031, 23019, 23089 are inverse agonists (antagonists of the S1P3) receptor, but this inverse agonism becomes agonism when the alkyl chain length is 9 carbons (VPC23079) or 10 (VPC23069). In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention an antagonist of S1P activity is provided. In particular, a compound having the general structure: wherein R1 and R11 is C4-C12 alkyl and located in the meta or ortho position, Q is selected from the group consisting of C3-C6 optionally substituted cycloalkyl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heterocyclic, C3-C6 optionally substituted aryl and C3-C6 optionally substituted heteroaryl; R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C4 alkyl and (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO2H, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; and R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein X and R12 is selected from the group consisting of O and S; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof are anticipated to have antagonist activity at the S1P3 receptor. In accordance with one embodiment, the R1 substituent is located in the ortho position on the phenyl ring, and in one embodiment, the R1 substituent is located in the meta position on the phenyl ring. However compounds of the general structure (wherein R11 is located in the para-position) have exhibited activity as agonists of S1P activity. In particular compounds of Formula XI are provided as S1P agonists wherein R11 is C5-C18 alkyl or C5-C18 alkenyl; Q is selected from the group consisting of C3-C6 optionally substituted cycloalkyl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heterocyclic, C3-C6 optionally substituted aryl and C3-C6 optionally substituted heteroaryl; R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C4 alkyl and (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO2H, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; and R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein X and R12 are independently selected from the group consisting of O and S; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. In one embodiment, a compound represented by Formula XI is provided as an S1P agonist wherein R11 is C5-C18 alkyl or C5-C18 alkenyl; Q is —NH(CO)—, R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C4 alkyl and (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; R24 is H; R23 is H or C1-C4 alkyl, and R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein X and R12 are independently selected from the group consisting of O and S. Compounds VPC23065, VPC23087 and VPC23075 are primary alcohols, i.e. R4 of formula XII is hydroxy. These compounds demonstrate significant agonist activity at various S1P receptors. In particular, the S1P4 receptor binds to the primary alcohol S1P analogs with an EC50 within a log order of the phosphorylated compounds. Since S1P4 is present on lymphocytes, the use of the primary alcohol analogs may be used for immuno-suppression. In addition, it is also hypothesized that the hydroxy moiety of the primary alcohols may be converted to phosphates in vivo. Therefore the primary alcohol S1P analogs of the present invention are all anticipated to serve as prodrug forms of active S1P receptor modulating compounds. S1P is metabolized by a variety of conceivable routes including phosphatases, esterases or transported into cells. The S1P signal at receptors might be prolonged if the routes of degradation could be evaded or inhibited by S1P structural analogs. The S1P analogs of the present invention can be used, in accordance with one embodiment, to inhibit or evade endogenous S1P metabolic pathways including phosphotases, esterases, transporters and S1P acyl transferases. For example, those S1P analogs that lack an ester bond would be resistant to degradation by endogenous esterases. One embodiment of the present invention is directed to compounds that function as a S1P receptor agonists and antagonists that are resistant to hydrolysis by lipid phosphate phosphatases (LPPs) or are sub-type selective inhibitors of LPPs, and in particular are resistant to hydrolysis by sphingosine 1-phosphate phosphohydrolase. Previously described S1P mimetics contain a phosphate group, and thus are likely susceptible to hydrolysis by LPPs. Alpha hydroxy phosphonates are well known phosphate mimetics. For example, the compounds used clinically to treat osteoporosis (pamidronate, alendronate) are alpha hydroxy bisphosphonates that are analogs of pyrophosphate. S1P analogs can be prepared wherein the phosphate moiety is replaced by an alpha substituted phosphonate, wherein the substituents are selected from the group consisting of H, OH, F, CO2H, PO3H2 or double bonded oxygen. Accordingly, one aspect of the present invention is directed to lipid phosphate phosphatase resistant S1P analogs having the general structures: wherein R9 is selected from the group consisting of —NR1, and —OR1; R1 is selected from the group consisting of C8-C22 alkyl, C8-C22 alkenyl, C8-C22 alkynyl and —(CH2)n-Z-R6; R11 is —(CH2)n-Z-R6; wherein n is an integer ranging from 0 to 10, Z is selected from the group consisting of aryl and heteroaryl and R6 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C10 alkyl, C1-C20 alkoxy, C1-C20 alkylthio, and C1-C20 alkylamino; R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, NH2, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, —(C1-C4 alkyl)OH, —(C1-C4 alkyl)NH2, —(C1-C4 alkyl)aryl(C0-C4 alkyl) and —(C1-C4 alkyl)aryloxyaryl(C0-C4 alkyl), wherein R2 and R3 are not the same and R2 or R3 is NH2 y is an integer from 0-10; R14 is selected from the group consisting of R15 is selected from the group consisting of H, hydroxy, amino, COOH, halo, PO2H2; or R15 and R16 taken together form a keto group or a methylene group; R16 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, amino, COOH, halo, PO2H2; or R15 and R16 taken together with the carbon to which they are bound form a carbonyl or a methylene group; and R17 is selected from the group consisting of O, S and NH. In one preferred embodiment, R9 is —NR1, wherein R1 is C8-C22 alkyl or —(CH2)n-Z-R6, y is 0 or 1, R15 and R16 are independently H, C1-C4 alkyl or hydroxyl, and R14 is OH. In an alternative preferred embodiment, the compound has the general structure: wherein R9 is selected from the group consisting of —NR1, and —OR1; R1 is selected from the group consisting of C8-C22 alkyl, C8-C22 alkenyl, C8-C22 alkynyl and —(CH2)n-Z-R6, wherein n is an integer ranging from 0 to 10, Z is selected from the group consisting of aryl and heteroaryl and R6 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C10 alkyl, C1-C20 alkoxy, C1-C20 alkylthio, and C1-C20 alkylamino; R2 is NH2 or OH; y is an integer from 0-10; R14 is H or R15 is NH2 or OH; and R17 is selected from the group consisting of O, S and NH. In one preferred embodiment, R9 is —NR1, wherein R1 is C8-C22 alkyl or —(CH2)n-Z-R6, y is 0 or 1, and R17 is O. Lysophospholipids such as S1P and LPA, and their phosphate-containing analogs, are probably degraded by membrane bound lipid ectophosphohydrolases. This activity can be evaded by substituting phosphonate, α-substituted phosphonate, phosphothionate or other phosphate analogs as phosphate surrogates. Such compounds might also function as lipid ectophosphohydrolase inhibitors. Further, substitution of small alkyl groups (e.g. C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C3 alkylalcohol) at C-1 or C-2 might retard lipid ectophosphohydrolase cleavage by steric hindrance. In accordance with one embodiment, an S1P receptor modulating compound is provided wherein the compound has the general structure: wherein R1 is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkyl (optionally substituted aryl), alkyl (optionally substituted cycloalkyl), arylalkyl and arylalkyl (optionally substituted aryl) R7 is H, O, or R1 and R7 taken together form an optionally substituted C3-C6 heteroaryl or optionally substituted C3-C6 heterocyclic group; R6 is H, C1-C4 alkyl or (CH2)aryl; R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, NH2, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, —(C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and —(C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R4 and R5 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, NH2, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, —(C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and —(C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R8 is O, NH or S. In one embodiment, one of the R2 and R3 substituents is NH2 while the other is CH3 and R6 is H. In another embodiment, one of the R2 and R3 substituents is NH2 while the other is H and one of the R4 and R5 substituents is CH3 while the other is H, and R6 is H. In accordance with one embodiment of the invention, a compound is provided that could be converted by phosphorylation to an S1P receptor modulating compound. The compound has the general structure: wherein R1 is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkyl (optionally substituted aryl), alkyl (optionally substituted cycloalkyl), arylalkyl and arylalkyl (optionally substituted aryl) R7 is H, O, or R1 and R7 taken together form an optionally substituted C3-C6 heteroaryl or optionally substituted C3-C6 heterocyclic group; R6 is H, C1-C4 alkyl or (CH2)aryl; R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, NH2, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, —(C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and —(C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R4 and R5 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, NH2, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, —(C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and —(C1-C4 alkyl)NH2. In one embodiment, one of the R2 and R3 substituents is NH2 while the other is CH3 and R6 is H. In another embodiment, one of the R2 and R3 substituents is NH2 while the other is H and one of the R4 and R5 substituents is CH3 while the other is H, and R6 is H. In accordance with one embodiment, an S1P receptor modulating compound is provided wherein the compound has the general structure: wherein R1 is selected from the group consisting of C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkenyl, C1-C6 alkynyl, or C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkenyl, C1-C6 alkynyl optionally substituted with OH; R2 is C5-C10 alkyl, C5-C10 alkoxy, (CH2)nO(CH2)m, C5-C10 (optionally substituted aryl), C5-C10 (optionally substituted heteroaryl), C5-C10 (optionally substituted cycloalkyl), C5-C10 alkoxy (optionally substituted aryl), C5-C10 alkoxy (optionally substituted heteroaryl) and C5-C10 alkoxy (optionally substituted cycloalkyl); R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, C1-C6 alkoxy, C1-C6 alkyl, (CH2)yNH2, (CH2)ycyano and C1-C6 alkylthio; R4 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphate, methylene phosphonate, α-substituted methylene phosphonate, thiophosphate, thiophosphonate and other phosphate analogs and phosphonate analogs or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; R5 is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, C1-C4 alkyl and haloalkyl; X is CR8R9; Y is selected from the group consisting of CR8R9, carbonyl, NH, O or S; R8 and R9 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, halo and hydroxy; n and m are integers independently ranging from 5-10, and y is an integer ranging from 0-10 with the proviso that X and Y are not both methylene. In one embodiment, a compound of the Formula IX is provided wherein R5 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, methyl and ethyl. In another embodiment, a compound of the Formula IX is provided wherein X is selected from the group consisting of CH2, CHF, CF2, and CHOH. In a further embodiment, a compound of the Formula IX is provided wherein R1 is selected from the group consisting of CH3, CH2CH3, CH2OH, CH2CH2OH and CH2CH2CH2OH; R2 is C5-C10 alkyl, C5-C10 alkoxy, (CH2)nO(CH2)m, C5-C10 (optionally substituted aryl), C5-C10 (optionally substituted heteroaryl) and C5-C10 (optionally substituted cycloalkyl); R3 and R5 are H; R4 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphate and methylene phosphonate; X is CH2; Y is selected from the group consisting of carbonyl, NH, O and S; and n and m are integers independently ranging from 5-10. In one embodiment a compound of Formula IX is provided wherein R1 is —CH3, or —CH2CH3; R2 is C5-C10 alkyl; R3 and R5 are H; R4 is hydroxy or phosphate X is CH2; and Y is selected from the group consisting of carbonyl, NH and O. The present invention also encompasses the pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the compounds of the Formula IX including salts with inorganic acids, such as hydrochloride, hydrobromide and sulfate, salts with organic acids, such as acetate, fumarate, maleate, benzoate, citrate, malate, methanesulfonate and benzenesulfonate salts, and when a carboxy group is present, salts with metals such as sodium, potassium, calcium and aluminium, salts with amines, such as triethylamine and salts with dibasic amino acids, such as lysine. The compounds and salts of the present invention encompass hydrate and solvate forms. In one embodiment, an S1P modulating compound is provided having the general structure: wherein R1 is methyl or ethyl; R2 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C10 alkyl, (CH2)nO(CH2)m, C5-C10 (optionally substituted aryl), C5-C10 (optionally substituted heteroaryl), C5-C10 (optionally substituted cycloalkyl), C5-C10 alkoxy (optionally substituted aryl), C5-C10 alkoxy (optionally substituted heteroaryl) and C5-C10 alkoxy (optionally substituted cycloalkyl); R4 is OPO3H2 or OH; n and m are integers independently ranging from 0 to 10; X is a methylene group optionally substituted with one or two fluorine atoms or a secondary alcohol in either stereoconfiguration; Y is a carbonyl group, —O—, —NH— or a methylene group that is optionally substituted with one or two fluorine atoms, or a secondary alcohol in either stereoconfiguration, with the proviso that X and Y are not both methylene. In one embodiment, the compound of Formula X is provided wherein R1 is methyl or ethyl; R2 is C5-C10 alkyl or (CH2)nO(CH2)m; R4 is OPO3H2 or OH; X is methylene; Y is a carbonyl group, —O— or —NH—; and n and m are integers independently ranging from 0 to 10. More particularly, in one embodiment, compounds of Formula X are provided wherein R1 is methyl; R2 is C5-C8 alkyl and located in the para position; R4 is OPO3H2 or OH; X is methylene; and Y is a carbonyl group or —NH—. In accordance with one embodiment, compounds suitable for use in accordance with the present invention include: wherein R1 is selected from the group consisting of —CH3, —CH2CH3, CH2OH, CH2CH2OH; R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C6 alkoxy and C1-C6 alkyl; Y is selected from the group consisting of CHOH, CF2, CFH, carbonyl, NH, O and S; and R12 is H, C1-C6 alkoxy or C1-C6 alkyl. More particularly, suitable compounds include the following compounds: The present invention also encompasses compounds general structure: wherein R1 and R1 are independently selected from the group consisting of C1-C12 alkyl, C2-C12 alkenyl, C2-C12 alkynyl; R1g is selected from the group consisting of C1-C6 alkyl and (C1-C6 alkyl)OH; Q is R2 is C5-C12 alkyl, C2-C12 alkenyl (CH2)nO(CH2)m, C5-C10 (optionally substituted aryl), C5-C10 (optionally substituted heteroaryl) and C5-C10 (optionally substituted cycloalkyl); R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, C1-C6 alkoxy, C1-C6 alkyl, (CH2)nNH2, (CH2), cyano and C1-C6 alkylthio; R4 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, R5 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, methyl or ethyl; X is CH2, CHF, CF2 or CHOH; Y is selected from the group consisting of CHF, CF2, CHOH, carbonyl, NH, O or S; n and m are integers independently ranging from 0-10, with the proviso that X and Y are not both methylene. In one embodiment, R1 is methyl or ethyl, R2 is C5-C10 alkyl, C5-C10 aryl or C5-C10 alkoxy, R3 is H, C1-C6 alkoxy or C1-C6 alkyl, R4 is as defined immediately above, R5 is H, X is methylene and Y is a carbonyl group, —O— or —NH—; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. In another embodiment, Q is R2 and R1 are independently selected from the group consisting of C5-C12 alkyl and C2-C12 alkenyl and R15 is OH. The compounds of the present invention are anticipated to be high affinity agonists (or antagonists) at various sphingosine I-phosphate receptors of the ‘Edg’ family. The compounds of the present invention are also expected to evoke lymphopenia when introduced into rodents or humans. Thus the compounds of the invention are immune modulators and are useful in treatment or prophylaxis of pathologies mediated by lymphocyte actions including acute or chronic rejection of tissue grafts such as organ transplants or graft vs. host disease as well as autoimmune diseases. Autoimmunue diseases that could be treated with compounds of the invention include, but are not limited to: systemic lupus erythematosus, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel diseases including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, type I diabetes, uveitis, psoriasis and myasthenia gravis. The compounds of the invention are useful also in treating inflammatory disorders such as atopic asthma, inflammatory glomerular injury and ischemia-reperfusion injury. Compounds of formula XII wherein R15 is hydroxy are primary alcohols. It is hypothesized that the hydroxy moiety of the primary alcohols is converted to phosphates in vivo. Therefore, the primary alcohol S1P analogs of the present invention are expected to serve as prodrug forms of active S1P receptor modulating compounds. Therefore, in accordance with one embodiment pharmaceutical compositions comprising the primary alcohol S1P analogs of the present invention are administered to treat patients for a variety of ailments or conditions, including the use of the compounds for immuno-modulation to prevent or diminish tissue graft rejection. S1P is metabolized by a variety of conceivable routes including phosphatases, esterases or transported into cells. The S1P signal at receptors might be prolonged if the routes of degradation could be evaded or inhibited by S1P structural analogs. The S1P analogs of the present invention can be used, in accordance with one embodiment, to inhibit or evade endogenous S1P metabolic pathways including phosphotases, esterases, transporters and S1P acyl transferases. For example, those S1P analogs that lack an ester bond would be resistant to degradation by endogenous esterases. One embodiment of the present invention is directed to compounds that function as a S1P receptor agonists and antagonists that are resistant to hydrolysis by lipid phosphate phosphatases (LPPs) or are sub-type selective inhibitors of LPPs, and in particular are resistant to hydrolysis by sphingosine 1-phosphate phosphohydrolase. Previously described S1P mimetics contain a phosphate group, and thus are likely susceptible to hydrolysis by LPPs. Alpha hydroxy phosphonates are well known phosphate mimetics. For example, the compounds used clinically to treat osteoporosis (pamidronate, alendronate) are alpha hydroxy bisphosphonates that are analogs of pyrophosphate. S1P analogs can be prepared wherein the phosphate moiety is replaced by an alpha hydroxy phosphonate. Accordingly, one aspect of the present invention is directed to lipid phosphate phosphatase resistant S1P analogs having the general structures of Formula IX or I wherein R4 or R15, respectively, are selected from the group consisting of The compounds of the present invention can be used for immuno-modulation as well as in anti-angiogenesis therapy, most particularly as applied in therapy of neoplastic disease. In another embodiment, the SP1 analogs of the present invention are used in the protection of female gonads during radiation therapy such as applied to the abdomen in the course of treatment of neoplastic diseases. Lysophospholipids, sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) and lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), stimulate cellular proliferation and affect numerous cellular functions by signaling through G protein-coupled endothelial differentiation gene-encoded (S1P) receptors. Accordingly, the S1P receptor agonists disclosed in the present invention are anticipated to have utility in a variety of clinical settings including but not limited to the acceleration of wound healing (including corneal wounds), the promotion of myelination (oligodendrocyte cell function) and for immuno-modulation. In particular, LPA has been reported (Balazs et al. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol, 2001 280(2):R466-472) as having activity in accelerating wound closing and increasing neoepithelial thickness. In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, a pharmaceutical composition comprising one or more of the S1P receptor agonists of the present invention is administered to a mammalian species (including humans) to enhance wound repair, improve neuronal function or enhance an immune response of that species. It has also been reported that S1P inhibits fibrosis in various organs. Accordingly, the S1P receptor agonists of the present invention can be used to prevent/treat diseases associated with fibrosis of organs such as pulmonary fibrosis, interstitial pneumonia, chronic hepatitis, hepatic cirrhosis, chronic renal insufficiency or kidney glomerular sclerosis. In one embodiment, a composition comprising an S1P receptor agonist of the present invention is used to treat wounds, including burns, cuts, lacerations, surgical incisions, bed sores, and slow-healing ulcers such as those seen in diabetics. Typically the composition is administered locally as a topical formulation, however other standard routes of administration are also acceptable. In addition, it is believed that the S1P analogs of the present invention mobilize lymphocytes and increase their homing to secondary lymphoid tissues. Thus, the present analogs can be used to direct lymphocytes away from transplanted organs (allografts) or healthy cells (e.g. pancreatic islets (type I diabetes), myelin sheathing (multiple sclerosis)), or other tissues that may be subjected to an undesirable immuno response and thus decrease damage to such tissues from the immune system. In another embodiment, the S1P receptor modulating compounds of the present invention are administered to a subject to treat or prevent a disorder of abnormal cell growth and differentiation as well as inflammatory diseases. These disorders include, but are not limited to, Alzheimer's disease, aberrant corpus luteum formation, osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, anovulation, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis and cancer. In accordance with one embodiment, an S1P antagonist is administered to a patient to treat a disease associated with abnormal growth. In one embodiment, a composition comprising a compound of the general structure: wherein R11 is C5-C18 alkyl or C5-C18 alkenyl located in the meta or para position; Q is selected from the group consisting of C3-C6 optionally substituted cycloalkyl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heterocyclic, C3-C6 optionally substituted aryl C3-C6 optionally substituted heteroaryl, CH2CH2 and —NH(CO)—; R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C4 alkyl and (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO2H, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; and R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein X and R12 is selected from the group consisting of O and S; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier is administered to treat a patient suffering from a disease associated with abnormal cell growth. In one embodiment, the compound of Formula XI is administered to treat a patient suffering from a disease associated with abnormal cell growth wherein Q is —NH(CO)—, R24 is H; R23 is H or C1-C4 alkyl; R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy and wherein R12 is O or S, and in a further embodiment Q is R15 is OH; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. In addition, it is believed that the S1P analogs of the present invention mobilize lymphocytes and increase their homing to secondary lymphoid tissues. Thus, the present analogs can be used to direct lymphocytes away from transplanted organs (allografts) or healthy cells (e.g., pancreatic islets (type I diabetes), myelin sheathing (multiple sclerosis)), or other tissues that may be subjected to an undesirable immuno response and thus decrease damage to such tissues from the immune system. In accordance with one embodiment, the S1P analogs of the present invention are used for immuno-modulation, wherein immuno-modulation refers to an affect on the functioning of the immune system and includes lymphocyte trafficking. In accordance with one embodiment, an S1P analog of the present invention that exhibits potent agonist activity at S1P1 is administered to a warm blooded vertebrate, including a human, to induce immuno-modulation in a patient in need thereof. In one embodiment the S1P analog is specific or has enhanced activity at the S1P1 receptor subtype relative to one or more of the other S1P receptor subtypes. In one embodiment of the present invention, the S1P analogs of the present invention are used as immuno-modulators to alter immune system activities and prevent damage to healthy tissue that would otherwise occur in autoimmune diseases and in organ transplantation. In particular, the compounds can be administered to patients as part of the treatment associated with organ transplantation, including pancreas, pancreatic islets, kidney, heart and lung transplantations. The S1P analogs can be administered alone or in combo with known immuno-suppressants such as cyclosporine, tacrolimus, rapamycin, azathioprine, cyclophosphamide, methotrexate and corticosteroids such as cortisolo, cortisone, desoxymetasone, betametasone, desametasone, flunisolide, prednisolone, prednisone, amcinomide desonide, methylprednisolone, triamcinolone, and alclometasone. Additionally, the S1P analogs of the present invention can be administered to patients suffering from an autoimmune disease to treat that disease. Examples of diseases considered to be autoimmune in nature are: type I diabetes, systemic lupus erythematosus, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease including colitis and Crohn's disease, glomerulonephritis, uveitis, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, myasthenia gravis, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, autoimmune thrombocytopenic purpura, autoimmune hepatitis and Wegner's granuloma. In accordance with one embodiment, an immuno-modulation therapy is provided for treating mammals, including humans, in need thereof. The method comprises the steps of administering to said mammal an effective amount of a compound represented by the formula: wherein W is CR27R28 or (CH2)nNH(CO); wherein R27 and R28 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, halo and hydroxy; Y is selected from the group consisting of a bond, CR9R10, carbonyl, NH, O or S; wherein R9 and R10 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, halo, hydroxy and amino; Z is CH2, aryl, halo substituted aryl or heteroaryl; R11 and R16 are independently selected from the group consisting of C1-C18 alkyl, C2-C18 alkenyl, C2-C18 alkynyl, C5-C18 alkoxy, (CH2)pO(CH2)q, C5-C10 (aryl)R20, C5-C10 (heteroaryl)R20, C5-C10 (cycloalkyl)R20, C5-C10 alkoxy(aryl)R20, C5-C10 alkoxy(heteroaryl)R20 and C5-C10 alkoxy(cycloalkyl)R20; wherein R20 is H or C1-C10 alkyl; R29 is H or halo; R17 is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, NH2, C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy, C1-C6 alkylamino, C1-C6 alkylcyano and C1-C6 alkylthio; R2 and R21 are both NH2; R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R22 is selected from the group consisting of C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO2H, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; R25, R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, S, CHR26, CHR26, NR26, and N; wherein R26 is H, F or C1-C4 alkyl; R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein R12 is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; X is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; y and m are integers independently ranging from 0 to 4; p and q are integers independently ranging from 1 to 10; n is an integer ranging from 0 to 10; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof, with the proviso that W and Y are not both methylene. In one embodiment, the compound has the general structure of Formula II-VII as described herein to treat a patient by suppressing the immune system and diminishing damage to healthy tissue that would otherwise occur in autoimmune diseases and in organ transplantation. In one embodiment, the immuno-modulating compound has the general structure: wherein R6 is selected from the group consisting of C1-C10 alkyl and R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, and NH2 with the proviso that R2 and R3 are not the same, and either R2 or R3 is NH2; R21 is selected from the group consisting of C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; and R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein R12 is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; as well as pharmaceutically acceptable salts or tautomers of such compounds. The dosage to be used is, of course, dependent on the specific disorder to be treated, as well as additional factors including the age, weight, general state of health, severity of the symptoms, frequency of the treatment and whether additional pharmaceuticals accompany the treatment. The dosages are in general administered several times per day and preferably one to three times per day. The amounts of the individual active compounds are easily determined by routine procedures known to those of ordinary skill in the art. S1P also acts as a survival factor in many cell types. In particular, S1P receptor agonists are anticipated to have activity in protecting cells and tissues from hypoxic conditions. In accordance with one embodiment, the S1P antagonists of the present invention are administered to treat cells and tissues exposed to hypoxic conditions, including injury sustained as a result of ischemia. In accordance with one embodiment, the S1P analogs exhibiting S1P receptor antagonist activity can be used to treat ischemia reperfusion type injury. Interference with the supply of oxygenated blood to tissues is defined as ischemia. The effects of ischemia are known to be progressive, such that over time cellular vitality continues to deteriorate and tissues become necrotic. Total persistent ischemia, with limited oxygen perfusion of tissues, results in cell death and eventually in coagulation-induced necrosis despite reperfusion with arterial blood. A substantial body of evidence indicates that a significant proportion of the injury associated with ischemia is a consequence of the events associated with reperfusion of ischemic tissues, hence the term reperfusion injury. The present invention is also directed to pharmaceutical compositions comprising the S1P receptor modulating compounds of the present invention. More particularly, such S1P receptor agonists and antagonists can be formulated as pharmaceutical compositions using standard pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, fillers, solublizing agents and stabilizers known to those skilled in the art. Pharmaceutical compositions comprising the S1P receptor agonists and/or antagonists are administered to an individual in need thereof by any number of routes including, but not limited to, topical, oral, intravenous, intramuscular, intra-arterial, intramedullary, intrathecal, intraventricular, transdermal, subcutaneous, intraperitoneal, intranasal, enteral, topical, sublingual, or rectal means. The oral route is typically employed for most conditions requiring the compounds of the invention. Preference is given to intravenous injection or infusion for the acute treatments. For maintenance regimens the oral or parenteral, e.g. intramuscular or subcutaneous, route is preferred. In accordance with one embodiment, a composition is provided that comprises an S1P analog of the present invention and albumin, more particularly, the composition comprises an S1P analog of the present invention, a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and 0.1-1.0% albumin. Albumin functions as a buffer and improves the solubility of the compounds. The invention also provides a pharmaceutical pack or kit comprising one or more containers filled with one or more of the ingredients of the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention. In accordance with one embodiment, a kit is provided for treating a patient in need of immuno-modulation. In this embodiment the kit comprises one or more of the S1P analogs of the present invention and may also include one or more known immuno-supressants. These pharmaceuticals can be packaged in a variety of containers, e.g., vials, tubes, microtiter well plates, bottles, and the like. Other reagents can be included in separate containers and provided with the kit; e.g., positive control samples, negative control samples, buffers, cell culture media, etc. Preferably, the kits will also include instructions for use. The present invention is also directed to methods for discovering agonists and antagonists of the interaction between S1P and the S1P receptor. Such compounds are identified by using an assay for detecting S1P receptor activity (such as the [Y-35 S]GTP binding assay) and assaying for activity in the presence of S1P and the test compound. More particularly, in the method described by Traynor and Nahorski, 1995, Mol. Pharmacol. 47: 848-854, incorporated herein by reference, G-protein coupling to membranes can be evaluated by measuring the binding of labeled GTP. For example, samples comprising membranes isolated from cells expressing an S1P polypeptide can be incubated in a buffer promoting binding of the polypeptide to ligand (i.e. S1P), in the presence of radiolabeled GTP and unlabeled GDP (e.g., in 20 mM HEPES, pH 7.4, 100 mM NaCl, and 10 mM MgCl2, 80 pM 35S-GTPγS and 3 μM GDP), with and without a candidate modulator. The assay mixture is incubated for a suitable period of time to permit binding to and activation of the receptor (e.g., 60 minutes at 30° C.), after which time unbound labeled GTP is removed (e.g., by filtration onto GF/B filters). Bound, labeled GTP can be measured by liquid scintillation counting. A decrease of 10% or more in labeled GTP binding as measured by scintillation counting in a sample containing a candidate modulator, relative to a sample without the modulator, indicates that the candidate modulator is an inhibitor of S1P receptor activity. A similar GTP-binding assay can be performed without the presence of the ligand (i.e. S1P) to identify agents that act as agonists. In this case, ligand-stimulated GTP binding is used as a standard. An agent is considered an agonist if it induces at least 50% of the level of GTP binding induced by S1P when the agent is present at 10 uM or less, and preferably will induce a level which is the same as or higher than that induced by ligand. GTPase activity can be measured by incubating cell membrane extracts containing an S1P receptor with γ32P-GTP. Active GTPase will release the label as inorganic phosphate, which can be detected by separation of free inorganic phosphate in a 5% suspension of activated charcoal in 20 mM H3PO4, followed by scintillation counting. Controls would include assays using membrane extracts isolated from cells not expressing an S1P receptor (e.g., mock-transfected cells), in order to exclude possible non-specific effects of the candidate modulator. In order to assay for the effect of a candidate modulator on S1P-regulated GTPase activity, cell membrane samples can be incubated with a ligand (e.g., S1P), with and without the modulator, and a GTPase assay can be performed as described above. A change (increase or decrease) of 10% or more in the level of GTP binding or GTPase activity relative to samples without modulator is indicative of S1P modulation by a candidate modulator. Identified S1P receptor agonists and antagonists can be used to treat a variety of human diseases and disorders, including, but not limited to the treatment of infections such as bacterial, fungal, protozoan and viral infections, particularly infections caused by HIV-1 or HIV-2; pain; cancers; diabetes, obesity; anorexia; bulimia; asthma; Parkinson's disease; acute heart failure; hypotension; hypertension; urinary retention; osteoporosis; angina pectoris; myocardial infarction; stroke; ulcers; asthma; allergy; benign prostatic hypertrophy; migraine; vomiting; psychotic and neurological disorders, including anxiety, schizophrenia, manic depression, depression, delirium, dementia, and severe mental retardation. EXAMPLE 1 Chemical Syntheses of S1P Analogs To develop good mimetics for S1P, a synthetic route was designed that had several aspects in mind (Scheme 1). First, butoxycarbonyl protected L-serine was chosen as starting material primarily because it retrosynthetically resembled the linker region of S1P. In addition, the starting material is a cheap and commercially available protected amino acid. Secondly, chemodivergence was taken into consideration. Coupling of the long chain was performed late in the synthesis so that several chain lengths could be prepared from a common intermediate. Another important issue to address was the overwhelming insolubility of the final compounds. Due to this insolubility, the target molecules could not be purified by chromatography or crystallization methods, nor could they tolerate a simple workup. It was therefore necessary to design a final step that quantitatively generated only the target product, and allowed for removal of excess reagents under vacuum. This was accomplished by employing trifluoroacetic acid deprotection at the end of the route. The syntheses of the S1P analogs described in the synthetic schemes of Example 1 were accomplished using solvents purified by filtration through alumina (activity J) and unless otherwise indicated all reactions were conducted at room temperature. All reactions were performed under an inert atmosphere and all products were purified using 230-400 mesh silica gel. Each product was analyzed by thin layer chromatography (single spot) and spectroscopic methods including 1H NMR, 13C NMR, and mass spectrometry. The assigned structures of the S1P analogs were consistent with all spectral data obtained. All final products were obtained as the TFA salts. Synthesis of (2S) S1P Analogs VPC22041, 51, 53, and 63 % Yields Compound R A B C D E VPC22041 n-C12H25NH 100 100 91 33 100 VPC22051 n-C14H29NH 100 100 91 41 96 VPC22053 n-C14H29O 100 100 91 15 100 VPC22063 n-C16H33NH 100 100 91 26 100 Benzyl protection of N-Boc serine. To a stirring solution of N-Boc-(L)-Serine (4.87 mmol) in DMF (100 mL) was added cesium carbonate (5.11 mmol) and stirring was continued 30 min. Benzyl bromide (5.84 mmol) was then added and the resulting solution was stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ethyl acetate (25 mL), washed with lithium bromide (3×15 mL), sodium bicarbonate (2×15 mL), and brine (2×15 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate. The solvent was then removed under reduced pressure and the resulting tan oil was purified by flash chromatography, using 1:1 petroleum ether/diethyl ether, to afford the product (100%) as a white solid. Rf=0.26 (1:1 petroleum ether/diethyl ether). Phosphorylation of resulting alcohol. For phosphorylation, reaction is performed in the absence of light, work up and columns are completed with as little light as possible. To a solution of the benzyl protected serine (1.98 mmol) in 1:1 CH2Cl2/THF (50 mL) was added tetrazole (3.96 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 30 min. Di-tert-butyl-di-isopropylphosphoramidite (3.96 mmol) was then added and the resulting reaction mixture was stirred 15 h. Hydrogen peroxide (7.92 mmol) was then added and the resulting mixture was stirred 3 h, cooled to 0° C., and quenched by addition of aqueous Na2S2O5. The resulting solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (100 mL) and extracted with 50% aqueous Na2S2O5 (2×20 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to afford a tan oil. Flash chromatography, using 90:10 CHCl3/acetone, provided the product (97%) as a clear oil. Rf=0.67 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). Debenzylation of phosphorylated serine. To a solution of the phosphorylated serine (1.55 mmol) in 200 proof ethanol (25 mL) was added a catalytic amount of palladium on activated carbon. To the resulting solution was applied a positive pressure of hydrogen gas and the reaction mixture was stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then filtered through a plug of celite eluting with methanol and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the product (91%) as a slightly yellow oil. Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Coupling of long chain amine with phosphorylated acid. A solution of the acid (0.252 mmol), a catalytic amount of 4-dimethylaminopyridine, 1-hydroxybenzotriazole hydrate (0.277 mmol), the long chain amine or alcohol (0.252 mmol), and 15 mL of CH2Cl2 was cooled to 0° C. with stirring. To the resulting solution at 0° C. was added dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (0.277 mmol) and the mixture was allowed to return to rt. with stirring continuing for 12 h. The reaction mixture was then recooled to 0° C. and filtered. The filtrate washed with sodium bicarbonate (3×10 mL), ammonium chloride (3×10 mL), and the organic layers were dried over sodium sulfate. The solvent was then removed under reduced pressure and the resulting yellow oil was purified by flash chromatography to afford the product. VPC22041: 33%, white solid, Rf=0.78 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22051: 41%, white solid, Rf=0.80 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22053: 15%, white solid, Rf=0.20 (95:5 CHCl3/acetone). VPC22063: 26%, white solid, Rf=0.79 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Deprotection of N-Boc and phosphate groups. To a stirred solution of the protected final product (0.072 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (1 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (12.98 mmol) and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed affording a brown oil. The oil was rinsed with ether and the solvent was removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product. VPC22041: 100%, white solid, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22051: 96%, white solid, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22053: 100%, white solid, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22063: 100%, white solid, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). For S1P analog VPC22051 the PyBOP coupling procedure (as used in VPC22135) was used in place of DCC coupling. The product was obtained in 15% yield as a clear oil. Synthesis of (2R) S1P Analog VPC22135 Coupling of long chain amine with protected serine. To a stirring solution of N-Boc-(D)-Serine-OBn (0.847 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (20 mL) was added PyBOP (0.847 mmol) followed by diisopropylethylamine (0.847 mmol). After 5 min. of stirring, 1-tetradecylamine (0.847 mmol) was added and stirring was continued for 1 h after which time more 1-tetradecylamine was added (0.254 mmol). Stirring was continued for another 3 h and then the reaction mixture was diluted with ethyl acetate (20 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (3×15 mL), ammonium chloride (2×15 mL), and the organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate. Solvents were removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear gelatinous solid, which was purified by flash chromatography, using 95:5 CHCl3/methanol, to afford the product (68%) as a white solid. Rf=0.78 (95:5 CHCl3/methanol). Benzyl deprotection of coupled product. To a solution of the coupled product (0.579 mmol) in 200 proof ethanol (15 mL) was added a catalytic amount of palladium on activated carbon. To the resulting solution was applied a positive pressure of hydrogen gas and the reaction mixture was stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then filtered through a plug of celite eluting with methanol and then the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the product (87%) as a clear oil. Rf=0.5 (95:5 CHCl3/methanol). Phosphorylation of resulting alcohol. For phosphorylation, reaction is performed in the absence of light, work up and columns are completed with as little light as possible. To a solution of the alcohol (0.474 mmol) in 1:1 CH2Cl2/THF (20 mL) was added tetrazole (0.948 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 30 min. Di-tert-butyl-di-isopropylphosphoramidite (0.948 mmol) was then added and the resulting reaction mixture was stirred 15 h. Hydrogen peroxide (1.896 mmol) was then added and the resulting mixture was then stirred 24 h, cooled to 0° C., and quenched by addition of aqueous Na2S2O5. The resulting solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (50 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (2×15 mL), water (1×15 mL), and finally brine (1×15 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear oil. Flash chromatography, using 90:10 CHCl3/acetone, provided the product (100%) as a clear oil. Rf=0.23 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). Deprotection of N-Boc and phosphate groups. To a stirred solution of the protected product (0.071 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (1 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (12.98 mmol) and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed affording a brown oil. Rinsed oil with ether and removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product (56%) as a white solid. Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Synthesis of (2R) S1P Analog VPC22157, 173, 199, and 211 Coupling of long chain aniline with protected serine. To a stirring solution of N-Boc-(D)-Serine-OBn (0.339 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (10 mL) was added PyBOP (0.339 mmol) followed by diisopropylethylamine (0.339 mmol). After 5 min. of stirring, the aniline (0.339 mmol) was added and stirring was continued for 4 h. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ethyl acetate (10 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (3×10 mL), ammonium chloride (2×10 mL), and the organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate. Solvents were removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear gelatinous solid, which was purified by flash chromatography to afford the product. VPC22157: 77%, white solid, Rf=0.80 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). VPC22173: 73%, white solid, Rf=0.78 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). VPC22199: 65%, white solid, Rf=0.79 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). VPC22211: 71%, white solid, Rf=0.80 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). Benzyl deprotection of coupled product. To a solution of the coupled product (0.260 mmol) in 200 proof ethanol (10 mL) was added a catalytic amount of palladium on activated carbon. To the resulting solution was applied a positive pressure of hydrogen gas and the reaction mixture was stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then filtered through a plug of celite eluting with methanol and then the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the product. VPC22157: 85%, clear oil, Rf=0.50 (95:5 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22173: 60%, clear oil, Rf=0.55 (95:5 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22199: 70%, clear oil, Rf=0.48 (95:5 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22211: 9%, clear oil, Rf=0.53 (95:5 CHCl3/methanol). Phosphorylation of resulting alcohol. For phosphorylation, reaction is performed in the absence of light, work up and columns are completed with as little light as possible. To a solution of the alcohol (0.220 mmol) in 1:1 CH2Cl2/THF (10 mL) was added tetrazole (0.400 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 30 min. Di-tert-butyl-di-isopropylphosphoramidite (0.400 mmol) was then added and the resulting reaction mixture was stirred 15 h. Hydrogen peroxide (0.800 mmol) was then added and the resulting mixture was then stirred 24 h, cooled to 0° C., and quenched by addition of aqueous Na2S2O5. The resulting solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (25 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (2×10 mL), water (1×10 mL), and finally brine (1×10 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear oil. Flash chromatography provided the product as a clear oil. VPC22157: 84%, clear oil, Rf=0.23 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). VPC22173: 96%, clear oil, Rf=0.30 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). VPC22199: 87%, clear oil, Rf=0.72 (80:20 CHCl3/acetone). VPC22211: 90%, clear oil, Rf=0.58 (80:20 CHCl3/acetone). Deprotection of N-Boc and phosphate groups. To a stirred solution of the protected product (0.162 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (2 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (25.96 mmol) and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed affording a brown oil. Rinsed oil with ether and removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product. VPC22157: 100%, white solid, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22173: 58%, white solid, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22199: 75%, white solid, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22211: 100%, white solid, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Synthesis of (2S) S1P Analogs VPC22179 and 181 Benzyl protection of N-Boc serine. To a stirring solution of N-Boc-(L)-Serine (2.44 mmol) in DMF (50 mL) was added cesium carbonate (2.56 mmol) and stirring was continued 30 min. Benzyl bromide (2.92 mmol) was then added and the resulting solution was stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ethyl acetate (15 mL), washed with lithium bromide (3×10 mL), sodium bicarbonate (2×10 mL), and brine (2×10 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate. The solvent was then removed under reduced pressure and the resulting tan oil was purified by flash chromatography, using 1:1 petroleum ether/diethyl ether, to afford the product (100%) as a white solid. Rf=0.26 (1:1 petroleum ether/diethyl ether). Phosphorylation of resulting alcohol. For phosphorylation, reaction is performed in the absence of light, work up and columns are completed with as little light as possible. To a solution of the benzyl protected serine (2.22 mmol) in 1:1 CH2Cl2/THF (100 mL) was added tetrazole (4.43 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 30 min. Di-tert-butyl-di-isopropylphosphoramidite (4.43 mmol) was then added and the resulting reaction mixture was stirred 15 h. Hydrogen peroxide (8.86 mmol) was then added and the resulting mixture was stirred 3 h, cooled to 01 C, and quenched by addition of aqueous Na2S2O5. The resulting solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (100 mL) and extracted with 50% aqueous Na2S2O5 (2×20 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to afford a tan oil. Flash chromatography, using 90:10 CHCl3/acetone, provided the product (97%) as a clear oil. Rf=0.67 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). Debenzylation of phosphorylated serine. To a solution of the phosphorylated serine (1.55 mmol) in 200 proof ethanol (25 mL) was added a catalytic amount of palladium on activated carbon. To the resulting solution was applied a positive pressure of hydrogen gas and the reaction mixture was stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then filtered through a plug of celite eluting with methanol and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the product (91%) as a slightly yellow oil. Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Coupling of long chain aniline with phosphorylated acid. To a stirring solution of the phosphorylated acid (0.252 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (10 mL) was added PyBOP (0.252 mmol) followed by diisopropylethylamine (0.252 mmol). After 5 min. of stirring, the aniline (0.252 mmol) was added and stirring was continued for 4 h. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ethyl acetate (10 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (3×10 mL), ammonium chloride (2×10 mL), and the organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate. Solvents were removed under reduced pressure to afford the product. VPC22179: 43%, white solid, Rf=0.40 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). VPC22181: 60%, white solid, Rf=0.35 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). Deprotection of N-Boc and phosphate groups. To a stirred solution of the protected final product (0.117 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (1.5 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (19.48 mmol) and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed affording a brown oil. The oil was rinsed with ether and the solvent was removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product. VPC22179: 100%, white solid, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22181: 100%, white solid, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Synthesis of (2R) S1P Analog VPC22277 Tosyl protection of the long chain aniline. To a stirring solution of the 4-decylaniline (0.428 mmol) in pyridine (3 mL) under inert atmosphere at 0° C. was added tosyl chloride (0.428 mmol). The reaction mixture was warmed to r.t. After 20 min., the reaction mixture was diluted with water (10 mL) and ethyl acetate (10 mL). The aqueous layer was discarded and the organic layer washed with 1N HCl (3×10 mL), sat. sodium bicarbonate (3×10 mL) and brine (2×10 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the product (81%) as pink crystals, which needed no further purification. Rf=0.82 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). Reduction of protected amino acid. At −10° C., under inert atmosphere, N-Boc-(D)-Ser-OBz (0.678 mmol) and diisopropylethylamine (0.678 mmol) were added to stirring THF (3 mL). Isobutylchloroformate (0.745 mmol) was then slowly added. The reaction mixture was allowed to stir for 1 h until a precipitate was observed. The reaction mixture was then filtered and the filtrate was re-cooled to −10° C. Meanwhile, sodium borohydride (1.36 mmol) was dissolved in stirring water (0.5 mL) under inert atmosphere and this mixture was cooled to −10° C. The original reaction mixture was then cannulated into the sodium borohydride mixture slowly and the newly formed reaction mixture was brought to r.t. and stirred 1 h. The reaction mixture was then quenched by addition of sat. ammonium chloride (5 mL), diluted with ethyl acetate (15 mL) and the aqueous layer was discarded. The organic layer was then washed with sat. ammonium chloride (3×10 mL), sat. sodium bicarbonate (3×10 mL) and finally brine (1×10 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the crude product as a white solid. The crude product was purified by flash chromatography, using 80:20 CHCl3/acetone, to afford the product (42%) as a white solid. Rf=0.48 (80:20 CHCl3/acetone). Coupling of aniline with alcohol. To a stirring solution of the aniline (0.209 mmol) in THF (3 mL) under an inert atmosphere was added triphenylphospine (0.254 mmol), the alcohol (0.105 mmol), and finally DEAD (0.209 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred 12 h and then concentrated to a clear oil. Petroleum ether was added to the clear oil and solid triphenylphosphine oxide was allowed to settle on the bottom of the flask. The clear petroleum ether layer was then pipetted off and concentrated to a clear oil. The crude product was then subjected to flash chromatography, using 1:1 petroleum ether/ether, to afford the final product (50%) as a white solid. Rf=0.83 (1:1 petroleum ether/ether). Tosyl deprotection of the coupled product. Ammonia (20 mL) was condensed in a 2-neck round bottom flask equipped with a stirbar and cold finger that was cooled to −70° C. under an inert atmosphere. Sodium metal (4.27 mmol) was then added to the reaction mixture followed by the tosyl protected amine (0.427 mmol) in THF (8 mL). The dark blue reaction mixture was stirred for 1 h at −70° C. and was then quenched with ethanol until the solution was clear/white and the reaction mixture was then stirred at r.t. overnight. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ethyl acetate (20 mL) and washed with sat. ammonium chloride (3×20 mL), sat. sodium bicarbonate (3×20 mL), and finally brine (1×20 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the crude product as a clear oil. The crude product was purified by flash chromatography, using 1:1 ethyl acetate/hexanes, to afford the product (40%) as a white solid. Rf=0.42 (1:1 ethyl acetate/hexanes). Phosphorylation of resulting alcohol. For phosphorylation, reaction is performed in the absence of light, work up and columns are completed with as little light as possible. To a solution of the alcohol (0.130 mmol) in 1:1 CH2Cl2/THF (5 mL) was added tetrazole (0.130 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 30 min. Di-tert-butyl-di-isopropylphosphoramidite (0.130 mmol) was then added and the resulting reaction mixture was stirred 15 h. Hydrogen peroxide (30%, 0.044 mL) was then added and the resulting mixture was then stirred 24 h, cooled to 0° C., and quenched by addition of aqueous Na2S2O5. The resulting solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (10 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (2×10 mL), water (1×10 mL), and finally brine (1×10 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear oil. Flash chromatography, using 1:1 ethyl acetate/hexanes, provided the product (12%) as a clear oil. Rf=0.41 (1:1 ethyl acetate/hexanes). Deprotection of N-Boc and phosphate groups. To a stirred solution of the protected final product (0.016 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (0.5 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (6.49 mmol) and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid was removed affording a brown oil. The oil was rinsed with ether and the solvent was removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product (100%) as a white solid. Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Synthesis of (2R) S1P Analog VPC23031, 19, 65, 69, 75 and 79 % Yields Compound(s) n A B C D E F G VPC23031 4 24 66 52 100 X 90 100 VPC23019 6 100 85 90 95 X 56 92 VPC23065, 69 8 34 84 84 89 100 89 86 VPC23075, 79 7 66 100 100 27 93 77 100 Coupling of aryl halide with terminal alkyne. All starting materials were thoroughly flushed with nitrogen before the reaction. To a stirring solution of the aryl halide (2.01 mmol), bis(dibenzylideneacetone) palladium (0.04 mmol), triphenylphosphine (0.10 mmol), and copper iodide (0.04 mmol) in THF (10 mL) under inert atmosphere was added the terminal alkyne (2.21 mmol) followed by diisopropylethylamine (8.04 mmol). The reaction mixture was then stirred at r.t. for 12 h. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ethyl acetate (15 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (3×15 mL), ammonium chloride (3×15 mL) and finally brine (1×15 mL). The organic layer was then dried over sodium sulfate. Solvents were removed under reduced pressure to afford a tan oil. Flash chromatography provided the final product. VPC23031: 24%, yellow oil, Rf=0.61 (90:10 hexanes/ether). VPC23019: 100%, yellow oil, Rf=0.55 (90:10 hexanes/ether). VPC23065, 69: 66%, yellow oil, Rf=0.75 (90:10 hexanes/ether). VPC23075, 79: 34%, yellow oil, Rf=0.75 (90:10 hexanes/ether). Reduction of the coupled product. To a solution of the coupled product (1.68 mmol) in 200 proof ethanol (10 mL) was added a catalytic amount of palladium on activated carbon. To the resulting solution was applied a positive pressure of hydrogen gas and the reaction mixture was stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then filtered through a plug of celite eluting with methanol and then the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the crude product. VPC23031: 66%, yellow solid, Rf=0.53 (95:5 CHCl3/acetone). VPC23019: 85%, yellow solid, Rf=0.55 (95:5 CHCl3/acetone). VPC23065, 69: 84%, yellow solid, Rf=0.79 (95:5 CHCl3/acetone). VPC23075, 79: 100%, yellow solid, Rf=0.80 (95:5 CHCl3/acetone). Coupling of long chain aniline with protected serine. To a stirring solution of N-Boc-(D)-Serine-OBn (0.740 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (20 mL) was added PyBOP (0.740 mmol) followed by diisopropylethylamine (0.740 mmol). After 5 min. of stirring, the aniline (0.740 mmol) was added and stirring was continued for 4 hours. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ethyl acetate (20 mL) and washed with 1 N HCl (3×20 mL), sodium bicarbonate (3×20 mL), and finally brine (1×20 mL), and the organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate. Solvents were removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear oil, which was purified by flash chromatography to afford the product. VPC23031: 52%, clear oil, Rf=0.35 (dichloromethane). VPC23019: 90%, clear oil, Rf=0.61 (70:30 hexanes/ethyl acetate). VPC23065, 69: 84%, clear oil, Rf=0.82 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). VPC23075, 79: 100%, clear oil, Rf=0.92 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). Benzyl deprotection of coupled product. To a solution of the coupled product (0.667 mmol) in 200 proof ethanol (15 mL) was added a catalytic amount of palladium on activated carbon. To the resulting solution was applied a positive pressure of hydrogen gas and the reaction mixture was stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then filtered through a plug of celite eluting with methanol and then the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the product. VPC23031: 100%, clear oil, Rf=0.27 (70:30 hexanes/ethyl acetate). VPC23019: 95%, clear oil, Rf=0.28 (70:30 hexanes/ethyl acetate). VPC23065, 69: 89%, clear oil, Rf=0.62 (1:1 hexanes/ethyl acetate). VPC23075, 79: 27%, clear oil, Rf=0.43 (1:1 hexanes/ethyl acetate). Deprotection to afford free alcohol. To a stirred solution of the N-Boc protected alcohol (0.143 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (2 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (25.96 mmol) and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed affording a brown oil. The oil was rinsed with ether and the solvent was removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product. VPC23065: 100%, white solid, Rf=0.2 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC23075: 93%, white solid, Rf=0.2 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Phosphorylation of N-Boc protected alcohol. For phosphorylation, the reaction is performed in the absence of light, work up and columns are completed with as little light as possible. To a solution of the alcohol (0.247 mmol) in 1:1 CH2Cl2/THF (15 mL) was added tetrazole (0.495 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 30 min. Di-tert-butyl-di-isopropylphosphoramidite (0.495 mmol) was then added and the resulting reaction mixture was stirred 15 h. Hydrogen peroxide (0.989 mmol) was then added and the resulting mixture was then stirred 24 h, cooled to 0° C., and quenched by addition of aqueous Na2S2O5. The resulting solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (25 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (3×15 mL), ammonium chloride (3×15 mL), and finally brine (1×15 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear oil. Flash chromatography provided the product. VPC23031: 90%, clear oil, Rf=0.80 (80:20 ether/ethyl acetate). VPC23019: 56%, clear oil, Rf=0.82 (80:20 ether/ethyl acetate). VPC23069: 89%, clear oil, Rf=0.85 (90:10 ether/ethyl acetate). VPC23079: 77%, clear oil, Rf=0.85 (90:10 ether/ethyl acetate). Deprotection of N-boc and phosphate groups. To a stirred solution of the protected product (0.162 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (2 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (25.96 mmol) and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed affording a brown oil. Rinsed oil with ether and removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product. VPC23031: 100%, clear oil, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC23019: 92%, clear oil, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC23069: 86%, clear oil, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC23079: 100%, clear oil, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Synthesis of (2R)S1P Analog VPC23087 and 89: Coupling of aryl halide with terminal alkyne. All starting materials were thoroughly flushed with nitrogen before the reaction. To a stirring solution of the aryl halide (2.01 mmol), bis(dibenzylideneacetone) palladium (0.04 mmol), triphenylphosphine (0.10 mmol), and copper iodide (0.04 mmol) in THF (10 mL) under inert atmosphere was added the terminal alkyne (2.21 mmol) followed by diisopropylethylamine (8.04 mmol). The reaction mixture was then stirred at r.t. for 12 h. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ethyl acetate (15 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (3×15 mL), ammonium chloride (3×15 mL) and finally brine (1×15 mL). The organic layer was then dried over sodium sulfate. Solvents were removed under reduced pressure to afford a tan oil. Flash chromatography, using 70:30 hexanes/ethyl acetate provided the final product (44%) as a yellow solid. Rf=0.79 (70:30 hexanes/ethyl acetate). Coupling of long chain aniline with protected serine. To a stirring solution of N-boc-(D)-Serine-OBn (0.288 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (10 mL) was added PyBOP (0.288 mmol) followed by diisopropylethylamine (0.288 mmol). After 5 min. of stirring, the aniline (0.288 mmol) was added and stirring was continued for 4 hours. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ethyl acetate (10 mL) and washed with 1 N HCl (3×10 mL), sodium bicarbonate (3×10 mL), and finally brine (1×10 mL), and the organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate. Solvents were removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear oil. Flash chromatography, using 70:30 hexanes/ethyl acetate provided the final product (65%) as a clear oil. Rf=0.64 (70:30 hexanes/ethyl acetate). Benzyl deprotection and reduction of coupled product. To a solution of the coupled product (0.188 mmol) in 200 proof ethanol (10 mL) was added a catalytic amount of palladium on activated carbon. To the resulting solution was applied a positive pressure of hydrogen gas and the reaction mixture was stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then filtered through a plug of celite eluting with methanol and then the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the crude product as a clear oil. Flash chromatography, using 1:1 hexanes/ethyl acetate provided the final product (49%) as a clear oil. Rf=0.51 (1:1 hexanes/ethyl acetate). Deprotection to afford free alcohol. To a stirred solution of the N-Boc protected alcohol (0.025 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (1 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (12.98 mmol) and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed affording a brown oil. The oil was rinsed with ether and the solvent was removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product (100%) as a white solid. Rf=0.2 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Phosphorylation of N-Boc protected alcohol. For phosphorylation, reaction is performed in the absence of light, work up and columns are completed with as little light as possible. To a solution of the alcohol (0.092 mmol) in 1:1 CH2Cl2/THF (10 mL) was added tetrazole (0.183 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 30 min. Di-tert-butyl-di-isopropylphosphoramidite (0.183 mmol) was then added and the resulting reaction mixture was stirred 15 h. Hydrogen peroxide (0.367 mmol) was then added and the resulting mixture was then stirred 24 h, cooled to 0° C., and quenched by addition of aqueous Na2S2O5. The resulting solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (15 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (3×15 mL), ammonium chloride (3×15 mL), and finally brine (1×15 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear oil. Flash chromatography, using 90:10 ethyl acetate/ether provided the final product (93%) as a clear oil. Rf=0.85 (90:10 ethyl acetate/ether). Deprotection of N-Boc and phosphate groups. To a stirred solution of the protected product (0.063 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (2 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (25.96 mmol) and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed affording a brown oil. The oil was rinsed with ether and the solvent was removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product (100%) as a white solid. Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Synthesis of (2R) Benzimidazole Compound: Acetylation of the aniline. To a stirring solution of acetic anhydride (10 mL) under inert atmosphere was added octyl aniline (0.738 mmol) and stirring was continued for 1 h. Sat. aqueous sodium bicarbonate was then added to neutralize and acetic acid present. The aqueous solution was then extracted with ethyl acetate (3×15 mL) and the combined organic extracts were dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated to afford the final product (100%) as a yellow solid that was used without further purification. Rf=0.48 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). Nitration of the acetylated aniline. To a stirring solution of acetic acid (1.08 mL), acetic anhydride (0.73 mL), and nitric acid (0.20 mL) at −15° C. under an inert atmosphere was added the acetylated aniline (0.91 mmol) in approx. 1 mL of acetic acid over a period of 3 h. Reaction mixture was periodically warmed to 0° C. to avoid freezing. The reaction mixture was stirred for an additional hour and was then diluted with ethyl acetate (10 mL) and neutralized using 1M NaOH and sat. aqueous sodium bicarbonate. The organic layer was removed and the aqueous portion washed twice more with ethyl acetate (10 mL each). The organic layers were combined and dried over sodium sulfate and then concentrated to a yellow solid. Flash chromatography, using 95:5 CHCl3/acetone provided the final product (100%) as a yellow solid. Rf=0.68 (95:5 CHCl3/acetone). Deacetylation of the aniline. To a stirring solution of the nitrated, acetylated aniline (0.62 mmol) in ethanol (2.5 mL) under an inert atmosphere was added 40% KOH (0.13 mL). The reaction mixture was then heated to reflux for 1 h. The solution was then cooled in ice and brought to pH=6 using conc. HCl. This mixture was then concentrated to an orange solid and redissolved in ether (10 mL) and washed with sat. aqueous sodium bicarbonate (2×10 mL) and brine (1×10 mL). The organic layer was then dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated to afford the final product (84%) as an orange solid that was used without further purification. Rf=0.82 (95:5 CHCl3/acetone). Reduction of the nitro group. To a stirring solution of the nitrated aniline (0.248 mmol) in acetic acid (5 mL) was added a catalytic amount of zinc dust and stirring was continued overnight under an inert atmosphere. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ether and filtered through a plug of celite under and inert atmosphere using ether to elute. Care was taken not to expose the ether solution to air. The solution was then concentrated to afford the final product (92%) as a reddish-brown oil which was used directly in the next step without further purification. Rf=0.05 (95:5 CHCl3/acetone). Coupling of the diamine with protected serine. A solution of N-boc-(D)-Serine-OBn (0.999 mmol), PyBOP (0.999 mmol), diisopropylethylamine (0.999 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (25 mL) was stirred 5 min. under an inert atmosphere and then cannulated into a flask containing the diamine (0.999 mmol). This reaction mixture was then stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ethyl acetate (30 mL) and washed with sat. aqueous sodium bicarbonate (3×3 mL), ammonium chloride (3×30 mL), and finally brine (1×30 mL), and the organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate. Solvents were removed under reduced pressure to afford a brown oil. Flash chromatography, using 90:10 CHCl3/acetone provided the final product (17%) as a brown oil. Rf=0.52 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). Benzyl deprotection of coupled product. To a solution of the coupled product (0.167 mmol) in 200 proof ethanol (10 mL) and a catalytic amount of formic acid was added a catalytic amount of palladium on activated carbon. To the resulting solution was applied a positive pressure of hydrogen gas and the reaction mixture was stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then filtered through a plug of celite eluting with methanol and then the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the crude product as a tan oil. Prep. plate thin layer chromatography, using 90:10 CHCl3/acetone provided the final product (57%) as a tan/white solid. Rf=0.08 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). Deprotection to afford free alcohol. To a stirring solution of the N-Boc protected alcohol (0.008 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (0.5 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (0.5 mL) and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed affording a brown oil. The oil was rinsed with ether and the solvent was removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product (100%) as a tan solid. Rf=0.2 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Phosphorylation of N-Boc protected alcohol. For phosphorylation, reaction is performed in the absence of light, work up and columns are completed with as little light as possible. To a solution of the alcohol (0.085 mmol) in 1:1 CH2Cl2/THF (5 mL) was added tetrazole (0.170 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 30 min. Di-tert-butyl-di-isopropylphosphoramidite (0.170 mmol) was then added and the resulting reaction mixture was stirred 15 h. Hydrogen peroxide (0.340 mmol) was then added and the resulting mixture was then stirred 4 h, cooled to 0° C., and quenched by addition of aqueous Na2S2O5. The resulting solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (10 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (3×10 mL), ammonium chloride (3×10 mL), and finally brine (1×10 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to afford the product. Deprotection of N-Boc and phosphate groups. To a stirring solution of the protected product in CH2Cl2 was added trifluoroacetic acid and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed affording a brown oil. The oil was rinsed with ether and the solvent was removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product. EXAMPLE 2 All reactions for the synthetic schemes of Example 2 were accomplished using solvents purified by filtration through alumina (activity I) immediately prior to use. All reactions were performed under an inert atmosphere of nitrogen unless otherwise noted. All reagents were purchased from either Aldrich (Milwaukee, Wis.), Sigma (St. Louis, Mo.), Acros (Pittsburgh, Pa.), Advanced ChemTech (Louisville, Ky.), or Novabiochem (La Jolla, Calif.). Merck silica gel F-254 precoated, aluminum backed plates were used for thin layer chromatography (TLC) analysis. Analtech Silica Gel GF 500 or 1000 μm precoated, glass backed plates were used for preparative TLC. Silicycle Ultra Pure Silica Gel (230-400 mesh) or Fisher Scientific Silica Gel 60 Sorbent (230-400 mesh) was used for column chromatography. Each product was analyzed by TLC (single spot) and spectroscopic methods including 1H NMR, 13C NMR, and mass spectrometry. The nuclear magnetic resonance spectra were collected using a General Electric QE300 spectrometer at 300 MHz and chemical shifts are reported in ppm. The assigned structures of the S1P analogs were consistent with all spectral data obtained. Synthesis of Imidiazole Analog Reagents and Conditions: (i) NaH, THF 0° to R.T. 45 min., then Selectfluor 0° to R.T., overnight, 53%; (ii) SOCl2, MeOH, R.T., 4-6 h.; (iii) Boc2O, TEA, CH2Cl2, R.T., 4 h.; (iv) 2,2-dimethoxypropane, p-toluenesulfonic acid, CH2Cl2, R.T., 2 h., 62% (3 steps) (v) LiCl, NaBH4, EtOH/THF (3:2), 0° to R.T., 4 h, 89%; (vi) PCC, CH2Cl2, R.T., 6 h.; (vii) DBU, LiCl, CH3CN, R.T., overnight, 40% (2 steps); (viii) Dowex 50×8, EtOH, R.T. 24 h., 80%; (ix) PCC, CH2Cl2, R.T., 6 h. (x) NaClO2, NaH2PO4.H2O, t-butanol, 2-methyl-2-butene; (xi) p-octyl aniline, PyBOP, DIEA, CH2Cl2, R.T., overnight; (xii) H2, 10% Pd/C, EtOH, R.T. overnight; (xiii) TMSBr, CH2Cl2, R.T., 4 h., then 95% CH3OH in H2O, R.T., 1 h. 2-Bromo-1-(4-octyl-phenyl)-ethanone (1). To a flame dried round bottom flask equipped with a magnetic stirbar under an inert atmosphere was added AlCl3 (5.47 g; 41 mmol) followed by 1,2-dichloroethane (22 mL). The stirring suspension was then brought to 0° C. and 1-phenyloctane (7.99 mL, 36 mmol) was added in one portion. Bromoacetyl bromide (3.75 mL, 43 mmol) was then added dropwise over a period of 10 minutes. Upon completing addition of the acid bromide, the reaction mixture was brought to rt and stirred for 2 h. The reaction mixture was then quenched carefully by slow addition of H2O (36 mL) without ever letting the reaction mixture exceed 45° C. producing a suspension of solid white precipitate. The aqueous layer of the quenched reaction mixture was discarded and the organic phase washed once with 10% HCl (10 mL), washed once with H2O (10 mL), and dried over magnesium sulfate. The dried organic phase was then concentrated in vacuo to a green/brown oil. Recrystallization from MeOH/H2O provided the product 1 (6.36 g, 57%) as white needles in three crops. Rf=0.21 (1:19 EtOAc/hexanes). 2-Amino-3-hydroxy-2-methyl-propionic acid methyl ester (2). A stirring solution of α-methyl-DL-Serine (1 g, 8.39 mmol) in MeOH (40 mL) in a flame dried round bottom flask under an inert atmosphere was cooled to 0° C. and SOCl2 (1.84 mL, 25.19 mmol) was slowly added. After addition of the SOCl2 was complete, the reaction mixture was stirred 12 h at rt and then concentrated in vacuo to a white solid that was used directly in the next reaction. 2-tert-Butoxycarbonylamino-3-hydroxy-2-methyl-propionic acid methyl ester (3). To the crude product obtained in the above reaction was slowly added sat. aq. NaHCO3 (12.5 mL) followed by solid NaHCO3 (500 mg) and the reaction mixture was stirred 30 min under an inert atmosphere. THF (12.5 mL) was then added to the reaction mixture followed by di-tert-butyl dicarbonate (1.83 g, 8.39 mmol) and stirring at rt was continued for 12 h. The reaction mixture was then diluted with H2O (20 mL) and extracted with EtOAc (3×20 mL). The combined EtOAc extracts were dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated in vacuo to a thick white paste. To this paste was added hexanes which produced 3 (630 mg, 32% for 2 steps) as a white precipitate which was collected by filtration. Rf=0.35 (1:1 EtOAc/hexanes). 2,2,4-Trimethyl-oxazolidine-3,4-dicarboxylic acid 3-tert-butyl ester 4-methyl ester (4). To a stirring solution of 3 (9.342 g, 40 mmol) in acetone (115 mL) in a flame dried round bottom flask under an inert atmosphere was added 2,2-dimethoxypropane (66 mL). To this solution was added BF3.OEt2 (0.30 mL, cat.) and stirring was continued at rt for 2 h. The reaction mixture was then concentrated in vacuo to an orange oil which was purified by flash chromatography to provide 4 (9.392 g, 85%) as a white solid. Rf=0.55 (1:3 EtOAc/hexanes). Compound was observed as an uneven mixture of rotomers. 2,2,4-Trimethyl-oxazolidine-3,4-dicarboxylic acid 3-tert-butyl ester (5). To a stirring solution of 4 (9.392 g, 34 mmol) in THF (65 mL) and H2O (35 mL) under an inert atmosphere was added solid LiOH.H2O (1.426 g, 34 mmol) in one portion. The reaction mixture was heated to 90° C. and stirred 8 h at which point the reaction mixture was cooled to rt. The crude reaction mixture washed with Et2O (3×50 mL) and the Et2O extracts were discarded. The aqueous solution was then acidified with 2M KHSO4 until a white precipitate began to form on addition, pH=5. The acid was added dropwise until the precipitate persisted and the aqueous solution was extracted with Et2O (50 mL). After extraction, two addition drops of acid were added to the aqueous layer and it was again extracted with Et2O (25 mL). The Et2O extracts were combined and quickly back extracted with 1M NaOH (15 mL). The organic phase was then dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated in vacuo to give 5 (7.458 g, 85%) as a white solid which was used without further purification. Compound was observed as an uneven mixture of rotomers. 2,2,4-Trimethyl-4-[5-(4-octyl-phenyl)-1H-imidazol-2-yl]-oxazolidine-3-carboxylic acid tert-butyl ester (6). To a flame dried round bottom flask equipped with a magnetic stirbar under an inert atmosphere was added 5 (3.00 g, 11.6 mmol) followed by absolute EtOH (33 mL) and Cs2CO3 (1.93 g, 5.9 mmol). This mixture was then shaken 30 min at which time all of the suspended Cs2CO3 had disappeared. The reaction mixture was then concentrated in vacuo to a white solid at which time DMF (60 mL) was added. To the stirring solution was added a solution of 1 (3.60 g, 11.6 mmol) in DMF (5 mL). The resulting solution was stirred 4 h and concentrated to a light brown solid. To the light brown solid was added EtOAc (50 mL) and the suspended CsBr was filtered off and washed with EtOAc. The filtrate was then concentrated to a light brown foam which was subsequently dissolved in xylenes (195 mL) in a round bottom flask equipped with a Dean-Stark trap (filled with xylenes) and a reflux condenser. To this solution was added NH4OAc (1.74 g, 22.6 mmol) and the reaction mixture was brought to 105° C. and stirred 3 h at which time the reaction would progress no further. The crude reaction mixture was then concentrated in vacuo to a red oil. To the oil was added EtOAc (200 mL) and this solution washed with sat. aq. NaHCO3 (3×50 mL) followed by brine solution (1×50 mL). The organic phase was then dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated to a red oil which was subjected to flash chromatography to give 6 (1.074 g, 20%) as a white solid. Rf=0.45 (6:4 Et2O/petroleum ether). 2-Amino-2-[5-(4-octyl-phenyl)-1H-imidazol-2-yl]-propan-1-ol (VPC24241). To a flame dried round bottom flask equipped with a magnetic stirbar under an inert atmosphere was added 6 (973 mg, 2.07 mmol) followed by MeOH (20 mL) and p-TsOH.H2O (1.22 g, 6.42 mmol). This mixture was then heated to reflux, stirred 3 h, cooled to 0° C., and quenched by slow addition of sat. aq. NaHCO3 (20 mL). This solution was then diluted with EtOAc (30 mL) and the aqueous layer was discarded. The organic phase washed with sat. aq. NaHCO3 (1×20 mL), washed with 1M NaOH (1×20 mL), dried over sodium sulfate, and concentrated to an orange oil. To this oil was added Et2O which produced VPC24241 (408 mg, 60%) as a white precipitate which was collected by filtration. {2-Hydroxy-1-methyl-1-[5-(4-octyl-phenyl)-1H-imidazol-2-yl]-ethyl}-carbamic acid tert-butyl ester (7). To a vigorously stirring solution of VPC24241 (70 mg, 0.213 mmol) in THF (4 mL) and H2O (2 mL) was added Na2CO3 (198 mg, 1.87 mmol) followed by di-tert-butyl dicarbonate (214 mg, 0.98 mmol) and the resulting solution was stirred 12 h at rt. The reaction mixture was then diluted with EtOAc (20 mL) and washed with saturated aq. NaHCO3 (2×15 mL). The organic phase was dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated in vacuo to a clear oil which solidified to a white solid under vacuum. This white solid was then subjected to flash chromatography to produce 7 (52 mg, 57%) as a white solid. Rf=0.50 (1:1 EtOAc/hexanes). {2-(Di-tert-butoxy-phosphoryloxy)-1-methyl-1-[5-(4-octyl-phenyl)-1H-imidazol-2-yl]-ethyl}-carbamic acid tert-butyl ester (8). To a solution of 7 (33 mg, 0.077 mmol) in 1:1 CH2Cl2/THF (3 mL) was added a 3% solution of tetrazole in acetonitrile (0.44 mL, 0.154 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 30 min. Di-tert-butyl-di-isopropylphosphoramidite (0.05 mL, 0.154 mmol) was then added and the resulting reaction mixture was stirred 12 h. To this solution was added 30% hydrogen peroxide (0.04 mL, 0.308 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 3 h, cooled to 0° C., and quenched by addition of aqueous Na2S2O5. The resulting solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (10 mL) and washed with saturated aq. NaHCO3 (2×5 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear oil. Flash chromatography, using 1:1 EtOAc/hexanes, provided 8 (22 mg, 46%) as a clear oil. Rf=0.45 (1:1 EtOAc/hexanes). {2-(Di-tert-butoxy-thiophosphoryloxy)-1-methyl-1-[5-(4-octyl-phenyl)-1H-imidazol-2-yl]-ethyl}-carbamic acid tert-butyl ester (9). To a solution of 7 (19 mg, 0.044 mmol) in 1:1 CH2Cl2/THF (2 mL) was added a 3% solution of tetrazole in acetonitrile (0.26 mL, 0.089 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 30 min. Di-tert-butyl-di-isopropylphosphoramidite (0.03 mL, 0.089 mmol) was then added and the resulting reaction mixture was stirred 12 h. To this solution was added elemental sulfur (excess) and the resulting mixture was stirred 12 h. The resulting solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (7 mL) and washed with saturated aq. NaHCO3 (2×3 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear oil with yellow tint. Flash chromatography, using 1:3 EtOAc/hexanes, provided 9 (13 mg, 46%) as a clear oil. Rf=0.40 (1:3 EtOAc/hexanes). Phosphoric acid mono-{2-amino-2-[5-(4-octyl-phenyl)-1H-imidazol-2-yl]-propyl}ester (VPC24287). To a stirring solution of 8 (22 mg, 0.035 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (1 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (1 mL) and stirring was continued 4 h. Solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed in vacuo to afford a brown oil. The oil was diluted with ether and concentrated in vacuo 5 times on a rotary evaporator to afford a white solid which was placed in a fritted funnel and washed with cold ether producing VPC24287 (13 mg, 91%) as a powdery white solid. Rf=0 (4:1 CHCl3/methanol). Thiophosphoric acid O-{2-amino-2-[5-(4-octyl-phenyl)-1H-imidazol-2-yl]-propyl}ester (VPC24289). To a stirring solution of 9 (13 mg, 0.020 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (1 mL) was added benzenethiol (0.042 mL, 0.40 mmol) followed by bromotrimethyl silane (0.05 mL, 0.40 mmol) and finally trifluoroacetic acid (1 mL) and stirring was continued 6 h. To quench the reaction mixture, water (0.5 mL) was added and the resulting solution was stirred 30 min. Solvent and excess reagents were removed in vacuo to afford a brown oil. The oil was diluted with ether and concentrated in vacuo 5 times on a rotary evaporator to afford a light tan solid which was placed in a fritted funnel and washed with cold ether and a small amount of cold water producing VPC24289 (8 mg, 94%) as a powdery white solid. Rf=0 (4:1 CHCl3/metha. Synthetic Scheme for Synthesis of Additional Imidizole Compounds Reagents and Conditions: (i) Br2, 1:1 dioxane/ether, CH2Cl2, rt, 1 h, 66%; (ii) 2,2-DMP, p-TsOH, DMF, rt, 12 h, TEA, rt, 10 min; (iii) (Boc)2O, NaHCO3, THF/H2O, rt, 12 h, 69% (2 steps); (iv) (COCl)2, DMSO, TEA, CH2Cl2, −78° C. to rt, 4 h, 74%; (v) NaClO2, NaH2PO4.H2O, 2-methyl-2-butene, tBuOH/H2O, rt, 1 h, 95%; (vi) Cs2CO3, EtOH, rt, 1 h; 1, DMF, rt, 12 h; (vii) NH4OAc, xylenes, 110° C., 12 h, 36% (2 steps); (viii) Pd(dba)2, Ph3P, CuI, DIEA, THF, rt, 12 h, 68%; (ix) H2, 10% Pd/C, EtOH, rt, 12 h; (x) 1:1 TFA/CH2Cl2, rt, 6 h; (xi) DOWEX 50×8, EtOH, rt, 12 h; (xii) tetrazole, di-tert-butyl diisopropylphosphoramidite, CH2Cl2/THF, rt, 12 h; H2O2, rt, 3 h; (xiii) tetrazole, di-tert-butyl diisopropylphosphoramidite, CH2Cl2/THF, rt, 12 h; S8, rt, 3 h; (xiv) 1:1 TFA/CH2Cl2, rt, 4 h; (xv) benzenethiol, TMSBr, 1:1 TFA/CH2Cl2, rt, 4 h. Synthetic Scheme for Synthesis of Alpha Substituted Phosphonate Compounds Reagents and Conditions: (i) NaH, THF 0° to R.T. 45 min., then Selectfluor 0° to R.T., overnight, 53%; (ii) SOCl2, MeOH, R.T., 4-6 h.; (iii) Boc2O, TEA, CH2Cl2, R.T., 4 h.; (iv) 2,2-dimethoxypropane, p-toluenesulfonic acid, CH2Cl2, R.T., 2 h., 62% (3 steps) (v) LiCl, NaBH4, EtOH/THF (3:2), 0° to R.T., 4 h, 89%; (vi) PCC, CH2Cl2, R.T., 6 h.; (vii) DBU, LiCl, CH3CN, R.T., overnight, 40% (2 steps); (viii) Dowex 50×8, EtOH, R.T. 24 h., 80%; (ix) PCC, CH2Cl2, R.T., 6 h. (x) NaClO2, NaH2PO4.H2O, t-butanol, 2-methyl-2-butene; (xi) p-octyl aniline, PyBOP, DIEA, CH2Cl2, R.T., overnight; (xii) H2, 10% Pd/C, EtOH, R.T. overnight; (xiii) TMSBr, CH2Cl2, R.T., 4 h., then 95% CH3OH in H2O, R.T., 1 h. [(Diethoxy-phosphoryl)-fluoro-methyl]-phosphonic acid diethyl ester (31). To a slurry of 95% NaH (9 mg, 0.375 mmol) in THF (1.5 mL) was added tetraethyl methylene diphosphonate, (30) (100 mg, 0.347 mmol) at 0° C. The mixture was allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for 45 minutes. The mixture was subsequently cooled to 0° C. and Selectfluor (153 mg, 0.432 mmol) was added in one portion. The mixture was allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for 1 hr. The reaction mixture was concentrated in vacuo and purified by column chromatography on SiO2 (3% MeOH in EtOAc) to yield 56 mg (53%) of a clear liquid. 2-Amino-3-hydroxy-propionic acid methyl ester (33). To a solution of D-serine (5 g, 47.58 mmol) in methanol (100 mL), stirring under N2 (g) at 0° C., was added thionyl chloride (20.8 mL, 285.5 mmol) dropwise. The reaction mixture was allowed to warm to room temperature, stirred for 4-6 hours, then concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude material was reconstituted in Et2O and concentrated, in the same manner. This was repeated numerous times until SOCl2 could not be detected. The crude material was confirmed by NMR experiments and carried on to the following step. 2-tert-Butoxycarbonylamino-3-hydroxy-propionic acid methyl ester (34). To a solution of the crude methyl ester serine (33) in CH2Cl2 (100 mL), stirring under N2 (g), was added di-tert-butyl pyrocarbonate (11.420 g, 52.34 mmol) and triethyl amine (16.6 mL, 118.95 mmol). The reaction mixture was allowed to stir at room temperature for 4 hours, then poured over NH4Cl at 0° C. The organic layer was extracted with 10% HCl (2×), then NaHCO3 and brine. The organic layer was then dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude material was again carried on to the following step. 2,2-Dimethyl-oxazolidine-3,4-dicarboxylic acid 3-tert-butyl ester 4-methyl ester (35). To a solution of (34) in CH2Cl2, stirring under nitrogen at 0° C., was added 2,2-dimethoxypropane (29.5 mL, 237.9 mmol) and p-toluene sulfonic acid monohydrate (9.050 g, 47.58 mmol). The mixture was removed from the ice bath after 15 minutes and stirred at room temperature for 1.5 hours. The reaction mixture was poured into 50 mL of saturated NaHCO3 (aq) and extracted with diethyl ether (3×50). The organic layer was extracted with NaHCO3 and brine, then dried over anhydrous MgSO4, filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude material was purified by flash chromatography on SiO2 (1:1 EtOAc/Hexanes) to yield 7.659 g (62%, 3 steps) of a clear liquid. 4-Hydroxymethyl-2,2-dimethyl-oxazolidine-3-carboxylic acid tert-butyl ester (36). To a mixture of NaBH4 (2.247 g, 59.08 mmol) and LiCl (2.505 g, 59.08 mmol) in EtOH (42 mL), stirring under nitrogen at 0° C., was added (35) (7.659 g, 29.54 mmol) in THF (30 mL) dropwise. This mixture was allowed to warn to room temperature and continued stirring for 48 hours. The precipitate was filtered and washed with ethanol. The washings were concentrated and extracted with EtOAc. The organic layer was then washed with brine and dried over anhydrous Na2SO4. Column chromatography on SiO2 (1:1 EtOAc/Hexanes) was utilized to purify 6.101 g (89%) of the title compound as a white solid. 4-Formyl-2,2-dimethyl-oxazolidine-3-carboxylic acid tert-butyl ester (37). To a solution of (36) (80 mg, 0.346 mmol) stirring in CH2Cl2 (2 mL), under a nitrogen atmosphere, was added pyridinium chlorochromate (150 mg, 0.694 mmol). The reaction mixture was allowed to stir overnight then filtered through a plug of silica gel. The crude aldehyde was carried on to the following step. 4-[2-(Diethoxy-phosphoryl)-2-fluoro-vinyl]-2,2-dimethyl-oxazolidine-3-carboxylic acid tert-butyl ester (38). To a stirred suspension of LiCl (18 mg, 0.416 mmol) in dry acetonitrile (3.5 mL), under nitrogen at room temperature, were added diphosphonate (31) (127 mg, 0.416 mmol), DBU (0.05 mL, 0.347 mmol) and garner's aldehyde (37) (80 mg, 0.347 mmol). The reaction mixture was allowed to stir overnight then concentrated in vacuo. The crude material was isolated by column chromatography on SiO2, (1:1 EtOAc/Hexanes) to yield 47 mg (40%, two steps) of a clear liquid. (3-tert-Butoxycarbonylamino-1-fluoro-4-hydroxy-but-1-phenyl)phosphonic acid diethyl ester (39). To compound (38) (47 mg, 0.123 mmol) stirring in EtOH (1 mL) was added Dowex 50×8 (150 mg), which washed with EtOH and dried. The reaction was allowed to stir under nitrogen and at room temperature for 24 hours. The reaction mixture was filtered and the precipitate washed with excess EtOH, then concentrated in vacuo. The crude material was purified by column chromatography on SiO2 (1:1 EtOAc/Hexanes) to yield 34 mg of the expected product. EXAMPLE 3 [γ-35 S]GTP Binding Assay for Measuring S1P Activity Transient Expression in HEK293T Cells. Human or mouse S1P5 DNA was mixed with an equal amount of DNA encoding a rat Gi2R protein as well as DNAs encoding cow β1 and γ2 proteins and used to transfect monolayers of HEK293T cells using the calcium phosphate precipitate method. After 60 h, cells were harvested, and microsomes were prepared, aliquoted, and stored at −70° C. until use. [γ-35 S]GTP Binding. Briefly, 5 ug of membranes from S1P expressing HEK293T cells was incubated in 0.1 mL of binding buffer (in mM: HEPES 50, NaCl 100, MgCl2 5), pH 7.5, containing 5 ug of saponin, 10 uM GDP, 0.1 nM [γ-35 S]GTP (1200 Ci/mmol), and test lipid. After incubating for 30 min at 30° C., bound radionuclide was separated from free by filtration through Whatman GF/C paper using a Brandel Cell Harvester (Gaithersburg, Md.). Stable Expression in RH7777 Cells. Rat hepatoma RH7777 cell monolayers were transfected with human or mouse S1P5/pCR3.1 DNA using the calcium phosphate precipitate method, and clonal populations expressing the neomycin phosphotransferase gene were selected by addition of Ge-neticin (G418) to the culture medium. The RH7777 cells were grown in monolayers at 37° C. in a 5% CO2/95% air atmosphere in growth medium consisting of 90% MEM, 10% fetal bovine serum, 2 mM glutamine, and 1 mM sodium pyruvate. Measurement of cAMP Accumulation. Assay of cAMP accumulation was performed as described previously (See Im et al., J. Biol. Chem. 275, 14281-14286 (2000), the disclosure of which is incorporated herein). Assays were conducted on populations of 5×105 cells stimulated with 1 uM forskolin in the presence of the phosphodiesterase inhibitor isomethylbutylxanthine (IBMX, 1 mM) for 15 min. cAMP was measured by automated radioimmunoassay. The GTPγS studies were performed using zebrafish S1P1 overexpressed rat RH-7777 and human hS1P1, hS1P2, hS1P3 and hS1P5 overexpressed human HEK293 cells. Table 1 shows the EC50 values for each of the S1P analogs at S1P receptors: S1P1, S1P2, S1P3 and S1P5. In addition to testing the human S1P receptors (hS1P1, hS1P2, hS1P3 and hS1P5), a zebrafish S1P receptor (zS1P1) and mouse S1P (mS1P5) were also tested. TABLE 1 EC50 Values (nM) for S1P Analogues at Recombinant S1P Receptors zS1P1 hS1P1 hS1P3 hS1P2 hS1P5 mS1P5 S1P 54.6 0.9 1.1 2.9 43.9 12.7 VPC22041 2053.0 598.4 845.4 973.2 645.5 >5000 VPC22051 >5000 322.1 601.9 2760.0 >5000 >5000 VPC22053 >5000 397.0 862.4 2685.0 1606.0 2006.0 VPC22063 >5000 1805.0 878.6 >5000 1220.0 1326.0 VPC22135 1625.0 12.7 50.8 2107.0 >5000 1821.0 S1P increases GTPγS binding significantly (2-5-fold) at each receptor with EC50 values from 1 to 55 nM. The synthetic series consisted of five dihydro S1P of the general formula: wherein VPC22041 (2S): R1 is NH(CH2)11CH3, R2 is NH2 and R3 is H; VPC22053 (2S): R1 is O(CH2)13CH3, R2 is NH2 and R3 is H; VPC22051 (2S): R1 is NH(CH2)13CH3, R2 is NH2 and R3 is H; VPC22063 (2S): R1 is NH(CH2)15CH3, R2 is NH2 and R3 is H; and VPC22135 (2R): R1 is NH(CH2)13CH3, R2 is H and R3 is NH2 The amide-containing compounds contained alkyl chains of 12 (VPC22041), 14 (VPC22053), or 16 (VPC22063) carbons, and the 2′-amino group was in the natural configuration (S), except for VPC22135, wherein the 2′-amino was in the (R) configuration. VPC22053 and VPC22135 are an enantiomeric pair, while VPC22051 is the ester-containing equivalent of VPC22053 (see Scheme 4). All of these compounds had significant agonist activity at each of the S1P receptors, although none were as potent as S1P itself (see Table 1). In particular, on the S1P5 transfected HEK293 cells, the five mimetics showed EC50=s of approximately 1 μM, where as the EC50 of S1P itself on the same cells is closer to 10 nM. However, one compound, VPC22135, approached the potency of S1P at both the human S1P1 and human S1P3 receptors. Curiously, this compound has the amino group in the unnatural (R) configuration. Its enantiomer, VPC22053, was more than 1 log order less potent at both the S1P1 and S1P3 receptors. The results obtained for the S1P1 transfected RH-7777 cells showed a preference for binding with the 18 carbon backbone mimetic compounds (identical to S1P) over the 16 and 20 carbon backbone mimetic compounds. Assay of phenyl imidazole compounds vpc24287 (phosphate) and vpc24289 (phosphothionate) at individual human sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) receptors was also conducted. Methods: Human recombinant S1P receptor type DNAs were mixed with DNAs encoding human Gαi2, cow β1 and cow 72 proteins and introduced into cultured HEK293T cells by transfection. After about 48 hours, cells were harvested and crude membranes prepared. Ligand driven binding of a non-hydrolyzable GTP analog, GTP[γ-35S], was measured in a rapid filtration assay. Details of the assay are found in: Brinkmann, V., Davis, M. D., Heise, C. E., Albert, R., Cottens, W., H of, R., Bruns, C., Prieschl, E., Baumruker, T., Hiestand, P., Foster, C. and Lynch, K. R. The immune modulator, FTY720, targets sphingosine 1-phosphate receptors. J. Biol. Chem. 277: 21453-21457 (2002). Total counts per minute were determined for S1P, vpc24287 and vpc24289 activation of the S1P receptor subtypes with the maximal counts received by S1P designated as 100% activation of the S1P receptor. The results are provided in FIG. 6A-6D demonstrating vpc24287 and vpc24289 activation of the S1P receptor subtypes relative to S1P. EXAMPLE 4 Biological Assay of the Synthesized Mimetics An additional series of compounds was tested using the GTPCS binding assay described in Example 2 and in Im et al., J. Biol. Chem. 275, 14281-14286 (2000), the disclosure of which is incorporated herein). The compounds tested for binding at human S1P receptors (hS1P1, hS1P2, hS1P3, hS1P4 and hS1P5) have the general structure: wherein VPC23019: R5 is (CH2)7CH3, R2 is NH2, R3 is H and R4 is phosphate; VPC23031: R5 is (CH2)7CH3, R2 is NH2, R3 is H and R4 is phosphate; VPC23065: R5 is (CH2)9CH3, R2 is NH2, R3 is H and R4 is hydroxy; VPC23069: R5 is (CH2)9CH3, R2 is NH2, R3 is H and R4 is phosphate; VPC23075: R5 is (CH2)8CH3, R2 is NH2, R3 is H and R4 is hydroxy; VPC23079: R5 is (CH2)8CH3, R2 is NH2, R3 is H and R4 is phosphate; or have the general structure: wherein VPC23087: R5 is (CH2)7CH3, R2 is NH2, R3 is H and R4 is hydroxy; VPC23089: R5 is (CH2)7CH3, R2 is NH2, R3 is H and R4 is phosphate; Each of the compounds tested (VPC 23019, 23031, 23065, 23069, 23087, 23089, 23075, 23079) failed to show significant activity at the S1P2 receptor. Compounds VPC23065, VPC23087 and VPC23075 are primary alcohols and thus lack the phosphate headgroup. Yet several of these compounds exhibit activity at S1P receptors (See FIGS. 2A, 2B, 2C, 3A, 3B, 3C and 4C) and each of these compounds shows good agonist activity at the S1P4 receptor. The GTPCS binding assay revealed that VPC23031, VPC23019, VPC23089 are inverse agonists (antagonists) of the S1P3 receptor (See FIGS. 1A and 4A), but this inverse agonism becomes agonism when the alkyl chain length is 9 carbons (VPC23079) or 10 (VPC23069), see FIGS. 2A and 3A. VPC23089 and VPC23019 are isomers, with the VPC23089 compound having the alkyl chain ortho and the VPC23019 compound meta; in both cases the alkyl chain has 8 carbons, but surprisingly, when one goes from ortho to meta, antagonism at S1P1 is realized (compare FIG. 1A with the competition curve FIG. 5A).	A	A61	A61K	316	75
11619047	US20070156934A1-20070705	High-speed PCI Interface System and A Reset Method Thereof	ACCEPTED	20070621	20070705		[]	G06F1342	["G06F1342"]	7549009	20070102	20090616	710	313000	73468.0	AUVE	GLENN	[{"inventor_name_last": "Ho", "inventor_name_first": "Kuan-Jui", "inventor_city": "Taipei", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "TW"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Chen", "inventor_name_first": "Wen-Yun", "inventor_city": "Taipei", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "TW"}]	A high-speed PCI interface system with reset function and a reset method thereof are provided. The interface system comprises a host controller chipset, at least one high-speed PCI device and at least one reset signal generator. While a hot rest package cannot be executed by the high-speed PCI device, the host controller chipset can respectively transmit a trigger signal and a PCI reset signal to each corresponding reset signal generator through a trigger signal line and a PCI reset signal line, and further the reset signal generator operates to generate a basic resetting signal. Finally, the basic resetting signal will be transmitted to the corresponding high-speed PCI device through a basic reset signal line such that the system can be used to operate the basic resetting action without restarting power.	1. A high-speed PCI interface system with reset function, comprising: a host controller chipset, comprising at least one root port, used to generate a PCI resetting signal; at least one high-speed PCI device, each of said high-speed PCI devices respectively coupled to said corresponding root port within said host controller chipset through a high-speed PCI bus; and at least one reset signal generator, respectively corresponding with each of said root ports, each of said reset signal generators respectively electricity coupled to said host controller chipset through a PCI reset signal line and a trigger signal line, and electricity coupled to said corresponding high-speed PCI device according to a basic reset signal line; wherein, said reset signal generator for respectively receiving said PCI resetting signal and a triggering signal through said PCI reset signal line and said trigger signal line, generating a basic resetting signal according to the operation of said PCI resetting signal and said triggering signal, sending said basic resetting signal to said corresponding high-speed PCI device through said basic reset signal line, and then commanding said high-speed PCI device to proceed a basic resetting action. 2. The high-speed PCI interface system of claim 1, wherein said triggering signal is generated from one triggering mode of software, firmware, hardware or the combination thereof. 3. The high-speed PCI interface system of claim 1, wherein said host controller chipset comprises a north bridge and a south bridge. 4. The high-speed PCI interface system of claim 3, wherein said root port is placed within said north bridge, and said reset signal is generated by said south bridge. 5. The high-speed PCI interface system of claim 4, wherein said triggering signal is generated from one triggering mode of software, firmware, hardware or the combination thereof. 6. The high-speed PCI interface system of claim 1, wherein said south bridge further comprises at least one general purpose output pin which is corresponding with each of said reset signal generators, and each of said general purpose output pins is coupled to said corresponding reset signal generator through said corresponding triggering signal line. 7. The high-speed PCI interface system of claim 4, wherein each of said reset signal generators is located in a motherboard or said north bridge. 8. The high-speed PCI interface system of claim 1, wherein each of said reset signal generators can be an AND gate. 9. The high-speed PCI interface system of claim 1, wherein said high-speed PCI device is selected from one of a image processing chip, a sound processing chip, a bridge and a complex root port. 10. A reset method for using the high-speed PCI interface system, comprising the following steps of: sending out a hot reset package to a high-speed PCI device for proceeding the hot resetting action through a corresponding high-speed PCI bus; determining whether said high-speed PCI device is ready, if so, then end; if not, then generating a basic resetting signal to said high-speed PCI device for proceeding a basic resetting action; and determining whether said high-speed PCI device is ready, if so, then end; if not, then again generating a basic reset signal to said high-speed PCI device for proceeding said basic resetting action, and forming a circulatory process. 11. The reset method of claim 10, wherein said reset method further comprises: determining whether said high-speed PCI device exists before beginning as the above mentioned step, if so, then proceeding the following step that is determining whether said high-speed PCI device is ready; if not, then end. 12. The reset method of claim 10, wherein said basic resetting signal is generated from said corresponding reset signal generator in operation of a triggering signal sent by said host controller chipset. 13. The reset method of claim 12, wherein said host controller chipset comprises a north bridge and a south bridge. 14. The reset method of claim 13, wherein said triggering signal is generated from one triggering mode of software, firmware, hardware or the combination thereof. 15. The reset method of claim 14, wherein said south bridge further comprises at least one general purpose output pin which is corresponding with each of said reset signal generator, and each of said general purpose output pins is coupled to said corresponding reset signal generator through said corresponding triggering signal line. 16. The reset method of claim 13, wherein said root port is located in said north bridge, and said PCI reset signal is generated by said south bridge. 17. The reset method of claim 12, wherein each reset signal generator is located in a motherboard or in said north bridge. 18. The reset method of claim 12, wherein each reset signal generator is an AND gate respectively. 19. The reset method of claim 10, wherein said high-speed PCI device is selected from one of a image processing chip, a sound processing, a bridge and a complex root port. 20. The reset method of claim 10, wherein said reset method further comprises: determining whether said high-speed PCI device is ready before proceeding said hot reset action.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Since the electrical industry has changed with each passing day, the CPU and chipset are promoting upwards constantly that the transmission speed of the PCI interface is the choke point for the whole speed of the computer system. Now the high-speed PCI (PCI Express) is presented, thereof is having more advantages as fast high-performance bandwidth, advanced power management function, hot plug, point to point transmission and serious connection, which are adopted by user such that the manufacturer develops the related electronic product with the high-speed PCI interface. However, since the software and hardware of the computer system are powerful functions and fast speed, the stable operation thereof is the focus to the user, and every manufacturer strives toward. Usually while the user is operating the computer, which may meet the computer crash, for example: the high-speed PCI device falls into endless loop or be unable waked up from Suspend to RAM (STR) of the hibernate mode. Now, if the computer system adopts a high-speed PCI device with PCI Express interface, which sends a hot reset package to the unbounded high-speed PCI device that will be again restarting normal coupled with the computer system. Referring FIG. 1 that is shown of the electricity-coupled diagram of the system with high-speed PCI interface of the prior art. As shown in the figure, the system 10 comprises a north bridge 11 with at least one root port 111 , at least one high-speed PCI device 13 and a south bridge 15 . When turn on the power, the south bridge 15 can transmit a PCI resetting signal (PCI RST#) to a buffer 112 through a PCI reset signal line 151 , and then the buffer 112 can transmit the PCI resetting signal to the high-speed PCI device 13 through a reset signal line 113 such that the system 10 will proceed an initializing action for the high-speed PCI device 13 . After the system 10 is finished the initializing action, the user can normally operate the system 10 . When the high-speed PCI device 13 fails to communicate with the north bridge 11 normally, the system 10 will adopt the root port 111 for transmitting a hot reset package to the high-speed PCI device 13 through a high-speed PCI bus 117 , such that the high-speed PCI device 13 will proceed the initializing action to normally communicate with the north bridge 11 again. However, the high-speed PCI device 13 may not be able to execute the hot reset packet, the only way to reset the high-speed PCI device 13 is to turn off and on the power. In other word, the user wastes much effort but do nothing completely.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides a high-speed PCI interface system with reset function, comprising: a host controller chipset, comprising at least one root port, used to generate a PCI resetting signal; at least one high-speed PCI device, each of said high-speed PCI devices respectively coupled to said corresponding root port within said host controller chipset through a high-speed PCI bus; and at least one reset signal generator, respectively corresponding with each of said root ports, each of said reset signal generators respectively electricity coupled to said host controller chipset through a PCI reset signal line and a trigger signal line, and electricity coupled to said corresponding high-speed PCI device according to a basic reset signal line; wherein, said reset signal generator for respectively receiving said PCI resetting signal and a triggering signal through said PCI resetting signal line and said trigger signal line, generating a basic resetting signal according to the operation of said PCI resetting signal and said triggering signal, sending said basic resetting signal to said corresponding high-speed PCI device through said basic reset signal line, and then commanding said high-speed PCI device to proceed a basic resetting action. The present invention also provides a reset method for using the high-speed PCI interface system, comprising the following steps of: a corresponding root port sending out a hot reset package to a high-speed PCI device for proceeding the hot resetting action through a corresponding high-speed PCI bus; determining whether said high-speed PCI device is ready, if so, then end; if not, then generating a basic resetting signal to said high-speed PCI device for proceeding a basic resetting action; and again determining whether said high-speed PCI device is ready, if so, then end; if not, then again generating a basic resetting signal to said high-speed PCI device for proceeding said basic resetting action, and forming a circulatory process.	FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a high-speed PCI interface, more particularly to a high-speed PCI interface system with reset function and a reset method thereof. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Since the electrical industry has changed with each passing day, the CPU and chipset are promoting upwards constantly that the transmission speed of the PCI interface is the choke point for the whole speed of the computer system. Now the high-speed PCI (PCI Express) is presented, thereof is having more advantages as fast high-performance bandwidth, advanced power management function, hot plug, point to point transmission and serious connection, which are adopted by user such that the manufacturer develops the related electronic product with the high-speed PCI interface. However, since the software and hardware of the computer system are powerful functions and fast speed, the stable operation thereof is the focus to the user, and every manufacturer strives toward. Usually while the user is operating the computer, which may meet the computer crash, for example: the high-speed PCI device falls into endless loop or be unable waked up from Suspend to RAM (STR) of the hibernate mode. Now, if the computer system adopts a high-speed PCI device with PCI Express interface, which sends a hot reset package to the unbounded high-speed PCI device that will be again restarting normal coupled with the computer system. Referring FIG. 1 that is shown of the electricity-coupled diagram of the system with high-speed PCI interface of the prior art. As shown in the figure, the system 10 comprises a north bridge 11 with at least one root port 111, at least one high-speed PCI device 13 and a south bridge 15. When turn on the power, the south bridge 15 can transmit a PCI resetting signal (PCI RST#) to a buffer 112 through a PCI reset signal line 151, and then the buffer 112 can transmit the PCI resetting signal to the high-speed PCI device 13 through a reset signal line 113 such that the system 10 will proceed an initializing action for the high-speed PCI device 13. After the system 10 is finished the initializing action, the user can normally operate the system 10. When the high-speed PCI device 13 fails to communicate with the north bridge 11 normally, the system 10 will adopt the root port 111 for transmitting a hot reset package to the high-speed PCI device 13 through a high-speed PCI bus 117, such that the high-speed PCI device 13 will proceed the initializing action to normally communicate with the north bridge 11 again. However, the high-speed PCI device 13 may not be able to execute the hot reset packet, the only way to reset the high-speed PCI device 13 is to turn off and on the power. In other word, the user wastes much effort but do nothing completely. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a high-speed PCI interface system with reset function, comprising: a host controller chipset, comprising at least one root port, used to generate a PCI resetting signal; at least one high-speed PCI device, each of said high-speed PCI devices respectively coupled to said corresponding root port within said host controller chipset through a high-speed PCI bus; and at least one reset signal generator, respectively corresponding with each of said root ports, each of said reset signal generators respectively electricity coupled to said host controller chipset through a PCI reset signal line and a trigger signal line, and electricity coupled to said corresponding high-speed PCI device according to a basic reset signal line; wherein, said reset signal generator for respectively receiving said PCI resetting signal and a triggering signal through said PCI resetting signal line and said trigger signal line, generating a basic resetting signal according to the operation of said PCI resetting signal and said triggering signal, sending said basic resetting signal to said corresponding high-speed PCI device through said basic reset signal line, and then commanding said high-speed PCI device to proceed a basic resetting action. The present invention also provides a reset method for using the high-speed PCI interface system, comprising the following steps of: a corresponding root port sending out a hot reset package to a high-speed PCI device for proceeding the hot resetting action through a corresponding high-speed PCI bus; determining whether said high-speed PCI device is ready, if so, then end; if not, then generating a basic resetting signal to said high-speed PCI device for proceeding a basic resetting action; and again determining whether said high-speed PCI device is ready, if so, then end; if not, then again generating a basic resetting signal to said high-speed PCI device for proceeding said basic resetting action, and forming a circulatory process. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram of the system with high-speed PCI interface of the prior art. FIG. 2 is a block diagram according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a block diagram according to another embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a block diagram according to another embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a timing diagram of each main signal of the present invention. FIG. 6 is a flowchart according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring to FIG. 2, it is a block diagram according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention. As shown in the figure, the high-speed PCI interface system 20 of the present invention comprises a host controller chipset 27, at least one high-speed PCI device 23 (PCI Express) and at least one reset signal generator 29. Wherein, at least one root port 211 is placed within the host controller chipset 27, and each root port 211 is coupled to a corresponding high-speed PCI device 23. Each high-speed PCI device 23 is respectively coupled to the corresponding root port 211 within the host controller chipset 27 through a corresponding high-speed PCI bus 213. In the present embodiment, the numbers of the reset signal generator 29 are corresponding to the numbers of the root port 211, and the reset signal generator 29 and the host controller chipset 27 are separately placed within the motherboard (not shown). The host controller chipset 27 comprises the general-purpose output pin 255; the numbers of the general-purpose output pin 255 are corresponding to the numbers of the reset signal generator 29, each the general-purpose output pin 255 is respectively coupled to a corresponding input end of each reset signal generator 29 through a corresponding trigger signal line 257, and another input end of each reset signal generator 29 is simultaneously coupled to a PCI reset signal line 251. When the system starts, the host controller chipset 27 can transmit the PCI resetting signal (PCI RST#) to the input end of the reset signal generator 29 through the PCI reset signal line 251, and further the reset signal generator 29 operates to generate a basic resetting signal (PERST#), then which transmits to each high-speed PCI device 23 through the basic reset signal line 291, thus, the system can proceed the basic reset action while the system starting. Besides, some high-speed PCI device can't normal operating after the system starting and thereof executes the hot reset also invalid, the host controller chipset 27 can adopt the corresponding general-purpose output pin 255 to transmit a triggering signal to the reset signal generator 29 through the trigger signal line 257. Now, the reset signal generator 29 operates the triggering signal to generate a basic resetting signal (PERST#) that will be transmitted to the high-speed PCI device 23, which will proceed the basic resetting action, and then the high-speed PCI device 23 can restore the normal operating state. In the general computer system, the host controller chipset 27 can often design into the pattern that is consisted of a north bridge 21 and a south bridge 25. The root port 211 is directly placed within the north bridge 21 under the pattern, and the PCI resetting signal (PCI RST#) is transmitted from the south bridge 25 through the PCI reset signal line 251. In addition, each general-purpose output pin 255 is placed above the south bridge 25 and respectively coupled to the corresponding reset signal generator 29 through the corresponding triggering signal line 257. Reference to FIG. 3, there is shown of the electricity-coupled diagram of another embodiment of the present invention. As shown in the figure, the main structure is approximately the same as the embodiment of shown in FIG. 2. However, the structure of FIG. 3 comprises two high-speed PCI devices 33,34, two reset signal generators 38, 39 and two root ports 311,312 that are placed within the north bridge 31, electricity-coupled way of each corresponding component of the present embodiment and the above-mentioned embodiment are the same, no longer discussed here. Wherein, the reset signal generators 38, 39 are coupled in parallel and respectively coupled to south bridge 35 through a PCI reset signal line 351, therefore, those can simultaneously receive the PCI resetting signal that is outputted from the south bridge 35. The south bridge 35 comprises the general-purpose output pins 355, 356, and the numbers of the general-purpose output pins 355, 356 are corresponding to the numbers of the reset signal generators 38 and 39. Thus, the reset signal generators 38 and 39 can respectively one to one electricity-coupled to the corresponding general-purpose output pins 355 and 356 through a triggering signal lines 358 and 359. Moreover, the south bridge 35 can transmit a triggering signal to the corresponding reset signal generator 38 or 39 when any one of the high-speed PCI device 33, 34 happens the problem, the corresponding reset signal generator 38, 39 will transmit a basic resetting signal (PERST#) to the high-speed PCI device 33 or 34 that happens problem, so the high-speed PCI device 33 or 34 can operate the basic resetting action. Referring to FIG. 4, there is shown of the electricity-coupled diagram of another embodiment of the present invention. As shown in figure, besides the north bridge 41, the main structure of the high-speed PCI interface system 40 of the present embodiment is approximately the same as the embodiment of the FIG. 2. The difference thereof is directly integrated the reset signal generator 49 into the north bridge 41, and the high-speed PCI device 43 is coupled to the root port 411 within the high-speed PCI interface system 40 through a corresponding high-speed PCI bus 213. The reset signal generator 49 can receive the PCI reset signal (PCI RST#) from the south bridge 45 and the triggering signal that is outputted from the corresponding general-purpose output pin 455, and further the reset signal generator 49 generates a basic reset signal (PERST#) that will be transmitted to the corresponding high-speed PCI device 43 through the corresponding basic reset signal line 491 such that the high-speed PCI device 43 can be operate the basic resetting action. Therefore, that will help to reduce the circuit layout size of the high-speed PCI interface system 40 and reach the design idea as light, thin, short and small. Each reset signal generator (29, 38, 39 or 49) of the above-mentioned can be a and gate respectively, and each high-speed PCI device (23, 33, 34 or 43) is selected from one of a image processing chip, a sound processing chip, a bridge and a complex root port. Reference to FIG. 5, there is shown of the timing diagram of each main signal of the present invention. As shown in the figure, when the computer system turns on power to operate a starting procedure, besides, the power source leads in initial stage, thus each related circuit is in the unstable state during the T1 transient time. After T1 time end, the system will tend to steady during the T2 time, the system will first proceed the initialize action to each component, and then the south bridge will transmit out the PCI resetting signal. The PCI reset signal is the low voltage enable signal, such the PCI reset signal is in the low-level voltage state during the T2 time. Now, each triggering signal will be without function, and that is in the high-level voltage state. Each reset signal generator simultaneously receives two signals, further the digital logic (as or gate) within the reset signal generator operates to generate a basic resetting signal with low-level voltage, which will be transmitted to each high-speed PCI device, such that each high-speed PCI device can be used to operate the initialize action of the basic resetting according to the basic reset signal. The computer system can enter the normal operation state after all components are finished the initialize action. If some high-speed PCI device falls into endless loop after the following operating process, or can't be normal coupled to the north bridge in the other factor, or can't be unable waked up from STR mode. If the condition of the above-mentioned happens, the high-speed PCI device can adopt the technology of the present invention, that will transmit out a basic reset signal with low-level voltage from the corresponding general-purpose output pin above the south bridge, thus the corresponding reset signal generator can generate a basic reset signal with low-level voltage, as shown in the figure during T3 time. The above-mentioned technology can make the corresponding high-speed PCI device to proceed the basic reset action without restarting power, and then the high-speed PCI device can again normal coupled to the north bridge. Finally, referring to FIG. 6, there is shown of the flowchart of a reset method of a preferred embodiment of the present invention. As shown in the figure, the reset method of the present invention is used on the high-speed PCI device of the system no response or happened error. First, the reset method is proceeding the step 610 that is determining whether the high-speed PCI device exists. If not, it shows that the high-speed PCI device has been already removed and directly ended the reset procedure; if so, it continues to operate the step 620 and the follow up step thereof. Thus, when the high-speed PCI device is removed, the system can avoid always transmitting the command package to the high-speed PCI device in the ignorant condition. If the high-speed PCI device has been already existed actually, the step 610 isn't surely to operate, which can omit according to the condition. Then the step 620 is proceeding, which transmits a hot reset package to the high-speed PCI device through the corresponding high-speed PCI bus for proceeding the hot resetting action. Next the step 630 is proceeding that is determining whether the high-speed PCI device is ready through the root port. If so, it shown that the high-speed PCI device has been already normal coupled to the north bridge and directly ended the reset procedure; if not, the step 640 is proceeding, the south bridge generates a triggering signal from the corresponding general-purpose output pin through disposing in advance of a triggering mode that is selected from one software, firmware, hardware and the combination thereof, thus the triggering signal line will turn into the low-level voltage, and then a basic reset signal with low-level voltage will transmit to the high-speed PCI device after the reset signal generator operating such that the high-speed PCI device can proceed the basic resetting action. Therefore, the system can again generate a basic resetting signal for the high-speed PCI device to operate the initialize action without resetting power. After the basic resetting action is finished, the step 630 will be again detecting to form a circulatory process, which will stop until the high-speed PCI device can be normal coupled to the north bridge. The present technique not only retains the data that is generated by the previously work but also ensures the normal operating for the high-speed PCI device. In summary, it is appreciated that the present invention relates to a high-speed PCI interface system with reset function and a reset method thereof, that adopts a reset signal generator to generate a basic resetting signal, and which directly transmits to the corresponding high-speed PCI device such that the system can be used to operate the basic resetting action without restarting power. The foregoing description is merely one embodiment of present invention and not considered as restrictive. All equivalent variations and modifications in process, method, feature, and spirit in accordance with the appended claims may be made without in any way from the scope of the invention.	G	G06	G06F	13	42
11859802	US20090079500A1-20090326	ANALOG VARIABLE GAIN AMPLIFIER WITH IMPROVED DYNAMIC RANGE CHARACTERISTICS	ACCEPTED	20090311	20090326		[]	H03F345	["H03F345", "H03G312"]	7532070	20070924	20090512	330	254000	71079.0	NGUYEN	KHANH	[{"inventor_name_last": "Cowley", "inventor_name_first": "Nick", "inventor_city": "Wiltshire", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "GB"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Zhao", "inventor_name_first": "Ruiyan", "inventor_city": "Swindon", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "GB"}]	An automatic gain control (AGC) system and method for implementing a wide dynamic range automatic gain control (AGC) are disclosed. The AGC system features a large gain adjustment suitable for integration in silicon tuners. The AGC structure employs a pair of classical current steering stages, architecturally arranged to share the gain back-off characteristic in a novel “ping-pong” arrangement. The AGC system and method deliver a wide dynamic range at low power dissipation in radio frequency (RF) systems, but may be implemented as well in other applications.	1. An automatic gain control system, comprising: a first stage, comprising: a first transconductance stage with an associated output current steering arrangement; a first degeneration resistor having a first degeneration resistance; and a first switch arrangement, wherein the first degeneration resistance is determined by the first switch arrangement; and a second stage, comprising: a second transconductance stage with an associated output current steering arrangement; a second degeneration resistor having a second degeneration resistance; and a second switch arrangement, wherein the second degeneration resistance is determined by the second switch arrangement; and a load resistor; wherein an input voltage steers between an output current of the first stage and an output current of the second stage, with an associated change in gain each time the output current steers between stages. 2. The automatic gain control system of claim 1, the first degeneration resistor further comprising: a first resistor comprising a first resistance and a second resistor comprising a second resistance; wherein the first resistance equals the first degeneration resistance when the first switch arrangement is in a first state. 3. The automatic gain control system of claim 2, wherein the first resistor and the second resistor are arranged in parallel. 4. The automatic gain control system of claim 2, wherein the first resistor and the second resistor are arranged in series. 5. The automatic gain control system of claim 1, wherein the second degeneration resistance is equal to twice the first degeneration resistance. 6. The automatic gain control system of claim 2, wherein the first resistance is equal to twice the second degeneration resistance. 7. The automatic gain control system of claim 1, wherein the gain changes three times, a noise factor changes three times, and a third-order distortion intercept point change three times, wherein the noise factor and third-order distortion point change as an inverse of the gain change. 8. The automatic gain control system of claim 1, the first stage comprising a first control voltage, the second stage comprising a second control voltage, wherein the first control voltage is equal and opposite to the second control voltage. 9. The automatic gain control system of claim 1, further comprising a system output current, wherein the system output current is equal to a sum of the output current of the first stage and the output current of the second stage and a ratio between the first stage output current and the second stage output current is determined by a magnitude of the input voltage. 10. An automatic gain control method, comprising: closing a first switch such that a degeneration resistor in a first stage of a circuit has a first resistance; closing a second switch such that a second degeneration resistor in a second stage of the circuit has a second resistance; steering a current by an input voltage from the first stage to a load resistance of a circuit; and steering between an output current from the first stage to an output current of a second stage as a control voltage decreases; wherein gain of the circuit changes, a noise factor of the circuit changes, and a third-order distortion intercept point of the circuit changes, wherein the noise factor and third-order distortion intercept point change as an inverse of the gain change. 11. The automatic gain control method of claim 10, further comprising: opening the first switch such that the degeneration resistor approaches a third resistance; and steering between the output current from the second stage to the output current of the first stage; wherein the change in gain of the circuit increases, the change in noise factor of the circuit increases, and the change in third-order distortion intercept point of the circuit increases. 12. The automatic gain control method of claim 11, further comprising: opening the second switch such that the second degeneration resistor approaches a fourth resistance. 13. The automatic gain control method of claim 12, further comprising: steering between the output current from the second stage to the output current from the first stage; wherein the change in gain of the circuit increases a third time, the change in noise factor of the circuit increases a third time, and the change in third-order distortion intercept point of the circuit increases a third time. 14. (canceled) 15. (canceled) 16. The automatic gain control method of claim 10, further comprising: successively reducing transconductance of the circuit. 17. The automatic gain control method of claim 10, closing a first switch further comprising: closing the first switch after the output current from the first stage has been completely steered away from an output load. 18. The automatic gain control method of claim 10, closing a second switch further comprising: closing the second switch after the output current from the second stage has been completely steered away from an output load.	<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>It is well documented that present bipolar active variable gain amplifiers have undesirable noise factor and inter-modulation characteristics with gain setting. The noise factor may vary by greater than 1 dB/dB with gain variation and intermodulation intercept point (IP) degrading with back-off. This results in an unacceptable degradation in carrier-to-noise-plus-inter-modulation power ratio, or C/(N+IM), for the first few (up to 6) dBs of gain back-off. It is desirable from a signal handling perspective in a radio receiver to apply automatic gain control (AGC) as soon as possible. Applying AGC is intended to protect the internal stages from strong signal inter-modulation. Thus, the gain control is addressed at or as near as possible at the front of the radio frequency (RF) chain. Conversely, it is desirable from an additive noise perspective to delay front-end AGC-controlled gain back-off as long as possible to minimize degradation in noise factor as the input signal increases and, hence required gain back-off also increases. For this reason, a classical AGC stage is frequently disposed behind input low-noise amplifier (LNA) gain protection, so minimizing degradation in overall noise factor. Assume that an AGC stage is deployed in the front of the receiver. Further, assume that the AGC stage has sufficient gain to substantially protect the input referred additive noise from the internal stage noise. Then, ideally, the AGC stage of the receiver should have a NF characteristic that is substantially less than 1 dB/dB for the first few dBs of back-off, thus, delivering an improving carrier-to-noise power ratio (C/N). If the NF changed at 1 dB/dB with AGC back-off, then the C/N will never improve or, as is the case with prior art AGC implementations, which changes at greater than 1 dB/dB, the C/N would actually degrade. A typical prior art AGC stage 10 , shown in FIG. 1 , is a stacked Gilbert cell with current steering. The AGC stage 10 may, for example, be deployed in an integrated circuit. The signal, V in , is input to a gm stage 12 . The resulting output current, I out , which consists of a standing DC current and a signal current, V in *gm arising from V in , is steered through an un-degenerated long-tailed pair 14 , between the load 16 and V cc . The portion of lout steered to the load 16 generates an output voltage, V out ; the resultant gain, V out /V in , is variable depending on the magnitude of the control voltage, V cont . The AGC stage 10 displays the aforementioned undesirable NF variation with gain back-off. The AGC stage 10 of FIG. 1 is one of many possible circuit implementations to achieve this effect. The NF issue can be partially alleviated by deploying an LNA in front of the AGC stage. However, such an arrangement compromises the inter-modulation performance because higher signals are incident at the AGC input. This can be partially alleviated by applying more current to the AGC stage. Neither of these options are optimum from performance, power, or silicon implementation perspectives. Thus, there is a need for an AGC design that overcomes the shortcomings of the prior art.	<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>The foregoing aspects and many of the attendant advantages of this document will become more readily appreciated as the same becomes better understood by reference to the following detailed description, when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein like reference numerals refer to like parts throughout the various views, unless otherwise specified. FIG. 1 is a circuit diagram of a stacked Gilbert cell with current steering, according to the prior art; FIG. 2 is a schematic circuit diagram of an AGC system, according to some embodiments; FIG. 3 is a flow diagram of a method for implementing the AGC system of FIG. 2 , according to some embodiments; FIG. 4 is a set of mathematical equations describing the degeneration resistance of the AGC system of FIG. 2 , according to some embodiments; FIG. 5 is a graph showing noise factor versus gain for an implementation of the AGC system of FIG. 2 , according to some embodiments; FIG. 6 is a graph showing IP3 versus gain for an implementation of the AGC system of FIG. 2 , according to some embodiments; and FIG. 7 is a graph showing a calculated composite degeneration resistance using the AGC system of FIG. 2 , according to some embodiments. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?	TECHNICAL FIELD This application relates to automatic gain control and, more particularly, to improving the dynamic range of an automatic gain control device. BACKGROUND It is well documented that present bipolar active variable gain amplifiers have undesirable noise factor and inter-modulation characteristics with gain setting. The noise factor may vary by greater than 1 dB/dB with gain variation and intermodulation intercept point (IP) degrading with back-off. This results in an unacceptable degradation in carrier-to-noise-plus-inter-modulation power ratio, or C/(N+IM), for the first few (up to 6) dBs of gain back-off. It is desirable from a signal handling perspective in a radio receiver to apply automatic gain control (AGC) as soon as possible. Applying AGC is intended to protect the internal stages from strong signal inter-modulation. Thus, the gain control is addressed at or as near as possible at the front of the radio frequency (RF) chain. Conversely, it is desirable from an additive noise perspective to delay front-end AGC-controlled gain back-off as long as possible to minimize degradation in noise factor as the input signal increases and, hence required gain back-off also increases. For this reason, a classical AGC stage is frequently disposed behind input low-noise amplifier (LNA) gain protection, so minimizing degradation in overall noise factor. Assume that an AGC stage is deployed in the front of the receiver. Further, assume that the AGC stage has sufficient gain to substantially protect the input referred additive noise from the internal stage noise. Then, ideally, the AGC stage of the receiver should have a NF characteristic that is substantially less than 1 dB/dB for the first few dBs of back-off, thus, delivering an improving carrier-to-noise power ratio (C/N). If the NF changed at 1 dB/dB with AGC back-off, then the C/N will never improve or, as is the case with prior art AGC implementations, which changes at greater than 1 dB/dB, the C/N would actually degrade. A typical prior art AGC stage 10, shown in FIG. 1, is a stacked Gilbert cell with current steering. The AGC stage 10 may, for example, be deployed in an integrated circuit. The signal, Vin, is input to a gm stage 12. The resulting output current, Iout, which consists of a standing DC current and a signal current, Vingm arising from Vin, is steered through an un-degenerated long-tailed pair 14, between the load 16 and Vcc. The portion of lout steered to the load 16 generates an output voltage, Vout; the resultant gain, Vout/Vin, is variable depending on the magnitude of the control voltage, Vcont. The AGC stage 10 displays the aforementioned undesirable NF variation with gain back-off. The AGC stage 10 of FIG. 1 is one of many possible circuit implementations to achieve this effect. The NF issue can be partially alleviated by deploying an LNA in front of the AGC stage. However, such an arrangement compromises the inter-modulation performance because higher signals are incident at the AGC input. This can be partially alleviated by applying more current to the AGC stage. Neither of these options are optimum from performance, power, or silicon implementation perspectives. Thus, there is a need for an AGC design that overcomes the shortcomings of the prior art. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The foregoing aspects and many of the attendant advantages of this document will become more readily appreciated as the same becomes better understood by reference to the following detailed description, when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein like reference numerals refer to like parts throughout the various views, unless otherwise specified. FIG. 1 is a circuit diagram of a stacked Gilbert cell with current steering, according to the prior art; FIG. 2 is a schematic circuit diagram of an AGC system, according to some embodiments; FIG. 3 is a flow diagram of a method for implementing the AGC system of FIG. 2, according to some embodiments; FIG. 4 is a set of mathematical equations describing the degeneration resistance of the AGC system of FIG. 2, according to some embodiments; FIG. 5 is a graph showing noise factor versus gain for an implementation of the AGC system of FIG. 2, according to some embodiments; FIG. 6 is a graph showing IP3 versus gain for an implementation of the AGC system of FIG. 2, according to some embodiments; and FIG. 7 is a graph showing a calculated composite degeneration resistance using the AGC system of FIG. 2, according to some embodiments. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In accordance with the embodiments described herein, a system and method for implementing a wide dynamic range automatic gain control (AGC) are disclosed. The AGC system features a large gain adjustment suitable for integration in silicon tuners. The AGC structure employs a pair of classical current steering stages, architecturally arranged to share the gain back-off characteristic in a novel “ping-pong” arrangement. The AGC system and method deliver a wide dynamic range at low power dissipation in radio frequency (RF) systems, but may be implemented as well in other applications. The AGC system is applied to a bipolar process, in some embodiments, but may be suitable for other process technologies as well. An AGC system 100 is depicted in FIG. 2, according to some embodiments. The AGC system 100 includes a first stage 20 and a second stage 40. The first stage 20 is a first transconductance stage, consisting of a transistor, T1, with an associated output current steering arrangement, consisting of a steering pair of transistors, T3 and T4, a current source and degeneration resistor, RE1, and a switch, S1. As will be shown, when the switch, S1, is closed, the degeneration resistor, RE1, having a first degeneration resistance, is formed by the parallel combination of resistors, R1 and R2; when the switch, S1, is opened, the degeneration resistor, RE1, is the resistor, R1, only. The second stage 40 is a second transconductance stage, consisting of a transistor, T2, with an associated output current steering arrangement, consisting of a steering pair of transistors, T5 and T6, a current source and degeneration resistor, RE2, and a switch, S2. When the switch, S2, is closed, the degeneration resistor, RE2, having a second degeneration resistance, is formed by the parallel combination of resistors, R3 and R4; when the switch, S2, is opened, the degeneration resistor, RE2, is the resistor, R4, only. The AGC stages 20 and 40 run at the same tail current and share a common input, Vin, and a common output load, RL. In some embodiments, the degeneration resistor, R1, for the first stage 20, and the degeneration resistor, R3, for the second stage 40, are set such that a 6 dB higher gain is obtained in the first stage than in the second stage. Assuming that the noise factor, NF, of the AGC system 100 is dominated by the degeneration resistance (an extremely pessimistic assumption), then all other effects being equal if the NF will scale at 0.5 dB/dB and IP3 at 1 dB/dB with change in the degeneration resistance. (IP3 is short for “third order distortion intercept point”, which is a measure of the linearity of an active stage. IP3 is a theoretical value where the level of third-order non-linearity generated intermodulation is of the same value as the fundamental signal, i.e., where the distortion level intercepts with the fundamental signal.) In practice, the degeneration resistance will not be the dominant noise source, so the NF will increase by less than 0.5 dB/dB. (Some simplifying assumptions have been made here, to streamline the description of the concept and benefits. For example, the effect of re is not fully discussed herein.) The operation of the AGC system 100 is described in a flow diagram 200, according to some embodiments, depicted in FIG. 3. Although the operations of the AGC system 100 are presented in a particular order in the flow diagram 200, engineers of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that some of these operations may take place in a different order. During operation of the AGC system 100, the voltage, Vcont, initially steers all current from the first stage 20 into the load resistance, RL (block 202). The switches, S1 and S2, begins in the closed state; hence, in the first stage 20, RE1 is formed from the parallel combination of R1 and R2 (block 204). This value is set to give the desired gain, noise factor, and IP3, in combination with the load resistance, RL, and the current, I. The voltage, Vcont, then decreases, steering an increasing current from the first stage 20 away from the load resistor, RL, and an increasing current from the second stage 40 into the load resistor, RL (block 206). Within the second stage 40, since the switch, S2, is also closed, the degenerative resistance, RE2, is formed from the parallel combination of resistors, R3 and R4 (block 208). In some embodiments, RE2 is arranged so as to satisfy the following equation: RE2=2RE1. This will give a nominal gain difference between the first stage 20 and the second stage 40 of 6 dB, a NF increase of less than 3 dB, and an IP3 increase of 6 dB (block 210). The current steering stages turn over (block 212). When the current steering stages are completely turned over so that the first stage 20 current is now all into Vcc (block 214), the switch, S1, is opened (block 216). In some embodiments, the switches, S1 and S2, are implemented using field effect transistors (FETs). The switch, S1, may be hard switched or analogically switched from the closed position to the opened position. Hard-switching the FET assures that there is a minimum distortion added to the signal path through FET non-linearities. Following the opening of the switch, S1, the degenerative resistance, RE1, increases to R1 (block 216). In some embodiments, the resistor, R1, is fabricated from a parallel switched arrangement. The resistor, R1, is arranged so as to satisfy the following equation: R1=2RE2=4RE1. Next, the steering arrangement transfers back from the second stage 40 to the first stage 20 (block 218). Accordingly, the gain decreases by a further 6 dB, the NF increases by less than 3 dB, and the IP3 increases by 6 dB, giving a total of 12 dB gain reduction, a 6 dB NF increase, and a 12 dB IP3 increase (block 220). Again, the current steering stages are completely turned over (block 222) so that the first stage 20 current is now all into R1 and the second stage 40 is into Vcc (block 224). The switch, S2, is opened, causing the degeneration resistance, RE2, to increase to R3 (block 226). As with the resistor, R1, the resistor, R3, is fabricated from a parallel switched arrangement, in some embodiments. The resistor, R3, is arranged so as to satisfy the following equation: R3=2R1=4RE2=8RE1. Again, the steering arrangement transfers back from the first stage 20 to the second stage 40 (block 228). In some embodiments, the steering voltage for the second stage 40 is simply the inverse of the steering voltage for the first stage 20. The gain now decreases by a further 6 dB, the NF increases by less than 3 dB, and the IP3 increases by 6 dB, giving a total of a 18 dB gain reduction, a 9 dB NF increase, and a 18 dB IP3 increase (block 230). The AGC system 100 may include further transfers between the first stage 20 and the second stage 40, to provide further gain reduction. Circuit designers of ordinary skill in the art will recognize extensions that may be made to the degeneration resistance, RE1, to incorporate additional switching values. The additional stages may increment at the same rate (6 dB) as shown above. Or, the increments may be larger, depending on whether the required maximum IP3 has been achieved. While the degeneration resistances, RE1 and RE1 are formed using parallel resistors, R1 and R2, and R3 and R4, respectively, a series arrangement of resistors may instead be used to form the degeneration resistances, or a combination of parallel and series degeneration resistances may be used. The AGC system 100 is depicted as a single-ended arrangement. However, the AGC system may be implemented as a differential circuit, such as in applications where a second order intercept is needed. The composite gain for the AGC system 100, for a given control voltage and degeneration, can be calculated from the load resistance, RL, and the effective degeneration resistance formed by the parallel combination of the two degeneration resistances, RE1 and RE2, multiplied by the hyperbolic tangent (TANH) characteristic of the steering pairs. FIG. 4 is a set of mathematical equations, which illustrate the effective degeneration resistance, REtot, of the AGC system 100, where RE2=2RE1=20 ohm. The AGC system 100, using the method 200, substantially overcomes the undesirable AGC characteristic. Further, the AGC system 100 and method 200 enable a gain-controlled amplifier to be implemented with a greatly improved noise and inter-modulation characteristic than any known architecture consuming a similar or lower power. The NF shows a characteristic that is typically less than half the degradation with gain back-off, compared to a conventional current steering stage, coupled with an inter-modulation intercept that increases rather than degrades with gain back-off, as happens with a conventional stage. The greatly improved characteristic for NF and inter-modulation intercept simulated with a practical implementation are shown in the graphs 50 and 60, of FIGS. 5 and 6, respectively. The graph 50 (FIG. 5) shows noise factor versus gain while the graph 60 (FIG. 6) shows IP3 versus gain. FIG. 7 is a graph 70 showing a calculated composite degenerate resistance using the AGC system of FIG. 2, according to some embodiments. Using the AGC system 100 and method 200, it is thus possible to exploit the improving IP3 characteristic, which is typically desired at gain back-off, to implement a low-noise amplifier that has a lower IP3 at maximum gain than required at gain reduction, which will be accompanied by a lower NF, lower power, or more probably a combination of both, thus offering an improved sensitivity over prior art implementations. Additionally, since the NF characteristic shows much less than a 1 dB/dB characteristic for the first few dBs of back-off, the AGC system 100 can be deployed at the input to an RF chain, yet still provide an improving C/N with gain back-off. Such an implementation is not achievable in the prior art, unless preceded by a low-noise amplifier, which will degrade IP3 and power. Thus, the AGC system 100 allows superior performance than previously disclosed architectures, offering improved system C/N performance. The curves in the graphs 50 and 60 (FIGS. 5 and 6) are for an arrangement with the degeneration resistance implemented differentially, as shown in Table 1, according to some embodiments. TABLE 1 Degeneration resistances for AGC system 100 transfer number transfer direction RE1 1st stage (Ω) RE2 2nd stage (Ω) 1 1st to 2nd stage 25 50 2 2nd to 1st stage 100 50 3 1st to 2nd stage 100 200 4 2nd to 1st stage 400 200 5 1st to 2nd stage 400 1200 In some embodiments, the AGC system 100 maintains a fixed direct current (DC) value on the load resistance, RL, which then maintains a constant DC value into the input of following stages. This, in turn, causes a constant collector base bias in the following stage to be maintained, which considerably eases cell design, in some embodiments. Prior art AGC stages show a gain-dependent DC level on the load, which can be problematic. In addition, the suppression of the change in the DC value with gain setting will prevent the introduction of DC dependent amplitude modulation, as occurs in a conventional stage. The AGC system 100 thus expands the dynamic range of conventional current steering stages by applying cross-coupled steering pairs in combination with switching of degeneration feedback resistors. In addition to achieving the gain reductions described above, the AGC system 100 may increase gain, in some embodiments, by applying the previously described changes of switches and steering currents in an inverse sequence. Circuit designers of ordinary skill in the art recognize that such an inverse sequence will increase, rather than decrease, the gain of the AGC system 100. While the application has been described with respect to a limited number of embodiments, those skilled in the art will appreciate numerous modifications and variations therefrom. It is intended that the appended claims cover all such modifications and variations as fall within the true spirit and scope of the above description.	H	H03	H03F	3	45
11958672	US20090152424A1-20090618	HANGER HOOK ASSEMBLY FOR WIRE SHELF	ACCEPTED	20090604	20090618		[]	F16B4500	["F16B4500"]	7946549	20071218	20110524	248	304000	87489.0	STERLING	AMY JO	[{"inventor_name_last": "Forrest", "inventor_name_first": "Earl David", "inventor_city": "Asheboro", "inventor_state": "NC", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Daniels", "inventor_name_first": "James Leroy", "inventor_city": "Stokesdale", "inventor_state": "NC", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Austin, III", "inventor_name_first": "James Allen", "inventor_city": "High Point", "inventor_state": "NC", "inventor_country": "US"}]	An example hanger hook assembly for a wire shelf includes a rod end portion and a hanging rod extending from the rod end portion. A hanger end portion mounts to a wire shelf, and the hanger end portion aligns with a wire shelf storage surface. A hook portion extends from the hanger end portion to the rod end portion. The hook portion is concave between the hanger end portion and the hook end portion.	1. A hanger hook assembly for a wire shelf comprising: a rod end portion; a hanging rod extending from said rod end portion; a hanger end portion mountable to a wire shelf, said hanger end portion aligned with a wire shelf storage surface; and a hook portion having a length extending from said hanger end portion to said rod end portion, said hook portion concave along said length relative to a point located between said hanger end portion and said hook end portion. 2. The hanger hook assembly of claim 1, wherein said rod end portion is substantially perpendicular said wire shelf storage surface. 3. The hanger hook assembly of claim 1, including a bracket for mounting said hanger portion to said wire shelf, said bracket having at least one hooked bracket end portion for receiving at least one wire of said wire shelf. 4. The hanger hook assembly of claim 3, wherein said plurality of hooked bracket end portions includes an upturned bracket hook and a downturned bracket hook each for receiving said at least one wire of said wire shelf. 5. The hanger hook of claim 3, wherein said bracket includes weld areas for welding said bracket. 6. A hanger hook assembly for a wire shelf comprising: a bracket for spanning a plurality of shelf wires; a hanging rod aligned with said plurality of shelf wires; and a hook mounted to said bracket and supporting said hanging rod, said hook having a length extending from adjacent said bracket to said hanging rod, wherein said length maintains concavity along said length from said bracket to said hanging rod. 7. The hanger hook assembly of claim 6, wherein said bracket includes a plurality of hooked bracket end portions. 8. The hanger hook assembly of claim 7, wherein said plurality of hooked bracket end portions includes an upturned bracket hook and a downturned bracket hook each for receiving one of said plurality of shelf wires. 9. The hanger hook assembly of claim 8, wherein said upturned bracket hook receives one of said plurality of shelf wires rearward of one of said plurality of shelf wires received by said downturned bracket hook. 10. The hanger hook assembly of claim 6, wherein said hook includes a hanger portion aligned with said bracket. 11. The hanger hook assembly of claim 10, wherein said hanger portion is substantially straight. 12. The hanger hook assembly of claim 6, wherein said bracket includes at least one weld area for welding said bracket to said plurality of shelf wires. 13. A hanger rod assembly for a wire shelf comprising: a plurality of brackets each mountable to a wire shelf, a plurality of hooks each having a hanger end portion for hanging from a corresponding one of said plurality of brackets and a loop portion extending from said hanger portion; and a hanging rod secured to said plurality of hooks. 14. The hanger hook assembly of claim 13, wherein said bracket includes hooked bracket end portions. 15. The hanger hook assembly of claim 13, wherein said hooked bracket end portions includes an upturned hook and a downturned hook each for receiving one of said plurality of shelf wires. 16. The hanger hook assembly of claim 13, wherein said bracket includes at least one weld area for welding said bracket to said adjacent shelf wires. 17. The hanger hook assembly of claim 16, wherein said at least one weld area is aligned adjacent a wire shelf storage surface. 18. The hanger hook assembly of claim 13, wherein said loop portion is entirely concave between said loop portion and said hanger portion.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention relates generally to a hanger hook assembly for securing a hanger rod adjacent a wire shelf. Wire storage shelves are known. Storage areas such as closets and laundry rooms use wire shelves to store clothes and linens, for example. Wire shelves typically include parallel shelf wires arranged to provide a storage surface. The parallel shelf wires may bend down near the front edge of the wire shelf. Thicker supporting wires attach to the undersides of the parallel shelf wires, perpendicular to the other shelf wires. The storage surface is suitable for storing folded clothes, but a user may desire to hang some types of clothes. Wire or plastic hangers are typically used to hang clothes, such as dress shirts. The hangers commonly include a looped end for hanging over a rod. Sliding the looped end along the rod moves the hanger and the hanging clothes, facilitating access to the hanging clothes. Hanging the looped end directly from one of the shelf wires or supporting wires is often undesirable because the looped end contacts the other wires in the wire shelf when moving the looped end. This limits access to the hanging clothes. Some storage areas may include permanent hanging rods mounted apart from the wire shelf, but these permanent hanging rods limit potential storage configurations and increase overall costs.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An example hanger hook assembly for a wire shelf includes a rod end portion and a hanging rod extending from the rod end portion. A hanger end portion mounts to a wire shelf, and the hanger end portion aligns with a wire shelf storage surface. A hook portion has a length extending from the hanger end portion to the rod end portion, the hook portion is concave along the length relative to a point located between the hanger end portion and the hook end portion. Another example hanger hook assembly for a wire shelf includes a bracket for spanning a plurality of shelf wires, a hanging rod aligned with the plurality of shelf wires, and a hook mounted to the bracket. The hook has a length extending from adjacent the bracket to the hanging rod. The length maintains concavity relative to a point located between the bracket and a portion of the hook. Another example hanger rod assembly for a shelf includes a plurality of brackets each for spanning adjacent shelf wires. A plurality of hooks each have a hanger end portion for hanging from one of the plurality of brackets and a loop portion extending from the hanger portion. A hanging rod secures to the loop portion of each of the plurality of hooks.	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to a hanger hook assembly for securing a hanger rod adjacent a wire shelf. Wire storage shelves are known. Storage areas such as closets and laundry rooms use wire shelves to store clothes and linens, for example. Wire shelves typically include parallel shelf wires arranged to provide a storage surface. The parallel shelf wires may bend down near the front edge of the wire shelf. Thicker supporting wires attach to the undersides of the parallel shelf wires, perpendicular to the other shelf wires. The storage surface is suitable for storing folded clothes, but a user may desire to hang some types of clothes. Wire or plastic hangers are typically used to hang clothes, such as dress shirts. The hangers commonly include a looped end for hanging over a rod. Sliding the looped end along the rod moves the hanger and the hanging clothes, facilitating access to the hanging clothes. Hanging the looped end directly from one of the shelf wires or supporting wires is often undesirable because the looped end contacts the other wires in the wire shelf when moving the looped end. This limits access to the hanging clothes. Some storage areas may include permanent hanging rods mounted apart from the wire shelf, but these permanent hanging rods limit potential storage configurations and increase overall costs. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An example hanger hook assembly for a wire shelf includes a rod end portion and a hanging rod extending from the rod end portion. A hanger end portion mounts to a wire shelf, and the hanger end portion aligns with a wire shelf storage surface. A hook portion has a length extending from the hanger end portion to the rod end portion, the hook portion is concave along the length relative to a point located between the hanger end portion and the hook end portion. Another example hanger hook assembly for a wire shelf includes a bracket for spanning a plurality of shelf wires, a hanging rod aligned with the plurality of shelf wires, and a hook mounted to the bracket. The hook has a length extending from adjacent the bracket to the hanging rod. The length maintains concavity relative to a point located between the bracket and a portion of the hook. Another example hanger rod assembly for a shelf includes a plurality of brackets each for spanning adjacent shelf wires. A plurality of hooks each have a hanger end portion for hanging from one of the plurality of brackets and a loop portion extending from the hanger portion. A hanging rod secures to the loop portion of each of the plurality of hooks. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS These and other features of the present invention can be best understood from the following specification and drawings, the following of which is a brief description. FIG. 1 illustrates a perspective view of an example hanger hook assembly secured to a wire shelf. FIG. 2 illustrates an exploded view of the hanger hook assembly of FIG. 1. FIG. 3 illustrates a side view of the bracket of FIG. 1. FIG. 4 illustrates a side view of the hook portion of FIG. 1. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF AN EXAMPLE EMBODIMENT A standard wire shelf 10 includes a plurality of shelf wires 18 arranged to form a wire shelf storage surface 14, as shown in FIG. 1. The shelf storage surface 14 provides a storage location for folded clothes, for example. Brackets (not shown) secure the wire shelf 10 to a wall in a known manner. Some of the shelf wires 18 are support wires 20, which are transverse to the shelf wires 18 that provide the shelf storage surface 14. An example hanger hook assembly 50 includes a bracket 54 and a hook 58. The bracket 54 engages support wires 20 to hang the hanger hook assembly 50 from the wire shelf 10. As the bracket 54 engages support wires 20 between other adjacent shelf wires 18, some of the shelf wires 18 limit sliding movements of the bracket 54 parallel to the support wires 20. A hanging rod 62 is attached to the hook 58. In the example, the hanging rod 62 is welded to the hook 58. The hanging rod 62 is supported by, and may extend between the hanger hook assembly 50 and the hook of an adjacent hanger hook assembly 52. A clothes hanger 71 includes a looped end portion 72 for hanging the hanger 71 from the hanging rod 62. The geometry of the remaining portions of the hanger hook assembly 50 provides clearance for looped end portion 72 of the clothes hanger to slide along the hanging rod 62. Referring now to FIGS. 2 and 3, the hook 58 has a hanger end portion 66 and a rod end portion 70. The bracket 54 receives the hanger end portion 66 of the hook 58, and the hanging rod 62 extends from the rod end portion 70. The bracket 54 includes two hooked bracket end portions 78, 82 for engaging and spanning support wires 20 of the wire shelf 10, which are supporting wires in this example. In this example, one end of the bracket 54 includes at least one upturned hook 78 and the other end of the bracket 54 includes at least one downturned hook 82. Both hooks 78, 82 engage shelf wires 20 below the wire shelf support surface 14 (FIG. 1) to lessen interference when moving items to a storage location on the support surface 14. The example bracket 54 also includes a plurality of bracket hangers 86 extending away from other portions of the bracket 54. The bracket hangers 86 are sized to receive the hanger end portion 66 of the hook 58 and hold the hanger end portion 66 substantially parallel to the wire shelf storage surface 14. Some of the bracket hangers 86 engage a lower surface of the hanger end portion 66 while another bracket hanger loops over an upper surface of the hanger end portion 66. The bracket hangers 86 limit some movements of the hanger end portion 66, but in this example permit disengaging the hanger end portion 66 from the bracket hangers 86 when moving the hanger end portion 66 away from the downturned hook 82 aligned with the wire shelf support surface 14 (FIG. 1). The weight of the hook 58, the hanging rod 62, and items hanging from the hanging rod 62 pulls the hanger end portion 66 toward the interior surface of the bracket hangers 86, which helps limit other movements of the hanger end portion 66 relative the bracket hangers 86. Other examples may crimp the bracket hangers 86 against the hanger end portion 66 to discourage movement of the hanger end portion 66 relative to the bracket hangers 86. Referring now to FIG. 4, the example hook 58 includes a loop portion 84 having a length extending from the hanger end portion 66 to the hanging rod 62. The loop portion 84 is concave along the length relative to a point located between the loop portion 84 and the hanger end portion 66, such as point A, for example. The concavity relative to point A provides clearance for the looped end portion 72 of the clothes hanger. Referring again to FIG. 1, a user wishing to install the hanger hook assembly 50 to a standard wire shelf 10 may engage one of the support wires 20 with the upturned hook 78 and rest the downturned hook 82 against another of the support wires 20. Such an installation facilitates removal of the hanger hook assembly 50 from the wire shelf 10 if the hanger rod 62 is no longer desired. To remove the hanger hook assembly 50 from the support wires 20, the user first lifts end of the bracket 54 with the downturned hook 82 away from one of the support wires 20. The user then slides the upturned hook 78 off of another of the support wires 20 and moves the hanger hook assembly 50 downward and away from the shelf wires 18. In this example however, the bracket 54 includes a plurality of designated weld areas 90 for securing the bracket 54 to the upper portion of the support wires 20. The example weld area 90 includes opening that exposes a portion of the underlying support wires 20. The exposed underlying support wires 20 can then be welded to the bracket 54. The weld areas 90 provide suitable area to weld the bracket 54 to the support wires 20 if desired. Welding the bracket 54 to the support wires 20 limits relative movement between the hanger hook assembly 50 and the wire shelf 10. Although a preferred embodiment of this invention has been disclosed, a worker of ordinary skill in this art would recognize that certain modifications would come within the scope of this invention. For that reason, the following claims should be studied to determine the true scope and content of this invention.	F	F16	F16B	45	00
11886370	US20090024151A1-20090122	Absorbable/Biodegradable Composite Yarns and Property-Modulated Surgical Implants Therefrom	ACCEPTED	20090107	20090122		[]	A61B1712	["A61B1712"]	8585772	20070914	20131119	623	023720	99161.0	TYSON	MELANIE	[{"inventor_name_last": "Shalaby", "inventor_name_first": "Shalaby W", "inventor_city": "Anderson", "inventor_state": "SC", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Peniston", "inventor_name_first": "Shawn J.", "inventor_city": "Easley", "inventor_state": "SC", "inventor_country": "US"}]	The present invention is directed to absorbable/biodegradable composite yarns, each comprising at least two types of fibrous components having distinctly different absorption and strength retention profiles and the use of these composite yarns to construct surgical implants, such as sutures and meshes with integrated physicochemical and biological properties, modulated through varying the individual yarn content and controlling the geometry of these constructs.	1. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant comprising at least two differing fibrous components, the differing components having differing absorption profiles and differing strength retention profiles in the biological environment. 2. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 1 wherein the fibrous components comprise plied multifilament yarns of at least two individual continuous yarns, each yarn comprising a polyester made from at least one monomer selected from the group consisting of glycolide, lactide, ε-caprolactone, trimethylene carbonate, p-dioxanone, 1,5-dioxepan-2-one, and a morpholine-2,5-dione. 3. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 2 wherein the polyester comprises a segmented/block copolymer comprising sequences derived from at least one monomer selected from the group consisting of glycolide-, l-lactide, trimethylene carbonate, and caprolactone. 4. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 1 wherein the fibrous components comprise plied multifilament yarns, at least one of the plied multifilament yarns comprising a copolymer of at least one synthetic polyester and a biosynthetic polyhydroxyalkanoate. 5. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 1 wherein the fibrous components comprise plied multifilament yarns and wherein at least one of the plied multifilament yarns comprises a synthetic polyester and at least one of the plied multifilament yarns comprises a biosynthetic polyhydroxyalkanoate. 6. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 1 in the form of a braided suture. 7. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 1 in the form of a knitted mesh construct for use in hernial repair. 8. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 1 in the form of a woven mesh construct. 9. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 1 in the form of a mesh construct, wherein the fibrous components comprise individual yarns and wherein the individual yarns are plied, braided and subsequently knitted or woven into the mesh construct. 10. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 6 wherein the suture further comprises a coating, the coating comprising an absorbable polymer to improve tie-down properties and minimize tissue drag. 11. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 7 wherein the mesh further comprises a surface coating, the coating comprising an absorbable polymer to modulate the construct permeability to biological fluids and tissue ingrowth into the construct. 12. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 8 wherein the mesh further comprises a surface coating, the coating comprising an absorbable polymer to modulate the construct permeability to biological fluids and tissue ingrowth into the construct. 13. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 6 wherein the suture comprises a core derived from a first type of yarn and a sheath derived from a second type of yarn, wherein the first type of yarn differs from the second type of yarn. 14. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 1 in the form of a device for use as a tissue-engineered hernial repair patch. 15. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 1 in the form of a device for use as a tendon, ligament, or vascular graft. 16. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 1 in the form of a tubular knitted mesh. 17. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 16 wherein the mesh further comprises a thin absorbable film insert. 18. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 17 wherein the mesh and the film insert are in the form of a compressed, three-layer sheet construct for use in hernial repair. 19. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 18 wherein the three-layer sheet construct further comprises an absorbable coating. 20. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 1 further comprising an absorbable polyester coating comprising a bioactive agent, the bioactive agent selected from the group consisting of antimicrobial agents, analgesic agents, antineoplastic agents, anti-inflammatory agents, and cell growth promoters. 21. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 1 wherein the fibrous components comprise at least two differing yarns, at least one comprising a multifilament and at least one comprising a monofilament yarns, each comprising a different polyester made from at least one monomer selected from the group consisting of glycolide, l-lactide, ε-caprolactone, p-dioxanone, trimethylene carbonate, 1,5-dioxepan-2-one, and a morpholinedione, by ring-opening polymerization in the presence of an organometallic catalyst and an organic initiator. 22. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 21 in the form of a coated or uncoated jersey knit mesh. 23. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 21 in the form of a coated or uncoated warp knit mesh. 24. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 21 in the form of a coated or uncoated woven mesh. 25. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 21 in the form of a device for hernial repair, vascular tissue repair, producing vascular grafts or tissue engineering. 26. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 21 in the form of a coated or uncoated suture comprising a monofilament core and a braided sheath. 27. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 21 further comprising a coating comprising an absorbable polyester having a melting temperature of less than 100° C. 28. An absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant as set forth in claim 27 wherein the coating comprises at least one bioactive agent selected from the group consisting of antimicrobial agents, anti-inflammatory agents, antineoplastic agents, anesthetic agents, and growth promoting agents.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Blending of non-absorbable fibers having distinctly different individual physicochemical properties is a well-established practice in the textile industry and is directed toward achieving unique properties based on the constituent fibers in such blends. The most commonly acknowledged examples of these blends include combinations of (1) wool staple yarn and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) continuous multifilament yarn to produce textile fabrics which benefit from the insulating quality of wool and high tensile strength of the polyester; (2) cotton staple yarn and PET continuous multifilament yarn to produce water-absorbing, comfortable (due to cotton), strong (due to PET) fabrics; (3) nylon continuous multifilament yarn and cotton staple yarn to achieve strength and hydrophilicity; and (4) cotton staple yarn and polyurethane continuous monofilament yarn to yield water-absorbing, comfortable elastic fabrics. The concept of blending non-absorbable and absorbable fibers was addressed to a very limited extent in the prior art relative to combining PET with an absorbable polyester fiber in a few fibrous constructs, such as hernial meshes and vascular grafts, to permit tissue ingrowth in the PET component, as the absorbable fibers lose mass with time. Similar combinations were investigated with polypropylene and absorbable polyester in hernial meshes and vascular grafts. However, the use of totally absorbable/biodegradable blends of two or more yarns to yield fibrous properties that combine those of the constituent yarns is heretofore unknown in the prior art. This provided the incentive to pursue this invention, which deals with totally absorbable/biodegrade-able composite yarns having at least two fibrous components and their conversion to medical devices, such as sutures and meshes, with modulated, integrated physicochemical and biological properties derived from the constituent yarns and which can be further modified to exhibit specific clinically desired properties.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Accordingly, the present invention is directed to an absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant formed of at least two differing fibrous components, the differing components having differing absorption profiles and differing strength retention profiles in the biological environment. In one preferred embodiment the fibrous components of the implant are plied multifilament yarns of at least two individual continuous yarns, each yarn formed from a polyester made from at least one monomer selected from glycolide, lactide, ε-caprolactone, trimethylene carbonate, p-dioxanone, 1,5-dioxepan-2-one, and a morpholine-2,5-dione. Preferably, the polyester is a segmented/block copolymer having sequences derived from at least one monomer selected from glycolide-, l-lactide, trimethylene carbonate, and caprolactone. In another embodiment the fibrous components are plied multifilament yarns, at least one of which is formed from a synthetic polyester copolymer and a biosynthetic polyhydroxyalkanoate. Alternatively the fibrous components are plied multifilament yarns wherein at least one of the plied multifilament yarns is formed of a synthetic polyester and at least one of the plied multifilament yarns is formed of a biosynthetic polyhydroxyalkanoate. The present absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant can be any of a variety of medical devices such as, for example, a braided suture, a knitted mesh construct for use in hernial repair, of a woven mesh construct. Specifically, the fibrous components may comprise individual yarns which are plied, braided and subsequently knitted or woven into a mesh construct. Both sutures and meshes may include a surface coating in accordance with the present invention. In the case of sutures the coating may be an absorbable polymer to improve tie-down properties and minimize tissue drag. Similarly for meshes, whether knitted or woven, an absorbable polymer surface coating may be employed to modulate the construct permeability to biological fluids and tissue ingrowth into the construct. Absorbable/biodegradable sutures in accordance with the present invention may comprises a core derived from a first type of yarn and a sheath derived from a second, differing type of yarn. Other absorbable/biodegradable medical devices in accordance with the present invention include a device for use as a tissue-engineered hernial repair patch, or a device for use as a tendon, ligament, or vascular graft. Further the present absorbable/biodegradable implant can be a tubular knitted mesh which may include a thin absorbable film insert. Preferably such mesh and film insert are provided in the form of a compressed, three-layer sheet construct for use in hernial repair. Most preferably the three-layer sheet construct further includes an absorbable coating. Regardless of the form taken by the present inventive absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant, it may preferably include an absorbable polyester coating which contains a bioactive agent selected from antimicrobial agents, analgesic agents, antineoplastic agents, anti-inflammatory agents, and cell growth promoters. In yet another preferred embodiment fibrous components of the present surgical implant are at least two differing yarns, at least one of which is a multifilament and at least one of which is a monofilament yarn, each yarn formed of a different polyester made from at least one monomer selected from glycolide, l-lactide, ε-caprolactone, p-dioxanone, trimethylene carbonate, 1,5-dioxepan-2-one, and a morpholinedione, by ring-opening polymerization in the presence of an organometallic catalyst and an organic initiator. Preferably this arrangement is used in forming a coated or uncoated jersey knit mesh, a coated or uncoated warp knit mesh, a coated or uncoated woven mesh, a device for hernial repair, vascular tissue repair, producing vascular grafts or tissue engineering, or a coated or uncoated suture comprising a monofilament core and a braided sheath. This arrangement benefits from a coating of an absorbable polyester having a melting temperature of less than 100° C., which preferably contains at least one bioactive agent selected from antimicrobial agents, anti-inflammatory agents, antineoplastic agents, anesthetic agents, and growth promoting agents. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?	FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention is directed to absorbable/biodegradable composite yarns having at least two fibrous components with distinctly different individual physicochemical and biological properties for use in constructing absorbable/biodegradable medical devices or surgical implants, such as sutures, meshes, and allied textile constructs, displaying a gradient in clinically relevant properties. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Blending of non-absorbable fibers having distinctly different individual physicochemical properties is a well-established practice in the textile industry and is directed toward achieving unique properties based on the constituent fibers in such blends. The most commonly acknowledged examples of these blends include combinations of (1) wool staple yarn and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) continuous multifilament yarn to produce textile fabrics which benefit from the insulating quality of wool and high tensile strength of the polyester; (2) cotton staple yarn and PET continuous multifilament yarn to produce water-absorbing, comfortable (due to cotton), strong (due to PET) fabrics; (3) nylon continuous multifilament yarn and cotton staple yarn to achieve strength and hydrophilicity; and (4) cotton staple yarn and polyurethane continuous monofilament yarn to yield water-absorbing, comfortable elastic fabrics. The concept of blending non-absorbable and absorbable fibers was addressed to a very limited extent in the prior art relative to combining PET with an absorbable polyester fiber in a few fibrous constructs, such as hernial meshes and vascular grafts, to permit tissue ingrowth in the PET component, as the absorbable fibers lose mass with time. Similar combinations were investigated with polypropylene and absorbable polyester in hernial meshes and vascular grafts. However, the use of totally absorbable/biodegradable blends of two or more yarns to yield fibrous properties that combine those of the constituent yarns is heretofore unknown in the prior art. This provided the incentive to pursue this invention, which deals with totally absorbable/biodegrade-able composite yarns having at least two fibrous components and their conversion to medical devices, such as sutures and meshes, with modulated, integrated physicochemical and biological properties derived from the constituent yarns and which can be further modified to exhibit specific clinically desired properties. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, the present invention is directed to an absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant formed of at least two differing fibrous components, the differing components having differing absorption profiles and differing strength retention profiles in the biological environment. In one preferred embodiment the fibrous components of the implant are plied multifilament yarns of at least two individual continuous yarns, each yarn formed from a polyester made from at least one monomer selected from glycolide, lactide, ε-caprolactone, trimethylene carbonate, p-dioxanone, 1,5-dioxepan-2-one, and a morpholine-2,5-dione. Preferably, the polyester is a segmented/block copolymer having sequences derived from at least one monomer selected from glycolide-, l-lactide, trimethylene carbonate, and caprolactone. In another embodiment the fibrous components are plied multifilament yarns, at least one of which is formed from a synthetic polyester copolymer and a biosynthetic polyhydroxyalkanoate. Alternatively the fibrous components are plied multifilament yarns wherein at least one of the plied multifilament yarns is formed of a synthetic polyester and at least one of the plied multifilament yarns is formed of a biosynthetic polyhydroxyalkanoate. The present absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant can be any of a variety of medical devices such as, for example, a braided suture, a knitted mesh construct for use in hernial repair, of a woven mesh construct. Specifically, the fibrous components may comprise individual yarns which are plied, braided and subsequently knitted or woven into a mesh construct. Both sutures and meshes may include a surface coating in accordance with the present invention. In the case of sutures the coating may be an absorbable polymer to improve tie-down properties and minimize tissue drag. Similarly for meshes, whether knitted or woven, an absorbable polymer surface coating may be employed to modulate the construct permeability to biological fluids and tissue ingrowth into the construct. Absorbable/biodegradable sutures in accordance with the present invention may comprises a core derived from a first type of yarn and a sheath derived from a second, differing type of yarn. Other absorbable/biodegradable medical devices in accordance with the present invention include a device for use as a tissue-engineered hernial repair patch, or a device for use as a tendon, ligament, or vascular graft. Further the present absorbable/biodegradable implant can be a tubular knitted mesh which may include a thin absorbable film insert. Preferably such mesh and film insert are provided in the form of a compressed, three-layer sheet construct for use in hernial repair. Most preferably the three-layer sheet construct further includes an absorbable coating. Regardless of the form taken by the present inventive absorbable/biodegradable surgical implant, it may preferably include an absorbable polyester coating which contains a bioactive agent selected from antimicrobial agents, analgesic agents, antineoplastic agents, anti-inflammatory agents, and cell growth promoters. In yet another preferred embodiment fibrous components of the present surgical implant are at least two differing yarns, at least one of which is a multifilament and at least one of which is a monofilament yarn, each yarn formed of a different polyester made from at least one monomer selected from glycolide, l-lactide, ε-caprolactone, p-dioxanone, trimethylene carbonate, 1,5-dioxepan-2-one, and a morpholinedione, by ring-opening polymerization in the presence of an organometallic catalyst and an organic initiator. Preferably this arrangement is used in forming a coated or uncoated jersey knit mesh, a coated or uncoated warp knit mesh, a coated or uncoated woven mesh, a device for hernial repair, vascular tissue repair, producing vascular grafts or tissue engineering, or a coated or uncoated suture comprising a monofilament core and a braided sheath. This arrangement benefits from a coating of an absorbable polyester having a melting temperature of less than 100° C., which preferably contains at least one bioactive agent selected from antimicrobial agents, anti-inflammatory agents, antineoplastic agents, anesthetic agents, and growth promoting agents. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The clinical need for synthetic absorbable sutures, which elicit minimum tissue response in biological tissues, was acknowledged over four decades ago. Since then, the demand for many forms of absorbable fibrous constructs has grown consistently as the surgical procedures have become more sophisticated and contemporary surgeons voice demands for more site-specific, highly effective surgical sutures and allied products, particularly meshes. For totally absorbable/biodegradable sutures and meshes, the clinical community is quite ready to exploit a new aspect in these devices that is associated with modulated physicochemical and biological properties, which, in turn, permit the prolonged use of these devices over longer periods at progressively healing and remodeling the biological sites. Additionally, modulated absorption and incremental degradation minimize the risk of uncontrolled production of acidic by-products. This, in turn, results in minimized tissue reaction during the use period. To meet such a challenge, the present invention uses specific combinations of short- and long-term absorbable yarns to produce composite devices that meet a broad range of tissue repair requirements. In cases of absorbable sutures, instead of having a polyglycolide (PGA) suture that loses its wound-holding capacity in about three weeks, a yarn composite of PGA-based yarn and copolymeric high lactide-based yarn will provide a progressive loss in holding capacity over a period of 1 to 12 weeks. This allows a prolonged healing period and gradual transfer of load from the suture to the biological tissue over 1 to 12 weeks, which can be imperative for geriatric and diabetic patients as well as patients with other types of compromised wounds. Braided, knitted, and woven constructs made of certain composite yarns exhibit lower values for their modulus than would be expected upon averaging the modulus values of the corresponding constituent single-yarn constructs. The woven and/or knitted meshes made of absorbable/biodegradable composite yarn, subject of this invention, are designed for use in applications associated with (1) genital prolapse and stress continence in women; (2) unilateral hernia repair; (3) reconstruction of the diaphragm in extensive congenital hernia; (4) several types of laparoscopic hernia repairs; (5) preventing parastromal hernia, a common complication following colostomy; (6) inguinal and incisional hernia repair; (7) abdominal wall hernia; (8) enlargement of the right ventricular outflow tract; (9) femoral hernia; (10) umbilical hernia; (11) epigastric hernia; and (12) incisional or ventral hernia. In all these projected applications of the meshes, subject of this invention, the totally absorbable/biodegradable composite meshes with modulated absorption and strength retention profiles should be favored over commercially available non-absorbable ones made primarily of Teflon®, polypropylene, and polyethylene terephthalate for the following reasons: (1) The ability of the composite mesh to provide a site-specific mechanical support for prescribed periods of time, because of its exceptionally broad range of strength retention profiles; (2) The ability of the composite mesh to transfer the load gradually to the surrounding tissue concomitant with gradual decay of the mesh mechanical strength. This, in turn, contributes to the acceleration of repair of the surrounding tissue; (3) As the composite mesh undergoes gradual mass loss, the surrounding tissue is allowed to regrow and retain its natural shape at the surgical site; (4) Since the composite mesh is transient, the incidence of long-term infection is practically non-existent following the repair of the tissue in question. To satisfy specific bioengineering and clinical needs, in one aspect the present invention is directed to composite fibrous constructs wherein at least one of the constituent fibers or yarns is a monofilament that is responsible for increasing the construct initial rigidity, and at least one constituent fiber or yarn is a multifilament which is responsible for increasing the surface area and porosity of said composite construct. The monofilament polymeric material is selected to differ from that of polymeric material used to produce the multifilament, so as to provide a construct which displays practically biphasic or multiphasic absorption and strength retention profiles in the biological environment. The monofilament and multifilament yarn combinations can be used to produce (1) jersey knit surgical mesh following using a standard tube or flat-knitting process; (2) warp knit surgical mesh that can be cut into smaller sizes to match the area of the surgical site without unraveling; and (3) surgical sutures which may have a monofilament core of a single strand or multiple strand of up to five monofilaments and a sheath of a multifilament yarn. In certain forms, the monofilament and multifilament yarns may be used as sheath and core, respectively. From a clinical perspective, the surgical mesh comprising the monofilament and multifilament yarns (whether jersey or warp knit mesh) can be used as such for hernial repair, vascular graft, vascular patch, or tissue engineering. Alternatively, the mesh can be coated with an absorbable coating to (1) modulate the mesh absorption and strength retention profiles in the biological environment; (2) function as a surface lubricant to facilitate handling and improve suturability at the surgical site; and (3) be used as a matrix for the controlled release of at least one bioactive agent. Likewise, a suture construct comprising a monofilament and multifilament yarn can be used as such or as a coated article wherein the coating is expected to (1) modulate the suture absorption and strength retention profile in the biological environment; (2) function as a surface lubricant to optimize the suture frictional properties and facilitate its tie-down during knot formation and (3) be used as matrix for the controlled delivery of at least one bioactive agent. Further illustrations of the present invention are provided by the following examples: EXAMPLE 1 Preparation of High Glycolide- and High Lactide-Based Copolymers Two high glycolide-based copolymers, P1 and P2, and two high lactide-base copolymers, P3 and P4, were prepared as outlined below: Preparation of P1: A 95/5 (molar) mixture of glycolide/l-lactide was polymerized under traditional ring-opening polymerization using stannous octanoate as a catalyst and 1-decanol as the initiator at a maximum polymerization temperature of 220° C. until practically complete conversion was achieved. The polymer was isolated, ground, dried, and residual monomers were removed by distillation under reduced pressure. The purified polymer was characterized for identity and composition (IR and NMR), thermal properties (DSC), and molar weight (inherent viscosity in hexafluoro isopropyl alcohol, HFIP). Preparation of P2: A mixture of 95/5 (molar) glycolide/ε-caprolactone was end-grafted onto polyaxial polytrimethylene carbonate as a polymeric initiator to produce P2, using similar conditions to those disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,498,229 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,462,169, each hereby incorporated herein by reference, for preparing the polymeric polyaxial initiator and completing the end-grafting scheme, respectively. The polymer was isolated, ground, dried, purified, and characterized as described for P1. Preparation of P3: The copolymer was prepared using 88/12 (molar) l-lactide/tri-methylene carbonate as per the teaching of U.S. Pat. No. 6,342,065. The polymer was isolated, ground, dried, purified, and characterized as described for P1 above with the exception of using chloroform as a solvent for the solution viscosity measurement. Preparation of P4: The copolymer was prepared using 84/11/5 (molar) l-lactide/tri-methylene carbonate/caprolactone as per the teaching of U.S. Pat. No. 6,342,065. The polymer was isolated, ground, dried, purified, and characterized as described for P3. EXAMPLE 2 Preparation of Monofilament and Multifilament Yarns for Braiding and Knitting General Method To produce the monofilament or multifilament yarns, the specific polymer was melt-spun using a ¾″ extruder equipped with a single or 20-hole die, respectively, following the general protocol described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,342,065. The extruded yarn was oriented during a two-stage drawing using a series of heated Godets. EXAMPLE 3 Preparation of Coreless Braid General Method For preparing the coreless braids of a single multifilament yarn, a 16-carrier braider, loaded with the specific yarn, was used. The resulting braids were then annealed at 80° C. for one hour at a constant length. For the braids based on composite yarn, the 16-carrier braider was loaded with two or more types of individual yarns. The resulting braids were annealed for one hour at 80° C. at a constant length. EXAMPLE 4 Preparation and Testing of Tensile Properties of Coreless Braids Made of Single Component (B1 to B4) and Composite Yarns (B5 to B8) Annealed braids B1 to B4 were made from single-component yarns that have been prepared as described in Example 1 using the copolymeric compositions P1 to P4 described in Table I. Similarly annealed braids B5 to B8 were made from composite yarns, as described in Example 2 using combinations of the individual yarns derived from copolymeric composition P1 to P4. The initial tensile properties of the braids B1 to B8 were measured using an MTS-MiniBionix Universal Tester, Model 858, and tensile data are summarized in Table I. TABLE I Composition of the Multifilament Yarns Used for Braiding and Tensile Properties of Braided Sutures Therefrom Yarn Composition & Braid Number: Braid Properties B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 Yarn Composition % of yarn derived from P1 100 — — — 50 — — 25 P2 — 100 — — — 50 50 25 P3 — — 100 — — 50 — — P4 — — — 100 50 — 50 50 Braid Properties Diameter mm 0.29 0.26 0.26 0.27 0.30 0.26 0.26 0.27 Max. load, N 38.4 29.5 28.6 31.5 31.6 23.3 28.6 29.9 Strength, Kpsi 84 81 78 80 65 64 78 76 Modulus, Kpsi 1016 1013 744 633 453 845 828 721 Elongation, % 22 21 46 34 31 23 27 32 EXAMPLE 5 Determination of the In Vitro Breaking Strength Retention (BSR) Profile of Braids B1 to B8 Braids B1 to B8 of Example 4 were incubated (or aged) in a buffered phosphate solution having a pH of 7.2 at 37° C. or 50° C. for a predetermined length of time. At the conclusion of each study period, the individual suture was removed from the phosphate buffer and tested for breaking strength, after removal of excess surface moisture. Using the initial breaking strength of the individual suture as a base line, the determined breaking strength values of the aged sample were used to calculate percent BSR. The BSR results are summarized in Table II. The results show that braids made of composite yarns do exhibit BSR profiles that range between those of the individual constituent components. TABLE II In Vitro Breaking Strength Retention (BSR) of Braided Sutures Braid Number: BSR Data B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 37° C. BSR, % at Day 6 81 65 — 91 66 61 66 57 Day 8 63 48 83 87 52 53 53 — Day 10 48 32 82 — 44 — — — Week 2 12 0 78 86 43 49 52 52 Week 3 0 — 73 — 45 43 — — Week 4 — — — 80 — — 54 48 50° C. BSR at Day 2 53 55 86 — — 62 65 — Day 4 3 0 82 93 51 — 57 52 Day 6 0 — — — — 52 56 — Day 8 — — 75 90 46 46 56 49 Week 2 — — 63 89 46 41 52 47 Week 3 — — 56 81 42 32 49 44 Week 4 — — — 77 38 28 44 43 EXAMPLE 6 Preparation of Knitted Tubular Meshes of Single Component (M1 to M4) and Composite (M5 to M8) Yarns Individual yarns made from copolymers P1 to P4 were prepared as described in Example 1. For preparing knits of one type yarn, individual yarns of P1 to P4 were plied and constructed into a tubular knitted mesh using a circular knitting machine, yielding meshes M1 to M4. The knitted meshes were then annealed at constant length at 80° C. or 95° C. for one hour to yield M1a to M4a, or M1b to M4b, respectively. For preparing the knitted tubular meshes with composite yarns, different combinations of yarns derived from of P1 to P4 were plied and used. The resulting composite yarns were converted, annealed, knitted into tubular meshes M5a to M8a or M5b to M8b, which have been annealed at 80° C. or 95° C., respectively. Table III outlines the composition, preparation conditions, and properties of all meshes. TABLE III Composition of the Multifilament Yarns Used for Knitting and Tensile Properties of Knitted Tubular Meshes Therefrom Yarn Composition and Mesh Number: Mesh Properties M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 Yarn Composition % of yarn derived from P1 100 — — — 50 — — 25 P2 — 100 — — — 50 50 25 P3 — — 100 — — 50 — — P4 — — — 100 50 — 50 50 Mesh Properties of Set “a” Annealed at 80° C. M1a M2a M3a M4a M5a M6a M7a M8a Equivalent Diameter, mm 1.42 1.47 1.4 1.09 1.22 1.52 1.27 1.27 Max. load, N 155.4 199.5 97.4 81.9 93.0 139.4 113.9 107.5 Breaking Strength, Kpsi 14 17 9 13 12 11 13 12 Modulus, Kpsi 41 64 63 80 47 66 66 52 Elongation, % 72 53 50 42 42 42 42 43 Mesh Properties of Set “b” Annealed at 95° C. M1b M2b M3b M4b M5b M6b M7b M8b Equivalent Diameter, mm 1.36 1.36 1.36 1.11 1.19 1.41 1.23 1.2 Max. load, N 169.0 226.8 109.6 76.5 98.7 139.0 117.1 111.0 Breaking Strength, Kpsi 17 23 11 12 13 13 14 14 Modulus, Kpsi 68 99 84 83 81 71 93 86 Elongation, % 64 51 47 39 39 39 36 36 EXAMPLE 7 Determination of the In Vitro Breaking Strength Retention (BSR) Profiles of the Knitted Meshes This was conducted at pH 7.2 and 37° C. or 50° C. as described earlier for the braided yarn. The BSR results are summarized in Table IV. The results show that knitted tubular meshes made of composite yarns do exhibit BSR profiles that range between those made from the individual constituent components, in a similar manner as discussed in Example 5 for their braid counterparts. TABLE IV In Vitro Breaking Strength Retention (BSR) of Knitted Tubular Meshes Mesh Number: Set “a” BSR Data M1a M2a M3a M4a M5a M6a M7a M8a 37° C. BSR, % at Day 6 33 70 99 90 70 74 83 70 Day 8 17 49 101 96 39 59 59 46 Day 10 5 30 102 97 31 39 35 28 50° C. BSR at Day 2 22 59 99 95 68 75 86 81 Day 4 0 6 106 95 31 33 23 27 Day 6 — 0 102 95 31 32 22 27 Day 8 — — 99 93 31 33 23 27 Mesh Number: Set “b” M1b M2b M3b M4b M5b M6b M7b M8b 37° C. BSR, % at Day 2 90 95 98 100 100 100 90 87 Day 4 80 87 93 100 91 99 — 75 50° C. BSR at Day 2 10 50 95 100 37 68 68 53 Day 4 0 3 93 100 29 35 25 27 EXAMPLE 8 Preparation of Composite Coreless Braid General Method Composition consisting of components A and B yarns having different degradation profiles (typically one fast degrading and one slow degrading) were constructed using various ratios of A and B to construct a braid sheath or coreless suture. Braided constructions were produced using a 12 carrier vertical axis bobbin braiding machine utilizing 6 carriers for each A and B component. Bobbin placement of the different A and B components in the braiding machine was completed such that a balanced construction was attained. Various combinations were constructed using at least one relatively fast and one relatively slow degrading component with homogenous control constructions. Following braid construction (36 pics/inch) samples were annealed at 80° C. while tensioned under a pre-load of 50 grams for 1 hour. Resultant coreless braids were of diameter range 0.26 mm-0.30 mm. Details of the construction and its effect on the in vitro conditioned properties are noted in Example 9. EXAMPLE 9 In Vitro Testing of Composite Coreless Braids Braids made according to teaching of Example 8 were tested following the test methods outlined below to provide the experimental results of the different combinations from yarns made from P1 through P4 copolyesters which, in turn, were made and processed in accordance with the prior art disclosed by one of the present inventors and described in Example 1. Testing Methods: In vitro conditioned break strength retention (% BSR=max. load @ time point/initial max. load×100) was conducted using a MTS MiniBionix Universal Tester (model 858) equipped with suture grips. Samples were conditioned using a 0.1M solution of buffered sodium phosphate at a 7.2 pH in 15 mL tubes. Tubes were placed in racks and incubated at 37° C. or 50° C. under constant orbital-agitation. Samples were removed at predetermined time points for tensile testing (n=3). Type of Yarns Used and Sources: All used yarns are multifilaments produced by melt-spinning of P1 and P2 of Example 1 according to the general process outlined in Example 2. Composition of Tested Braids: These are described in Table V below. TABLE V Composition of the Multifilament Yarns Used for Braiding and Tensile Properties of Braided Coreless Sutures Therefrom Yarn Composition & Braid Number: Braid Properties B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 Yarn Composition % of yarn derived from P1 100 — — — 50 — — 25 P2 — 100 — — — 50 50 25 P3 — — 100 — — 50 — — P4 — — — 100 50 — 50 50 Braid Properties Diameter mm 0.29 0.26 0.26 0.27 0.30 0.26 0.26 0.27 Max. load, N 38.4 29.5 28.6 31.5 31.6 23.3 28.6 29.9 Strength, Kpsi 84 81 78 80 65 64 78 76 Modulus, Kpsi 1016 1013 744 633 453 845 828 721 Elongation, % 22 21 46 34 31 23 27 32 Breaking Strength Retention Data of Tested Braid: These data are outlined in Table VI. TABLE VI In Vitro Breaking Strength Retention (BSR) of Braided Coreless Sutures Braid Number: BSR Data B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 37° C. BSR, % at Day 6 81 65 — 91 66 61 66 57 Day 8 63 48 83 87 52 53 53 — Day 10 48 32 82 — 44 — — — Week 2 12 0 78 86 — 49 52 52 Week 3 0 — 73 — 45 — — — Week 4 — — — 81 — 50 54 48 Week 5 — — 68 81 44 38 — 47 Week 9 — — 62 75 42 37 49 45 50° C. BSR, % at Day 2 53 55 86 — — 62 65 — Day 4 3 0 82 93 51 — 57 52 Day 6 0 — — — — 52 56 — Day 8 — — 75 90 46 46 56 49 Week 2 — — 63 89 46 41 52 47 Week 3 — — 56 81 42 32 49 44 Week 4 — — — 77 38 28 44 43 Week 5 — — 37 74 — 26 43 — Week 9 — — 12 39 22 0 7 25 EXAMPLE 10 Preparation of Composite Jersey Knit Mesh General Method Composition consisting of components A and B yarns having different degradation profiles (typically one fast degrading and one slow degrading) were constructed using various ratios of A and B to construct a jersey knit mesh tube. Knit constructions were produced using a single or multiple feed circular knitting machine that resulted in a plied construction of the A and B component. Various combinations were constructed where the ratio of A to B was varied resulting in modulated physicomechanical properties. Knit constructions can be made from multifilament yarn, monofilament yarn, or combinations therefrom. Yarn was typically plied in the desired ratio of A to B prior to knit construction. Knit tubes were annealed by stretching the circular mesh over stainless steel circular mandrels and heat setting the knit construction. In addition, coatings, especially those of hydrophobic nature, were used to improve BSR and thus overall strength during the initial time periods. Details of the construction and resultant in vitro conditioned properties are noted in Example 11. EXAMPLE 11 In Vitro Testing of Composite Jersey Knit Mesh Meshes made according to Example 10, using combinations of different yarns (see Table VII), were tested following the test methods described below. The meshes were tested and corresponding results are also shown below (Table VIII). Testing Methods: In vitro conditioned break strength retention (% BSR=max. load @ time point/initial max. load×100) was conducted using a MTS MiniBionix Universal Tester (model 858) equipped with a burst test apparatus as detailed in ASTM D3787-01. Samples were conditioned using a 0.1 M solution of buffered sodium phosphate at a 7.2 pH in 50 mL tubes. Tubes were placed in racks and incubated at 37° C. under constant orbital-agitation. Samples were removed at predetermined time points for burst testing (n=3). Types of Yarns Used and Source: All used yarns are made by melt spinning the specific polymers of Example 1, namely P1, P2, and P3, according to the general procedure of example 2. The used yarns include the following: MG-9 monofilament yarns made by melt spinning of P1; SMC-7 multifilament made by melt spinning of P2; and SMC-22 multifilament yarn made by melt spinning of P3. Compositions of Tested Jersey Knit Meshes: These are outlined in Table VII. TABLE VII Composition of the Multifilament Yarns Used for Knitting Mesh Tubes and Tensile Properties of Composite Meshes Therefrom Yarn Composition & Mesh Number: Mesh Properties M1 M2 M3 M4 Yarn Composition % of yarn derived from P1 25 25 50 50 P2 75 — 50 — P3 — 75 — 50 Mesh Properties Max. load, N 707 520 536 501 Elongation, % 44 49 44 53 Breaking Strength Retention Data of Tested Jersey Knit Meshes: These are outlined in Table VIII. TABLE VIII In Vitro Breaking Strength Retention (BSR) of Composite Circular Knit Mesh Tubes Mesh Number: BSR Data M1 M2 M3 M4 50° C. BSR, % at Day 4 79 67 50 41 Day 7 77 67 50 44 Day 10 77 67 48 45 Day 14 77 67 46 44 Day 28 72 62 45 35 EXAMPLE 12 Preparation of Composite Warp Knit Mesh General Method Composition consisting of components A and B yarns having different degradation profiles (typically one fast degrading and one slow degrading) were constructed using various ratios of A and B to construct multi-pattern integrated meshes. Knit constructions were produced using a two step process of warping yarn onto beams and constructing meshes using a raschel or tricot knitting machine of the standard art. Various knitting patterns and weight ratios of A to B can and were varied to modulate mechanical properties. Knit constructions can be made from multifilament yarn, monofilament yarn, or combinations therefrom. Knit mesh was annealed at 120° C. for 1 hour while under strain in the wale and course directions. Coating can be applied following annealing to modify in vitro characteristics. Details of the compositions, initial mesh properties and resultant in vitro properties are summarized in Tables IX and X. EXAMPLE 13 In Vitro Testing of Warp Knit Meshes The meshes made according to Example 12 were tested using the combination of yarns and test methods described below: Testing Methods: In vitro conditioned break strength retention (% BSR=max. load @ time point/initial max. load×100) was conducted using a MTS MiniBionix Universal Tester (model 858) equipped with a burst test apparatus as detailed in ASTM D3787-01. Samples were conditioned using a 0.1M solution of buffered sodium phosphate at a 7.2 pH in 50 mL tubes. Tubes were placed in racks and incubated at 37° C. under constant orbital-agitation. Samples were removed at predetermined time points for burst testing (n=3). Types of Yarns Used and Source: All used yarns are made by melt-spinning the specific polymers of Example 1, namely, P1 and P2, according to the general procedure of Example 2. The used yarns include the following: MG-9 monofilament yarn made by the melt-spinning of P1; and SMC-7 multifilament yarn made by melt-spinning of P2. Composition and Construction of Individual Warp Knit Meshes: WK1: 40/60 MG-9/SMC-7 Percent Weight Ratio Determined by Extraction Yarn—2-ply 90 denier SMC-7, Single monofilament 0.100 mm diameter MG-9 Knitting process—utilized a single warped beam of SMC-7 and two warped beams of MG-9 on a 24 gauge knitting machine, MG-9 knitted in a standard 2 bar marquisette pattern and SMC-7 knitted in a single bar tricot pattern. All guide bars were threaded 1-in and 1-out. Annealing was conducted at 120° C. for 1 hour to yield meshes having an area weight of 125 g/m2. WK2: 30/70 MG-9/SMC-7 Percent Weight Ratio Determined by Extraction Yarn—2-ply 90 denier SMC-7, Single monofilament 100 mm diameter MG-9 Knitting process—utilized two warped beams of SMC-7 and two warped beams of MG-9 on a 24 gauge knitting machine, MG-9 knitted in a standard 2 bar marquisette pattern and SMC-7 knitted in a 2 bar sand-fly net pattern. All guide bars were threaded 1-in and 1-out. Annealing was completed at 120° C. for 1 hour and the resultant area weight was 165 g/m2. WK1-C: Annealed WK1 mesh dip coated with an absorbable coating that was prepared by dissolved in acetone at a concentration of 8 g/100 mL. Coating was applied by dip coating and resulting add-on, after drying, was 10% by weight. Mechanical Property Data of Warp Knit Meshes: These are outlined in Table IX. TABLE IX Composition of the Warp Knit Mesh and Tensile Properties of Composite Meshes Therefrom Yarn Composition & Mesh Number: Mesh Properties WK1 WK2 WK1-C Yarn Composition weight % of yarn derived from P1 40 30 40 P2 60 70 60 Mesh Properties Max. burst load, N 206 224 202 Elongation at max. load, % 13 18 18 In Vitro Breaking Strength Retention Data of Warp Knit Meshes: These are outlined in Table X. TABLE X In Vitro Breaking Strength Retention (BSR) of Composite Warp Knit Mesh Mesh Number: BSR Data WK1 WK2 WK1-C 37° C. BSR, % at Day 2 100 100 93 Day 4 84 92 87 Day 5 90 94 — Day 7 73 92 90 Day 10 92 94 100 Day 14 85 92 — Day 21 92 97 — EXAMPLE 14 Preparation of Composite Sutures General Method Composition consisting of components A and B yarns having different degradation profiles (typically one fast degrading and one slow degrading) were constructed using various ratios of A and B to construct ligand structures. Braid constructions can be produced using material A in the core and B as the sheath or B as the core and A as the sheath. In addition, components A and B can be of braid construction consisting of multifilament yarn, monofilament yarn, or combinations therefrom. Monofilament cores can be comprised of a single fiber or multiple fibers. For example, a core can comprise three twisted 0.100 mm monofilaments and utilizing a 2-ply multifilament (70 denier per ply) sheath braided using 12 carriers can physically secure the sheath core interface. Details of the construction and resultant in vitro conditioned properties are noted in Example 15. EXAMPLE 15 In Vitro Testing of Composite Sutures Sutures made according to Example 14 using a combination of monofilament and multifilament yarns were tested using the test method outlined below. Test results are outlined in Table XI. TABLE XI Composition of the Multifilament and Monofilament Yarns Used for Braiding and Tensile Properties of Composite Sutures Therefrom Yarn Composition & Braid Braid Number: Properties CS1 CS2 CS3 CS4 CS5 CS6 Yarn Composition weight % of yarn derived from P1 100 — 25 58 — — P2 — 100 75 42 87 87 P3 — — — — 13 13 Braid Properties Diameter, mm 0.36 0.51 0.43 0.39 0.40 0.40 Max. load, N 46.8 62.7 40.8 41.1 39.0 35.7 Strength, Kpsi 67 45 41 50 45 41 Modulus, Kpsi 724 333 390 612 362 330 Elongation, % 26 36 29 26 54 51 Testing Methods Mechanical data were collected using a MTS MiniBionix Universal Tester (model 858) equipped with suture grips. Samples were tested under initial conditions (n=4). Types of Yarns Used and Sources: All used yarns are made by melt-spinning the specific polymers of Example 1, namely, P1 and P2, according to the general procedure of Example 2. The used yarns include the following: MG-9 monofilament yarn made by the melt-spinning of P1; and SMC-7 multifilament yarn made by melt-spinning of P2. Composition and Construction of Individual Sutures: CS1: MG-9 Multifilament Homogeneous Construction Yarn—1-ply 51 denier, 4.63 tenacity, 31.6% elongation, 20 yarn count Braiding process—12 carrier sheath (51.2 pics/in) with 6 carrier core (8.6 pics/in) Hot Stretching—5% at 110° C. Annealing—completed at 110° C. under high vacuum for 1 hour CS2: SMC-7 Multifilament Homogeneous Construction Yarn—1-ply 74 denier, 4.17 tenacity, 26.7% elongation, 43 yarn count Braiding process—12 carrier sheath (51.2 pics/in) with 6 carrier core (8.6 pics/in) Hot Stretching—5% at 110° C. Annealing—completed at 110° C. under high vacuum for 1 hour CS3: 25/75 MG-9 Multifilament/SMC-7 Multifilament Percent Weight Ratio Yarn—SMC-7=1-ply 74 denier, 4.17 tenacity, 26.7% elongation, 43 yarn count MG-9=1-ply 51 denier, 4.63 tenacity, 31.6% elongation, 20 yarn count Braiding process—12 carrier sheath (51.2 pics/in) with 6 carrier core (8.6 pics/in) Hot Stretching—5% at 110° C. Annealing—completed at 110° C. under high vacuum for 1 hour CS4: 58/42 MG-9 Multifilament/SMC-7 Multifilament Percent Weight Ratio Yarn—SMC-7=1-ply 74 denier, 4.17 tenacity, 26.7% elongation, 43 yarn count MG-9=1-ply 51 denier, 4.63 tenacity, 31.6% elongation, 20 yarn count Braiding process—12 carrier sheath (51.2 pics/in) with 6 carrier core (8.6 pics/in) Hot Stretching—5% at 110° C. Annealing—completed at 110° C. under high vacuum for 1 hour CS5: 13/87 MG-9 Monofilament/SMC-7 Multifilament Percent Weight Ratio Yarn—SMC-7=1-ply 84 denier, 3.73 tenacity, 37.3% elongation, 43 yarn count MG-9=0.100 mm diameter, 120 denier Braiding process—12 carrier sheath (51.2 pics/in) with 6 carrier core (8.6 pics/in) Hot Stretching—5% at 110° C. Annealing—completed at 110° C. under high vacuum for 1 hour CS6: 13/87 MG-9 Monofilament/SMC-7 Multifilament Percent Weight Ratio Yarn—SMC-7=1-ply 84 denier, 3.73 tenacity, 37.3% elongation, 43 yarn count MG-9=0.100 mm diameter, 120 denier Braiding process—12 carrier sheath (51.2 pics/in) with 6 carrier core (8.6 pics/in) Hot Stretching—10% at 110° C. Annealing—completed at 110° C. under high vacuum for 1 hour Mechanical Properties of Composite Sutures: These are outlined in Table XI above. Preferred embodiments of the invention have been described using specific terms and devices. The words and terms used are for illustrative purposes only. The words and terms are words and terms of description, rather than of limitation. It is to be understood that changes and variations may be made by those of ordinary skill art without departing from the spirit or scope of the invention, which is set forth in the following claims. In addition it should be understood that aspects of the various embodiments may be interchanged in whole or in part. Therefore, the spirit and scope of the appended claims should not be limited to descriptions and examples herein.	A	A61	A61B	17	12
11742191	US20070246433A1-20071025	Refractory Exhaust Filtering Method and Apparatus	ACCEPTED	20071010	20071025		[]	B01D5338	["B01D5338"]	7566426	20070430	20090728	422	180000	97679.0	DUONG	THANH	[{"inventor_name_last": "Zuberi", "inventor_name_first": "Bilal", "inventor_city": "Cambridge", "inventor_state": "MA", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A method for catalytically cleaning an exhaust gas, including receiving the exhaust gas in an inlet channel, blocking the exhaust gas in the inlet channel, diffusing the exhaust gas through a porous substantially fibrous nonwoven wall of the inlet channel, reacting the exhaust gas with at least one catalyst material to at least partially remove nitrous oxides, hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide therefrom, the at least one catalyst material being disposed on the porous wall, trapping particulate matter in the porous substantially fibrous nonwoven wall, receiving the diffused exhaust gas into an outlet channel, and transitioning the exhaust gas from the outlet channel to the atmosphere.	1-25. (canceled) 26. A method for cleaning an exhaust stream of an internal combustion engine comprising: directing the exhaust stream into a set of inlet channels of a honeycomb substrate in a wall-flow configuration, the inlet channels of the honeycomb substrate having a porous structure comprising tangled fibers having interconnecting bonds; trapping particulates in the inlet channel using the porous structure while directing the exhaust gas through the porous structure; reacting the exhaust gas with at least one reactive reagent to convert it into a different species using pore diffusion within the porous structure; receiving the exhaust gas into an outlet channel of the honeycomb substrate, the outlet channel being adjacent to an inlet channel and separated by the porous structure; and directing the exhaust stream into the atmosphere from the outlet channel. 27. The method according to claim 26 further comprising reacting the trapped particulates in the inlet channel with at least one other reactive reagent to convert the particulate into a different species. 28. The method according to claim 27 wherein the at least one other reactive agent is on the porous structure. 29. The method according to claim 26 wherein the at least one reactive agent is disposed on the tangled fibers within the porous structure. 30. The method according to claim 26 wherein the reacting step further comprises catalyzing the conversion of hydrocarbon constituents of the exhaust stream into carbon dioxide and water; and catalyzing the conversion of carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide. 31. The method according to claim 30 wherein the reacting step further comprises catalyzing the conversion of nitrogen oxides into molecular nitrogen gas. 32. The method according to claim 31 wherein the reacting step further comprises at least one other reactive agent, each of the reactive agents physically spaced from one another. 33. The method according to claim 32 wherein the at least one reactive agent is a catalyst for oxidizing reactions and the at least one other reactive agent is a catalyst for reduction reactions. 34. A method for catalytically cleaning a fluid mixture comprising: directing the fluid into an inlet channel of a monolithic porous substrate comprising intertangled refractory fibers; directing the fluid through the porous substrate into an outlet channel, the outlet channel separated from the inlet channel by a channel wall of the porous substrate by diffusing the fluid through the intertangled refractory fibers; trapping particulate constituents of the fluid using the intertangled refractory fibers; and reacting the fluid mixture with at least one reactive agent to convert at least a portion of the fluid mixture into a different species, the reactive agent disposed on at least a portion of the intertangled refractory fibers. 35. The method according to claim 34 wherein the monolithic porous substrate is a honeycomb filter. 36. The method according to claim 34 wherein the monolithic porous substrate is a cross-flow filter.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates generally to a catalytic device for reducing the pollution content of an exhaust gas. Exhaust systems perform several functions for a modern engine. For example, the exhaust system is expected to manage heat, reduce pollutants, control noise, and sometimes filter particulate matter. Generally, these individual functions are performed by separate and distinct components. Take, for example, the exhaust system of a typical gasoline engine. The engine exhaust system may use a set of heat exchangers or external baffles to capture and dissipate heat. A separate muffler may be coupled to the exhaust outlet to control noise, while a catalytic converter assembly may be placed in the exhaust path to reduce non-particulate pollutants. Although today particulates are not generally the pollutants focused upon in the gasoline engine, it is likely that more restrictive regulations may soon apply. An exhaust system for a modern gasoline engine is nearly universally required to remove or eliminate some of the non-particulate pollutants from the exhaust gas stream, and therefore might employ a known emissions control device, such as three-way catalytic converter. Such a three-way converter uses chemical oxidation and reduction processes to remove non-particulate pollutants from the exhaust gas stream. The known catalytic (or metal) converter holds a catalytic material that, when sufficiently heated, reacts with exhaust gases to lower the chemical potential to react non-particulate pollutants into non-pollutants. More particularly, the known converter uses a flow-through design where exhaust gases enter one end of the converter, flow through open parallel channels, come into contact with a catalyst for converting some of the pollutants in the exhaust gas stream into non-pollutants before ultimately flowing out into the atmosphere. As the exhaust gas flows through the channels, laminar flows are created which cause the exhaust gases to flow down the channel and, due to concentration gradient and mass-transfer effects, come into contact with the catalyst residing on the channel walls. The channel walls have the catalytic material disposed on their surfaces, and as the hot exhaust gas contacts the channel walls, the walls are heated to elevate the catalytic material to the a threshold temperature above which the catalyzed reactions readily occur. This is colloquially known as the ‘light-off’ temperature. Likewise, the time it takes for the light-off temperature to be reached is known as the ‘light-off’ period. Then, as the exhaust gas continues to flow, the catalytic material interacts with the pollutants in the exhaust gas to facilitate the conversion thereof into non-polluting emissions. About 50% of the pollution generated from and emitted by modem engines equipped with catalytic converters occurs during this light-off period when the converter is essentially non-operational. In certain vehicle applications, such as stop and go traffic and short trips in cities, the overall usefulness of the catalytic converter to reduce pollution is mitigated since the converter spends a significant amount of time at temperature below catalyst light-off or relating to low conversion efficiencies. The action of moving the exhaust gas through open channels and transporting the pollutants to the channel walls occurs via a gaseous diffusion mechanism. Once the catalyst has reached its activation temperature, the reaction rate is dependant on the rate of mass transfer from the bulk of the gas stream (center of the laminar gas flow) to the walls. As the catalyzed pollutant-eliminating reactions occur at the wall-gas interface (where the catalyst is typically located), a concentration gradient of pollutants is generated in the exhaust gas stream. A boundary layer develops and, being the slowest process under such conditions, mass-transfer principles dictate the overall rate of the reaction. Since bulk diffusion is a relatively slow process, the number of open channels is typically increased to compensate, and increase the overall reaction rate. The effect is essentially to reduce the distance that the gas molecules have to travel to diffuse from the bulk into the boundary layer. Additionally, the relatively limiting bulk diffusion step may be compensated for by making the converter in a honeycomb design or by otherwise increasing the effective catalytic surface area. By simultaneously reducing the size of the open channels and increasing the number of channels, the bulk diffusion rate may effectively be increased and the efficiency of the converter improved. However, making such a “closed-cell” honeycomb design results in a decrease in the thickness, and thus the strength, of the cell walls and an increase in the backpressure to the engine. Thus, the converter is made more fragile while the fuel economy of the vehicle is simultaneously decreased. Accordingly, there are practical limits on the minimum size of the open channels that restrict the ability to significantly improve the bulk transfer rate of traditional monolithic honeycomb converters past a certain point. Thus, due to the inefficiency of the bulk transfer process the converter is typically made quite large and is therefore heavy, bulky and relatively slow to heat to the threshold catalytic operating temperature. Typically, several catalytic converters may be arranged in a sequential order to improve overall emission control. Known three-way gasoline catalytic converters do not filter particulate matter. Recent studies have shown that particulates from a gasoline ICE (internal combustion engine) may be both dangerous to health and generated at quantities roughly equal to post-DPF (diesel particulate filter) PM (particulate matter) emission levels. As PM emissions standards are tightened, both diesel and gasoline engines will have to be further modified to reduce PM emissions. Some European agencies are already considering the regulation of gasoline PM emissions. Most, if not all, catalytic systems do not efficiently or effectively operate until a threshold operational temperature is reached. During this “light-off” period, substantial amounts of particulate and non-particulate pollution are emitted into the atmosphere. Accordingly, it is often desirable to place a catalytic device as close as possible to the engine manifold, where exhaust gasses are hottest and thus light-off time is shortest. In this way, the catalyst may more quickly extract sufficient heat from the engine exhaust gasses to reach its operational temperature. However, materials, design and/or safety constraints may limit placement of the catalytic converter to a position spaced away from the manifold. When the catalytic converters are spaced away from the manifold, light off time is increased, and additional pollutants are thus exhausted into the atmosphere. The most popular design for catalytic converters is currently the monolithic honeycomb wherein the monolithic material is cordierite and silicon carbide. In order to be increasingly effective, the cell density of the cordierite monolithic honeycomb design has been increased by making the individual channel walls thinner and increasing the number of channels per unit area. However, the strength of the walls (and, thus, the monolithic converter) decreases with decreasing wall thickness while the backpressure increases (and engine efficiency and mileage correspondingly decreases) with increasing cell density; thus, a practical limit for increasing converter efficiency exists and is defined by a minimal monolith strength and a maximum allowable backpressure provided by the unit. Another approach to addressing increasingly stringent emission standards is to utilize known three-way gasoline catalytic converters arranged in multiple stages to obtain reasonable emission control of multiple pollutants. However, this approach also adds to cost, weight, fuel penalty and engineering complexity. Thus, in an increasingly stringent emissions regulatory environment, there is a need to find an effective way to reduce harmful emissions from a typical ICE. Thus, air pollution standards, particularly in regard to vehicle exhaust gasses, are coming under increased pressure from governments and environmental organizations. The consequence of continued emissions is well recognized, and additional regulations are being added while existing regulations are being more aggressively enforced. However, reduced emissions and more stringent emission regulations may have a short-term negative impact on the overall economy, as additional monies must be spent to meet higher standards. Indeed, governments have been relatively slow to adapt tighter regulations, citing competitive and economic consequences. Accordingly, a more cost effective and effective catalytic device may ease the transition to a cleaner world, without substantial detrimental economic effects. In particular, it would be desirable to provide a cost effective catalytic device for removing both particulate pollutant matter and non-particulate pollutants from an exhaust stream that is capable of easy installation on vehicles, small engines, and in industrial exhaust stacks. It would also be desirable for such a device to be able to catalyze chemically important reactions that may not be considered as pollution control, such as chemical synthesis, bioreactor reactions, gas synthesis etc. The present invention addresses this need.	<SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Briefly, the present invention provides an internal combustion engine exhaust system for catalytically converting carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide, and hydrocarbon pollutant species into non-pollutant species (such as carbon dioxide, molecular nitrogen, and water) and for trapping particulate matter. In general the device is capable of separating condensed material from a fluid stream and at the same time supporting reactive agents (such as membranes, polymers, hydrophobic materials, hydrophilic materials, catalysts, etc) that can enhance reaction rates of constituents in the fluid stream. The engine system includes an internal combustion engine exhaust (such as from a gasoline, diesel or other fuel engine), a catalytic converter having a housing, an inlet port formed in the housing and fluidically connected to the engine exhaust and an outlet port formed in the housing and fluidically connected to the atmosphere. The catalytic converter also includes a plurality of inlet channels in the housing, a plurality of outlet channels arranged adjacent to the inlet channels, a plurality of substantially fibrous non-woven porous walls separating the inlet channels from the outlet channels, and typically a waschoat disposed on the porous walls, a first reactive agent or catalyst material disposed on the porous walls, and a second reactive agent or catalyst material disposed on the porous walls. In a more specific example, the catalytic device itself is constructed as a having a plurality of inlet channels and outlet channels arranged in an alternating pattern, a substantially fibrous non-woven porous wall between respective adjacent inlet and outlet channels, a surface area enhancing washcoat with stabilizers and additives disposed on the fibers constituting the substantially fibrous non-woven porous walls, a catalyst portion disposed on the substantially fibrous non-woven porous walls, an inlet port coupled to the inlet channels, an outlet port coupled to the outlet channels, an inlet block in at least some of the inlet channels, each inlet block positioned in respective inlet channels and between the inlet port and the outlet port, and an outlet block in at least some of the outlet channels, each outlet block positioned in respective outlet channels and between the inlet port and the outlet port. In another specific example, the catalytic device is constructed as a monolithic nonwoven substantially fibrous block having an inlet end and an outlet end. The inlet channels and outlet channels are arranged in an alternating pattern in the block with a porous wall positioned between adjacent inlet and outlet channels. The inlet and outlet channels may run parallel to each other, perpendicular to each other or in some other configuration. A catalyst is disposed on the porous walls, such that the walls of the pores inside the porous wall contain catalyst for reaction with gases and solid particulates, and an inlet block is included in each respective inlet channel and positioned at the outlet end while an outlet block is included in each respective outlet channel and positioned at the inlet end. The blocks force the fluid stream through the substantially fibrous non-woven porous refractory material. Advantageously, the catalytic device provides a method for removing particulate matter and carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide, and hydrocarbon pollutants and for trapping particulate matter from the exhaust stream of an engine. This is done by directing an exhaust gas stream from an engine through a substantially fibrous nonwoven filter, catalyzing the conversion of hydrocarbon pollutants into carbon dioxide and water, catalyzing the conversion of carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide, catalyzing the conversion of nitrogen oxide into molecular nitrogen gas, and extracting particulate matter from the exhaust gas stream via filtration. The particulate matter may later be burnt off during regeneration process in the presence or absence of catalysts, heaters and other devices. These and other features of the present invention will become apparent from a reading of the following description, and may be realized by means of the instrumentalities and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims.	CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/276,524 filed Mar. 3, 2006, which is a continuation-in-part to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/164,005 filed Nov. 7, 2005, both incorporated by reference herein. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to a catalytic device for reducing the pollution content of an exhaust gas. Exhaust systems perform several functions for a modern engine. For example, the exhaust system is expected to manage heat, reduce pollutants, control noise, and sometimes filter particulate matter. Generally, these individual functions are performed by separate and distinct components. Take, for example, the exhaust system of a typical gasoline engine. The engine exhaust system may use a set of heat exchangers or external baffles to capture and dissipate heat. A separate muffler may be coupled to the exhaust outlet to control noise, while a catalytic converter assembly may be placed in the exhaust path to reduce non-particulate pollutants. Although today particulates are not generally the pollutants focused upon in the gasoline engine, it is likely that more restrictive regulations may soon apply. An exhaust system for a modern gasoline engine is nearly universally required to remove or eliminate some of the non-particulate pollutants from the exhaust gas stream, and therefore might employ a known emissions control device, such as three-way catalytic converter. Such a three-way converter uses chemical oxidation and reduction processes to remove non-particulate pollutants from the exhaust gas stream. The known catalytic (or metal) converter holds a catalytic material that, when sufficiently heated, reacts with exhaust gases to lower the chemical potential to react non-particulate pollutants into non-pollutants. More particularly, the known converter uses a flow-through design where exhaust gases enter one end of the converter, flow through open parallel channels, come into contact with a catalyst for converting some of the pollutants in the exhaust gas stream into non-pollutants before ultimately flowing out into the atmosphere. As the exhaust gas flows through the channels, laminar flows are created which cause the exhaust gases to flow down the channel and, due to concentration gradient and mass-transfer effects, come into contact with the catalyst residing on the channel walls. The channel walls have the catalytic material disposed on their surfaces, and as the hot exhaust gas contacts the channel walls, the walls are heated to elevate the catalytic material to the a threshold temperature above which the catalyzed reactions readily occur. This is colloquially known as the ‘light-off’ temperature. Likewise, the time it takes for the light-off temperature to be reached is known as the ‘light-off’ period. Then, as the exhaust gas continues to flow, the catalytic material interacts with the pollutants in the exhaust gas to facilitate the conversion thereof into non-polluting emissions. About 50% of the pollution generated from and emitted by modem engines equipped with catalytic converters occurs during this light-off period when the converter is essentially non-operational. In certain vehicle applications, such as stop and go traffic and short trips in cities, the overall usefulness of the catalytic converter to reduce pollution is mitigated since the converter spends a significant amount of time at temperature below catalyst light-off or relating to low conversion efficiencies. The action of moving the exhaust gas through open channels and transporting the pollutants to the channel walls occurs via a gaseous diffusion mechanism. Once the catalyst has reached its activation temperature, the reaction rate is dependant on the rate of mass transfer from the bulk of the gas stream (center of the laminar gas flow) to the walls. As the catalyzed pollutant-eliminating reactions occur at the wall-gas interface (where the catalyst is typically located), a concentration gradient of pollutants is generated in the exhaust gas stream. A boundary layer develops and, being the slowest process under such conditions, mass-transfer principles dictate the overall rate of the reaction. Since bulk diffusion is a relatively slow process, the number of open channels is typically increased to compensate, and increase the overall reaction rate. The effect is essentially to reduce the distance that the gas molecules have to travel to diffuse from the bulk into the boundary layer. Additionally, the relatively limiting bulk diffusion step may be compensated for by making the converter in a honeycomb design or by otherwise increasing the effective catalytic surface area. By simultaneously reducing the size of the open channels and increasing the number of channels, the bulk diffusion rate may effectively be increased and the efficiency of the converter improved. However, making such a “closed-cell” honeycomb design results in a decrease in the thickness, and thus the strength, of the cell walls and an increase in the backpressure to the engine. Thus, the converter is made more fragile while the fuel economy of the vehicle is simultaneously decreased. Accordingly, there are practical limits on the minimum size of the open channels that restrict the ability to significantly improve the bulk transfer rate of traditional monolithic honeycomb converters past a certain point. Thus, due to the inefficiency of the bulk transfer process the converter is typically made quite large and is therefore heavy, bulky and relatively slow to heat to the threshold catalytic operating temperature. Typically, several catalytic converters may be arranged in a sequential order to improve overall emission control. Known three-way gasoline catalytic converters do not filter particulate matter. Recent studies have shown that particulates from a gasoline ICE (internal combustion engine) may be both dangerous to health and generated at quantities roughly equal to post-DPF (diesel particulate filter) PM (particulate matter) emission levels. As PM emissions standards are tightened, both diesel and gasoline engines will have to be further modified to reduce PM emissions. Some European agencies are already considering the regulation of gasoline PM emissions. Most, if not all, catalytic systems do not efficiently or effectively operate until a threshold operational temperature is reached. During this “light-off” period, substantial amounts of particulate and non-particulate pollution are emitted into the atmosphere. Accordingly, it is often desirable to place a catalytic device as close as possible to the engine manifold, where exhaust gasses are hottest and thus light-off time is shortest. In this way, the catalyst may more quickly extract sufficient heat from the engine exhaust gasses to reach its operational temperature. However, materials, design and/or safety constraints may limit placement of the catalytic converter to a position spaced away from the manifold. When the catalytic converters are spaced away from the manifold, light off time is increased, and additional pollutants are thus exhausted into the atmosphere. The most popular design for catalytic converters is currently the monolithic honeycomb wherein the monolithic material is cordierite and silicon carbide. In order to be increasingly effective, the cell density of the cordierite monolithic honeycomb design has been increased by making the individual channel walls thinner and increasing the number of channels per unit area. However, the strength of the walls (and, thus, the monolithic converter) decreases with decreasing wall thickness while the backpressure increases (and engine efficiency and mileage correspondingly decreases) with increasing cell density; thus, a practical limit for increasing converter efficiency exists and is defined by a minimal monolith strength and a maximum allowable backpressure provided by the unit. Another approach to addressing increasingly stringent emission standards is to utilize known three-way gasoline catalytic converters arranged in multiple stages to obtain reasonable emission control of multiple pollutants. However, this approach also adds to cost, weight, fuel penalty and engineering complexity. Thus, in an increasingly stringent emissions regulatory environment, there is a need to find an effective way to reduce harmful emissions from a typical ICE. Thus, air pollution standards, particularly in regard to vehicle exhaust gasses, are coming under increased pressure from governments and environmental organizations. The consequence of continued emissions is well recognized, and additional regulations are being added while existing regulations are being more aggressively enforced. However, reduced emissions and more stringent emission regulations may have a short-term negative impact on the overall economy, as additional monies must be spent to meet higher standards. Indeed, governments have been relatively slow to adapt tighter regulations, citing competitive and economic consequences. Accordingly, a more cost effective and effective catalytic device may ease the transition to a cleaner world, without substantial detrimental economic effects. In particular, it would be desirable to provide a cost effective catalytic device for removing both particulate pollutant matter and non-particulate pollutants from an exhaust stream that is capable of easy installation on vehicles, small engines, and in industrial exhaust stacks. It would also be desirable for such a device to be able to catalyze chemically important reactions that may not be considered as pollution control, such as chemical synthesis, bioreactor reactions, gas synthesis etc. The present invention addresses this need. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Briefly, the present invention provides an internal combustion engine exhaust system for catalytically converting carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide, and hydrocarbon pollutant species into non-pollutant species (such as carbon dioxide, molecular nitrogen, and water) and for trapping particulate matter. In general the device is capable of separating condensed material from a fluid stream and at the same time supporting reactive agents (such as membranes, polymers, hydrophobic materials, hydrophilic materials, catalysts, etc) that can enhance reaction rates of constituents in the fluid stream. The engine system includes an internal combustion engine exhaust (such as from a gasoline, diesel or other fuel engine), a catalytic converter having a housing, an inlet port formed in the housing and fluidically connected to the engine exhaust and an outlet port formed in the housing and fluidically connected to the atmosphere. The catalytic converter also includes a plurality of inlet channels in the housing, a plurality of outlet channels arranged adjacent to the inlet channels, a plurality of substantially fibrous non-woven porous walls separating the inlet channels from the outlet channels, and typically a waschoat disposed on the porous walls, a first reactive agent or catalyst material disposed on the porous walls, and a second reactive agent or catalyst material disposed on the porous walls. In a more specific example, the catalytic device itself is constructed as a having a plurality of inlet channels and outlet channels arranged in an alternating pattern, a substantially fibrous non-woven porous wall between respective adjacent inlet and outlet channels, a surface area enhancing washcoat with stabilizers and additives disposed on the fibers constituting the substantially fibrous non-woven porous walls, a catalyst portion disposed on the substantially fibrous non-woven porous walls, an inlet port coupled to the inlet channels, an outlet port coupled to the outlet channels, an inlet block in at least some of the inlet channels, each inlet block positioned in respective inlet channels and between the inlet port and the outlet port, and an outlet block in at least some of the outlet channels, each outlet block positioned in respective outlet channels and between the inlet port and the outlet port. In another specific example, the catalytic device is constructed as a monolithic nonwoven substantially fibrous block having an inlet end and an outlet end. The inlet channels and outlet channels are arranged in an alternating pattern in the block with a porous wall positioned between adjacent inlet and outlet channels. The inlet and outlet channels may run parallel to each other, perpendicular to each other or in some other configuration. A catalyst is disposed on the porous walls, such that the walls of the pores inside the porous wall contain catalyst for reaction with gases and solid particulates, and an inlet block is included in each respective inlet channel and positioned at the outlet end while an outlet block is included in each respective outlet channel and positioned at the inlet end. The blocks force the fluid stream through the substantially fibrous non-woven porous refractory material. Advantageously, the catalytic device provides a method for removing particulate matter and carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide, and hydrocarbon pollutants and for trapping particulate matter from the exhaust stream of an engine. This is done by directing an exhaust gas stream from an engine through a substantially fibrous nonwoven filter, catalyzing the conversion of hydrocarbon pollutants into carbon dioxide and water, catalyzing the conversion of carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide, catalyzing the conversion of nitrogen oxide into molecular nitrogen gas, and extracting particulate matter from the exhaust gas stream via filtration. The particulate matter may later be burnt off during regeneration process in the presence or absence of catalysts, heaters and other devices. These and other features of the present invention will become apparent from a reading of the following description, and may be realized by means of the instrumentalities and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWING The drawings constitute a part of this specification and include exemplary embodiments of the invention, which may be embodied in various forms. It is to be understood that in some instances various aspects of the invention may be shown exaggerated or enlarged to facilitate an understanding of the invention. FIG. 1 is a diagram of a catalytic device in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 2 is a diagram of a catalytic device in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 3 is a diagram of a catalytic device in accordance with the present invention. FIGS. 4A, 4B, 4C, and 4D are charts showing light-off time reductions due to use of a catalytic device in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 5A is an end view of a catalytic device having a monolithic substrate in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 5B is an enlarged partial end view of FIG. 5A. FIG. 5C is a cross sectional mid view of the catalytic device shown in FIG. 5A. FIG. 5D is an elongated cut-away view of adjacent channels of the catalytic device shown in FIG. 5A. FIG. 5E is a plan cut-away view of adjacent channels of the catalytic device shown in FIG. 5A. FIG. 5F is a schematic illustration of the device of FIG. 5A as positioned in an exhaust stream flowing from a gasoline engine to the atmosphere. FIGS. 6A and 6B is a diagram of a catalytic exhaust system in accordance with the present invention. FIGS. 7A and 7B represent a diagram of a replacement catalytic device in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 8 is a diagram of a cross-flow catalytic device in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 9 is a diagram of a catalytic device in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 10 is a diagram of a catalytic device in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 11 is a cross sectional diagram of channels for a catalytic device in accordance with the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Detailed descriptions of examples of the invention are provided herein. It is to be understood, however, that the present invention may be exemplified in various forms. Therefore, the specific details disclosed herein are not to be interpreted as limiting, but rather as a representative basis for teaching one skilled in the art how to employ the present invention in virtually any detailed system, structure, or manner. The drawing figures herein illustrate and refer to an exhaust system pathway that is specifically described as a component of an internal combustion engine exhaust system. However, it should be appreciated that the exhaust pathway may be used with other types of exhaust systems. For example, the exhaust system pathway may be used in petrochemical, air-filtration, hot-gas filtration, chemical synthesis, biomedical, chemical processing, painting shops, laundromat, industrial exhaust, generation plant, or commercial kitchen exhaust applications. Generally, a catalytic converting device consists of a host or a structural substrate support, and a catalyst that at least partially coats the support. Often the catalyst components reside on a washcoat that includes surface area enhancers, surface modifiers, stabilizers and oxygen storage components. A catalytic device contains the appropriate type and mass of support and catalyst so that it can fulfill a precise catalytic function under the desired operating conditions and environment. For example, the catalytic device may facilitate a chemical conversion, such as that of a first gaseous species into a second gaseous species, a first liquid species into another liquid species, a liquid species into a gaseous species, or the like. Typically, the chemical conversion reaction or set of reactions are deliberate and well-defined in the context of a particular application, e.g. simultaneous conversion of NOx, HC, and CO into N2, H2O, and CO2, the conversion of MTBE to CO2 and steam, the conversion of soot to CO2 and steam, and the like. FIG. 1 shows a 4-way catalytic conversion device 10 capable of facilitating multiple catalyzed reactions as well as capable of filtering particulate or condensed matter from a fluid stream. Catalytic device 10 has housing 12 that has inlet port 14 and outlet port 16. For convenience, catalytic device 10 will be described in connection with a gasoline internal combustion engine, but it will be appreciated that it may be used in other types of engines and in industrial, commercial, or residential exhaust applications. Catalytic device 10 features a wall 25 in housing 12. Wall 25 is typically porous, and more typically has a layer of catalytic material 26 disposed on its surface. The positioning of wall 25 arranges inlet channel 19 adjacent to outlet channel 21. When exhaust gas (i.e., a gas having a relatively high pollutant content) from an exhaust gas source (i.e., a gasoline engine or the like) enters inlet port 14, the gas is received in inlet channel 19, and at least some of the gas is moved through porous wall 25. The exhaust gas is typically a product of gasoline combustion and as such is typically relatively hot. In other cases, the gas could be heated externally to bring the catalysts to operating temperatures. The exhaust gas thus first heats porous wall 25 sufficiently to activate the catalyst 26, and, after the activation temperature has been reached, pollutants in the exhaust gas are then catalytically reacted upon contact with the catalyst layer 26. More particularly, the non-particulate gases interact with the catalyst 26 via a pore diffusion 30 mechanism arising from the flow of gas through wall 25. Since the exhaust gas is forced through the walls, the bulk-flow limitation to the reaction is removed and the gas reaction rate is primarily limited by the diffusion of the gas in the pores which is a much smaller distance than the diameter of the channels. The exhaust gas may also experience laminar flow as it flows from inlet channel 19 to outlet channel 21 and in the outlet channel 21. These laminar flows in the outlet channel 21 lead to a bulk diffusion process 32, which further removes non-particulate pollutants. In some constructions, the walls of the housing 12 may include porous wall material 27 (like wall material 25) and a catalyst layer 26, which further improves conversion efficiency and thus allows for a reduction, or even substantially total elimination, of the need for multiple filters/converters arrayed in series in order to sufficiently remove pollutant species from an exhaust gas stream. Some constructions may have gap 29 between inlet channel 19 and outlet channel 21. The gap 29 enables a flow-through exhaust path from inlet port 14 to outlet port 16. Accordingly, catalytic device 10 may use a combination of wall-flow (i.e., the gas passes through a porous wall) and flow-through (i.e., the gas interacts with the wall but does not pass therethrough) processes to provide catalytic effect. The size and placement of any gap 29 may be set according to backpressure requirements, filtration efficiency required, expected gas flows, and required conversion levels. The pore size in wall 25 and wall 27 may be selected to trap particulate matter and to catalyze particular reactions. The overall porosity, pore-shape and pore-size distribution may also depend on the washcoat and the catalyst material being used to coat the walls of the substantially fibrous non-woven porous refractory material. The wall(s) 25, 27 may have a pore-size gradient. The highly porous and fibrous nature of the wall(s) 25, 27 allow for the device 10 to be made smaller and lighter than the prior art converters and allow for faster heating and ‘light off’. The intertangled refractory fibers making up the walls 25,27 further contribute to the toughness of the walls 25, 27, making them able to withstand mechanically harsh conditions, such as those close to the engine. This combination of properties allows the device 10 to be positioned closer to the engine than known converter devices, such that the device 10 may be heated to it ‘light off’ temperature more quickly by the engine gasses and thus begin to function sooner with less pollutants passing therethrough unconverted during its light off phase. The use of pore diffusion wall flow dramatically increases the efficiency of the catalytic device 10, particularly during light off. As a result of the wall flow design, the exhaust gas is forced to go through the wall and hence the bulk diffusional limitation is severely reduced. Thus, the exhaust gas only needs to diffuse in the pores to reach the catalyst residing on the walls of the pores. That distance is much shorter, and hence the overall conversion efficiency is much higher. The efficiency is further enhanced due to the lower thermal mass of the highly porous walls 25, 27 enabling them to be heated more quickly. The increased efficiency and lower thermal mass enable the catalytic device to be made smaller, or to have less catalytic material and still maintain effective catalytic processes. Such a size and mass reduction saves space, material, and cost, while significantly reducing emission of pollutants due to shorter light off delays. Additionally, the emittance/emissivity of the material can be altered, such as with the application of emittance agents, such as to affect the conversion efficiency and/or for thermal management. FIG. 2 shows a catalytic device 50 similar to catalytic device 10, except that the inlet channel 59 is fully blocked by fibrous wall 65. In this way the only exhaust path from inlet 54 to outlet 56 is through porous wall 65 via a wall flow, pore-diffusion mechanism 70. The length and porosity of the plugs or blocking material can be altered to meet application requirements. FIG. 3 shows a catalytic device 75 similar to catalytic device 10, except that multiple porous walls 83, 84, 85, 86 are positioned between the inlet channel 79 and the outlet channel 81. FIG. 4 is a chart 100 which compares a typical known catalytic converter, such as is discussed in the above background section, to a catalytic device such as catalytic device 50. It will be understood that the chart may not be to scale, and may show certain effects in exaggerated form to ease explanation. Chart 100 has a y axis 108 showing “% conversion”, while the x axis 106 shows time. Light-off time is defined as the time it takes for the catalysts to reach a conversion efficiency of a defined value (example 50% or 90%). Alternatively, the x axis 106 may indicate temperature of the exhausted outlet gas. More particularly, in the absence of external heating elements, the initial exhaust gas is used to heat the catalytic converter to fully operational temperatures. In other cases, external heating elements may be needed to raise the temperature of the catalysts to the operating range. As the catalytic converter reaches full operational temperature, a steady state temperature is achieved where the heat flow into the system is equivalent to the heat flow out of the system. If the reactions occurring in the catalytic converter are exothermic, the outlet temperature may be higher than the temperature of the inlet gas. For consistency of explanation, FIG. 4 will described with reference to time. Referring to FIG. 4A, three areas of the chart are indicated. In a first area 101, the conversion rate is mostly a function of the characteristics of the catalyst 66, particularly its activation temperature. Of course, the thermal properties (thermal mass, thermal conductivity, heat capacity and the like) of the substrate 65 also play a part, as it will take longer to heat a larger thermal mass so that the deposited catalyst 66 reaches activation temperature. In area 101, as the exhaust gas heats the catalyst 66, pollutant molecules contacting the catalyst 66 begin to undergo conversion reactions into non-pollutant species; overall, however, such conversion is quite inefficient below the light-off temperature threshold. As the exhaust gas continues to heat the substrate 65, the conversion reaction rates become limited by pore diffusion in area 103. As exhaust gas is pushed into the pores of the substrate 65, more pollutants are brought into contact with the catalyst 66, and the rate of the catalyzed reactions increases. As more of the substrate 65 is heated, the process continues to become more efficient. As the substrate 65 becomes fully heated, the pollutant conversion process becomes limited by bulk diffusion in area 105. As exhaust gasses flow through the typical catalytic device 50, it takes time for laminar flow to fully come to equilibrium. Over time, sufficient concentration gradients are generated which act to pull pollutant molecules into contact with the channel walls 65, 67. Stated somewhat differently, exhaust gas near the walls 65, 67 have reacted with the catalyst 66 and so have a lower concentration of pollutants than gas more near the center of the exhaust channel. This concentration gradient creates an effective urging force that moves the portion of the gas in the center with a higher pollutant concentration toward the lower pollutant concentration wall area. This bulk diffusion effect in laminar flow conditions takes time to reach a steady state, so the curve gradually approaches its conversion limit. FIG. 4A compares the time it takes a typical prior art catalytic converter to reach a fully operational time 110 to the time it takes a catalytic device 50 to reach a fully operational time 111. The difference is shown as time reduction 115. FIG. 4B compares the time 117 it takes to first activate the catalyst in a typical prior art converter to the time 116 it takes to first activate the catalyst 66 in a catalytic device 50. The difference is shown as time reduction 118. The reduced time 118 is primarily a function or effect of the reduced thermal mass of the porous wall substrate in catalytic device 50, which allows the catalytic material 66 to more efficiently reach activation temperature. After the catalyst first activates, a catalytic converter goes through a period of time where the rate of the catalyzed reaction is limited primarily by the pore diffusion processes. In other words, once the temperature threshold of the first portion of the catalyst is reached, the rate of the catalyzed reaction is now limited by how fast the gas heating the catalyst may be transported to the remaining catalyst after it has already entered the pores and how fast the gaseous species to be reacted at the catalyst interface can be transported through the porous walls thereto. The pore diffusion effect dominates the reaction rate until sufficient amounts of substrate/catalyst has been heated; at this time, bulk diffusion of the pollutant species to the catalyst on the surface of the substrate becomes the dominant and limiting process. FIG. 4C compares the time 125 when bulk diffusion dominates in a typical converter to the time 131 when pore diffusion dominates in catalytic device 50. The difference is shown as time reduction 132. The reduced time 132 is primarily due to the exhaust path enabled through the porous wall. In catalytic device 50, all exhaust gas is required to pass through porous wall 65. Since the individual fibers in the porous wall 65 are coated with catalyst 66, the reaction rate is substantially increased as pollutant species are transported therethrough via pore diffusion. Further, since the wall 65 is highly porous, and has a low thermal mass, it is more quickly heated to the catalyst activation temperature. When sufficient substrate material 65, 67 has been heated, the catalytic device 50 has its bulk transfer characteristics dominate and limit conversion efficiency. However, the impact of bulk transfer rate is typically very small. Since the typical catalytic converter has a relatively large thermal mass, it takes time 141 to approach its final conversion efficiency. Since catalytic device 50 has a lower thermal mass and a more effective pore diffusion process, the time 139 to approach its final conversion efficiency is shorter. The difference is shown as time reduction 149. The total time reduction 115 (FIG. 4A) is a summation of time reduction 118 (FIG. 4B), time reduction 132 (FIG. 4C), and time reduction 149 (FIG. 4D). This reduction in time to reach maximum conversion efficiency results in significant pollution prevention, and allows the emission control engineers to design smaller and less expensive devices to meet emissions regulations. FIGS. 5A and 5B show a catalytic device 150 incorporating fibrous monolithic honeycomb 155 in housing 151. The honeycomb 155 has a set of inlet channels 157 and outlet channels 159 arranged in an alternating pattern. In this embodiment, the alternating pattern is a checkerboard pattern, although other embodiments may incorporate other patterns. Each respective channel 157, 159 defines an open end and an oppositely disposed blocked end. The blocked ends each include a respective blocking member or block 156 disposed therein to impede the flow of gas therethrough. FIG. 5A shows the inlet side 153 of the catalytic device 150. In this way, the open cells function as inlet channels 157. On the inlet side, the other channels 159 are blocked with a blocking material so that no exhaust gas may enter from the inlet side. At the outlet 154 side, the inlet channels 157 are blocked, while the outlet channels 159 are open. FIG. 5B shows in greater detail the channels 157, 159 and the walls 161 separating and defining the channels 157, 159, the blocking material 163 disposed in the ends of the outlet channels 159, and the fibrous material making up the block 155. Typically, the block 155 and blocking material 163 are both made up of non-woven substantially fibrous material; more typically, the block 155 and blocking material 163 have substantially the same composition. However, the block 155 and blocking material 163 may have different compositions and/or even substantially different structures. FIG. 5C shows a cross section at a point between the inlet side 153 and the outlet side 154. Here, inlet channels 157 are arranged adjacent to outlet channels 159, with porous walls 160 disposed therebetween. In this way, gas from the inlet channels 157 is urged through walls 160 into adjacent outlet channels 159, and then transported out the outlet port 154. FIG. 5D shows that inlet channels 167, 168 are separated from adjacent outlet channels 170, 171 by porous walls 173A-E. Also, the inlet channels 167, 168 are blocked at the outlet side 154 by blocks 175, 177, while the outlet channels 170, 171 are blocked at the inlet side 153 by blocks 179, 181. This construction enables gas to move from a respective inlet channel 167, 168 to an adjacent outlet channel 170, 171 for substantially the entire length of the fibrous block 155. FIG. 5E shows that laminar flow is established inside of channels 167, 168, 170, 171 to facilitate bulk diffusion, while wall flow or pore diffusion is established between channels to facilitate higher reaction rates. It will be appreciated that the catalytic device 150 may be designed in many physical arrangements. The diameter, length, channel density, blocking pattern, blocking material, blocking material placement, catalytic material, catalyst placement, wall porosity, pore-size, pore-shape, and wall thickness may all be adjusted for application specific needs. Each of these characteristics may affect conversion rate, backpressure, and light off time. The effect of each of these propertied is generally discussed below. a. In catalytic device 150, improved wall flow enables significant decrease in light-off time by increasing the efficiency and dependence of overall reaction rate on pore diffusion rate. Accordingly, the properties of the channel walls 160 are selected to facilitate a desired rate of pore diffusion activity. For example, it has been found that exhaust gas is more effectively catalyzed when it takes from about a few microseconds to about 2 seconds for the exhaust gas to pass through the channel walls 160. In a typically gasoline engine exhaust, gas may flow at about 180 cubic feet per minute. Accordingly, if the channel wall 160 is formed of a substantially fibrous nonwoven material having a porosity of between about 60 and about 90 percent and a thickness of about 20 mil, then it will take on the order of microseconds for the gas to pass through. Of course, it will be understood that many factors are considered in determining wall thickness, such as wall porosity, permeability, backpressure limitations, required conversion rate, and overall length. The longer residence time of the gasses passing through the converter 10 and the tortuosity of the gasses as they pass therethrough combine to increase the probability of a pollutant species coming into contact with the catalyst 166, and thus being converted into a non-pollutant species. However, excessive tortuosity can also increase the backpressure substantially. b. The porosity and permeability of the walls 160 is selected to accommodate backpressure limitations, as well as to provided a sufficiently tortuous path so that exhaust gas is urged into contact with catalyst 166. In practice, a porosity of between about 60% and about 90% has provided effective conversion rates, while still enabling sufficiently low backpressure characteristics. This porosity range also contributes to a relatively low thermal mass, which in turn contributes to faster heating and shorter light-off times. It will be understood that other porosities may be selected to support specific backpressure and conversion requirements. c. The mean pore size and pore size distribution is selected to accommodate required backpressure limitations, as well as to capture particulate pollutants of specific, predetermined sizes, if desired. Typically the washcoat and catalysts are placed inside the pores, and more typically such that they do not block the pores. In a specific construction, the pore diameter is selected to optimize the capture of particulate matter of a size characteristic of that found in a gasoline engine exhaust, which typically range from about 5 nanometers to about 1 micron. Additionally, the mean pore length is also a factor in determining the ability of the porous substrate 155, 161 to capture particulate matter of a given size. Moreover, the pore size distribution may be manipulated to maximize the capture of particles of different sizes. For example, if an exhaust gas contains particle populations characterized by two discrete mean particle sizes, the pore size distribution may be manipulated such that two populations of pores are present, each sized to optimize the capture of a particles of a respective mean size. Such a pore structure could lead to a more efficient depth filter where the particles are captured inside the wall of the substrate and not just on the wall of the substrate. Typical pore-sizes range from 1 micron to 100 microns, and more typically 20-50 microns. The particles filtered from the exhaust stream would need to be removed from the filter (i.e., the filter would need to be regenerated) at periodic intervals to keep the filter clean, its permeability high, and its conversion efficiency high. In such cases, ‘active’ or ‘passive’ regeneration strategies can be employed. In passive regeneration, the particulates captured are burnt of periodically in the presence of the oxidizing catalyst as the temperatures go higher than the soot burning point. In active regenerations, heat has to be supplied to such a catalytic converter to increase the temperature of the soot sufficiently to burn off into primarily CO2 and H2O. Active regeneration also employs fuel-borne catalysts and mechanical devices, such as heat traps, pressure valves, etc. In the case of particulates that have been captured using depth filtration, the efficient contact between the particulates, catalyst and the incoming gas allows for fast, efficient and more complete burn off of particulates and regeneration. In one configuration, the catalytic device 150 is fluidically connected to the exhaust stream coming from a gasoline engine 190 and also to a fuel injection port 152 that, from time to time, is used to inject fuel into the catalytic honeycomb monolith 155. (See FIG. 5F). The injected fuel immediately burns and heats the catalytic device 150 sufficiently to substantially oxidizelburn off collected particulate matter. This regeneration process may be done periodically, or may be initiated response to a measured parameter, such as a threshold temperature or backpressure. The increased toughness contributed by the tangled fibrous nature of the honeycomb monolith 155 material facilitates more frequent regenerations; the toughness and highly refractory nature of the honeycomb monolith 155 material allows for placement of the device 150 closer to the engine (and in a higher-temperature portion of the exhaust stream or where larger thermal shock to the material may be expected) than otherwise would be possible with known converter devices. This allows for a faster light-off time for the device 150 and thus for a reduction in emitted pollution. d. The blocking pattern and block position is selected according to the physical arrangement of the catalytic device 150, as well as backpressure and conversion requirements dictated by its operating environment. By adjusting the blocking pattern or the blocking position, the relative volume or shape of the input or output channels 157, 159 may be adjusted. For example, by making more inlet channel volume available, backpressure may be reduced. In another example, the blocks 156 may be arranged to adjust how much area is used for wall flow, and how much area is used for channel flow. This allows the device designer to adjust the relative level of pore diffusion as compared to bulk diffusion. In this regard, the designer may, for example, position blocks 156 in an arrangement that provides more channel flow and less wall flow. This provides for more laminar flow (bulk diffusions), with less wall flow (pore diffusion), but may decrease backpressure. Similarly, the channel can have a variety of size and shapes, depending on back-pressure, nature of reactions, and the ash storage capacity needed. e. Channel density is selected to maximize exhaust gas passage and such that laminar flow transport of pollutant species to the catalyst interface is optimized while back pressure increases are minimized. The fibrous nature of the monolith material (i.e., tangled, interconnected fibers sintered or otherwise bonded at most, if not substantially all, of their intersection points) allows for an exceptionally strong and tough substrate material having a relatively high degree of porosity (at least about 50 percent porous, and more typically between about 60 percent and about 90 percent porous) while simultaneously remaining lightweight and defining a relatively low thermal mass. These properties result in a tough and relatively non-brittle material having sufficient inherent porosity and permeability so as to not contribute as significantly to backpressure as traditional sintered cordierite substrates, especially if the wall flow varieties of cordierite substrates were employed). Likewise, the lengths of the channels may be relatively short, since the combination of wall-flow and high porosity make exposure to catalyst more likely. Thus, relatively short channels 157, 159 may be formed in the present material at a relatively high channel density (i.e., many channels of smaller cross-sectional areas) without substantially increasing backpressure to an engine fluidically connected thereto. Likewise, less channel density (cell density ) substrates with thicker walls may also be constructed for increasing residence time of exhaust gas in the pores of the wall. f. Catalytic material is selected to facilitate the desired reactions of pollutant species into non-pollutant species at relatively high rates at low temperatures. Typically, for internal combustion engine applications, those species are nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and various hydrocarbons (HC) present in gasoline or other ICE exhaust stream. Typically, the number of discrete catalysts present is equal to the number of pollutants desired to be eliminated from the exhaust stream, although if one catalyst can function to catalyze the reactions of two or more pollutants into non-pollutants, a lower number of catalysts may be required. For example, a combination of platinum and rhodium may be present on the substrate surface and/or pore walls to catalyze the reaction of NOx into N2 and O2, to catalyze the reaction of CO into CO2, and to catalyze the reaction of HCs into CO2 and H2O. More complex catalysts that include perovskite structures, precious metals, base-metal oxides, rare-earths, and the like may also be used. For other reactions, the catalysts may even consist of biological molecules such as enzymes. The catalysts may be applied as discrete and spaced coatings, as a physical mixture, as discrete stripes or strips, or in any convenient way that results in catalytic interfaces present on wall and pore surfaces. Thus, particular channels or channel portions may be coated with one type of catalyst, while other channels or channel portions may be coated with another type of catalyst. The washcoat and the catalysts may also typically be disposed onto individual fibers and at the junctions between the individuals fibers in the wall of the substrate. g. It will be appreciated that the design criteria discussed in a-f above is provide only as a set of general guidelines. It will be understood that many tradeoffs and compromises are typically made during the design of a catalytic device. The catalytic device 150 is a highly flexible design, and may be built in many specific constructions. FIGS. 6A and 6B show an exhaust system 200 operationally coupled to a catalytic device 202 that operates as described above. Exhaust gas is generated by engine 201 and urged through exhaust gas pathway 203 and through catalytic device 202, which is fluidically connected as part of the pathway 203. Exhaust gas inlet 204 and exhaust gas outlet 205 are defined by housing 206. Exhaust gas enters the catalytic device 202 via exhaust gas inlet 204, interacts with fibrous walls 207 therein, and exits through exhaust gas outlet 205. FIGS. 7A and 7B show a catalytic device 225 configured for application as an aftermarket or repair device. The device 225 includes an inner fibrous wall 227 confined within a housing 228. The housing 228 defines an exhaust inlet 231 and an exhaust outlet 233. The housing 228 further defines an inlet coupler 235 and an outlet coupler 237 that are configured to connect to an existing exhaust system. The couplers 235, 237 can be constructed to support any convenient coupling type, such as a welded, frictional, and/or threaded coupling. FIG. 8 schematically illustrates a cross-flow filter 250 having layered sets of perpendicular channels 252. A set of inlet channels 254 receives a liquid or gas having at least two components (herein given as ‘A’+‘B’). The walls between the inlet channels 254 and outlet channels 262 are constructed from porous substantially fibrous material and are coated with a catalyst to facilitate the separation of or reaction of substance B in to a new, non-B species, while simultaneously passing substance A therethrough substantially unchanged. In this way, at least some of the B material is removed from the fluid flow through the filter 250. The fluid emerging from the filter outlet 260 thus has a lower concentration of the B species and a higher concentration of the A species. It will be understood that additional B material may be removed (i.e., the concentration of B may be still further reduced) by increasing the length of the filter, by increasing the number of channels, or by increasing the amount of reactive coating. FIG. 9 shows a catalytic device 275 similar to catalytic device 10, except that the inlet channels and outlet channels are randomly provided. More particularly, a fibrous block 285 has been positioned within a housing 277 and is characterized by a high porosity, thereby enabling a random flow of gas through the block 285. The housing 277 may optionally feature a fibrous wall 279 (of the same or different composition as the block 285) connected to the housing interior. The block 285 typically has a porosity gradient to encourage a longer or more tumultuous gas flow path. Housing 277 further includes a gas inlet port 281 and a spaced gas outlet port 283, defining the endpoints of the gas flow path through the block 285. FIG. 10 shows a catalytic device 300 similar to catalytic device 10, except that the inlet channel 310 is larger than the outlet channel 311. Housing 302 includes an inner fibrous wall coating 204 and defines spaced inlet and outlet ports 306, 308 that further define the endpoints of the gas flow path through the device 300, including through the fibrous wall 315 positioned therein. Backpressure may be reduced by providing larger, or more, inlet channels 310 as compared to the outlet channels 311. FIG. 11 shows a catalytic device 350 similar to catalytic device 150, except blocks 379, 381 for the respective outlet channels 371, 370 are positioned spaced away from the channel ends/exhaust outlet 354. Channels 367, 368, 370 and 371 are still defined by walls 373 and fluidically connected between exhaust inlet 353 and exhaust outlet 354. However, by positioning blocks 379, 381 spaced away from the channel ends, additional capacity is provided in adjacent inlet channels 367, 368, thus allowing for a reduction in backpressure. Also, the area provided for laminar flow and bulk diffusion is increased. In addition to the faster light-off time and more efficient conversion of pollutants to nonpollutants afforded by the fibrous and porous nature of the catalyst support substrate materials used herein, the fibrous and porous nature of the devices described hereinabove also tend to dampen and attenuate sound and noise generated by the associated engine and gas flow. Thus, the devices are additionally attractive as their use tends to reduce or minimize the need for extraneous sound muffling or baffling devices. While the invention has been illustrated and described in detail in the drawings and foregoing description, the same is to be considered as illustrative and not restrictive in character. It is understood that the embodiments have been shown and described in the foregoing specification in satisfaction of the best mode and enablement requirements. It is understood that one of ordinary skill in the art could readily make a nigh-infinite number of insubstantial changes and modifications to the above-described embodiments and that it would be impractical to attempt to describe all such embodiment variations in the present specification. Accordingly, it is understood that all changes and modifications that come within the spirit of the invention are desired to be protected.	B	B01	B01D	53	38
11727017	US20070230286A1-20071004	Second hand reset device for a timepiece	ACCEPTED	20070920	20071004		[]	G04B2702	["G04B2702"]	7322741	20070323	20080129	368	106000	62209.0	MISKA	VIT	[{"inventor_name_last": "Scheufele", "inventor_name_first": "Karl-Friedrich", "inventor_city": "Promenthoux", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CH"}]	A setting device for a timepiece comprising a second-indicating element (1) and at least one other time-indicating element comprises a first manual control element (2) that can occupy a neutral position and a position for setting the other time-indicating element or elements, and a mechanism (3) for resetting the second-indicating element (1) to zero, connected to the first manual control element (2). The reset mechanism (3) comprises a second manual control element (6) and is configured so that actuating the second manual control element (6) resets the second-indicating element (1) to zero when the first manual control element (2) is in the position for setting the other time-indicating element or elements and has no effect on the second-indicating element (1) when the first manual control element (2) is in the neutral position.	1. Setting device for a timepiece, the timepiece comprising a second-indicating element and at least one other time-indicating element, the setting device comprising a first manual control element that can occupy a neutral position and a position for setting the other time indicating element or elements and a mechanism for resetting the second-indicating element to zero, connected to the first manual control element, wherein the mechanism for resetting the second-indicating element to zero comprises a second manual control element and is configured so that actuating the second manual control element resets the second-indicating element to zero when the first manual control element is in the position for setting the other time-indicating element or elements and has no effect on the second-indicating element when the first manual control element is in the neutral position. 2. Setting device according to claim 1, wherein the mechanism for resetting the second-indicating element to zero comprises a cam made to be rigidly connected with the second-indicating element, a hammer subjected to the action of a first spring which tends to move the hammer toward the cam, a first retaining element which retains the hammer against the action of the first spring when the second manual control element is not actuated and which does not retain the hammer when the second manual control element is actuated, and a second retaining element which retains the hammer against the action of the first spring when the first manual control element is in the neutral position and which does not retain the hammer when the first manual control element is in the position for setting the other time-indicating element or elements. 3. Setting device according to claim 2, wherein the first retaining element is a first rocker that can be pivoted against the action of a second spring by actuating the second manual control element, this first rocker comprising a stud which is disposed in a seat of the hammer so as to retain the hammer when the second manual control element is not actuated and is out of the seat when the second manual control element is actuated. 4. Setting device according to claim 2, wherein the second retaining element is a second rocker whose angular position depends on the position of the first manual control element, and one end of this second rocker cooperates with a stop surface of the hammer so as to retain the hammer when the first manual control element is in its neutral position and is out of contact with the stop surface when the first manual control element is in its position for setting the other time-indicating element or elements. 5. Setting device according to claim 4, wherein the stop surface has a profile substantially forming an arc of a circle whose center coincides with the pivot of the second rocker when the hammer is retained by the second rocker. 6. Setting device according to claim 5, wherein the first manual control element can occupy an intermediate position between the neutral position and the position for setting the other time-indicating element or elements, and in this intermediate position of the first manual control element, the end of the second rocker is in contact with the stop surface so as to retain the hammer. 7. Setting device according to claim 6, wherein the intermediate position of the first manual control element is a date-setting position. 8. Setting device according to claim 4, wherein the reset mechanism is configured so that after the second-indicating element is reset to zero, the end of the second rocker cooperates with a second surface of the hammer, adjacent to the stop surface, during a movement of the first manual control element from the position for setting the other time-indicating element or elements to the neutral position so as to return the hammer to its initial position. 9. Setting device according to claim 4, further comprising a first lever actuated by the second rocker so as to stop a balance of the timepiece when the first manual control element is in the position for setting the other time-indicating element or elements. 10. Setting device according to claim 4, wherein the first manual control element is a stem that is axially movable between the neutral position and the position for setting the other time-indicating element or elements, and a second lever comprising a stud engaged in a groove of the stem is also provided, this second lever controlling the second rocker. 11. Setting device according to claim 2, wherein the cam is heart-shaped. 12. Setting device according to claim 1, wherein the first manual control element is a stem that is axially movable between the neutral position and the position for setting the other time-indicating element or elements and the second manual control element is a push button. 13. Setting device according to claim 1, wherein the other time-indicating elements comprise hour- and minute-indicating hands, and the second-indicating element is a small hand, offset relative to the hour and minute hands. 14. Timepiece comprising a setting device according to claim 1.			The present invention relates to a setting device for a timepiece, comprising a mechanism for resetting the second hand to zero. A timepiece wherein the axial displacement of a manual control stem from a neutral position to a time-setting position stops the movement and automatically resets the second hand to zero is known from the documents EP 0 927 383 and EP 0 931 282. The object of the present invention is to propose a setting device that is capable of resetting the second hand of a timepiece to zero when a manual control element is in a time-setting position, but wherein the second hand is only reset to zero if and when the user so desires. To this end, the invention provides a setting device for a timepiece, the timepiece comprising a second-indicating element and at least one other time-indicating element, the setting device comprising a first manual control element that can occupy a neutral position and a position for setting the other time indicating element or elements and a mechanism for resetting the second-indicating element to zero, connected to the first manual control element, wherein the mechanism for resetting the second-indicating element to zero comprises a second manual control element and is configured so that actuating the second manual control element resets the second-indicating element to zero when the first manual control element is in the position for setting the other time-indicating element or elements and has no effect on the second-indicating element when the first manual control element is in the neutral position. Specific embodiments of this device are defined in the appended dependent claims 2 to 13. The present invention also proposes a timepiece, for example a wristwatch, comprising such a setting device. Other features and advantages of the present invention will emerge from the following detailed description, given in reference to the attached drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a top view of the setting device according to the invention in a configuration wherein a winding stem of the device is in a neutral position; FIG. 2 is a top view of the setting device according to the invention in a configuration wherein the winding stem is in an intermediate pulled-out position; FIG. 3 is a top view of the setting device according to the invention in a configuration wherein the winding stem is in a fully pulled-out position. FIGS. 1 through 3 represent a device according to the invention for setting a timepiece such as a wristwatch. The timepiece comprises central hour- and minute-indicating hands (not represented), and a small second-indicating hand 1 that is offset relative to the hour and minute hands. The setting device according to the invention comprises a first manual control element 2 and a mechanism 3 for resetting the second hand 1 to zero, connected to the first manual control element 2. The first manual control element 2 is in the conventional form of a stem ending in a crown 5 that can be manipulated by a user. The stem 2, known as a winding or setting stem, can occupy three distinct axial positions, i.e., a neutral or winding position (FIG. 1), an intermediate pulled-out position for setting the date (FIG. 2), and a fully pulled-out position for setting the time (FIG. 3). In these three axial positions of the stem 2, the user can, by means of intrinsically known mechanisms that are not represented, respectively wind the mainspring of the timepiece, set a date display of the timepiece, and set the hour and minute hands by rotating the stem 2 around its axis. The mechanism 3 for resetting the second hand 1 to zero comprises a second manual control element of the push button type, represented schematically by 6, an actuating rocker 7 subjected to the action of a spring 8, a hammer 9 subjected to the action of a spring 10, a heart-shaped cam 11 mounted on the shaft of the second hand 1 so as to be rigidly connected with the second hand 1, a second rocker 19 and a setting lever 20. The actuating rocker 7 is angled at the level of its pivot 12 and has a first end that is maintained by the spring 8 in contact against a mobile post 13 controlled by the push button 6 and a second end that carries a cylindrical stud 14 which extends outside the plane of the drawing. The actuating rocker 7 can be pivoted from a rest position (FIGS. 1 and 2; FIG. 3: position indicated by a dotted line) to a reset actuating position (FIG. 3: position indicated by a solid line) by actuating the push button 6, which actuation translates the post 13 from its position indicated by a dotted line in FIG. 3 to its position indicated by a solid line, thereby pushing on the first end of the rocker 7. Once the pressure on the push button 6 is released, the actuating rocker 7 returns to its rest position under the action of the spring 8. In the rest position of the actuating rocker 7, the stud 14 is engaged in a U-shaped seat 15 with a semi-cylindrical bottom of appropriate size formed in one end of the hammer 9, thereby retaining the hammer 9 against the action exerted by the spring 10, which action tends to pivot the hammer 9 toward the heart-shaped cam 11 around a pivot 16. When the actuating rocker 7 is in its pivoted reset actuating position, the stud 14 is out of the seat 15 of the hammer 9 and no longer retains the latter. On the other side of the pivot 16 from the seat 15, the hammer 9 is divided into two arms 17, 18. The first arm 17 comprises a striking surface 1 7a made to cooperate with the heart-shaped cam 11. The second arm 18 cooperates with the second rocker 19, as described below. In an intrinsically known way, the setting lever 20 is in the form of a lever comprising a stud 21 seated in a groove of the winding stem 2. A pin 22 rigidly connected with the setting lever 20 is housed in an oblong hole 23 formed in one end of the rocker 19. The cooperation between the pin 22 and the hole 23 allows the setting lever 20 to pivot the rocker 19 as a function of the axial position of the winding stem 2. The rocker 19 can thus occupy three different angular positions, corresponding to the three axial positions of the winding stem 2. In its first two angular positions (FIGS. 1 and 2), which correspond to the neutral and date-setting positions of the winding stem 2, the rocker 19 cooperates, via an end 24 opposite its end that receives the pin 22 and located on the other side of its pivot 25, with a slightly concave stop surface 26 of the arm 18 of the hammer 9 so as to retain the hammer 9 against the action exerted by the spring 10, which action, as indicated above, tends to pivot the hammer 9 toward the heart-shaped cam 11. The stop face 26 has a profile forming an arc of a circle whose center, when the hammer 9 is retained by the rocker 19 (FIGS. 1 and 2), coincides with the pivot 25 of the rocker 19. Thus, the pivoting of the rocker 19 between its first two angular positions has no effect on the hammer 9, which remains prevented from pivoting toward the heart-shaped cam 11. In the third position of the rocker 19 (FIG. 3), which corresponds to the time-setting position of the stem 2, the end 24 of the rocker 19 is no longer in contact with the arm 18 and no longer prevents the hammer 9 from pivoting toward the heart-shaped cam 11. On the same side of the pivot 25 as its end that receives the pin 22, the rocker 19 comprises a U-shaped seat 27 with a semi-cylindrical bottom into which is articulated a cylindrical end 28 of a stop lever 29. The pivoting of the rocker 19 from one of its positions to another causes the end 28 of the lever 29 to slide into the seat 27 and drives the lever 29 in a pivoting motion around its pivot 30. The lever 29 can thus occupy three different angular positions, corresponding to the three axial positions of the winding stem 2. In the two positions of the lever 29 that correspond to the neutral and date-setting positions of the stem 2 (FIGS. 1 and 2), the lever 29 is out of contact with the balance of the timepiece, designated by 31. In the third position of the lever 29, which corresponds to the time-setting position of the stem 2, a pin 32 rigidly connected with the end of the lever 29 opposite the end 28 is in contact with the periphery of the balance 31 and blocks the rotation of the latter. The mechanism according to the invention works in the following way. When the winding stem 2 is in its neutral position (FIG. 1), the end 24 of the rocker 19 is in contact with the stop surface 26 of the hammer 9 at a point located near the distal end of the arm 18, thus retaining the hammer 9 and preventing it from pivoting toward the heart-shaped cam 11. The pin 32 of the lever 29 is out of contact with the balance 31, which can therefore oscillate normally so as to allow the hour, minute and second hands to rotate. In this position of the stem 2, when the user presses the push button 6, the stud 14 of the actuating rocker 7 moves out of the seat 15 of the hammer 9, but this has no effect on the position of the hammer 9, which is retained by the rocker 19, and therefore no effect on the position of the second hand 1, which continues to rotate normally. When the winding stem 2 is pulled from its neutral position to its intermediate date-setting position (FIG. 2), the end 24 of the rocker 19 slides on the stop surface 26 of the hammer 9 toward the proximal end of the arm 18 up to a determined point of this surface 26. The end 24 of the rocker 19 thus remains in contact with the arm 18, thereby retaining the hammer 9 and still preventing it from pivoting toward the heart-shaped cam 11. In the same time, the pin 32 of the lever 29 moves closer to the balance 31 but remains out of contact with this latter. The balance 31 can thus continue to oscillate normally so as to allow the hour, minute and second hands to rotate. In the intermediate date-setting position of the stem 2, when the user presses the push button 6, the stud 14 of the actuating rocker 7 moves out of the seat 15 of the hammer 9, but this has no effect on the position of the hammer 9, which is retained by the rocker 19, and therefore no effect on the position of the second hand 1, which continues to rotate normally. When the winding stem 2 is pulled from its intermediate date-setting position into its outermost, time-setting position (FIG. 3), the pin 32 of the lever 29 comes into contact with the balance 31 so as to stop it, thus stopping the hour, minute and second hands. At the same time, the end 24 of the rocker 19 pivots toward the proximal end of the arm 18 of the hammer 9 and loses contact with the hammer 9 as soon as it moves away from the stop surface 26. The hammer 9 is then no longer retained by the rocker 19, but only by the stud 14 of the actuating rocker 7 seated in the seat 15. In the outermost, time-setting position of the stem 2, when the user presses the push button 6, the stud 14 moves out of the seat 15. No longer retained by the stud 14, the hammer 9, driven by the spring 10, then strikes the heart-shaped cam 11, which begins to rotate, sliding along the striking surface 17a of the hammer 9 until the base of the heart-shaped cam 11 is in contact with the striking surface 17a, thus resetting the second hand 1 to zero. This resetting of the second hand 1 to zero is made possible, in an intrinsically known way, by the fact that the second hand pinion and wheel, which engage with the movement train, are friction-mounted onto the shaft of the second hand 1, on which shaft the heart-shaped cam 11 and the second hand 1 are mounted. After the second hand 1 is reset to zero, the hammer 9 is returned to its initial position by pushing the winding stem 2 from its outermost, time-setting position to its intermediate date-setting position. During this movement of the winding stem 2, the end 24 of the rocker 19 moves back toward the distal end of the arm 18, sliding along and pushing a slightly concave surface 33 of the arm 18 that is adjacent to the stop surface 26 and, more precisely, located between the proximal end of the arm 18 and the stop surface 26. The thrust that the end 24 of the rocker 19 exerts on the surface 33 raises the hammer 9 against the action of the spring 10 until the hammer 9 returns to its initial position in which the end 24 of the rocker 19 is in contact with the stop surface 26 and the stud 14 of the actuating rocker 7 in the rest position is in the seat 15. When the hammer 9 returns to its initial position, it causes the actuating rocker 7 to pivot by acting on the stud 14 so as to allow the stud 14 to be seated in the seat 15, i.e. to return to its initial position. It is clear that, in the setting device as described above, the resetting of the second hand 1 to zero when the winding stem 2 is in its time-setting axial position does not occur automatically but on demand from the user, with a push on the push button 6. The user can thus decide whether resetting the second hand 1 to zero or not. The user can also decide when the second hand 1 will be reset to zero, for example after the setting of the hour and minute hands. Moreover, the function for resetting the second hand 1 to zero remains linked to the axial position of the winding stem 2, thus making it possible, for example, to allow the second hand 1 to be reset to zero only when the winding stem 2 is in its time-setting position.	G	G04	G04B	27	02
11746011	US20080278851A1-20081113	SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR SELECTIVELY CONTROLLING A STATE OF HYDRATION OF A MAGNETIC DATA STORAGE MEDIUM	ACCEPTED	20081030	20081113		[]	G11B5127	["G11B5127"]	7551385	20070508	20090623	360	069000	58428.0	WONG	KIN	[{"inventor_name_last": "Biskeborn", "inventor_name_first": "Robert Glenn", "inventor_city": "Hollister", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Lo", "inventor_name_first": "Calvin Shyhjong", "inventor_city": "Saratoga", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A magnetic storage system according to one embodiment includes a magnetic head adapted for at least one of reading from a magnetic medium and writing to the medium; a drive mechanism for directing the medium over the head; and a first element for selectively altering a voltage of the medium for altering a state of hydration of the medium.	1. A magnetic storage system, comprising: a magnetic head adapted for at least one of reading from a medium and writing to the medium; a drive mechanism for directing the medium over the head; and a first element for selectively altering a voltage of the medium for altering a state of hydration of the medium. 2. The system as recited in claim 1, wherein the first element contacts portions of the medium prior to the portions of the medium passing over the head. 3. The system as recited in claim 1, further comprising a second element for allowing measuring of a voltage level of the medium. 4. The system as recited in claim 3, wherein the first element alters the hydration of portions of the medium prior to the portions of the medium passing over the head, wherein the second element encounters the portions of the medium after the portions of the medium pass over the head, wherein the voltage applied to the medium using the first element is based at least in part on the voltage of the medium measured using the second element. 5. The system as recited in claim 4, wherein an extent of the alteration of voltage of the medium using the first element is further based at least in part on an ambient humidity level. 6. The system as recited in claim 4, wherein an extent of the alteration of voltage of the medium using the first element is adjustable so that about a constant voltage level is detected at the second element. 7. The system as recited in claim 1, wherein an extent of the alteration of voltage of the medium using the first element is based at least in part on an ambient humidity level. 8. The system as recited in claim 7, wherein the voltage of the medium is adjusted to a first level using the first element if the ambient humidity level is above a first threshold amount, wherein the voltage of the medium is adjusted to a level lower than the first level using the first element if the ambient humidity level is below the first threshold amount. 9. The system as recited in claim 8, wherein the first voltage level is higher than a median voltage of a substrate of the head. 10. The system as recited in claim 8, wherein the second voltage level is about equal to a median voltage of a sensor of the head. 11. The system as recited in claim 8, wherein the second voltage level is about equal to a median voltage of a substrate of the head. 12. The system as recited in claim 8, wherein, if the ambient humidity level is below the first threshold amount and above a second threshold amount, the second voltage level is about equal to a median voltage of a sensor of the head; wherein, if the ambient humidity level is below the second threshold amount, the second voltage level is about equal to a median voltage of a substrate of the head. 13. The system as recited in claim 7, wherein the voltage of the medium is adjusted to a first level using the first element if the ambient humidity level is above a first threshold amount, wherein the voltage of the medium is not altered if the ambient humidity level is below the first threshold amount. 14. The system as recited in claim 7, further comprising a humidity sensor for measuring the ambient humidity level. 15. The system as recited in claim 1, wherein a voltage level of the medium is detected using the first element, wherein an extent that the voltage of the medium is altered using the first element is based at least in part on the voltage of the medium measured using the first element. 16. The system as recited in claim 15, wherein the extent that the voltage of the medium is altered using the first element is further based at least in part on an ambient humidity level. 17. The system as recited in claim 1, wherein an extent that the voltage of the medium is altered varies with time. 18. A magnetic storage system, comprising: a magnetic head adapted for at least one of reading from a medium and writing to the medium; a drive mechanism for directing the medium over the head; and a first element for selectively altering a voltage of the medium for altering a state of hydration of the medium, wherein the first element contacts portions of the medium prior to the portions of the medium passing over the head; wherein the voltage applied to the medium using the first element is based at least in part on the voltage of the medium; wherein the voltage applied to the medium using the first element is further based at least in part on an ambient humidity level. 19. The system as recited in claim 18, further comprising a second element for allowing measuring of a voltage level of the medium, wherein the second element contacts the portions of the medium after the portions of the medium pass over the head. 20. A tape drive system, comprising: a magnetic head; a drive mechanism for passing a magnetic tape over the head; a controller in communication with the head; and a first element for applying a voltage to the tape for altering a state of hydration of the tape.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Business, science and entertainment applications depend upon computers to process and record data, often with large volumes of the data being stored or transferred to nonvolatile storage media, such as magnetic discs, magnetic tape cartridges, optical disk cartridges, floppy diskettes, or floptical diskettes. Typically, magnetic tape is the most economical means of storing or archiving the data. Storage technology is continually pushed to increase storage capacity and storage reliability. Improvement in data storage densities in magnetic storage media, for example, has resulted from improved medium materials, improved error correction techniques and decreased areal bit sizes. The data capacity of half-inch magnetic tape, for example, is now measured in hundreds of gigabytes on 512 or more data tracks. A magnetic tape is typically a multilayer structure including a base layer and a magnetically definable layer in which data is stored. The magnetically definable layer may include pure metal particles that define the magnetic transitions that represent data. In other magnetic tapes, the magnetic layers may be either sputtered or evaporated magnetic films. In addition, the tapes may contain binders, lubricants and other materials. One problem frequently encountered during reading and writing to tape is that magnetic materials or fragments therefrom can come loose from the tape and adhere to the head, sometimes leading to the formation of metallic bridges on the head. Another problem is formation of metallic bridges via electrostatic or electrochemical interaction between head and tape. Read sensors are particularly susceptible to failure due to shield-shorting as a result of bridging. Conductive accumulation have been found to be more prevalent in low humidify conditions, e.g., less than about 20% relative humidity. Such low humidity conditions are typical with the current prevalence of air conditioned server rooms and business places. Accordingly, having some amount of hydration in the tape pack is desirable for promoting oxidation of metallic accumulations on the head. However, at the other extreme, operating in a high humidity environment, e.g., typically greater than about 55% relative humidity, is problematic in that the tape may become too hydrated. This water in turn is implicated in corrosion of corrodible materials in the head, such as the iron in the writer pole tips. In addition, aluminum oxide, which is a typical component in modern heads, is amphitheric and susceptible to chemical attack when subjected to a hydrated environment. It is found that excessive tape hydration accelerates head erosion. Further, excessive hydration is widely believed to increase stiction between the tape and the head. The only known solutions to these problems are to bury the reader and writer structures to prevent contact with the water or the conductive accumulation, and/or to coat the head with a durable wear coating. In the former case, such a recessed sensor has not been implemented and is believed to be difficult to manufacture, and would also result in an undesirable spacing loss. The latter method is complex and expensive and the coatings may wear off over time, even with pre-recession.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A magnetic storage system according to one embodiment includes a magnetic head adapted for at least one of reading from a magnetic medium and writing to the medium; a drive mechanism for directing the medium over the head; and a first element for selectively altering a voltage of the medium for altering a state of hydration of the medium. A magnetic storage system according to another embodiment, includes a magnetic head adapted for at least one of reading from a magnetic medium and writing to the medium; a drive mechanism for directing the medium over the head; and a first element for selectively altering a voltage of the medium for altering a state of hydration of the medium, wherein the first element contacts portions of the medium prior to the portions of the medium passing over the head; wherein the voltage applied to the medium using the first element is based at least in part on the voltage of the medium; wherein the voltage applied to the medium using the first element is further based at least in part on an ambient humidity level. A tape drive system according to yet another embodiment includes a magnetic head; a drive mechanism for passing a magnetic tape over the head; a controller in communication with the head; and a first element for applying a voltage to the tape for altering a state of hydration of the tape. Other aspects and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description, which, when taken in conjunction with the drawings, illustrate by way of example the principles of the invention.	FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to data storage systems, and more particularly, this invention relates to a system for selectively altering the hydration of a magnetic data storage medium. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Business, science and entertainment applications depend upon computers to process and record data, often with large volumes of the data being stored or transferred to nonvolatile storage media, such as magnetic discs, magnetic tape cartridges, optical disk cartridges, floppy diskettes, or floptical diskettes. Typically, magnetic tape is the most economical means of storing or archiving the data. Storage technology is continually pushed to increase storage capacity and storage reliability. Improvement in data storage densities in magnetic storage media, for example, has resulted from improved medium materials, improved error correction techniques and decreased areal bit sizes. The data capacity of half-inch magnetic tape, for example, is now measured in hundreds of gigabytes on 512 or more data tracks. A magnetic tape is typically a multilayer structure including a base layer and a magnetically definable layer in which data is stored. The magnetically definable layer may include pure metal particles that define the magnetic transitions that represent data. In other magnetic tapes, the magnetic layers may be either sputtered or evaporated magnetic films. In addition, the tapes may contain binders, lubricants and other materials. One problem frequently encountered during reading and writing to tape is that magnetic materials or fragments therefrom can come loose from the tape and adhere to the head, sometimes leading to the formation of metallic bridges on the head. Another problem is formation of metallic bridges via electrostatic or electrochemical interaction between head and tape. Read sensors are particularly susceptible to failure due to shield-shorting as a result of bridging. Conductive accumulation have been found to be more prevalent in low humidify conditions, e.g., less than about 20% relative humidity. Such low humidity conditions are typical with the current prevalence of air conditioned server rooms and business places. Accordingly, having some amount of hydration in the tape pack is desirable for promoting oxidation of metallic accumulations on the head. However, at the other extreme, operating in a high humidity environment, e.g., typically greater than about 55% relative humidity, is problematic in that the tape may become too hydrated. This water in turn is implicated in corrosion of corrodible materials in the head, such as the iron in the writer pole tips. In addition, aluminum oxide, which is a typical component in modern heads, is amphitheric and susceptible to chemical attack when subjected to a hydrated environment. It is found that excessive tape hydration accelerates head erosion. Further, excessive hydration is widely believed to increase stiction between the tape and the head. The only known solutions to these problems are to bury the reader and writer structures to prevent contact with the water or the conductive accumulation, and/or to coat the head with a durable wear coating. In the former case, such a recessed sensor has not been implemented and is believed to be difficult to manufacture, and would also result in an undesirable spacing loss. The latter method is complex and expensive and the coatings may wear off over time, even with pre-recession. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A magnetic storage system according to one embodiment includes a magnetic head adapted for at least one of reading from a magnetic medium and writing to the medium; a drive mechanism for directing the medium over the head; and a first element for selectively altering a voltage of the medium for altering a state of hydration of the medium. A magnetic storage system according to another embodiment, includes a magnetic head adapted for at least one of reading from a magnetic medium and writing to the medium; a drive mechanism for directing the medium over the head; and a first element for selectively altering a voltage of the medium for altering a state of hydration of the medium, wherein the first element contacts portions of the medium prior to the portions of the medium passing over the head; wherein the voltage applied to the medium using the first element is based at least in part on the voltage of the medium; wherein the voltage applied to the medium using the first element is further based at least in part on an ambient humidity level. A tape drive system according to yet another embodiment includes a magnetic head; a drive mechanism for passing a magnetic tape over the head; a controller in communication with the head; and a first element for applying a voltage to the tape for altering a state of hydration of the tape. Other aspects and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description, which, when taken in conjunction with the drawings, illustrate by way of example the principles of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a fuller understanding of the nature and advantages of the present invention, as well as the preferred mode of use, reference should he made to the following detailed description read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 is a diagram of magnetic storage system according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a diagram of magnetic storage system according to another embodiment of the present invention. BEST MODE FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION The following description is the best mode presently contemplated for carrying out the present invention. This description is made for the purpose of illustrating the general principles of the present invention and is not meant to limit the inventive concepts claimed herein. Further, particular features described herein can be used in combination with other described features in each of the various possible combinations and permutations. In the drawings, like and equivalent elements are numbered the same throughout the various figures. When using a magnetic storage system, humidity in the air promotes tape hydration. Excessive hydration of the medium is believed to be implicated in oxidation of corrodible materials in the head, such as iron in the pole tips. The embodiments described below disclose a new system that provides a measure of control over the state of hydration of a magnetic medium such as a magnetic recording tape. Some embodiments do this by altering the medium voltage level sufficiently to create electric fields that are large enough to drive at least some of the water off the medium surface, as by electrolysis (and possibly other mechanisms). Other embodiments do this by altering the voltage level of the medium to moderate and/or counter dehydration effects cause by voltages applied to the medium by the head, particularly at low humidity levels. Accordingly, various embodiments may alter the voltage on the medium to drive at least some water off of the medium, alter the voltage on the medium to maintain a state of hydration of the medium and/or apply no voltage if situationally appropriate. In one general embodiment of the present invention, shown in FIG. 1, a magnetic storage system 10 includes a magnetic head 12 adapted for at least one of reading from a magnetic medium 14 and writing to the medium 14, a drive mechanism 16 for directing the medium 14 over the head 12 and a first element 18 for altering a voltage of the medium 14 for altering a state of hydration of the medium 14. To aid the reader in understanding the teachings herein, and to place the invention in a context, much of the present description is presented in terms of implementation in a tape-based data storage system. It should be kept in mind that the general concepts presented herein have broad applicability to electronic devices of other types. FIG. 2 illustrates a simplified tape drive system which may be employed in the context of the present invention. While one specific implementation of a tape drive system is shown in FIG. 2, it should be noted that the various embodiments described herein may be implemented in the context of any type of tape drive system. As shown, a tape supply reel 120 and a take-up reel 121 are provided to support a magnetic recording tape 14. The tape supply reel 120 and take-up reel 121 may form part of a removable cassette and are not necessarily part of the system. Guides 125 of the drive mechanism guide the tape 14 across a tape head 12 of any type, including a bidirectional head, flat profile head, semi-cylindrical profile head, etc. Such tape head 12 is in turn coupled to a controller 128 via a connector cable 130. The controller 128, in turn, controls head functions such as track following, writing and read functions, etc. An actuator 132 controls position of the head 12 relative to the tape 14. A tape drive system, such as that illustrated in FIG. 2, includes drive motor(s) to drive the tape supply cartridge 120 and the take-up reel 121 to move the tape 14 linearly over the head 12. The tape drive also includes a read/write channel to transmit data to the head 12 to be recorded on the tape 14 and to receive data read by the head 12 from the tape 14. An interlace is also provided for communication between the tape drive and a host (integral or external) to send and receive the data and for controlling the operation of the tape drive and communicating the status of the tape drive to the host. When using a tape drive system such as that shown in FIG. 2, humidity in the air promotes hydration of the tape. As mentioned above, excessive hydration of the tape is believed to be implicated in oxidation of corrodible materials in the head, such as the iron in the pole tips. However, some level of hydration of the magnetic medium may be desirable in that this is believed to promote the oxidation of metallic accumulations and/or formations on the head. Oxidized iron, for example, may be non-electrically conductive and so does not have the potential to cause surface shorting on the heads. In embodiments where iron-containing tape is used, tape hydration promotes the corrosion (oxidation) of parasitic iron films on the head. Corrosion of iron is also known as “rusting.” The parasitic iron may come from fragments of the magnetic definable layer of the medium. Another cause of shorting on the head can be growth of metallic bridges which is assisted in part by electric fields within the head and between the head and tape. By promoting oxidation of the iron film, water in the tape can minimize and often eliminate shorting. At high enough hydration levels, water adsorbed to the tape may form a locally continuous monolayer or thin film. This film in turn may capture O2, CO2 and other gases from the atmosphere. Generally, captured gaseous molecules may be or become ionized. When this film comes in contact with a corrodible metal, such as that found in accumulations on the head, corrosion may occur. The pathway for this reaction may be as follows. Partially ionized carbon dioxide in the adsorbed water may form a weak carbonic acid. The acid dissolves the iron and some water breaks down into hydrogen and oxygen. Free oxygen and dissolved iron react to form iron oxide, in the process freeing electrons. Electrons liberated from the anode portion of the iron (accumulated particles) flow to the cathode, which may be a piece of a metal less electrically reactive than iron, e.g., other portions of the head, another point on the iron deposit, etc. The result is that iron is converted into rust. This is beneficial for disrupting unwanted iron accumulations on the head. The greater the hydration of the tape, the greater the corrosion reaction rate. However, excessive hydration should be avoided so as to minimize corrosion of the pole tips and other corrodible portions of the head. Pole tip corrosion leads to spacing loss and broader written transitions than written by the head at initial use. The amount of tape hydration is proportional to the ambient humidity level. Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapor in the air at a given temperature to the maximum amount air can hold at the same temperature, expressed as a percentage. At very low humidity, e.g., less than about 20% relative humidity, conductive bridges on the surface of the head may form. This is believed to be due to insufficient tape hydration such that there is not enough water in the system to promote an oxidation reaction. Without wishing to be bound by any theory, it is believed that when the tape hydration level is low, there are not enough adsorbed or absorbed ions and so corrosion of the metallic formations on the head is very limited. Accordingly, with continued reference to FIG. 2, the system includes a first element 18 for altering a voltage of the tape 14 for altering a state of hydration of the tape 14. The first element 18 may contact portions of the tape 14 prior to those portions passing over the head 12. In other words, the first element is preferably positioned in front of the head relative to the direction of tape travel. The first element 18 is also preferably positioned close to the head for ensuring that the tape hydration level does not have time to revert to its equilibrium level. The tape may wrap the first element 18 to promote contact therebetween (see FIG. 1). Illustrative wrap angles are less than about 1°, but could be higher or lower. With continued reference to FIG. 2, the extent to which the first element alters the tape charge state may be based at least in part on an ambient humidity. Humidity may be measured in the drive, outside the drive, or both. The first element 18 induces a voltage on the tape 14 at a first level if the ambient humidity is above a first threshold amount, whereas the first element 18 induces a voltage on the tape 14 at a lower level than the first level if the ambient humidity is below the first threshold amount. For example at high humidity, at or higher than a threshold level, e.g., approximately 50-60% relative humidity, a relatively large tape voltage (e.g., about 1.5 to about 10V or more) may be required for dehydrating the tape to an acceptable level. At high humidity, tape voltage should be adjusted to a value that is typically higher (or lower) than the head voltages by typically several volts. Higher voltages are preferable as humidity increases, according to a linear or nonlinear scale, table of voltage to humidity, etc. The head voltages may refer to the substrate voltage (assuming the substrate is conductive) and/or MR shield and writer pole voltages. These voltages are typically set in the drive. An illustrative median substrate voltage is between about 0V and about 2V. At low humidity, at or below a threshold level, such as below 20-35% relative humidity, the system may adjust tape voltage to about match voltages in the head, e.g. substrate voltage (assuming the substrate is conductive) and/or MR shield and writer pole voltages. By matching tape and head voltages as closely as possible, tape surface hydration is maximized (dehydration is minimized), thus promoting oxidizing iron and other conductive formations on the head surface, such as magnetic material from the tape that gets deposited on the head during drive operation or bridges that grow under the action of electric fields and electrochemical processes. In another approach, the tape voltage is not altered at low humidity. In yet another approach, an oscillating or DC voltage may be applied to the tape via an electrical contact. For humidity between the high and low threshold values, e.g., in the range of 25-55% relative humidity., the voltage on the tape may be adjusted to about match the native sense voltage, such as the median voltage of a sensor or sensors of the head. Any type of humidity measuring device or sensor 150 known in the art may be used. For example, a digital humidity sensor for sensing humidity may be located external to the tape path. Note that if the humidity sensor is in the drive housing itself, a larger delay between readings is acceptable, as humidity changes in the drive may be relatively slow. The first element 18 may be a single electrode. In one approach, the first element 18 may be alternately sensed and pulsed to bring the tape to the target voltage at very low to high frequency. Another implementation is to sense and adjust the current passing into the first element 18, as this may provide an adequate means of adjusting the charge state on the tape. In yet another embodiment, the system can adapt to changing hydration requirements, on the fly, on a predetermined time interval, etc. Accordingly, the extent that the voltage of the medium is altered can vary with time, e.g., may be changed on the fly, on a predetermined time interval, etc. based on factors such as changes in ambient humidity, changes in measured media voltage level, etc. In a preferred approach, a second element 20 is present. The second element 20 may or may not contact the tape 14 for allowing measuring of a voltage level of the tape 14. The second element preferably detects the medium voltage after it passes over the head. The second element 20 may sense the tape voltage (potential difference between tape and ground). In one embodiment, this is preferably done by connecting the second element 20 to a high input impedance voltage sensing device, such as an electrometer, which preferably will not load the tape charging circuit. In another embodiment, the second element 20 may be connected to ground via a resistor. Then the voltage drop across the resistor is measured. The resistor is preferably large enough not to load the tribocharging circuit significantly. The voltage level detected by the second element 20 may then be used, possibly in combination with other factors, such as media type or brand, to select the voltage adjustment performed using the first element 18. The tape voltage adjustment using the first element 18 may be updated frequently so that, about a constant voltage level is detected at the second element 20. Also note that for current tape heads, the voltage adjustment applied by the first element 18 is preferably below that which would result in a reading of greater than 5V at the second element 20. The first and/or second elements 18, 20 may engage the tape 14. In this case, preferably, the first and/or second elements 18, 20 are formed of a wear resistant material such as a conductive ceramic, e.g., AlTiC. No particular shape is required for the first and/or second elements 18, 20. In a preferred approach, the first and/or second elements 18, 20 are flat lapped so that the tape contacts the elements in a manner similar to a flat tape head. The first and/or second elements 18, 20 may be located, for example, on either side of the head assembly. The functions of the electrical connections, when present, may reverse when the tape direction reverses. In a preferred mode of use, the controller reads the voltage detected by the second element as well as the humidity level from a humidity sensor. The controller then selects a target tape voltage to obtain the desired reading at the second element. The selected voltage is set on the tape using the first element. The process may be periodically or continuously updated. Accordingly, monitoring and adjusting the tape voltage controls both high humidity wear and low humidity shorting. The functions described above may also be incorporated directly into guides already in the drive, or into guide rollers, in which the roller axels may be isolated from ground and the roller shells may be contacted via carbon brushes or other commutator type contacts, as is well known. In addition the two elements may be combined into a single housing and the resulting assembly positioned either singly or in multiple locations in the tape path. Also, the basic concepts disclosed herein may be used in a disk drive by using the slider, or a dedicated slider as the means for both detecting disk voltage and applying a control voltage. EXAMPLE 1 A first element is positioned in front of a tape head with respect to the direction of tape travel across the head. A second element is positioned on an opposite side of the tape head relative to the first element. The substrate of the head is biased at 1.5V. Humidity is measured at about 55% relative humidity. The system determines that the tape voltage should initially be about 2V to achieve a tape hydration level that does not promote head corrosion but is not so low that parasitic accumulations are conductive. A voltage is applied by the first element at a level sufficient to provide a reading at the second element of about 2V. An illustrative voltage level applied at the first element may be about 3-7V. EXAMPLE 2 A first element is positioned in front of a tape head with respect to the direction of tape travel across the head. A second element is positioned on an opposite side of the tape head relative to the first element. The substrate of the head is biased at 1.5V Humidity is measured at about 75% relative humidity. The system determines that the tape voltage should initially be about 2V to achieve a tape hydration level that does not promote head corrosion but is not so low that parasitic accumulations are conductive. A voltage is applied by the first element at a level sufficient to provide a reading at the second element of about 2V. An illustrative voltage level applied by the first element may be about 5-10V. EXAMPLE 3 A first element is positioned in front of a tape head with respect to the direction of tape travel across the head. A second element is positioned on an opposite side of the tape head relative to the first element. The substrate of the head is biased at 1.5V. Humidity is measured at about 40% relative humidity. The system determines that the tape voltage should be about 1.0 to 1.5V to match the head substrate voltage. A voltage is applied by the first element at a level sufficient to provide a reading at the second element of about 1.0-1.5V. An illustrative voltage level applied at the first element may be about 0-1.5V. EXAMPLE 4 A first element is positioned in front of a tape head with respect to the direction of tape travel across the head. A second element is positioned on an opposite side of the tape head relative to the first element. The substrate of the head is biased at 1.5V. Humidity is measured at about 10% relative humidity. The system determines that the tape voltage should be about 1.5V to match the substrate voltage. A voltage is applied by the first element at a level sufficient to provide a reading at the second element of about 1.5V. An illustrative voltage level applied at the first element may be about 0-2V. EXAMPLE 5 A first element is positioned in front of a tape head with respect to the direction of tape travel across the head. A second element is positioned on an opposite side of the tape head relative to the first element. The substrate of the head is biased at 1.5V. Humidity is measured at about 10% relative humidity. The system determines that no voltage should he applied to the tape. The various embodiments described herein, or portions thereof, can be used separately or in combination with one another. The embodiments described herein may be used in combination with coated heads. While various embodiments have been described above, it should be understood that they have been presented by way of example only, and not limitation. Thus, the breadth and scope of a preferred embodiment should not be limited by any of the above-described exemplary embodiments, but should be defined only in accordance with the following claims and their equivalents.	G	G11	G11B	51	27
11718416	US20090120100A1-20090514	Starter Generator System for a Tip Turbine Engine	ACCEPTED	20090429	20090514		[]	F02C7275	["F02C7275"]	7874163	20070502	20110125	60	788000	67670.0	WONGWIAN	PHUTTHIWAT	[{"inventor_name_last": "Merry", "inventor_name_first": "Brian", "inventor_city": "Andover", "inventor_state": "CT", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Webb", "inventor_name_first": "Scot Adams", "inventor_city": "Gales Ferry", "inventor_state": "CT", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "McCune", "inventor_name_first": "Michael", "inventor_city": "Colechester", "inventor_state": "CT", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A starter-generator system for a tip turbine engine includes a starter motor with a fixed starter generator stator and a starter generator rotor. The fixed starter generator stator is mounted to a static inner support housing. The starter generator rotor surrounds the fixed starter generator stator and is engagement with the axial compressor rotor.	1. A tip turbine engine comprising: a rotationally fixed support structure mounted along an engine centerline; an axial compressor rotor mounted for rotation about said rotationally fixed support structure; a fan-turbine rotor assembly mounted downstream of said axial compressor rotor, said fan-turbine rotor assembly mounted for rotation about said engine centerline; a starter generator rotor mounted for rotation with said axial compressor rotor, said starter generator rotor mounted within a rotor disk bore; and a starter generator stator mounted around a static inner support housing defined by said rotationally fixed support structure within said starter generator rotor, said starter generator rotor rotatable about said motor stator. 2. The tip turbine engine as recited in claim 1, further comprising a splined engagement between said starter generator rotor and said compressor rotor. 3. The tip turbine engine as recited in claim 2, wherein said splined engagement extends between a compressor disk bore and said starter generator rotor. 4. The tip turbine engine as recited in claim 1, further comprising a gearbox between said axial compressor rotor and said fan-turbine rotor assembly. 5. The tip turbine engine as recited in claim 1, further comprising an axial press fit engagement of said starter generator rotor within said axial compressor rotor between a first segment of said compressor rotor and a second segment of said axial compressor rotor. 6. A starter system for a gas turbine engine comprising: a static inner support structure along an engine axis of rotation a starter generator stator mounted around a static inner support housing defined by said static inner support structure; and a starter generator rotor rotatable relative to said motor stator, said starter generator rotor mounted within a rotor disk bore. 7. The starter system as recited in claim 6, wherein said static inner support housing supports a compressor rotor for rotation relative thereto, said starter generator stator shrink fit to said static support structure. 8. The starter system as recited in claim 6, wherein said static inner support housing supports a compressor rotor for rotation relative thereto, said starter generator stator keyed to said static support structure. 9. The starter system as recited in claim 6, further comprising a tip turbine fan-turbine rotor assembly mounted downstream of a compressor rotor, said tip turbine fan-turbine rotor assembly mounted for rotation about said engine axis of rotation. 10. The starter system as recited in claim 6, wherein said starter generator rotor is splined to a compressor rotor disk for rotation therewith.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a tip turbine engine, and more particularly to a starter-generator system. An aircraft gas turbine engine of the conventional turbofan type generally includes a forward fan, a low pressure compressor, a middle core engine, and an aft low pressure turbine all located along a common longitudinal axis. A high pressure compressor and a high pressure turbine of the core engine are interconnected by a high spool shaft. The high pressure compressor is rotatably driven to compress air entering the core engine to a relatively high pressure. This high pressure air is then mixed with fuel in a combustor and ignited to form a high energy gas stream. The gas stream flows axially aft to rotatably drive the high pressure turbine which rotatably drives the high pressure compressor through the high spool shaft. The gas stream leaving the high pressure turbine is expanded through the low pressure turbine which rotatably drives the fan and low pressure compressor through a low pressure shaft. Although highly efficient, conventional turbofan engines operate in an axial flow relationship. The axial flow relationship results in an elongated engine structure of considerable longitudinal length relative to the engine diameter. This elongated shape may complicate or prevent packaging of the engine into particular applications. A recent development in gas turbine engines is the tip turbine engine. Tip turbine engines locate an axial compressor forward of a fan which includes hollow fan blades that receive airflow from the axial compressor therethrough such that the hollow fan blades operate as a centrifugal compressor. Compressed core airflow from the hollow fan blades is mixed with fuel in an annular combustor and ignited to form a high energy gas stream which drives the turbine integrated onto the tips of the hollow fan blades for rotation therewith as generally disclosed in U.S. patent Application Publication Nos.: 20030192303; 20030192304; and 20040025490. The tip turbine engine provides a thrust to weight ratio equivalent to conventional turbofan engines of the same class within a package of significantly shorter length. Conventionally, a dedicated starter and a dedicated generator with both machines mounted onto a gearbox that is coupled to the high spool shaft via a gear driven towershaft. As the starter accelerates the engine, a fuel delivery pump driven by a gearbox attached to a rotor of the gas turbine engine provides fuel flow thereto. Igniters are then actuated to effect ignition in a combustor of the engine. Upon successful ignition, and once the engine has reached a self-sustaining speed, the starter is disengaged and the generator is engaged. Accordingly, it is desirable to provide a lightweight starter-generator for a tip turbine engine which avoids an accessory gearbox and operation in an oil environment.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A starter-generator system for a tip turbine engine according to the present invention includes a starter motor with a fixed starter generator stator mounted to a static inner support housing. A starter generator rotor surrounds the fixed starter generator stator and is engaged with the axial compressor rotor. The present invention therefore provides a lightweight starter-generator for a tip turbine engine which avoids an accessory gearbox and operation in an oil environment.	This invention was made with government support under Contract No.: F33657-03-C-2044. The government therefore has certain rights in this invention. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a tip turbine engine, and more particularly to a starter-generator system. An aircraft gas turbine engine of the conventional turbofan type generally includes a forward fan, a low pressure compressor, a middle core engine, and an aft low pressure turbine all located along a common longitudinal axis. A high pressure compressor and a high pressure turbine of the core engine are interconnected by a high spool shaft. The high pressure compressor is rotatably driven to compress air entering the core engine to a relatively high pressure. This high pressure air is then mixed with fuel in a combustor and ignited to form a high energy gas stream. The gas stream flows axially aft to rotatably drive the high pressure turbine which rotatably drives the high pressure compressor through the high spool shaft. The gas stream leaving the high pressure turbine is expanded through the low pressure turbine which rotatably drives the fan and low pressure compressor through a low pressure shaft. Although highly efficient, conventional turbofan engines operate in an axial flow relationship. The axial flow relationship results in an elongated engine structure of considerable longitudinal length relative to the engine diameter. This elongated shape may complicate or prevent packaging of the engine into particular applications. A recent development in gas turbine engines is the tip turbine engine. Tip turbine engines locate an axial compressor forward of a fan which includes hollow fan blades that receive airflow from the axial compressor therethrough such that the hollow fan blades operate as a centrifugal compressor. Compressed core airflow from the hollow fan blades is mixed with fuel in an annular combustor and ignited to form a high energy gas stream which drives the turbine integrated onto the tips of the hollow fan blades for rotation therewith as generally disclosed in U.S. patent Application Publication Nos.: 20030192303; 20030192304; and 20040025490. The tip turbine engine provides a thrust to weight ratio equivalent to conventional turbofan engines of the same class within a package of significantly shorter length. Conventionally, a dedicated starter and a dedicated generator with both machines mounted onto a gearbox that is coupled to the high spool shaft via a gear driven towershaft. As the starter accelerates the engine, a fuel delivery pump driven by a gearbox attached to a rotor of the gas turbine engine provides fuel flow thereto. Igniters are then actuated to effect ignition in a combustor of the engine. Upon successful ignition, and once the engine has reached a self-sustaining speed, the starter is disengaged and the generator is engaged. Accordingly, it is desirable to provide a lightweight starter-generator for a tip turbine engine which avoids an accessory gearbox and operation in an oil environment. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A starter-generator system for a tip turbine engine according to the present invention includes a starter motor with a fixed starter generator stator mounted to a static inner support housing. A starter generator rotor surrounds the fixed starter generator stator and is engaged with the axial compressor rotor. The present invention therefore provides a lightweight starter-generator for a tip turbine engine which avoids an accessory gearbox and operation in an oil environment. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The various features and advantages of this invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description of the currently preferred embodiment. The drawings that accompany the detailed description can be briefly described as follows: FIG. 1 is a partial sectional perspective view of a tip turbine engine; FIG. 2 is a longitudinal sectional view of a tip turbine engine along an engine centerline; and FIG. 3 is an expanded view of a starter-generator system. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT FIG. 1 illustrates a general perspective partial sectional view of a tip turbine engine type gas turbine engine 10. The engine 10 includes an outer nacelle 12, a rotationally fixed static outer support structure 14 and a rotationally fixed static inner support structure 16. A multitude of fan inlet guide vanes 18 are mounted between the static outer support structure 14 and the static inner support structure 16. Each inlet guide vane 18 preferably includes a movable trailing edge portion 18A which may be articulated relative to the fixed inlet guide vane 18. A nose cone 20 is preferably located along the engine centerline A to smoothly direct airflow into an axial compressor 22. The axial compressor 22 is mounted about the engine centerline A behind the nose cone 20. A fan-turbine rotor assembly 24 is mounted for rotation about the engine centerline A aft of the axial compressor 22. The fan-turbine rotor assembly 24 includes a multitude of hollow fan blades 28 to provide internal, centrifugal compression of the compressed airflow from the axial compressor 22 for distribution to an annular combustor 30 located within the rotationally fixed static outer support structure 14. Although two turbine stages are disclosed in the illustrated embodiment, it should be understood that any number of stages may be utilized by the present invention. A turbine 32 includes a multitude of tip turbine blades 34 (two stages shown) which rotatably drive the hollow fan blades 28 relative a multitude of tip turbine stators 36 which extend radially inwardly from the static outer support structure 14. The annular combustor 30 is axially forward of the turbine 32 and communicates with the turbine 32. Referring to FIG. 2, the rotationally fixed static inner support structure 16 includes a splitter 40, a static inner support housing 42 and an static outer support housing 44 located coaxial to said engine centerline A. An aft housing 45 is attached to the static inner support housing 42 and the static outer support housing 44 through fasteners f such as bolts or the like. The static inner support housing 42, the static outer support housing 44, and the aft housing 45 are located about the engine centerline A to provide the non-rotating support structure for the engine 10. The axial compressor 22 includes the axial compressor rotor 46 from which a plurality of compressor blades 52 extend radially outwardly and a compressor case 50. A plurality of compressor vanes 54 extend radially inwardly from the compressor case 50 between stages of the compressor blades 52. The compressor blades 52 and compressor vanes 54 are arranged circumferentially about the axial compressor rotor 46 in stages (three stages of compressor blades 52 and compressor vanes 54 are shown in this example). The axial compressor rotor 46 is mounted for rotation upon the static inner support housing 42 through a forward bearing assembly 68 and an aft bearing assembly 62. The fan-turbine rotor assembly 24 includes a fan hub 64 that supports a multitude of the hollow fan blades 28. Each fan blade 28 includes an inducer section 66, a hollow fan blade section 72 and a diffuser section 74. The inducer section 66 receives airflow from the axial compressor 22 generally parallel to the engine centerline A and turns the airflow from an axial airflow direction toward a radial airflow direction. The airflow is radially communicated through a core airflow passage 80 within the fan blade section 72 where the airflow is centrifugally compressed. From the core airflow passage 80, the airflow is turned and diffused toward an axial airflow direction toward the annular combustor 30. Preferably the airflow is diffused axially forward in the engine 10, (i.e., in the opposite direction relative the axial airflow through the axial compressor 22), however, the airflow may alternatively be communicated in another direction. A gearbox assembly 90 aft of the fan-turbine rotor assembly 24 provides a speed increase between the fan-turbine rotor assembly 24 and the axial compressor 22. Alternatively, the gearbox assembly 90 could provide a speed decrease between the fan-turbine rotor assembly 24 and the axial compressor rotor 46. The gearbox assembly 90 is mounted for rotation between the static inner support housing 42 and the static outer support housing 44. The gearbox assembly 90 includes a sun gear shaft 92 which rotates with the axial compressor 22 and a planet carrier 94 which rotates with the fan-turbine rotor assembly 24 to provide a speed differential therebetween. The gearbox assembly 90 is preferably a planetary gearbox that provides co-rotating or counter-rotating rotational engagement between the fan-turbine rotor assembly 24 and an axial compressor rotor 46. The gearbox assembly 90 is mounted for rotation between the sun gear shaft 92 and the static outer support housing 44 through a forward bearing 96 and a rear bearing 98. The forward bearing 96 and the rear bearing 98 are both tapered roller bearings and both handle radial loads. The forward bearing 96 handles the aft axial loads while the rear bearing 98 handles the forward axial loads. The sun gear shaft 92 is rotationally engaged with the axial compressor rotor 46 at a splined interconnection 100 or the like. In operation, air enters the axial compressor 22, where it is compressed by the three stages of the compressor blades 52 and compressor vanes 54. The compressed air from the axial compressor 22 enters the inducer section 66 in a direction generally parallel to the engine centerline A and is turned by the inducer section 66 radially outwardly through the core airflow passage 80 of the hollow fan blades 28. The airflow is further compressed centrifugally in the hollow fan blades 28 by rotation of the hollow fan blades 28. From the core airflow passage 80, the airflow is turned and diffused by the diffuser section 74 axially forward in the engine 10 into the annular combustor 30. The compressed core airflow from the hollow fan blades 28 is mixed with fuel in the annular combustor 30 and ignited to form a high-energy gas stream. The high-energy gas stream is expanded over the multitude of tip turbine blades 34 mounted about the outer periphery of the fan-turbine rotor assembly 24 to drive the fan-turbine rotor assembly 24, which in turn drives the axial compressor 22 through the gearbox assembly 90. Concurrent therewith, the fan-turbine rotor assembly 24 discharges fan bypass air axially aft to merge with the core airflow from the turbine 32 in an exhaust case 106. A multitude of exit guide vanes 108 are located between the static outer support housing 44 and the rotationally fixed static outer support structure 14 to guide the combined airflow out of the engine 10 to provide forward thrust. An exhaust mixer 110 mixes the airflow from the turbine blades 34 with the bypass airflow through the fan blades 28. Referring to FIG. 3, a starter-generator system 112 includes a starter motor-generator 114 with a fixed starter generator stator 116 and a starter generator rotor 118. The starter motor-generator 114 receives electrical power from an external power source 120 (illustrated schematically) such as a battery or other AC or DC power source. It should be understood that other external (e.g. a ground unit) and/or internal power sources and locations (FIG. 2) may alternatively or additionally be used. The starter motor-generator 114 is preferably an AC induction motor, a switched reluctance motor or a brushless DC starter motor which is located within and directly connected to the axial compressor rotor 46 to provide torque thereto. That is, operation of the starter motor directly rotates the axial compressor 22 without an accessory gearbox, clutch or the like. It should be understood that other electromagnetic machine configurations can be used. Once the engine 10 achieves operating speed, the starter motor-generator 114 is preferably operated as an electrical generator to power various loads associated with the starting system or other vehicle components. Moreover, the elimination of an accessory gearbox decreases weight and complexity. The fixed starter generator stator 116 is mounted to the static inner support housing 42. Preferably, the fixed starter generator stator 116 is shrink fit, press fit and/or keyed to the inner support housing 42. That is, the fixed starter generator stator 116 surrounds and is attached to a longitudinal length of the inner support housing 42. The starter generator rotor 118 is preferably press-fit into the axial compressor rotor 46 at a splined stepped engagement 126a, 126b at an axial end segment of the starter generator rotor 118. That is, the compressor disks would not touch the starter rotor for stress reasons. The starter generator rotor 118 surrounds the fixed starter generator stator 116 and is engagement with the axial compressor rotor 46. It should be understood that various attachment arrangements may be utilized to engage the starter generator rotor 118 with the axial compressor rotor 46. The starter generator rotor 118 may alternatively or additionally be engaged with a multitude of compressor rotor disks 122 at a splined engagement 124. Other splined engagement locations, as well as other mounting arrangements, may alternatively or additionally be used. Alternatively or in addition, the starter generator rotor 118 is mounted within a sleeve 128 which could act as a tie-bolt to axially clamp the starter generator rotor 118 in the axial compressor rotor 46 stack between a first compressor rotor section 46a and a second compressor rotor section 46b. Mounting the starter motor-generator 114 about the static inner support housing 42 within the bore of the engine 10 mitigates the risk associated with mounting an electromagnetic machine within a bearing compartment. The thermal energy generated by the starter motor-generator 114 is intermittent during engine start and is conducted through the axial compressor rotor 46 and/or the static inner support housing 42, gearbox thrust bearing 68 and the gearbox radial bearing 62. Furthermore, the static inner support housing 42 are in communication with a lubricating fluid system. It should be understood that relative positional terms such as “forward,” “aft,” “upper,” “lower,” “above,” “below,” and the like are with reference to the normal operational attitude of the vehicle and should not be considered otherwise limiting. Although particular step sequences are shown, described, and claimed, it should be understood that steps may be performed in any order, separated or combined unless otherwise indicated and will still benefit from the present invention. The foregoing description is exemplary rather than defined by the limitations within. Many modifications and variations of the present invention are possible in light of the above teachings. The preferred embodiments of this invention have been disclosed, however, one of ordinary skill in the art would recognize that certain modifications would come within the scope of this invention. It is, therefore, to be understood that within the scope of the appended claims, the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described. For that reason the following claims should be studied to determine the true scope and content of this invention.	F	F02	F02C	72	75
11629752	US20070261737A1-20071115	Modular Unit	ACCEPTED	20071031	20071115		[]	F15B2104	["F15B2104"]	7926515	20070518	20110419	137	884000	97251.0	TIETJEN	MARINA	[{"inventor_name_last": "Jung", "inventor_name_first": "Artur", "inventor_city": "Quierschied", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Sann", "inventor_name_first": "Norbert", "inventor_city": "Riegelsberg", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}]	The invention relates to a modular unit, comprising at least one filter (10), pump (12) and cooling (14) unit which are fluidically connected to each other by means of a connection module (16) and which can be connected to a tank unit (18). By virtue of the fact that the connection module (16) opens out inside (22) the tank unit with a suction opening (20), together with the cooling unit (14) when the tank unit is connected (18) and the fact that the filter unit (10) and pump unit (12) are arranged outside the tank unit (18), it is possible to place the modular unit on a tank unit and connect it thereto. The cooling unit protrudes inside the tank unit.	1. Modular unit consisting of at least one filter unit (10), one pump unit (12) and one cooling unit (14), which can be connected to each other to carry fluid by way of a connecting module (16) and which can be connected to a tank unit (18), characterized in that the connecting module (16), with the tank unit (18) connected, with an intake opening (20) together with the cooling unit (14) discharges into the interior (22) of the tank unit (18) and that the filter unit (10) and the pump unit (12) are located outside the tank unit (18). 2. The modular unit as claimed in claim 1, wherein at least two, preferably three units (10, 12, 14) running at a right angle to one another are connected to the connecting module (16). 3. The modular unit as claimed in claim 1, wherein the connecting module (16) has an angular housing (26) with two connecting arms (28, 30) running at a right angle to one another, and also has at least one additionally arranged flange part. 4. The modular unit as claimed in claim 3, wherein one flange part is a pump flange (32) and another flange part of the connecting module is a tank flange (34). 5. The modular unit as claimed in claim 1, wherein the connecting module (16) on its side opposite the cooling unit (14) has connecting sites (40) for the cooling medium. 6. The modular unit as claimed in claim 1, wherein for driving the pump unit (12), there is a drive motor (36), in particular an electric motor, which is connected to the pump unit (12) on the side opposite to the connecting module (16). 7. The modular unit as claimed in claim 1, wherein the pump unit (12) with its respective intake connection (46) discharges into the intake opening (20) in the housing (26) of the connecting module (16). 8. The modular unit as claimed in claim 1, wherein the pump unit (12) with its respective pressure connection (48) discharges into the filter housing of the filter unit (10). 9. The modular unit as claimed in claim 1, wherein each respective unit (10,12,14), except for the tank unit (18), is made in the form of cylindrical connecting parts. 10. The modular unit as claimed in claim 1, wherein the intake opening (20) discharges into a through opening (60) in the housing (12) of the connecting module (16) to which the filter unit (10) and the cooling unit (14) can be connected.			The invention relates to a modular unit consisting of at least one filter unit, one pump unit and one cooling unit, which can be connected to each other to carry fluid by way of a connecting module and which can be connected to a tank unit. WO 98/42986 A1 discloses a fluid cooling device as a modular unit with a motor which drives a fan wheel and a fluid pump which takes fluid from an oil tank and delivers it to a hydraulic working circuit which heats the fluid, and routes it to a heat exchanger (cooling unit) from which the fluid, cooled, is returned to the oil tank, the oil tank being made trough-shaped and with raised trough edges partially encompassing at least the motor and the fluid pump in the shape of a half shell. With the known solution, it is possible to connect the actual modular unit consisting of a filter unit, a pump unit and a cooling unit in a space-saving manner to a relatively high-volume oil tank as the tank unit, proceeding from the installation space left free by the trough edges of the oil tank good accessibility of the remaining modular unit being ensured for mounting and maintenance purposes. The known fluid cooling device for the most part avoids additional tubing; this on the one hand helps save costs and on the other hand this structure is energy-efficient, because in this way losses in the fluid lines are avoided. Regardless however, it is fundamental such that the known fluid cooling device can be sold only as an integral modular unit consisting of the combination of filter unit, pump unit, cooling unit and tank unit, and in particular retrofitting onto existing oil tanks or tank units with the further modular unit is hardly possible. Since these tank units and oil tank units often originate from other manufacturers and are already on site, depending on the respective application it would however be desirable to retrofit these units with a modular unit consisting of a filter unit, a pump unit and a cooling unit as required, or if necessary to undertake modifications such that one fluid cooling device is replaced by a new one, for example with greater capacity, and in this connection the respective tank unit remains on site. Accordingly, the prior art (WO 01/18363 A1) discloses connecting fluid cooling devices as a modular unit to oil tanks or tank units provided separately from them. Thus the known solution relates to a fluid cooling device with a cooling means, filter means, and pump means combined into a modular unit, the fluid conveyed in the fluid circuit by the pump means being filterable by the filter means and coolable by the cooling means and the filter means having at least one filter element which can be replaced when it is fouled. In that in the known solution for the replacement of the respective filter element in the fluid circuit an actuatable blocking means is present with which the filter means can be separated from the pump means such that the cooling means is further supplied with the fluid to be cooled, it is possible in the known solution to enable the indicated filter element replacement without additional effort even if the downstream lubricating oil supply is not shut off. The known fluid cooling device can be connected as a modular unit, depending on its capacity, to any oil tanks or tank units, for this purpose however the corresponding tubing, or fluid-carrying lines, between the modular unit and the tank unit being necessary. As already explained, this is associated with the corresponding complexity in terms of production and installation; this raises costs and furthermore flow resistances arise due to the length of the fluid lines provided between the modular unit and the tank unit; this has adverse effects on the energy-efficient operation of the means as a whole. The additional fluid lines also result in increased installation space; in applications in automotive and mechanical engineering and apparatus engineering this often leads to problems, where often there is only little installation space due to given boundary conditions. On the basis of this prior art, therefore the object of the invention is, while retaining the advantages of the known solutions, to further improve them such that the modular units under consideration are compact, can be retrofitted onto existing tank units and are interchangeable, and permit energy-efficient operation and economical implementation. This object is achieved by a modular unit with the features of claim 1 in its entirety. In that, as specified in the characterizing part of claim 1, the connecting module, with the tank unit connected, with an intake opening together with the cooling unit discharges into the interior of the tank unit and in that the filter unit and pump unit are located outside the tank unit, the modular unit can be placed on the tank unit, for example in the form of an oil tank, and can be connected to it, the cooling unit projecting into the interior of the tank unit. Accordingly the intake opening likewise projects into the interior of the tank and in this way enables continuing removal of the fluid stored in the tank unit by way of the pump unit. The other units (filter unit and pump unit) are located easily accessibly outside the tank unit, and piping in the form of fluid lines between the modular unit and the tank unit can be avoided by direct placement and engagement of the modular unit on or with the tank unit. The modular unit is preferably located on a side wall of the tank unit. By removal via the intake opening within the tank unit the free fluid paths are clearly reduced compared to known solutions; this benefits energy-efficient operation of the overall modular unit. Furthermore the design as claimed in the invention is compact and can be easily replaced by a new modular unit, for example one with greater performance capacity, if this should be necessary. Energy-efficient operation of the overall modular unit is also benefited by the fact that the cooling unit discharges into the interior of the medium of the tank unit to be cooled, so that the medium cooled directly via the cooling unit can be further routed on to the tank unit. In this way, a uniform temperature situation also arises within the tank unit; this enables defined fluid removal by way of the pump unit. In one preferred embodiment of the modular unit as claimed in the invention, at least two, preferably three units running at a right angle to one another are connected to the connecting module. But preferably the connecting module consists of an angular housing with two connecting arms running at a right angle to one another and furthermore has at least one additionally arranged flange part. In this way, the individual units of the modular unit can be arranged relative to one another in the form of a T-module or in the manner of a Cartesian coordinate system; this in turn helps shorten the free fluid paths within the connecting module and furthermore also helps save installation space on the tank unit. Based on the configuration of the connecting module with connecting arms and a flange part, moreover in special cases other connection possibilities for other components can be devised, for example in the form of a second filter element or the like. Other advantageous embodiments of the modular unit as claimed in the invention are the subject matter of the other dependent claims. The modular unit as claimed in the invention will be detailed below using one embodiment as shown in the drawings. The drawings are schematic and not so scale. FIG. 1 shows in a perspective view the modular unit connected to a tank unit: FIGS. 2 to 5 show in different views the connecting module of the modular unit; FIGS. 6 and 7 show a section along lines I-I and II-II in FIG. 5. The modular unit shown as a whole in FIG. 1 has a filter unit 10, a pump unit 12 and a cooling unit 14 (shown only partially). These units can be connected to one another to carry fluid by way of a connecting module 16 and moreover can be connected to a tank unit 18. The tank unit 18 preferably constitutes an oil tank with hydraulic oil as the fluid medium. The modular unit as claimed in the invention however can also be used for other fluid media, such as water, special alcohols, gasoline, etc. The tank unit 18 as shown in FIG. 1 is made as a rectangular container, the face-side wall toward the viewer having been omitted in order to illustrate the engagement of the cooling unit 14 with the tank unit 18. The connecting module 16 with the tank unit 18 connected projects with an intake opening 20 (compare FIGS. 4 and 6) together with the cooling unit 14 into the interior 22 of the tank unit 18, the pump unit 12 being located outside of the tank unit 18. In the embodiment as shown in FIG. 1, the indicated three units 10, 12, 14 running at a right angle to one another are connected to the connecting module 16 and in this way span a type of imaginary Cartesian coordinate system. In an embodiment of the modular unit as claimed in the invention which is not detailed, it would however also be possible to attach the filter unit 10 in the longitudinal axis to the pump unit 12 on the opposite side of the connecting module 16 so that in this respect all three units 10, 12, 14 would form a type of T-shape. Furthermore, the possibility exists of attaching other functional units to the walls 24 of the connecting module housing 26 which have remained free, for example in the form of other filter units, heat exchangers, or the like. The housing 26 of the connecting module 16 is made angular and has two connecting arms 28, 30 which run at a right angle to one another, the filter unit 10 being connected to the arm 28 and the other second connecting arm 30 forming a connection possibility for the cooling unit 14. Furthermore, the connecting module 16 facing the pump unit 12 has a pump flange 32, and facing the cooling unit 14 between the tank unit 18 and the connecting arm 30 there is a tank flange 34. The tank flange 34 can detachably connect the indicated modular unit to the tank unit. Furthermore, the pump unit 12 on its side facing away from the pump flange 32 has a drive motor 36 for the pump unit 12, preferably in the form of an electric motor. As shown in FIG. 1, the drive motor 36 can be connected to the top of the tank unit 18 by way of a base element 38, in the same manner as the tank flange 34. Furthermore, the connecting module 16 on its side opposite the cooling unit 14 has connection sites 40 for a cooling medium. In order to have a possibility for display of the degree of fouling of the filter element of the filter unit 10, on the upper side of the connecting module 16 seen in FIG. 1 there is a fouling display 42. With the modular unit as claimed in the invention as shown in FIG. 1, it is possible to remove the fluid medium stored in the tank unit 18 by way of the intake opening 20 which is routed separately to the cooling unit 14 by means of the pump unit 12, to then filter the medium removed in this case by way of the filter unit 10 and to return the medium which has been filtered in this way to the tank unit 18 by way of the cooling unit 14, the cooling unit being preferably a so-called tube bundle cooler. The structure of this cooler is conventional so that it will not be detailed here. The cooled medium is discharged via a discharge opening 44 on the underside of the tube bundle cooler in the form of a cylindrical cooling unit 14. The respective unit 10, 12, 14 except for the tank unit 18 is made in the form of cylindrical connecting parts for the connecting module 16. If the modular unit is to be removed from the tank unit 18, this is easily possible after releasing the screw connection on the tank flange 34, then the base element 38 of the drive motor 36 likewise having to be released. But it is also possible to leave the modular unit on the tank unit 18 and for example to replace a fouled filter element of the filter unit 10 for maintenance purposes by removing or decoupling the housing and/or parts of the housing, such as for example the cover of the filter unit 10, accordingly from the connecting module 16. In order to illustrate fluid routing between the units 10, 12 14 and within the connecting module 16, the connecting module 16 shown in FIG. 2 is shown in part in a section in different views in the following figures. The connecting module 16 as shown in FIG. 2 in turn shows the housing 26 with the two connecting arms 28, 30. Facing the viewer of FIG. 2, on the side wall of the connecting module 16 is the pump flange 32, and as the lower termination of the arm 30 the tank flange 34 is connected to the connecting module 16. The pump flange 32 has two fluid passage openings, viewed in the direction of looking at FIG. 2 the intake connection 46 being located underneath, and lying overhead in a vertical plane, the pressure connection 48. By way of the pertinent connections 46, 48 fluid circulation is possible by means of the motor pump unit 36, 12. Viewed in the direction of looking at FIG. 2, at the top in the housing 26 there is a connecting opening 50 for the connection sites 40 of the cooling medium and a screw-in opening 52 for the fouling display 42. On the forward face of the housing 26 is the mounting opening 54 for the housing of the filter unit 10. As shown especially by FIG. 3, in the area of the mounting opening 54 for the filter unit 10 within the housing 26 the pressure connection 48 of the pump unit 12 discharges into the housing 26, in this way the pressure connection 48 being divided into three distributor openings 56 (see in this respect also FIG. 6). This yields an improved, uniform distribution of the fluid flow into the pertinent filter unit 10. Bye way of these distributor openings 56, fouled fluid travels to the filter element of the filter unit 10 and the cleaned fluid travels via the filter element back into a collecting opening 58 (compare FIG. 3) to which the cooling unit 14 is connected to carry fluid. The medium which has been cleaned in this way via the filter unit 10 then travels via the collecting opening 58 into the cooling unit 14 and from there cooled via the discharge opening 44 back into the interior 22 of the tank unit 18. As furthermore follows from the bottom view of the tank flange 34 as shown in FIG. 4, there is a through opening 60 there for accommodating the cooling unit 14, viewed in the direction of looking at FIG. 4 its lower receiving circuit being widened by the intake opening 20, in this respect on the bottom of the tank flange 34 the intake opening 20 discharging into the through opening 60 (compare FIG. 6). As FIG. 4 furthermore shows, the pressure connection 48 conversely ends on the inside wall of the housing 26 of the connecting module 16 and in this way via the distributor openings 56 the fluid flow originating from the pressure connection 48 is delivered directly into the filter unit 10 for a cleaning process. In the solution as claimed in the invention, the intake opening 20 is located in a plane-parallel termination to the bottom of the tank flange 34. If the modular unit as shown in FIG. 1 is placed on the tank unit 18 from the top, care should be taken that the tank unit 18 is also filled to the full extent with the fluid medium, so that fluid can be removed via the pump unit 12 by means of the tank flange 34 directly on the underside of the container wall of the tank unit 18. But the possibility also exists in an embodiment which is not detailed to lengthen this intake opening 20 to the bottom in the direction of the free end of the cooling unit 14. This however may mean that an additional component in the form of an intake pipe or the like would have to be used. But preferably the modular unit is attached laterally to the tank unit 18, this typical installation situation being implemented when the subject matter as shown in FIG. 1 is pivoted counterclockwise by 90° in the direction of viewing, so that the side designation ⅓ then points to the top. In this case then filling of the tank unit 18 only up to the intake opening 20 of the tank flange 34 would be necessary. Regardless, of course other installation possibilities can be implemented. With the modular unit as claimed in the invention, it is possible to provide a connection to almost any tank units 18 without further piping in the form of fluid lines, in order in this way to perform pumping, filtering and cooling of the stored medium. Furthermore it is possible, in terms of a hydraulic circuit to move the medium by means of the motor pump unit out of the tank unit 18 to elsewhere, for example for operation of a machine (not shown) and to discharge the fluid which may be fouled and which has then been heated in this way from the modular unit cooled and cleaned to the tank unit 19 for recirculation.	F	F15	F15B	21	04
11672699	US20080190024A1-20080814	SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR PRODUCING SUBSTITTUE NATURAL GAS FROM COAL	ACCEPTED	20080730	20080814		[]	C10J300	["C10J300"]	8236072	20070208	20120807	48	077000	88532.0	AKRAM	IMRAN	[{"inventor_name_last": "Hobbs", "inventor_name_first": "Raymond", "inventor_city": "Avondale", "inventor_state": "AZ", "inventor_country": "US"}]	The present invention provides a system and method for producing substitute natural gas and electricity, while mitigating production of any greenhouse gasses. The system includes a hydrogasification reactor, to form a gas stream including natural gas and a char stream, and an oxygen burner to combust the char material to form carbon oxides. The system also includes an algae farm to convert the carbon oxides to hydrocarbon material and oxygen.	1. A system for producing substitute natural gas and electricity, the system comprising: a hydrogasification reactor; a hydrogen source coupled to the hydrogasification reactor; a coal source coupled to the hydrogasification reactor; an oxygen burner coupled to an outlet of the hydrogasification; and an oxygen source coupled to the oxygen burner, wherein hydrogen from the hydrogen source and coal from the coal source react within the hydrogasification reactor to produce a gas stream, including methane, and a solid stream, and wherein at least a portion of the solid stream is combusted with oxygen from the oxygen source in the oxygen burner. 2. The system for producing substitute natural gas and electricity of claim 1, further comprising an algae farm, coupled to the oxygen burner, to convert carbon oxides from the oxygen burner to solid carbon material and oxygen. 3. The system for producing substitute natural gas and electricity of claim 1, further comprising an oxygen source coupled to the hydrogasification reactor. 4. The system for producing substitute natural gas and electricity of claim 1, further comprising a steam boiler coupled to the oxygen burner. 5. The system for producing substitute natural gas and electricity of claim 4, further comprising a steam turbine coupled to the steam boiler. 6. The system for producing substitute natural gas and electricity of claim 1, further comprising an electrolysis reactor to provide hydrogen to the hydrogen source and oxygen to the oxygen source. 7. The system for producing substitute natural gas and electricity of claim 1, further comprising an ash removal unit coupled to the hydrogasification reactor. 8. The system for producing substitute natural gas and electricity of claim 7, further comprising a sulfur removal unit coupled to the ash removal unit. 9. The system for producing substitute natural gas and electricity of claim 8, further comprising a methanation unit coupled to the sulfur removal unit. 10. The system for producing substitute natural gas and electricity of claim 9, further comprising a substitute natural gas cleanup unit coupled to the methanization unit. 11. The system for producing substitute natural gas and electricity of claim 1, further comprising a mercury removal unit. 12. A system for producing substitute natural gas and electricity, the system comprising: a hydrogasification reactor; an electrolysis reactor; a hydrogen source coupled to the hydrogasification reactor; a coal source coupled to the hydrogasification reactor; an oxygen burner coupled to an outlet of the hydrogasification; an oxygen source coupled to the oxygen burner; and an algae farm coupled to the oxygen burner. 13. The system for producing substitute natural gas and electricity of claim 12, wherein the algae farm includes material to convert carbon oxides to hydrocarbon material and oxygen. 14. The system for producing substitute natural gas and electricity of claim 13, wherein the hydrocarbon material provides fuel to the oxygen burner. 15. The system for producing substitute natural gas and electricity of claim 14, further comprising an electrolysis reactor to provide hydrogen to the hydrogen source and oxygen to the oxygen source. 16. The system for producing substitute natural gas and electricity of claim 12, further comprising an oxygen source coupled to the hydrogasification reactor. 17. The system for producing substitute natural gas and electricity of claim 12, further comprising a steam boiler coupled to the oxygen burner. 18. The system for producing substitute natural gas and electricity of claim 17, further comprising a steam turbine coupled to the steam boiler. 19. A method of producing substitute natural gas and electricity, the method comprising the steps of: providing a hydrogasification reactor; providing coal to the hydrogasification reactor; providing hydrogen in the presence of the coal within the hydrogasification reactor to produce methane and char; and combusting the char in an oxygen burner to produce carbon oxides. 20. The method of producing substitute natural gas and electricity of claim 19, further comprising the step of using an algae farm to convert the carbon oxides to hydrocarbon material and oxygen. 21. A method of producing substitute natural gas and electricity, the method comprising the steps of: i. providing a hydrogasification reactor; ii. providing coal to the hydrogasification reactor; iii. providing hydrogen in the presence of coal within the hydrogasification reactor to produce methane and char; iv. combusting the char in a partial oxidation reactor with a water shift process to produce hydrogen and carbon oxides; v. separating the hydrogen and carbon oxides; vi. producing substitute natural gas; and vii. using an algae farm to convert the carbon oxides to hydrocarbon material and oxygen. 22. A method of producing syngas, the method comprising the steps of: providing a partial oxidation with water shift reactor; reacting carbon material with steam and oxygen in the partial oxidation with water shift reactor to form carbon oxides and hydrogen; and using an algae farm to convert carbon oxides formed using the partial oxidation with shift reactor to hydrocarbon material and oxygen.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Because of their relatively high energy density and their current availability, fossil fuels, such as coal, are currently used to supply most of the world's energy requirements. Unfortunately, use of such fuels is thought to generate a substantial portion of the greenhouse gas emissions. Thus, as global demand for energy and awareness of possible environmental damage caused by the use of fossil-fuel energy sources increase, it becomes increasingly desirable to use such energy sources more efficiently, while mitigating any negative environmental effects. One technique that has been developed for more efficiently using coal and mitigating deleterious environmental effects includes gasification of coal to produce substitute natural gas (SNG). Producing SNG from coal is desirable because the produced SNG can be used in existing natural gas infrastructure (e.g. pipelines, compressor stations, and distribution networks), in commercial applications where natural gas is a feedstock, in domestic applications where natural gas is used for heating and cooking, and in electric utility applications where natural gas is used as a fuel to produce electricity. Coal reserves are substantially greater and more accessible than natural gas supply, and SNG can provide an additional supply of natural gas as the supply of existing natural gas sources diminish. Producing SNG from coal also has the added advantages of providing stability to the supply and thus price of natural gas and of being a higher density, cleaner burning fuel, as compared to coal. Techniques to gasify coal produce a gas called “syngas,” which is a low heating value gas composed of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, and which generally cannot be used as a substitute in natural gas applications, are also generally known. Syngas, also known as municipal gas, has been produced for 100 years in North America. The syngas production releases greenhouse emissions into the atmosphere, and syngas has a much lower heating value (BTU/scf) compared to SNG, which is composed primarily of methane (CH 4 ). Although syngas can be converted into methane, the use of a catalyst is required, and hence a relatively expensive, two step process with low efficiency is required for such conversion. Although some techniques for gasifying coal and the production of methane or SNG from coal are known, such techniques are relatively poor at capturing potential greenhouse gasses and may be relatively expensive. Accordingly, improved apparatus and techniques for producing SNG and electricity from coal are desired.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides an improved system and method for producing substitute natural gas (SNG) and power from fossil fuels. While the ways in which the present invention addresses the various drawbacks of the prior art are discussed in greater detail below, in general, the invention provides a system including a hydrogasification reactor and an oxygen burner to produce SNG and electricity. In accordance with various embodiments of the invention, a system for producing SNG and electricity includes a hydrogasification reactor, a hydrogen supply, an oxygen burner, and an oxygen supply. In operation, hydrogen reacts with coal within the hydrogasification reactor to produce a gas stream, including methane, and an ash stream, including solid carbon products. The gas stream is further processed to produce SNG and the solid stream is sent to the oxygen burner to combust the ash stream material to produce heat and carbon oxide(s) (e.g., carbon dioxide). The produced heat can be used to power a stream turbine to produce electricity. In accordance alternative embodiments, the solid stream is sent to a partial oxidation and water shift reactor to convert the ash to carbon dioxide and water. In accordance with further embodiments of the present invention, a system includes a hydrogasification reactor, an oxygen burner to combust material from the hydrogasification reactor (or a partial oxidation and water shift reactor to convert the ash to carbon dioxide and water), and an algae farm to convert carbon oxide(s) from the oxygen burner to oxygen and solid carbon materials. In accordance with various aspects of this embodiment, the algae used to convert carbon oxides to organic carbon is combusted in the oxygen burner to finish the carbon recycle-fuel recycle. In accordance with further aspects, the system further includes a steam boiler and a steam turbine, and heat produced from the combusted organic carbon provides energy to the boiler which, in turn, produces steam for a steam turbine to produce electricity. In accordance with yet further exemplary embodiments, the system includes an electrolysis reactor to produce hydrogen and oxygen. In accordance with various aspects of the embodiment, at least a portion of the produced hydrogen and/or oxygen is supplied to the hydrogasification reactor to facilitate methanization of coal. In accordance with yet further exemplary embodiments of the invention, a method of producing SNG includes providing coal, reacting the coal with hydrogen to form a gas phase including methane and a solid phase, reacting the solid phase with oxygen to produce heat, using the heat to produce steam, using the steam to power a turbine, and producing electricity from the powered turbine. In accordance with various aspect of this embodiment, the method further includes the step of providing algae to convert carbon oxides produced by the system (e.g., the hydrogasification reactor and/or the oxygen burner) to oxygen and feeding dry algae to the oxygen burner. In accordance with yet a further aspect, the method includes the step of electrolyzing water to form hydrogen and oxygen and using at least a portion of the produced hydrogen and oxygen to react with the coal in a hydrogasification reactor and at least a portion of the produced oxygen react with a solid phase in oxygen burner.	FIELD OF INVENTION The present invention generally relates to systems and methods for producing substitute natural gas (SNG) from coal. More particularly, the invention relates to systems and methods for producing SNG using hydrogasification of coal. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Because of their relatively high energy density and their current availability, fossil fuels, such as coal, are currently used to supply most of the world's energy requirements. Unfortunately, use of such fuels is thought to generate a substantial portion of the greenhouse gas emissions. Thus, as global demand for energy and awareness of possible environmental damage caused by the use of fossil-fuel energy sources increase, it becomes increasingly desirable to use such energy sources more efficiently, while mitigating any negative environmental effects. One technique that has been developed for more efficiently using coal and mitigating deleterious environmental effects includes gasification of coal to produce substitute natural gas (SNG). Producing SNG from coal is desirable because the produced SNG can be used in existing natural gas infrastructure (e.g. pipelines, compressor stations, and distribution networks), in commercial applications where natural gas is a feedstock, in domestic applications where natural gas is used for heating and cooking, and in electric utility applications where natural gas is used as a fuel to produce electricity. Coal reserves are substantially greater and more accessible than natural gas supply, and SNG can provide an additional supply of natural gas as the supply of existing natural gas sources diminish. Producing SNG from coal also has the added advantages of providing stability to the supply and thus price of natural gas and of being a higher density, cleaner burning fuel, as compared to coal. Techniques to gasify coal produce a gas called “syngas,” which is a low heating value gas composed of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, and which generally cannot be used as a substitute in natural gas applications, are also generally known. Syngas, also known as municipal gas, has been produced for 100 years in North America. The syngas production releases greenhouse emissions into the atmosphere, and syngas has a much lower heating value (BTU/scf) compared to SNG, which is composed primarily of methane (CH4). Although syngas can be converted into methane, the use of a catalyst is required, and hence a relatively expensive, two step process with low efficiency is required for such conversion. Although some techniques for gasifying coal and the production of methane or SNG from coal are known, such techniques are relatively poor at capturing potential greenhouse gasses and may be relatively expensive. Accordingly, improved apparatus and techniques for producing SNG and electricity from coal are desired. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides an improved system and method for producing substitute natural gas (SNG) and power from fossil fuels. While the ways in which the present invention addresses the various drawbacks of the prior art are discussed in greater detail below, in general, the invention provides a system including a hydrogasification reactor and an oxygen burner to produce SNG and electricity. In accordance with various embodiments of the invention, a system for producing SNG and electricity includes a hydrogasification reactor, a hydrogen supply, an oxygen burner, and an oxygen supply. In operation, hydrogen reacts with coal within the hydrogasification reactor to produce a gas stream, including methane, and an ash stream, including solid carbon products. The gas stream is further processed to produce SNG and the solid stream is sent to the oxygen burner to combust the ash stream material to produce heat and carbon oxide(s) (e.g., carbon dioxide). The produced heat can be used to power a stream turbine to produce electricity. In accordance alternative embodiments, the solid stream is sent to a partial oxidation and water shift reactor to convert the ash to carbon dioxide and water. In accordance with further embodiments of the present invention, a system includes a hydrogasification reactor, an oxygen burner to combust material from the hydrogasification reactor (or a partial oxidation and water shift reactor to convert the ash to carbon dioxide and water), and an algae farm to convert carbon oxide(s) from the oxygen burner to oxygen and solid carbon materials. In accordance with various aspects of this embodiment, the algae used to convert carbon oxides to organic carbon is combusted in the oxygen burner to finish the carbon recycle-fuel recycle. In accordance with further aspects, the system further includes a steam boiler and a steam turbine, and heat produced from the combusted organic carbon provides energy to the boiler which, in turn, produces steam for a steam turbine to produce electricity. In accordance with yet further exemplary embodiments, the system includes an electrolysis reactor to produce hydrogen and oxygen. In accordance with various aspects of the embodiment, at least a portion of the produced hydrogen and/or oxygen is supplied to the hydrogasification reactor to facilitate methanization of coal. In accordance with yet further exemplary embodiments of the invention, a method of producing SNG includes providing coal, reacting the coal with hydrogen to form a gas phase including methane and a solid phase, reacting the solid phase with oxygen to produce heat, using the heat to produce steam, using the steam to power a turbine, and producing electricity from the powered turbine. In accordance with various aspect of this embodiment, the method further includes the step of providing algae to convert carbon oxides produced by the system (e.g., the hydrogasification reactor and/or the oxygen burner) to oxygen and feeding dry algae to the oxygen burner. In accordance with yet a further aspect, the method includes the step of electrolyzing water to form hydrogen and oxygen and using at least a portion of the produced hydrogen and oxygen to react with the coal in a hydrogasification reactor and at least a portion of the produced oxygen react with a solid phase in oxygen burner. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The exemplary embodiments of the present invention will be described in connection with the appended drawing figures in which like numerals denote like elements and: FIG. 1 illustrates a system for producing substitute natural gas and electricity in accordance with various embodiments of the invention; FIG. 2 illustrates a hydrogasification reactor and cooling system of the system of FIG. 1 in greater detail; FIG. 3 illustrates gas stream cooling and purification stages of the system illustrated in FIG. 1; and FIG. 4 illustrates portion of the char combustion portion of the system illustrated in FIG. 1. Skilled artisans will appreciate that elements in the figures are illustrated for simplicity and clarity and have not necessarily been drawn to scale. For example, the dimensions of some of the elements in the figures may be exaggerated relative to other elements to help to improve understanding of embodiments of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present invention provides a system and method for producing substitute natural gas (SNG) and electricity from fossil fuels, while mitigating any greenhouse gas emissions. Although the present invention may be used to generate SNG and electricity from a variety of fossil fuels, the invention is conveniently described below in connection with producing SNG and electricity from coal and biofuels. Various forms of coal may be used in accordance with exemplary embodiments of the invention. By way of example, coal (e.g., crushed and pulverized to a fineness of about 70% passing through a 200 mesh sieve (ASTM 200 mesh sieve)) from the Navajo Coal Mine, located in New Mexico, USA, can be used to from SNG and electricity in accordance with the invention. FIG. 1 illustrates a system 100 in accordance with various embodiments of the invention. System 100 includes a gasification reactor and cooling system 102, an oxygen burner 104 (or, alternatively a partial oxidation and water shift reactor), an oxygen storage/supply unit 106, a hydrogen storage/supply unit 108, heaters 110, an electrolysis reactor 112, an algae farm 114, a steam boiler 116, a steam turbine 118, an ash removal unit 120, a sulfur removal unit 122, a methanation reactor 124, and an SNG cleanup unit 126. In operation, system 100 produces SNG by reacting coal with hydrogen in the presence of oxygen and optionally recycled carbon dioxide in hydrogasification reactor 102. Crushed and pulverized coal is transported to vessel 202 (using, e.g., horizontally-opposed feed injectors) using CO2 as a carrier. A minimal amount of oxygen is fed to the reactor to maintain a desired temperature (e.g., about 1600° F. to about 1750° F. at about 1000 psi). Gas product 128 from reactor 102 is fed to ash removal unit 120 to remove residual ash from stream 128. Gas stream 130 from ash removal unit 120 is then fed to sulfur removal unit 122 to remove sulfur from stream 130 and produce stream 132. Next, stream 132 is fed to methanation reactor 124 to further convert residual gases in stream 132 to methane and produce stream 134. Stream 134 is then fed to SNG cleanup unit 126 to produce clean SNG stream 136. Referring back to gasification reactor 102, ash stream 138 from the reactor is fed to oxygen burner 104 to convert unreacted solid carbon materials to carbon oxides and heat for boiler 116 (alternatively, ash stream 138 may be fed to a partial oxidation and water shift reactor). Carbon oxides produced by burner 104, partial oxidation and water shift reactor, and/or boiler 116 are fed to algae farm 114 via stream 140. Farm 114 converts the carbon oxide materials to algae and oxygen. As illustrated, a portion of the dry algae and oxygen produced by farm 114 can be fed back to oxygen burner 104 via streams 142, 144, respectively. In addition, oxygen can be sent to oxygen storage unit 106 and/or to reactor 102 to assist with the hydrogasification reaction. FIG. 2 illustrates hydrogasification reactor and cooling system 102 in greater detail. As illustrated, hydrogasification reactor and cooling system 102 includes a hydrogasification chamber 202, a first char lock hopper and cooler 204, and a second char lock hopper 206. Chamber 202 is configured to react coal, hydrogen, and oxygen to form methane and byproducts. In accordance with one exemplary embodiment, gasifier or chamber 202 is a refractory-lined vessel, having an internal L/D (length/diameter) ratio of about 10-100. The bottom third of the gasifier is shaped with steel and refractory blocks such that a converging-diverging section is formed. These overall internal dimensions of the gasifier yield an approximate volume of 900 cubic feet. Gasifier 202 also includes hydrogen/oxygen tip burners located on or near the top of reactor 202. In accordance with one particular example of the invention, gasifier 202 includes four burners that are arranged tangentially from one another at about 90 degree angles. During operation, the burners combust hydrogen in the presence of oxygen. A minimum amount (e.g., about 3 vol %) of oxygen is burned to yield a high temperature (about 1,200° F. to about 1,600° F.) hydrogen-rich gas stream and generate a small amount of water vapor. The burners are cooled by a circulating water system with external indirect heat exchange to cooling water or other suitable heat sink. In further accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention, oxygen is introduced from a line 208 and hydrogen is introduced from a line 210 (e.g., in a downward direction) into reactor 202, such that the partial hydrogen is burned. Steam can also be added to the hydrogen and oxygen via lines 212 and 214, respectively. The pulverized coal is injected via line 216 at a 45° upwards angel into the hydrogen-rich gas stream. In accordance with one example of the invention, four coal injectors, arranged 90 degrees from one another, are used to inject the coal. The injectors may optionally be cooled with an external cooling water loop similar to that of the hydrogen partial oxidation burners. Gas and particles travel the length of the vessel, converging and accelerating, and then diverging and de-accelerating in the bottom third of the reactor. This motion is thought to focus the path of the pulverized particles towards the bottom of the gasifier and into the char hopper system, discussed in more detail below. Gaseous components such as CH4, H2, N2, H2S, and HCl, exit from an outlet nozzle 218 located at or near the terminus of the diverging zone. Referring momentarily to FIG. 3, the crude raw gas leaving hydrogasifier 202 at approximately 1600° F. contains a small quantity of unburned carbon and a significant portion of ash. This gas stream is cooled in a radiant boiler 302 for heat recovery via high-pressure saturated steam generation. The partially cooled gases pass through cyclones 304 and a candle filter 306. The cleaned gas is then further cooled in feedwater heaters 310 and piped to a mercury removal system 312. The entrained ash is separated after the cooling. Ash is removed from cyclones 304 and candle filter 306 drains to a collecting hopper, from which it passes into a lock hopper pressure letdown system 308. The ash is then fed to the oxygen burner 104. Mercury removal unit 212 is configured to remove Hg from the cooled gas stream. In accordance with one example of the invention, unit 212 is designed with a bed of sulfur-impregnated activated carbon with approximately a 20-second superficial gas residence time, which achieves more than 90 percent reduction of mercury in addition to the removal of some portion of other volatile heavy metals such as arsenic. After mercury removal treatment, the gas is sent to sulfur removal unit 122. A non-aqueous sulfur recovery process that removes hydrogen sulfide and SO2 from gas streams and converts it into sulfur, such as that developed by CrystaTech, Inc. under the name CrystaSulph, is one exemplary process that can be used with the present invention. The CrystaSulf process uses a hydrophobic solution to dissolve elemental sulfur and employs operating conditions that promote liquid-phase conversion of H2S and SO2 to elemental sulfur. H2S is removed from the sour gas in a tray countercurrent absorber, where H2S reacts with dissolved sulfur dioxide in the circulating CrystaSulf scrubbing solution according to the Claus liquid process reaction to produce dissolved elemental sulfur. The CrystaSulf solution has a high solubility for sulfur, which remains dissolved at the process operating temperature. The sweet gas from the absorber exits the system. Once sulfur is removed, the gas stream is fed to methanation unit 124 to convert carbon oxides (CO and CO2) in the gas stream to CH4 using, e.g., a methanation block including a catalytic reactor cooled by a series of heat exchangers with steam evaporative surfaces and a steam drum. Heat released during the methanation reaction can be used for generation of high pressure saturated steam, which can be used for steam turbine 118 in system 100. Methanation reactor 124 catalyst generally requires a very low sulfur level to prevent poisoning. In accordance with various aspects of the invention, a guard bed of zinc oxide absorbent is installed upstream of methanation reactor 124 to protect methanation catalyst from poisons. The zinc oxide guard bed removes traces of sulfur and droplets of liquid from the gas stream. After methanation, methane-rich stream 134 is cooled and dried and any excess H2 is removed at cleanup unit 126. The gas is compressed to make final SNG product 136. In accordance with one particular example, the cooled raw SNG is flashed to remove condensed water, and the raw SNG is dehydrated with glycol. The dried, raw SNG is sent to a membrane unit where about 85% of the hydrogen is removed by permeation from the raw SNG. The removed hydrogen can be compressed to about 70.7 bara (1,025 psia) for recycle to the hydrogasifier. The purified raw SNG stream is compressed to 60.3 bara (875 psia) for injection to a natural gas pipeline. Referring back to FIG. 2, solids from reactor 202 exit through outlet 220 and are sent to char lock hopper and cooler 204 to cool the char to a temperature of about 500° F. The solids are then transported to char lock hopper 206 to depressurize the char to atmospheric pressure before processing at oxygen burner 104 (or a partial oxidation and water shift reactor). Turning now to FIG. 4, oxygen burner 104 will be described in greater detail. Oxygen burner 104 includes a combustion reactor 402 (e.g., a fluidized-bed, oxygen-blown combustor or an oxygen-blown gasifier), an external heat exchanger 404, and a convection heat exchanger 408. System 100 also includes a cyclone 406 coupled between reactor 402 and convection pass heat exchangers 408, an ash cooler 410 to cool residual ash from reactor 302, a particulate removal system 412, a preheater 414, a knock out drum 416, and an intercooled CO2 compressor 418 In operation, char residue from hydrogasifier 102 along with the particulate matter removed by the cyclone 406 and candle filter 306 are fed to reactor 402 to produce carbon oxides (mostly CO2) and residual char. In accordance with one example, about 10% excess oxygen is used to ensure a desired level of combustion. Reactor 402 may operate at about 1500° C. (2732° F.) at 2.0 bara (29.4 psia). Cooling is generally required to maintain this temperature. Slag is removed in stream 420. The vapors are cooled to 150° C. (302° F.) before entering a hydrotreater (not shown) where they are contacted with high purity, low pressure hydrogen to consume the excess oxygen and convert any SO2 to H2S. These are highly exothermic reactions and heat must generally be removed from the hydrotreater reactor. The hydrotreater effluent is cooled to 40° C. (104° F.). In accordance with various aspects of the invention, as discussed in more detail below, the thermal and chemical energy in the char supplies energy to raise steam (e.g., 1800 psig/1000° F.) for the steam turbine 118. The cooled ash combustor flue gas can be flashed to remove condensed water. As noted above, the CO2 rich recycle stream can be used to blow the coal into the hydrogasifier, and the flow rate of this stream can be set to about 20 wt % of the coal rate. The remaining ash combustor vapor stream is compressed to about 70.7 bara (1,025 psia) in a multistage compressor with liquids removal. Various portions of the produced CO2 can also be sent to reactor 202 and/or sent to algae farm 114. As noted above, reactor 104 can be used to produce head for steam boiler 116, which powers turbine 118. In accordance with particular examples, steam turbine 118 is designed for a long-term operation (90 days or more) at maximum continuous rating (MCR) with throttle control valves 95% open and is capable of a short-term, five-percent over pressure/valves wide open (the SOP/VWO) condition (16 hours). By way of particular example, steam turbine 118 is a tandem compound type, consisting of HP-IP-two LP (double flow) sections enclosed in three casings, designed for condensing single reheat operation, and equipped with non-automatic extractions and four-flow exhaust. Referring back to FIG. 2, electrolysis unit 112 may be used to form at least a portion of the hydrogen and/or oxygen used in system 100. In accordance with one example, water at about 25° C. (77° F.) is pumped to a pressure of 6.9 bara (100 psia) and sent to the electrolysis cell where the chemical bonds are broken, and the pure hydrogen and oxygen are produced. The electrolysis process has an energy efficiency of 75% and has a 500 psi exit pressure for hydrogen and oxygen. The pure hydrogen in compressed to about 70.7 bara (1025 psia) and sent to storage unit 108. In contrast, most of the oxygen is required at low pressure, so the oxygen may be shipped to storage 106 at low pressure and be compressed at the gasification facility. Any surplus oxygen produced by unit 112 can be sold to produce additional revenue. As noted above, an advantage of the present invention is that the system and method can be used to produce SNG and electricity, while mitigating production of any greenhouse gasses. One technique used to mitigate greenhouse gasses production is to capture and convert carbon oxides (e.g., CO2) to oxygen and solid carbon materials, which can be used as fuel in burner 104, using bioreactor 114. Bioreactor or algae farm 114 may be configured to facilitate growth of a variety of materials. For example, bioreactor 114 may include algae that converts COx to oxygen and hydrocarbon material. The hydrocarbon material can be sequestered or used as fuel or other purposes. In accordance with various aspects of this exemplary embodiment, bioreactor 104 includes algae, which converts COx (e.g., product from oxygen burner 104 or partial oxidation and water shift reactor) to oxygen and hydrocarbon materials, which can be processed into biodiesel, ethanol, protein, and the like. As noted above, the spend hydrocarbons, or at least a portion thereof, can be used as fuel for burner 104. The following non-limiting, illustrative example illustrates various conditions suitable for use with system 100 in accordance with various embodiments of the invention. This example is merely illustrative, and it is not intended that the invention be limited to the illustrative example. Coal Feed H2 Feed O2 Feed SNG Stream 216 210 208 136 Temp., 20 135 135 42.1 ° C. Pressure, 1 70.7 70.7 60.3 bar Flow, 40,763 9,451 5,327 32,355 kg/hr Although exemplary embodiments of the present invention are set forth herein, it should be appreciated that the invention is not so limited. For example, although the systems are described in connection with various process parameters, the invention is not so limited. Various modifications, variations, and enhancements of the system and method set forth herein may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention as set forth in the following claims and their equivalents.	C	C10	C10J	3	00
11831920	US20070285587A1-20071213	DRIVING DUAL MODULATION DISPLAY SYSTEMS USING KEY FRAMES	ACCEPTED	20071128	20071213		[]	G06T1570	["G06T1570"]	8035604	20070731	20111011	345	006000	61783.0	LAM	VINH	[{"inventor_name_last": "SEETZEN", "inventor_name_first": "Helge", "inventor_city": "Vancouver", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CA"}]	Methods and systems process image data made up of a series of frames for displaying on a dual modulation display system having a first modulator disposed to illuminate a second modulator. A first modulation signal and a luminance map are not calculated for every frame. Instead, certain frames referred to as “key frames” are used to provide the first modulation signal and the luminance map for at least some other frames.	1. Apparatus for driving a display to display a sequence of video frames, the display comprising a first modulator disposed to illuminate a second modulator, the apparatus comprising: a processor configured to: for each of the video frames output a first modulator driving signal for controlling the first modulator to emit light and output a second modulator driving signal for controlling the second modulator to modulate light emitted by the first modulator to display an image defined by image data for the video frame; wherein the processor is configured to: in response to key frame image data for a key video frame of the video frames, generate and output a first modulator driving signal for the key frame; generate a key frame luminance map based on the first modulator driving signal for the key frame; generate and output a second modulator driving signal for the key frame based at least on the key frame luminance map and the key frame image data; for one or more additional frames subsequent to the key frame, output the first modulator driving signal for the key frame and generate and output a second modulator driving signal based at least on the key frame luminance map and image data for the one or more additional frames. 2. Apparatus according to claim 1 wherein, for the key frame and for each of the N frames following the key frame, the processor is configured to output the first modulator driving signal for the key frame. 3. Apparatus according to claim 2 wherein the processor is configured to designate every N+1th frame of the sequence of video frames as a key frame. 4. Apparatus according to claim 1 wherein, for each frame, the processor is configured to output the first modulator driving signal for the key frame and the processor is configured to designate a new key frame upon determining that the second modulator driving signal for a frame fails to satisfy an acceptability criterion. 5. Apparatus according to claim 4 wherein determining that the second modulator driving signal for a frame fails to satisfy the acceptability criterion comprises determining that a number of the second modulator driving signal specifies more than a threshold number of pixel values that are outside of a range of suitable values. 6. A display comprising: a first modulator comprising a plurality of elements having individually-controllable light outputs and arranged in a two-dimensional aray; a second modulator disposed to modulate light emitted by the first modulator to display an image; a processor configured to: for each of the video frames output a first modulator driving signal for controlling the first modulator to emit light and output a second modulator driving signal for controlling the second modulator to modulate light emitted by the first modulator to display an image defined by image data for the video frame; wherein the processor is configured to: in response to key frame image data for a key video frame of the video frames, generate and output a first modulator driving signal for the key frame; generate a key frame luminance map based on the first modulator driving signal for the key frame; generate and output a second modulator driving signal for the key frame based at least on the key frame luminance map and the key frame image data; and, for one or more additional frames subsequent to the key frame, output the first modulator driving signal for the key frame and generate and output a second modulator driving signal based at least on the key frame luminance map and image data for the one or more additional frames; a first driving circuit connected to drive the second modulator in response to the second modulator driving signal; and, a second driving circuit connected to the first modulator in response to the second modulator driving signal. 7. A display according to claim 6 wherein the light emitters comprise light-emitting diodes. 8. A display according to claim 6 wherein the first modulator comprises a projector. 9. A display according to claim 6 wherein the second modulator comprises a liquid crystal display (LCD) panel. 10. A method for processing a series of frames of a video sequence for display on a display comprising a first modulator disposed to illuminate a second modulator, the method comprising: processing a frame to provide corresponding first and second modulator driving signals, designating at least one frame subsequent in the video sequence to the frame as a key frame and for the key frame generating a first modulator driving signal and a luminance map based on the first modulator driving signal, and, if the luminance map for the key frame matches the frame, setting the first modulator driving signal for the frame to be the same as the first modulator driving signal for the key frame and generating a second modulator driving signal for the frame based on the luminance map for the key frame. 11. A method according to claim 10 comprising simultaneously processing a plurality of frames wherein the frame is one of the plurality of frames and the method comprises determining whether the luminance map for the key frame matches one or more of the plurality of frames. 12. A method according to claim 10 wherein comprises dividing a frame image for the one of the frames by the luminance map for the key frame.	<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>In order for images to be displayed on a display, the display generally needs to be connected to an interface configured to receive image data and convert it to signals to be used by the display. The interface varies depending on the type of display. For displays which comprise a modulator, the interface typically comprises a modulator driver coupled to a processor. The processor receives image data and generates a modulation signal for the modulator driver. The modulation signal generally causes the modulator to generate a plurality of pixels in order to reproduce the image. Calculation of the modulation signal can be computationally expensive. The inventor has invented methods and systems which reduce the computational cost of processing image data to be displayed on a dual modulation display system.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF INVENTION <EOH>Video image data comprises a series of frames which change over time to give the viewer the illusion of movement. The inventor has determined that the difference between frames is more often than not less than the dynamic range of the second modulator of a dual modulation system, and that accordingly it may be possible to display a series of frames without adjusting the first modulator. Some aspects of the invention provide methods wherein a first modulation signal and luminance map from one frame (referred to herein as a “key frame”) are used for a plurality of other frames, such that the overall computational cost of processing image data is reduced. Further aspects of the invention and features of specific embodiments of the invention are described below.	REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 10/599,954 filed on 24 Dec. 2004 which claims the benefit of the filing date of U.S. patent application No. 60/566,925 filed on 3 May 2004 and entitled “METHOD FOR EFFICIENT COMPUTATION OF IMAGE FRAMES FOR DUAL-MODULATION DISPLAY SYSTEMS USING KEY FRAMES”, which is hereby incorporated by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD The invention relates to processing image frames to be displayed on dual modulation display systems. Certain embodiments of the invention relate to methods and systems for efficient computation of modulation signals. BACKGROUND In order for images to be displayed on a display, the display generally needs to be connected to an interface configured to receive image data and convert it to signals to be used by the display. The interface varies depending on the type of display. For displays which comprise a modulator, the interface typically comprises a modulator driver coupled to a processor. The processor receives image data and generates a modulation signal for the modulator driver. The modulation signal generally causes the modulator to generate a plurality of pixels in order to reproduce the image. Calculation of the modulation signal can be computationally expensive. The inventor has invented methods and systems which reduce the computational cost of processing image data to be displayed on a dual modulation display system. SUMMARY OF INVENTION Video image data comprises a series of frames which change over time to give the viewer the illusion of movement. The inventor has determined that the difference between frames is more often than not less than the dynamic range of the second modulator of a dual modulation system, and that accordingly it may be possible to display a series of frames without adjusting the first modulator. Some aspects of the invention provide methods wherein a first modulation signal and luminance map from one frame (referred to herein as a “key frame”) are used for a plurality of other frames, such that the overall computational cost of processing image data is reduced. Further aspects of the invention and features of specific embodiments of the invention are described below. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS In drawings which illustrate non-limiting embodiments of the invention: FIG. 1 shows a dual modulation display system; FIG. 2 shows a method of processing image; FIG. 3 shows a method of processing image data according to one embodiment of the invention; FIG. 4 shows a method of processing image data according to another embodiment of the invention; and, FIG. 5 shows a method of processing image data according to another embodiment of the invention. DESCRIPTION Throughout the following description, specific details are set forth in order to provide a more thorough understanding of the invention. However, the invention may be practiced without these particulars. In other instances, well known elements have not been shown or described in detail to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the invention. Accordingly, the specification and drawings are to be regarded in an illustrative, rather than a restrictive, sense. A dual modulation display system, generally indicated by reference character 10 in FIG. 1, typically has a rear modulator 12 and a forward modulator 14. Rear modulator driver 16 is connected to rear modulator 12, and forward modulator driver 18 is connected to forward modulator 14. A processor 20 is connected to rear modulator driver 16 and forward modulator driver 18. Processor 20 receives image data 22 and provides rear and forward modulation signals to rear and forward modulator drivers 16 and 18, respectively. Rear modulator 12 may have a relatively low resolution and forward modulator 14 may have a relatively high resolution. Rear modulator 12 may comprise an array of light emitting diodes (LEDs), a video projector or a backlight. Forward modulator 14 generally comprises a liquid crystal display (LCD). FIG. 2 illustrates method 30 carried out by processor 20 of FIG. 1. Method 30 begins at block 32, when processor 20 begins processing a frame of image data 22. Processor 20 receives the frame's image data 22 at block 34. At block 36 processor 20 calculates a rear modulation signal for the frame. At block 38 processor 20 calculates an luminance map of light expected to be generated by rear modulator 12 and to be incident on forward modulator 14 when rear modulator 12 is driven by the rear modulation signal for that frame. At block 40, processor 20 divides that frame's image data 22 by the luminance map to generate a forward modulation signal. At block 42, processor 20 provides the rear and forward modulation signals to rear and forward modulator drivers 16 and 18, respectively. Method 30 terminates at block 44, where processor 20 proceeds to process the next frame of image data 22, beginning again at block 32. When rear and forward modulation signals for a frame are provided to rear and forward modulator drivers 16 and 18, respectively, rear modulator 12 projects light in accordance with the rear modulation signal onto forward modulator 14 to produce the luminance map. Forward modulator 14 optically modulates the light from rear modulator 12 in accordance with the forward modulation signal to display the image for that frame to a viewer in front of forward modulator 14. In cases where rear modulator 12 comprises a LED array and forward modulator 14 comprises a LCD, processor 20 determines appropriate intensities for each LED of rear modulator 12 for each frame of image data 22 to generate the rear modulation signal for that frame. Processor 20 must then calculate the luminance map of light from rear modulator 12 incident on forward modulator 14 so that processor 20 can generate the forward modulation signal for that frame by dividing the image data 22 by the luminance map. Calculation of the luminance map involves summing the light contributed by each LED to each point on the LCD. The amount of light from a LED reaching a point on the LCD depends on a point spread function for the LED and the power level of the LED. Since these can both be known in principle, one can determine the intensity of light from that LED on each pixel of the LCD. As one skilled in the art will appreciate, calculation of the luminance map at block 38 of FIG. 2 is computationally expensive. For example, if forward modulator 14 has a resolution of X by Y, and rear modulator 12 comprises an array of 700 LEDs, the luminance map for each of XY pixels must be calculated based on the point spread functions of all of the 700 LEDs which contribute to illumination of that pixel. The invention provides methods and systems for processing image data made up of a series of frames for displaying on a dual modulation display system having first and second modulators. A system according to the invention provides a modulation signal to each of the modulators. The system drives the second modulator with a second modulation signal that takes into account a luminance map of light from the first modulator incident on the second modulator. The first modulation signal and the luminance map are not calculated for every frame. Instead, the first modulation signal and the luminance map are determined only for selected frames referred to as “key frames”. The same first modulation signal and corresponding luminance map (collectively referred to as the “key frame parameters”) are used to provide the second modulation signal and the luminance map for a one or more other frames. The following description makes reference to the example of FIG. 1, where the first modulator comprises rear modulator 16 and the second modulator comprises forward modulator 18. However, it is to be understood that systems according to the invention may be used in association with any type of dual modulation display system wherein the first modulator illuminates the second modulator. FIG. 3 illustrates a method 100 according to one embodiment of the invention. Method 100 may be carried out by a processor of a dual modulation display, such as processor 20 of FIG. 1. Alternatively, method 100 may be carried out on a processor coupled to an image acquisition device such as a video camera, or an independent processor. Method 100 may be used to process image data in any suitable format, including MPEG, AVI, ASF, WMV, RM, MOV, etc. Method 100 may be used to calculate rear and forward modulation signals for a series of frames. The modulation signals may be provided directly to rear and forward modulator drivers 16 and 18 in real of buffered time, or to electronic storage for future use by rear and forward modulator drivers 16 and 18. Method 100 begins at block 102, where the processor begins processing a series of frames of image data. At block 104 the processor receives a frame of image data, which is designated as a key frame image. At block 106 the processor calculates a key frame rear modulation signal. At block 108 the processor calculates a key frame luminance map. At block 110 the processor divides the key frame image by the key frame luminance map to generate a key frame forward modulation signal. At block 112 the processor provides the key frame rear and forward driving functions to rear and forward modulator drivers 16 and 18, or to electronic storage. At block 114 the processor receives the next frame image of the series of frames. This next frame image is designated as the current frame image. At block 116 the processor divides the current frame image by the key frame luminance map to generate a current frame forward modulation signal. At block 118 the processor selects the key frame rear modulation signal to be the current frame rear modulation signal. At block 120 the processor provides the current frame rear and forward driving functions to rear and forward modulator drivers 16 and 18, or to electronic storage. At block 122 the processor determines if N frames have been processed since the key frame rear modulation signal and luminance map were calculated. If not (block 122 NO output), method 100 returns to block 114 where the processor receives the next frame image, and processes that image as the current frame as described above. Once N frames have been processed (block 122 YES output), method 100 returns to block 104 where the processor receives a new key frame image and processes it as described above. In situations where some buffering is possible, the processor may begin the calculations of blocks 106 and 108 for one or more future key frames in the background while the current frames of the previous key frame are still being processed. The number of frames N to be processed using a single key frame in method 100 may be selected based on expected luminance changes in the series of frames and/or on the dynamic range of forward modulator 14. For example, N may be selected to be 2, such that every third frame in the series of frames is designated as a key frame. In such an example, method 100 would incur approximately one third of the computation cost associated with processing a series of frames as compared to method 30 of FIG. 2. The rear and forward modulation signals produced by method 100 result in accurate images displayed on dual modulation display system 10 for all of the frames in the series of frames, except for current frames where the luminance differences between the key frame and the associated current frame cannot be accommodated by forward modulator 14. For example, a current frame cannot be accommodated in cases where forward modulator 14 is driven at or near either the upper or lower end of its dynamic range for certain pixels of the key frame image, and the current frame image differs from the key frame image for those pixels such that forward modulator 14 would need to be driven at a level outside of its dynamic range in order to accurately represent those pixels of the current frame image. In some embodiments, forward modulator 14 comprises an LCD with a dynamic range of 200:1 or greater, such that it can accommodate a wide range of luminance changes between frames. With such a dynamic range and suitable selection of the parameter N, luminance changes between a key frame and its associated current frames which cannot be accommodated by the LCD are rare and unlikely to be visible at the rate at which the frames are displayed in typical video applications. FIG. 4 illustrates a method 200 according to another embodiment of the invention. Method 200 may be carried out in a substantially similar fashion as method 100 of FIG. 3. The steps of blocks 202 to 216 of method 200 are substantially the same as those of blocks 102 to 116 of method 100. Method 200 differs from method 100 in that after the current frame forward modulation signal is generated at block 216, the processor determines whether the key frame luminance map is suitable for reproducing the current frame image at block 218. The processor may determine whether the key frame should by updated at block 218 based on a comparison of the current frame forward modulation signal generated at block 216 and a range of suitable values for forward modulator driver 16. Such a comparison may be done on a pixel by pixel basis, with the processor keeping track of the number pixels for which the current frame forward modulation signal is outside the range of suitable values for forward modulator driver 16 (referred to herein as “problem pixels”). The processor may also keep track of the locations of the problem pixels. The processor may determine that the key frame should be updated once the number of problem pixels exceeds a predetermined threshold. Alternatively, the processor may determine that the key frame should be updated if the average value by which problem pixels are outside the range of suitable values exceeds a predetermined threshold, a cumulative value by which problem pixels are outside the range of suitable values exceeds a predetermined threshold, or an individual problem pixel is outside the range of suitable values by more than a predetermined threshold. If the processor determines that the key frame does not need to be updated (block 218 NO output), method 200 proceeds to block 220. At block 220 the processor selects the key frame rear modulation signal to be the current frame rear modulation signal. At block 222 the processor provides the current frame rear and forward driving functions to rear and forward modulator drivers 16 and 18, or to electronic storage. Method 200 then returns to block 214 where the processor receives the next frame image, and processes that image as the current frame as described above. If the processor determines that the key frame does need to be updated (block 218 YES output), method 200 proceeds to block 224. At block 224 the processor updates the key frame rear modulation signal and the key frame luminance map, using the current frame image as the new key frame image. Method 200 then proceeds to block 210 where the processor generates the key frame forward modulation signal, and block 212 where the driving functions are provided to modulator drivers 16 and 18 or to storage, as described above. Depending on the computation capabilities of the processor and the speed at which the series of frames need to be processed, at block 224 the processor may take certain shortcuts in updating the key frame parameters in order to avoid undesirable lag time in the processing of the series of frames. For example, instead of calculating an entirely new key frame rear modulation signal using the current frame image as the key frame image, the processor may update only the portions of the key frame rear modulation signal and key frame luminance map calculated in blocks 206 and 208, respectively, which correspond to the problem pixels. Alternatively, at block 224 the processor may update the key frame rear modulation signal and key frame luminance map calculated in blocks 206 and 208, respectively, on a section by section basis. For example, the processor could update the key frame parameters corresponding to one quarter of the display area on a first pass through block 224. The method then proceeds to block 210 and continues as discussed above, with the processor updating the key frame parameters corresponding to the other three quarters on subsequent passes through block 224 until all of the key frame parameters have been updated. If the partial updates of the key frame parameters cause processor to determine at block 218 that the key frame does not need to be updated (block 218 NO output), method 200 may proceed to block 220 without updating all of the key frame parameters. Another way in which the processor may reduce the computation time required at block 224 is to reduce the accuracy requirements for calculation of the updated key frame luminance map. For example, in cases where rear modulator 12 comprises an LED array, the processor may use an approximate Gaussian or other suitable function for each LED's light distribution, rather than the actual point spread function for each LED. Such an approximation reduces the computational cost of updating the key frame parameters, and any imperfections introduced thereby are unlikely to be visible to a viewer watching display 10. Furthermore, the approximation may be used only for an interim period while the processor calculates the new key frame luminance map using the actual point spread functions in the background. The approximation may be improved in successive frames using the actual calculations until the new key frame luminance map has been completely calculated. FIG. 5 illustrates a method 300 according to another embodiment of the invention. Method 300 may be carried out in a substantially similar fashion as methods 100 and 200 of FIGS. 3 and 4 respectively. The steps of blocks 302 to 322 of method 300 are substantially the same as those of blocks 202 to 222 of method 200. Method 300 differs from method 200 in that when the processor determines that the key frame does need to be updated (block 318 YES output), method 300 proceeds to block 324 where the processor selects a standard key frame and uses the parameters from the standard key frame to generate the key frame forward modulation signal in block 310. Processor may also update the key frame parameters using the current frame image as the key frame image in the background at block 326 while the standard key frame parameters are being used to process interim frames, as indicated by the dotted lines in FIG. 5. The standard key frame selected at block 324 may comprise a key frame for which the key frame parameters are already calculated. Examples of standard key frames include frames where rear modulator 12 is driven: at a constant percentage (e.g. one half) of the full intensity across the whole display area; at full intensity across the whole display area; at a constant percentage (e.g. one half) of the full intensity across a selected portion of the display area; and, at full intensity across a selected portion of the display area. Alternatively, the processor may store previously processed key frames, and any key frame for which the key frame parameters have already been calculated may be selected as the standard key frame at block 324. Certain elements of methods 100, 200 and 300 described above may be combined with each other to produce other methods according to various embodiments of the invention. For example, in method 100 the processor may determine if the key frame should be updated between blocks 116 and 118, as in block 218 of method 200. Consider for example a method wherein every eighth frame is designated as a key frame (N=7), and the processor determines if the key frame should be updated after each current frame forward modulation signal is generated. In any such method wherein certain frames are designated as key frames, the processor may “work ahead” by buffering a number of frames and processing one or more future key frames in the background while the active key frame parameters are being used to process the current frames for the active key frame. To update the key frame, the processor may take the shortcuts discussed above with respect to block 224 of FIG. 4, or may select standard key frame parameters as discussed above with respect to block 324 of FIG. 5. Additionally or alternatively, when the processor determines that the key frame needs to be updated for one of the 7 current frames being processed, the processor can determine if one of the future key frames would be suitable for processing the current frame. The processor may determine if a future key frame is suitable by dividing the current frame image by the future key frame luminance map. As one skilled in the art will appreciate, the division is a linear process of one operation per pixel and is relatively fast when compared to calculating a plurality of point spread functions for each pixel. Accordingly, a saving in computational cost may be achieved even if a plurality of future and past key frames are checked to determine their suitability for processing the current frame. In practice, it is generally only desirable to check a few key frames ahead of and/or behind the current frame, as such key frames are the most likely to be suitable matches to the image data of the current frame. Certain implementations of the invention comprise computer processors which execute software instructions which cause the processors to perform a method of the invention. For example, one or more processors in a dual modulation display system may implement data processing steps in the methods described herein by executing software instructions retrieved from a program memory accessible to the processors. The invention may also be provided in the form of a program product. The program product may comprise any medium which carries a set of computer-readable signals comprising instructions which, when executed by a data processor, cause the data processor to execute a method of the invention. Program products according to the invention may be in any of a wide variety of forms. The program product may comprise, for example, physical media such as magnetic data storage media including floppy diskettes, hard disk drives, optical data storage media including CD ROMs, DVDs, electronic data storage media including ROMs, flash RAM, or the like or transmission-type media such as digital or analog communication links. The instructions may be present on the program product in encrypted and/or compressed formats. Where a component (e.g. a software module, processor, assembly, device, circuit, etc.) is referred to above, unless otherwise indicated, reference to that component (including a reference to a “means”) should be interpreted as including as equivalents of that component any component which performs the function of the described component (i.e., that is functionally equivalent), including components which are not structurally equivalent to the disclosed structure which performs the function in the illustrated exemplary embodiments of the invention. As will be apparent to those skilled in the art in the light of the foregoing disclosure, many alterations and modifications are possible in the practice of this invention without departing from the spirit or scope thereof. For example, the processor could be integrated with the first and second modulator drivers. Also, in embodiments of the invention for RGB implementations, the luminance map may comprise a color intensity map. Accordingly, the scope of the invention is to be construed in accordance with the substance defined by the following claims.	G	G06	G06T	15	70
11962386	US20080268624A1-20081030	Method of Fabricating Semiconductor Device	ACCEPTED	20081016	20081030		[]	H01L21425	["H01L21425"]	7858491	20071221	20101228	438	433000	96173.0	NICELY	JOSEPH	[{"inventor_name_last": "Kwak", "inventor_name_first": "Noh Yeal", "inventor_city": "Icheon-si", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Jang", "inventor_name_first": "Min Sik", "inventor_city": "Icheon-si", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}]	This invention relates to a method of fabricating a semiconductor device. A P well for a cell junction may be formed by performing an ion implantation process employing a zero tilt condition. Stress caused by collision between a dopant and a Si lattice within a semiconductor substrate may be minimized and, therefore stress remaining within the semiconductor substrate may be minimized. Accordingly, Number Of Program (NOP) fail by disturbance caused by stress remaining within a channel junction may be reduced. Further, a broad doping profile may be formed at the interface of trenches by using BF2 as the dopant when the P well is formed. A fluorine getter layer may be formed on an oxide film of the trench sidewalls and may be used as a boron diffusion barrier. Although a Spin On Dielectric (SOD) insulating layer may be used as an isolation layer, loss of boron (B) may be prevented. Accordingly, an additional ion implantation process for compensating for lost boron (B) may be omitted and a NOP disturbance characteristic may be improved.	1. A method of fabricating a semiconductor device, the method comprising: forming a Triple N (TN) well in a semiconductor substrate; forming a P well within the TN well by employing a zero tilt-angle; forming an isolation mask over the semiconductor substrate; etching the isolation mask and the semiconductor substrate of an isolation region, thus forming trenches within the P well; and forming isolation layers that gap fills the trenches. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising forming a screen oxide layer over the semiconductor substrate to a thickness of approximately 300 to 500 angstrom. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the TN well is formed using an ion implantation process. 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the ion implantation process is performed using ion implantation energy of approximately 800 to 2000 keV with a dose of approximately 1×1011 to 1×1014 ions/cm2 by applying a N type dopant at a tilt angle of approximately 2 to 10 degrees. 5. The method of claim 1, further comprising performing an annealing process at a temperature ranging from 900 to 1000 degrees Celsius after the TN well is formed. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the P well is formed by an ion implantation process. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the ion implantation process is performed using ion implantation energy of 200 to 500 keV with a dose of 1×1011 to 1×1014 ions/cm2 using boron difluoride (BF2) as a dopant. 8. The method of claim 6, wherein the ion implantation process is performed in a single type. 9. The method of claim 1, further comprising forming an ion implantation region for threshold voltage control within the P well after the P well is formed. 10. The method of claim 9, wherein a threshold voltage control using boron (B) ion implantation, thus forming an ion implantation region. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the ion implantation process is performed using ion implantation energy of 5 to 50 keV with a dose of 1×1011 to 1×1014 ions/cm2 by using BF2 as a dopant. 12. The method of claim 1, further comprising forming an ion implantation region for compensating for boron (B) on sidewalls of the trenches after the trenches are formed. 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the ion implantation region for boron (B) compensation is formed by an ion implantation process using ion implantation energy of 5 to 50 keV with a dose of 1×1011 to 1×1014 ions/cm2 by using boron (B) as a dopant. 14. The method of claim 12, wherein the ion implantation region for boron (B) compensation is formed using an ion implantation process in nitrogen (N2) gas atmosphere. 15. The method of claim 1, further comprising forming an oxide film on sidewalls of the trenches. 16. The method of claim 16, wherein a fluorine getter layer in which fluorine ions (F-) implanted when the P well is formed are condensed is formed on the oxide film of the trenches sidewalls. 17. The method of claim 1, wherein the formation of the isolation layer comprising: forming an insulating layer by depositing an insulating material on the patterned isolation mask, including the trenches, so that the trenches are gap filled; and etching the insulating layer until a surface of the isolation mask is exposed. 18. The method of claim 1, wherein the isolation layer is formed from a Spin on Dielectric (SOD) insulating layer. 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the process of forming the SOD insulating layer comprises a SOD coating process, a baking process, and a curing process. 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the SOD coating process is performed using a polysilazane (PSZ)-based material. 21. The method of claim 19, wherein the baking process is performed at a temperature ranging from 50 to 250 degrees Celsius. 22. The method of claim 19, wherein the curing process is performed at a temperature ranging from 200 to 400 degrees Celsius.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Generally, in a semiconductor device, a well junction may be formed by performing an ion implantation process in order to control the threshold voltage of a transistor. In recent years, as devices are highly integrated, the well junction may be formed by implanting an impurity of a high concentration so as to secure the characteristics of the transistor when the ion implantation process is performed. Further, in forming a Shallow Trench Isolation (STI) layer a STI structure in which trenches may be formed in a semiconductor substrate and then gap filled with an insulating material may be used rather than an existing LOCal Oxidation of Silicon (LOCOS) structure. Thus, etch damage to sidewall of a silicon (Si) substrate due to excessive Si etch is inevitable. Stress within a channel junction may be increased by implant damage. The increased stress grows into defects due to a subsequent annealing process, thus generating disturbances caused by Transit Enhanced Diffusion (TED). In the case of a flash memory device on which program and erase may be performed using channel boosting, Number Of Program (NOP) fail occurs due to the existence of disturbances within the channel junction. This becomes more severe at certain portions, which becomes a cause of remaining stress within an active region. Further, a method of gap filling trenches using a Spin on Dielectric (SOD) material as a trench gap-fill material has recently been introduced because of the trench gap-fill limits of a High Density Plasma (HDP) oxide film. In particular, there is a method of fully gap filling trenches using polysilazane (PSZ) that has a low viscosity and a flowing property like water. However, if the trenches are gap filled with the SOD material, dopant segregation may be increased due to the stress of the material and a subsequent annealing process. Accordingly, the leakage current may be increased due to the occurrence of hump. Furthermore, compensation for the lost dopant through additional ion implantation may cause cell disturbances to further increase.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention is directed to a method of fabricating a semiconductor device wherein a P well is formed by performing an ion implantation process at a zero tilt condition, so that a stress caused by collision of a dopant and a Si lattice may be minimized. NOP fail due to disturbance caused by stress remaining within a channel junction of a semiconductor substrate may be reduced. A method of fabricating a semiconductor device according to one embodiment, includes: forming a Triple N (TN) well in a semiconductor substrate, forming a P well within the TN well region by performing an ion implantation process employing a zero tilt condition, forming an isolation mask over the semiconductor substrate, etching the isolation mask and the semiconductor substrate of an isolation region, thus forming trenches within the P well region, and forming isolation layers that gap fills the trenches. In one embodiment, a screen oxide layer may be further formed over the semiconductor substrate to a thickness of approximately 300 to 500 angstrom. The TN well may be formed using an ion implantation process employing ion implantation energy of approximately 800 to 2000 keV with a dose of approximately 1×10 11 to 1×10 14 ions/cm 2 by applying a N type dopant at a tilt condition of approximately 2 to 10 degrees. An annealing process may be further performed, for example, using furnace annealing at a temperature ranging from 900 to 1000 degrees Celsius after the TN well is formed. In one embodiment, the P well may be formed by performing the ion implantation process using boron difluoride (BF 2 ) as a dopant. The ion implantation process may be performed using ion implantation energy of approximately 200 to 500 keV with a dose of approximately 1×10 11 to 1×10 14 ions/cm 2 . The ion implantation process may be performed in a single type. An ion implantation region for threshold voltage control may be further formed within the P well region by performing the ion implantation process using ion implantation energy of approximately 5 to 50 keV with a dose of approximately 1×10 11 to 1×10 14 ions/cm 2 by using BF 2 as a dopant. In one embodiment, an ion implantation region for compensating for boron (B) may be further formed on sidewalls of the trenches. The ion implantation region for boron (B) compensation may be formed by performing the ion implantation process using ion implantation energy of approximately 5 to 50 keV with a dose of 1×10 11 to 1×10 14 ions/cm 2 by using boron (B) as a dopant. Alternatively, the ion implantation region for boron (B) compensation may be formed by performing the ion implantation process in nitrogen (N 2 ) gas atmosphere. In one embodiment, an oxide film may be further formed on sidewalls of the trenches. A fluorine getter layer in which fluorine ions (F-) implanted when the P well is formed are condensed may be formed on the oxide film of the trenches sidewalls. The formation of the isolation layer may include: forming an insulating layer by depositing an insulating material on the patterned isolation mask, including the trenches so that the trenches are gap filled, and etching the insulating layer until a surface of the nitride film of the isolation mask is exposed. In one embodiment, the isolation layer may be formed from a Spin on Dielectric (SOD) insulating layer. The process of forming the SOD insulating layer may include a SOD coating process, a baking process, and a curing process. The SOD coating process may be performed using a polysilazane (PSZ)-based material. The baking process may be performed at a temperature ranging from 50 to 250 degrees Celsius. The curing process may be performed at a temperature ranging from 200 to 400 degrees Celsius.	CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This invention claims priority to Korean patent application number 10-2007-41414, filed on Apr. 27, 2007, the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. TECHNICAL FIELD This invention relates to a method of fabricating a semiconductor device and, more particularly, to a method of fabricating a semiconductor device with improved disturbance characteristic. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Generally, in a semiconductor device, a well junction may be formed by performing an ion implantation process in order to control the threshold voltage of a transistor. In recent years, as devices are highly integrated, the well junction may be formed by implanting an impurity of a high concentration so as to secure the characteristics of the transistor when the ion implantation process is performed. Further, in forming a Shallow Trench Isolation (STI) layer a STI structure in which trenches may be formed in a semiconductor substrate and then gap filled with an insulating material may be used rather than an existing LOCal Oxidation of Silicon (LOCOS) structure. Thus, etch damage to sidewall of a silicon (Si) substrate due to excessive Si etch is inevitable. Stress within a channel junction may be increased by implant damage. The increased stress grows into defects due to a subsequent annealing process, thus generating disturbances caused by Transit Enhanced Diffusion (TED). In the case of a flash memory device on which program and erase may be performed using channel boosting, Number Of Program (NOP) fail occurs due to the existence of disturbances within the channel junction. This becomes more severe at certain portions, which becomes a cause of remaining stress within an active region. Further, a method of gap filling trenches using a Spin on Dielectric (SOD) material as a trench gap-fill material has recently been introduced because of the trench gap-fill limits of a High Density Plasma (HDP) oxide film. In particular, there is a method of fully gap filling trenches using polysilazane (PSZ) that has a low viscosity and a flowing property like water. However, if the trenches are gap filled with the SOD material, dopant segregation may be increased due to the stress of the material and a subsequent annealing process. Accordingly, the leakage current may be increased due to the occurrence of hump. Furthermore, compensation for the lost dopant through additional ion implantation may cause cell disturbances to further increase. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION This invention is directed to a method of fabricating a semiconductor device wherein a P well is formed by performing an ion implantation process at a zero tilt condition, so that a stress caused by collision of a dopant and a Si lattice may be minimized. NOP fail due to disturbance caused by stress remaining within a channel junction of a semiconductor substrate may be reduced. A method of fabricating a semiconductor device according to one embodiment, includes: forming a Triple N (TN) well in a semiconductor substrate, forming a P well within the TN well region by performing an ion implantation process employing a zero tilt condition, forming an isolation mask over the semiconductor substrate, etching the isolation mask and the semiconductor substrate of an isolation region, thus forming trenches within the P well region, and forming isolation layers that gap fills the trenches. In one embodiment, a screen oxide layer may be further formed over the semiconductor substrate to a thickness of approximately 300 to 500 angstrom. The TN well may be formed using an ion implantation process employing ion implantation energy of approximately 800 to 2000 keV with a dose of approximately 1×1011 to 1×1014 ions/cm2 by applying a N type dopant at a tilt condition of approximately 2 to 10 degrees. An annealing process may be further performed, for example, using furnace annealing at a temperature ranging from 900 to 1000 degrees Celsius after the TN well is formed. In one embodiment, the P well may be formed by performing the ion implantation process using boron difluoride (BF2) as a dopant. The ion implantation process may be performed using ion implantation energy of approximately 200 to 500 keV with a dose of approximately 1×1011 to 1×1014 ions/cm2. The ion implantation process may be performed in a single type. An ion implantation region for threshold voltage control may be further formed within the P well region by performing the ion implantation process using ion implantation energy of approximately 5 to 50 keV with a dose of approximately 1×1011 to 1×1014 ions/cm2 by using BF2 as a dopant. In one embodiment, an ion implantation region for compensating for boron (B) may be further formed on sidewalls of the trenches. The ion implantation region for boron (B) compensation may be formed by performing the ion implantation process using ion implantation energy of approximately 5 to 50 keV with a dose of 1×1011 to 1×1014 ions/cm2 by using boron (B) as a dopant. Alternatively, the ion implantation region for boron (B) compensation may be formed by performing the ion implantation process in nitrogen (N2) gas atmosphere. In one embodiment, an oxide film may be further formed on sidewalls of the trenches. A fluorine getter layer in which fluorine ions (F-) implanted when the P well is formed are condensed may be formed on the oxide film of the trenches sidewalls. The formation of the isolation layer may include: forming an insulating layer by depositing an insulating material on the patterned isolation mask, including the trenches so that the trenches are gap filled, and etching the insulating layer until a surface of the nitride film of the isolation mask is exposed. In one embodiment, the isolation layer may be formed from a Spin on Dielectric (SOD) insulating layer. The process of forming the SOD insulating layer may include a SOD coating process, a baking process, and a curing process. The SOD coating process may be performed using a polysilazane (PSZ)-based material. The baking process may be performed at a temperature ranging from 50 to 250 degrees Celsius. The curing process may be performed at a temperature ranging from 200 to 400 degrees Celsius. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS. 1A to 11 are sectional views illustrating a method of fabricating a semiconductor device according to an embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Now, specific embodiments according to the present invention will now be described in further details with reference to the accompanying drawings. While the invention is susceptible to various manners, certain embodiments as shown by way of example in the drawings and these embodiments will be described in detail herein. It will be understood, however, that this disclosure is not intended to limit the invention to the particular forms described, but to the contrary, the invention is intended to cover all modifications, alternatives, and equivalents falling within the spirit and scope of the invention defined by the appended claims. Referring to FIG. 1A, a screen oxide layer 102 is formed over a semiconductor substrate 100. The screen oxide layer 102 may be formed, for example, using an oxidation process, preferably, a wet oxidization process at a temperature ranging from 750 to 800 degrees Celsius. Other types of oxidation techniques may be used. The screen oxide layer 102 may be formed to a thickness of approximately 300 to 500 angstrom in order to prevent an ion channeling when forming a P well (See FIG. 1B). A Triple N (TN) well 104 may be formed, for example, using an ion implantation process employing an ion implantation energy of approximately 800 to 2000 keV with a dose of approximately 1×1011 to 1×1014 ions/cm2, for example, by applying a N type dopant having a tilt-angle of approximately 2 to 10 degrees such that a concentration at a Projected Range (Rp) may be maximized for clarifying the boundary between the TN well 104 and the P type semiconductor substrate 100. To compensate for damaging the semiconductor substrate 100 due to the high-energy ion implantor when forming the TN well 104, an annealing process may be performed, preferably, a furnace annealing process at a temperature ranging from 900 to 1000 degrees Celsius. Other types of annealing techniques may be used. Referring to FIG. 1B, a P well 106 is formed within the TN well 104 by performing, for example, an ion implantation process at a zero tilt-angle. The ion implantation process may be performed using ion implantation energy of approximately 200 to 500 keV with a dose of approximately 1÷1011 to 1×1014 ion/cm2, for example, using boron difluoride (BF2) as a dopant. The zero tilt-angle ion implantation refers to an angle where an impurity (dopant) is implanted being substantially vertical to the semiconductor substrate 100. Further, the zero tilt-angle ion implantation may be performed in a single type in order to maximize the uniformity of doping within the large-sized semiconductor substrate 100. Thus, collision between the dopant and the silicon (Si) lattice within the semiconductor substrate 100 may be minimized, and stress within the P well 106 may be minimized. Accordingly, NOP fail by disturbance caused by stress remaining due to collision may be prevented and a cell disturbance characteristic may be improved. Further, the ion implantation process for forming the P well 106 may be performed using BF2, having a mass greater than boron (B), as a dopant in a single type. Thus, a broad doping profile may be formed at interface sidewalls of trenches (as shown in FIG. 1E), so that abnormal channeling, which may occur due to the zero tilt-angle may be minimized. Meanwhile, when the broad doping profile is formed, an end of range (EOR) defect-caused profile within the semiconductor substrate 100 may become a broad profile. Referring to FIG. 1C, in order to control the threshold voltage (Vth) of a transistor, an ion implantation process employing a P type dopant may be further carried out. The ion implantation process may be performed using an ion implantation energy of approximately 5 to 50 keV with a dose of approximately 1×1011 to 1×1014 ions/cm2, for example, by using BF2 as a dopant. Thus, an ion implantation region 108 for threshold voltage control may be formed on an upper side of the P well 106 and within the P well 106. Referring to FIG. 1D, the screen oxide layer 102 is removed, for example, by performing an etching process. The screen oxide layer 102 may be removed, for example, using a wet etching process, for example, employing buffered oide etchant (BOE) or diluted solution of HF (DHF). Other types of etchant may be used. An isolation mask 116 for forming an isolation layer of a STI structure may be formed over the semiconductor substrate 100, including upper surfaces of the TN well 104 and the P well 106. The isolation mask 116 may include a buffer oxide film 110, a nitride film 112 and a hard mask 114. The buffer oxide film 110 may be formed, for example, from silicon oxide (SiO2), for example, using an oxidization process. The nitride film 112 may be formed from a nitride-based material, for example, silicon nitride (SixNy) or silicon oxynitride (SiON). The hard mask 114 may be formed, for example, from oxide-based or carbon polymer-based material. The nitride film 112 and the hard mask 114 may be formed, for example, using a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method. Other types of technique may be used. Referring to FIG. 1E, the isolation mask 116 formed over an isolation region may be partially removed, for example, using an etching process, for example, employing a photoresist patterned isolation mask (not shown), such that at least a surface of the ion implantation region 108, the P well 106, the TN well 104, and the semiconductor substrate 100 of the isolation region are exposed. The isolation region may be etched to a thickness, thereby The isolation region of the exposed semiconductor substrate 100 may be etched to a specific thickness using an etch process employing the patterned isolation mask 116 as a mask, thus forming a plurality of trenches 118 in the isolation region. The photoresist mask (not shown) may be formed by coating a photoresist on the hard mask 114 to form a photoresist film and then performing exposure and development employing a previously designed mask. The photoresist pattern may be removed through etching in the process of forming the trenches 118, or may be removed through an additional etching process when the photo mask is to remain on the isolation region. Other techniques may be substituted without varying from the scope of the invention. Referring to FIG. 1F, an ion implantation process may be performed to compensate for loss of boron (B) ions and thus prevent hump. As shown, an ion implantation region 120 for B ions compensation may be formed on sidewalls of the trenches 118. The ion implantation process may be performed using an ion implantation energy of approximately 5 to 50 keV with a dose of 1×1011 to 1×1014 ions/cm2, for example, by using B as a dopant. The ion implantation process may be performed, for example, in nitrogen (N2) gas atmosphere in order to form Si—N bonding in the semiconductor substrate 100. Referring to FIG. 1G, an oxide film 122 may formed on the sidewalls of the trenches 118, including the ion implantation 108, the P well 106, and the TN well 104 to compensate for etch damage occurred when the trenches 118 are formed, and to help prevent fail bits due to the stress of the gap-fill material of the trenches 118, an oxide film 122 is formed on the sidewalls of the trenches 1 18. The oxide film 122 may be formed, for example, from silicon oxide (SiO2) using a wet oxidization process at a temperature ranging from 750 to 800 degrees Celsius to prohibit the behavior of the dopant for threshold voltage control to the greatest extent. Alternatively, the oxide film 122 may be formed on the exposed surfaces of the buffer oxide film 110, the nitride film 112, and the hard mask 114 when the oxidization process is performed. The oxide film 122 formed on the side walls of the exposed surfaces of the buffer oxide film 110, the nitride film 112, and the hard mask 114 may be thinner compared with the oxide film 122 formed on the sidewall of the trenches 118. A fluorine getter layer (not shown) in which fluorine ions (F-) implanted when forming the P well 106 are condensed, may be formed at an interface (an interface of Si/SiO2) of the trenches 118 and the oxide film 122 due to oxidation enhanced diffusion (OEF). Getter broun (B) may be gathered by the fluorine getter layer formed in the oxide film 122 of trenches 118, thus preventing the leakage current of a cell region. Further, P type getters that are not caused by remnant rebonding within the cell region may be generated, thereby removing stress of the semiconductor substrate 100. Referring to FIG. 1H, an insulating layer 124 may be deposited on the patterned isolation mask 116, including the trenches 118, so that the trenches 118 are gap filled. The insulating layer 124 may be formed, for example, from a SOD insulating layer having a good flow property and a trench gap-fill characteristic, using a SOD method. Other types of film deposition may be used. The SOD insulating layer 124 may be formed, for example, from a PSZ-based material, thus gap fill the trenches 118 without void. The process of forming the SOD insulating layer 124 may include an optional baking process, a curing process, and a coating process. The baking process for hardening a coated film may be performed at a temperature ranging from 50 to 250 degrees Celsius. The curing process for out-gasing impurities gas included in the PSZ layer and densifying the film quality may be performed at a temperature ranging from 200 to 400 degrees Celsius so that bending may be prevented in the active region of the semiconductor substrate 100 due to internal stress of the isolation region. Referring to FIG. 1I, the insulating layer 124 over the isolation mask 116 may be etched until a surface of the nitride film 112 of the isolation mask 116 is exposed, leaving the insulating layer 124 within the trench 118 un-etched, defining isolation layers 124a. The etching process may be performed, for example, using a CMP process. In order to control the Effective Field oxide Height (EFH), at least a portion of the isolation layer 124a may be etched, for example, using a dry etch process or a wet etch process. To prevent lowering of a cycling characteristic. The isolation layer 124a may be etched to a thickness substantially the same or higher than the semiconductor substrate 100. The nitride film 112 may be removed completely, for example, using a phosphoric acid (H3PO4) after the etching process. The buffer oxide film 110 may also be removed when the process of removing the nitride film 112 is performed. A cleaning process, for example, using BOE or DHF may be performed to completely remove the buffer oxide film 110 that remains during the process of removing the nitride film 112 and the buffer oxide film 110. Though not shown in the drawings, a tunnel insulating film and a conductive layer for a floating gate may be formed over the semiconductor substrate 100 and then patterned. A dielectric layer and the conductive layer for a control gate may be laminated over the semiconductor substrate 100 and then patterned, thus forming a gate consisting of the tunnel insulating film, the floating gate, the dielectric layer and a control gate. Subsequent processes are then performed. As described above, in the method of fabricating the semiconductor device according to a preferred embodiment of the invention, the P well for the cell junction may be formed by performing the ion implantation process employing the zero tilt-angle. Thus, stress caused by collision between a dopant and the Si lattice within the semiconductor substrate may be minimized and any stress remaining within the semiconductor substrate may be minimized. Accordingly, NOP fail by disturbance caused by stress remaining within the channel junction may be reduced. A broad doping profile may be formed at the interface of the trenches by using BF2 as the dopant when the P well is formed. The fluorine getter layer may be formed on the oxide film of the trench sidewalls and may be used as a boron diffusion barrier. A SOD insulating layer may be used as an isolation layer so as to prevent from loss of boron (B). Accordingly, an additional ion implantation process for compensating for lost boron (B) may be omitted and a NOP disturbance characteristic may be improved. Further, the leakage current of the cell region may be prevented when the boron (B) is gettered by the fluorine getter layer formed in the oxide film of the trench sidewalls. Any P type getters that are not caused by remaining rebonding within the cell region may be generated. The isolation layer formed from the SOD insulating layer, thus improving a trench gap-fill capability and the reliability of devices. Accordingly, an additional ion implantation process for compensating for lost boron (B) may be omitted, thus simplifying the whole process.	H	H01	H01L	214	25
11904751	US20090089863A1-20090402	Secure tunnel performance using a multi-session secure tunnel	ACCEPTED	20090318	20090402		[]	H04L932	["H04L932", "G06F1516"]	8782772	20070928	20140715	726	005000	77840.0	TURCHEN	JAMES	[{"inventor_name_last": "Vanniarajan", "inventor_name_first": "Kadirvel Chockalingam", "inventor_city": "Hyderabad", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "IN"}]	A method of communicating data over a network is provided. A secure tunnel may be implemented through the network between two computers. Performance limitations of the secure tunnel with a single session can be alleviated by establishing multiple sessions for the tunnel.	1. A method of communicating data over a network, the method comprising acts of: establishing a first secure point-to-point session through the network between a first computer and a second computer; establishing a second secure point-to-point session through the network between the first computer and the second computer; and implementing a secure tunnel through the network between the first computer and the second computer employing both the first secure point-to-point session and the second secure point-to-point session. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein establishing the second secure point-to-point session comprises authenticating the second secure point-to-point session using authentication parameters negotiated during the act of establishing the first secure point-to-point session. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the first computer comprises a client, wherein the second computer comprises a server, wherein the act of establishing the second secure point-to-point session comprises sending an authentication credential from the first computer to the second computer for the client to authenticate with the server, and wherein the connection identification is provided by the server to the client during authentication of the first secure point-to-point session. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the act of implementing the secure tunnel comprises implementing a secure socket tunneling protocol. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the act of implementing the secure tunnel comprises implementing a virtual private network tunnel based on a secure socket tunneling protocol. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the first secure point-to-point session and the second secure point-to-point session are associated with the secure tunnel via a same authentication. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the same authentication for the first secure point-to-point session and the second secure point-to-point session comprises the client authenticating the server using a secure socket layer channel and the server authenticating the client using a point-to-point protocol. 8. The method of claim 1 further comprising: determining at least one performance characteristic of the secure tunnel; and wherein the act of establishing the second secure point-to-point session is performed when it is determined that the at least one performance characteristic is below a threshold. 9. The method of claim 8 further comprising determining whether throughput of the secure tunnel is lower than available bandwidth of the network. 10. The method of claim 8 further comprising determining whether latency in the secure tunnel is above a threshold. 11. The method of claim 8 further comprising determining whether data loss in the network between the client and server is above a threshold. 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the first computer comprises a client, wherein the second computer comprises a server, and wherein the act of establishing the second secure point-to-point session comprises: sending from the client a call connect request including a session cookie; validating by the server the call connect request using the session cookie; sending from the server a call connect acknowledgment with a challenge for a crypto-binding; sending from the client a call connected message with the crypto-binding to indicate that the second secure point-to-point session can be established; and validating by the server the crypto-binding to authenticate the client. 13. At least one computer-readable medium having stored thereon computer-executable instructions that, when executed, perform a method of communicating data over a network, the method comprising: establishing a first secure point-to-point session through the network between a first computer and a second computer; establishing a second secure point-to-point session through the network between the first computer and the second computer; and implementing a secure tunnel through the network between the first computer and the second computer employing both the first secure point-to-point session and the second secure point-to-point session. 14. The computer-readable medium of claim 13, wherein the act of implementing the secure tunnel comprises implementing a secure socket tunneling protocol. 15. The computer-readable medium of claim 13, wherein the method of communicating data over the network further comprises: determining at least one performance characteristic of the secure tunnel; and wherein the act of establishing the second secure point-to-point session is performed when it is determined that the at least one performance characteristic is below a threshold. 16. The computer-readable medium of claim 13, wherein the method of communicating data over the network comprises determining whether throughput of the secure channel is lower than available bandwidth of the network. 17. The computer-readable medium of claim 13, wherein the method of communicating data over the network comprises determining whether latency in the secure tunnel is above a threshold. 18. A computer comprising: at least one processor programmed to: establish a first secure point-to-point session through a network between the computer and another computer; establish a second secure point-to-point session through the network between the computer and another computer; and implement a secure tunnel through the network between the computer and another computer employing both the first secure point-to-point session and the second secure point-to-point session. 19. The computer of claim 18, wherein the first secure point-to-point session and the second secure point-to-point session are associated with the secure tunnel via a same authentication. 20. The computer of claim 18, wherein the at least one processor is further programmed to: automatically establish the second secure point-to-point session when it is determined that at least one performance characteristic of the secure tunnel is below a threshold.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In recent years, both the mobility of users of computing devices and the number of locations where users can receive network access have increased significantly. Reliable and secure networks are desirable for many enterprises (e.g., business, government, agencies, etc.). Thus, it is desirable to enable a remote user working outside an enterprise network to connect to the network in a secure fashion, often via a public network (e.g., the Internet). Among many techniques developed to transmit traffic over a public network, virtual private network (VPN) technology is widely used to provide a secure tunnel between remote users and an enterprise network by enabling exchange of encrypted data over any public network, such as, for example, the Internet or other wide area networks. VPN technology typically encompasses protocols such as, for example, Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) and Layer Two Tunneling Protocol with Internet Protocol security (L2TP/IPSec).	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Applicants have appreciated that performance of a secure tunnel may be limited by performance of the underlying connection (e.g., a TCP connection for SSTP). For example, the bandwidth that the TCP connection can utilize may be less than an available bandwidth, which may impact performance of the secure tunnel. To improve network utilization in one embodiment, multiple secure sessions for a single secure tunnel between end points (e.g., a client and a server) may be established. This alleviates the problem associated with underutilizing capabilities of the connection. The overall throughput achieved by a secure tunnel over a connection (e.g., TCP connection) may be increased by establishing multiple sessions over the tunnel. After establishing a secure tunnel with a first session, a technique may be used to securely associate additional sessions established for the same secure tunnel. The multiple sessions over the SSTP tunnel may be transparent to applications and protocols transmitting data over the tunnel.	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In recent years, both the mobility of users of computing devices and the number of locations where users can receive network access have increased significantly. Reliable and secure networks are desirable for many enterprises (e.g., business, government, agencies, etc.). Thus, it is desirable to enable a remote user working outside an enterprise network to connect to the network in a secure fashion, often via a public network (e.g., the Internet). Among many techniques developed to transmit traffic over a public network, virtual private network (VPN) technology is widely used to provide a secure tunnel between remote users and an enterprise network by enabling exchange of encrypted data over any public network, such as, for example, the Internet or other wide area networks. VPN technology typically encompasses protocols such as, for example, Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) and Layer Two Tunneling Protocol with Internet Protocol security (L2TP/IPSec). SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Applicants have appreciated that performance of a secure tunnel may be limited by performance of the underlying connection (e.g., a TCP connection for SSTP). For example, the bandwidth that the TCP connection can utilize may be less than an available bandwidth, which may impact performance of the secure tunnel. To improve network utilization in one embodiment, multiple secure sessions for a single secure tunnel between end points (e.g., a client and a server) may be established. This alleviates the problem associated with underutilizing capabilities of the connection. The overall throughput achieved by a secure tunnel over a connection (e.g., TCP connection) may be increased by establishing multiple sessions over the tunnel. After establishing a secure tunnel with a first session, a technique may be used to securely associate additional sessions established for the same secure tunnel. The multiple sessions over the SSTP tunnel may be transparent to applications and protocols transmitting data over the tunnel. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings are not intended to be drawn to scale. In the drawings, each identical or nearly identical component that is illustrated in various figures is represented by a like numeral. For purposes of clarity, not every component may be labeled in every drawing. In the drawings: FIG. 1 is a is a conceptual illustration of an environment in which data may be sent over a VPN connection; FIG. 2 is a schematic block diagram of two computers connected via a SSTP connection in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a schematic block diagram of functional blocks supporting a SSTP connection in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a schematic block diagram illustrating user and kernel mode components that support a SSTP tunnel in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a flow chart illustrating a method of establishing multiple sessions over a SSTP tunnel in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 6A-6D are schematic diagrams illustrating of a process of authentication of a client and a server to establish multiple sessions over a SSTP tunnel in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram illustrating a computing device on which embodiments of the invention can be implemented. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Data sent between computers in an encrypted form over a network using existing VPN protocols may encounter difficulties in, for example, traversing network address translation (NAT) routers, proxy server and firewalls located between the computers. VPN protocols often require special set up in these routers, proxies and firewalls. Recently developed Secure Socket Tunneling Protocol (SSTP) is a secure tunneling protocol over hypertext transport protocol secure (HTTPS) connection that may support tunneling for any application or protocol. SSTP may allow any network traffic on top of it to be NAT and firewall friendly since HTTPS can traverse virtually all firewalls, proxies (e.g., an internet server provider (ISP) proxy) and is NAT friendly. An example of a network traffic that can be carried over SSTP is a point-to-point protocol (PPP) traffic. Using PPP, which may provide client authentication, provides a mechanism to use SSTP as a SSTP tunnel. A SSTP tunnel may be established over a secure channel (e.g., HTTPS channel) on top of a network connection such as a TCP connection. Embodiments of the present invention are directed to establishing multiple sessions for a secure tunnel through a network between two computers. In some embodiments of the invention, the secure tunnel is based on the recently developed SSTP and is a SSTP tunnel. However, the invention is not limited in this respect, as multiple sessions may be used to improve performance of other types of tunnels. As mentioned above, the inventors have appreciated that performance limitations of a network connection over which a secure tunnel is established may affect performance of the secure tunnel. Examples of network performance characteristics associated with a TCP connection may be bandwidth utilization, packet loss and latency. The inventors have further appreciated that drawbacks associated with network performance limitations of a secure tunnel (e.g., a SSTP tunnel) with a single session can be alleviated by establishing multiple sessions in parallel for the tunnel. Multiple sessions enable improved performance for the connection, as information may travel over the multiple sessions simultaneously as a connection may be provided with multiple sessions in a manner that is transparent to any applications utilizing the connection. When network characteristics indicate that a secure tunnel with a single session underutilizes network capabilities, one or more additional sessions may be established. In one embodiment described in detail below, the tunnel provided with multiple sessions is a SSTP tunnel. However, it should be appreciated that the invention is not limited in this respect and that multiple sessions can also be provided for other types of tunnels. In one embodiment of the invention, a SSTP tunnel with a single SSTP session may be established between computers, for example, a client and a server. To establish the tunnel, a client may connect to a server (e.g., using HTTPS). The server may be a VPN server or other server that serves as a gateway to an enterprise network. After the client connects to the server using HTTPS or other protocol, a higher-level protocol (e.g., PPP) may then negotiate and initiate as described in more detail below. FIG. 1 illustrates an example of a computer system 100 on which aspects of the invention may be implemented. Computer system 100 comprises a client 102 and a server 104 communicating over a network 106. Network 106 may be a public network such as the Internet, but the invention is not limited in this respect, as network 106 may be any suitable network. In one embodiment of the invention, server 104 is a SSTP server and client 102 is a SSTP client, meaning that each is capable of forming a connection using SSTP. Client 102 and server 104 may comprise one or more computing devices that include software or components allowing creating a SSTP channel between client 102 and server 104. Therefore, both client 102 and server 104 may include components implemented in software, hardware or combination thereof that provide functionality enabling establishing a secure tunnel between the client and the server. Server 104 may act as a gateway for a single computing device or multiple computing devices. In the example illustrated, computers 112 that operate behind server 104 may belong, for example, to an enterprise network. Client 102, when located outside the enterprise network, may access applications on computers 112 via server 104. It should be appreciated that any of the computers described above and any of their components can be implemented in any of numerous ways. For example, the functional components or operations described herein may be implemented using software, hardware or a combination thereof. When implemented in software, the software code can be executed on any suitable processor or collection of processors, whether provided in a single computer or distributed among multiple computers. Further, it should be appreciated that a computer may be embodied in any of a number of forms, such as a rack-mounted computer, a desktop computer, a laptop computer, or a tablet computer. Additionally, a computer may be embedded in a device not generally regarded as a computer but with suitable processing capabilities, including a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA), a smart phone or any other suitable portable or fixed electronic device. As shown in FIG. 1, SSTP tunnel 108 may be created through network 106. SSTP tunnel 106 is a secure communication channel over which data may be securely (e.g., via encryption) transmitted over network 106. In some embodiments of the invention, SSTP tunnel 106 is a VPN tunnel that utilizes the SSTP protocol. However, it should be appreciated that the invention is not limited in this respect and that other protocols may be used to create a tunnel. Furthermore, the SSTP protocol may serve as a firewall traversal mechanism for any suitable network connection. A connection utilizing the SSTP protocol is referred to herein as a SSTP connection. An SSTP connection can be implemented, for example, as shown in the examples which follow, and as described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/561,947, entitled “SECURE TUNNEL OVER HTTPS CONNECTION,” filed on Nov. 21, 2006, which is incorporated herein by reference. Some changes have been made to reflect updates to the SSTP protocol. FIG. 2 is a schematic block diagram of two computers (e.g., a client and a server) connected via a SSTP connection according to one embodiment of the invention. A first computer 202 (e.g., client 102 from FIG. 1 supporting user applications such as email, web browsing, database access, etc.) may be coupled to a second computer 204 (e.g., server 104 from FIG. 1). In the exemplary embodiment, the first computer 202 is outside an enterprise network protected, for example, by a firewall. The second computer 204 may be a server supporting client-server communications for the applications on the first computer 202. However, the invention is not limited in this respect, and the second computer 204 may be a remote access server dedicated to serving as gateway supporting communications with computers outside the enterprise network. The computers 202 and 204 may be connected via network 206, which may be a public network such as the Internet. Application 208 and other applications represented by “Application n” 210 may send and receive data using client network interface 212. The client network interface 212 may present a communication application programming interface (API) 214 to the applications 208 and 210. One example of the communication API is an API to implement the PPP. It should be appreciated that the invention is not limited in this respect, as any protocol can be supported as long as both computers 202 and 204 agree to it. The client network interface 212 may include an HTTPS module 216 for coupling to the network 206. At the server side, a server network interface 218 may include an HTTPS module 220 coupled to the network 206 and may also include a communication API 224. Communication API 224 may attach to one or more server hosting applications (e.g., 226-230). In one embodiment, one of the server applications may include an authentication server 230. The authentication server 230 may be used to authenticate client credentials during session startup, and may also include support for secure socket layer (SSL) key exchange as part of establishing the HTTPS session. Traffic between the second computer 204 and various application servers (e.g., 226, 228 and 230) may be routed using IP/IPv6 routing protocols or other routing protocols. In one embodiment, an application on the client, such as, for example, a web browser application, may start up and connect with the network 206 via, for example, an Internet Service Provider (ISP). A connection may be established to the server network interface 218 from the client network interface 212 to establish a SSTP tunnel, which is discussed in more detail below. After establishing the SSTP tunnel, the server network interface 218 may forward data traffic to one or more of the server applications 226, 228 and 230 using an agreed to protocol, for example, PPP. In one exemplary embodiment, for example, in a corporate environment, the authentication server 230 may be used to establish the identity of a user at the first computer 202. Once the user has been authenticated, the user may be granted access to one or more corporate applications, such as e-mail, database access, corporate bulletin boards, etc. FIG. 3 is an exemplary block diagram of functional components or modules supporting a SSTP connection according to one embodiment of the invention. The SSTP connection may be used to transmit outbound traffic from a computer such as, for example, the first computer 202 or the second computer 204 illustrated in FIG. 2. Data transmission using the SSTP protocol may follow a three stage process: (1) secure session establishment, (2) SSTP control traffic, and (3) SSTP data traffic. Secure session establishment involves establishing a TCP connection between the client and server followed by a standard SSL handshake, including Diffie-Hellman key exchange. These establish a HTTPS session. Once the HTTPS session is established, a SSTP driver (SSTPDRV) may activate a state machine that manages the SSTP protocol. A PPP session negotiation may then be made over the SSTP connection and the PPP session is in place, the channel is ready for tunneling application traffic through the network via the PPP protocol. After the initial session setup and security negotiation are complete, an application 302 may send data to a socket interface 304, such as, for example, a Winsock interface. The socket interface 304 may pass the data down the protocol stack to a TCP/IP interface 306. The TCP/IP interface 306 may then determine that the packet is destined for the SSTP tunnel and route the data to the appropriate protocol layer, which, in one embodiment, is a PPP module 308. The SSTP protocol may exist at the same level as other secure protocols, such as, for example, PPTP 310 or L2TP 312. The PPP module 308 performs PPP framing and encapsulation and passes the data to a dedicated SSTP module 314. The SSTP module 314 may handle interactions between the kernel and user modes, perform specialized buffering, support SSTP command set and perform other suitable functions. The processed data may then be sent to the HTTPS module 316 for encryption using SSL and sent back to the TCP/IP interface 306. The TCP/IP interface 306 may recognize this traffic as standard HTTPS traffic and may route it to the network 318. HTTPS traffic is widely used for such applications as, for example, Internet commerce, and is usually not blocked by ISPs or firewalls. When used with a web proxy, the HTTPS traffic is forwarded to an appropriate port, such as, for example, a standard HTTPS port 443. Data over the secure tunnel using the SSTP protocol may include control traffic and data traffic. An exemplary command set for control and data traffic and their corresponding packet format follows. The SSTP protocol consists of two types of packets: Control Packet (SCP—SSTP Control Packet); Data Packet (SDP—SSTP Data Packet). As the names imply, the control packet may be some channel specific control message and the data packet carries the data from the higher layer. The SSTP protocol has a primary header which will be common across both the control and the data message. typedefBYTE SSTP_PACKET_TYPE, PSSTP_PACKET_TYPE; #define SSTP_PACKET_TYPE_CONTROL ((BYTE)0) #define SSTP_PACKET_TYPE_DATA ((BYTE)1) #define SSTP_VERSION_1 ((BYTE)0x00010000) typedef struct _SSTP_LENGTH { USHORT Reserved : 4; USHORT Length : 12; } SSTP_LENGTH, PSSTP_LENGTH; typedef struct _SSTP_HEADER { BYTE Version; BYTE Reserved:7; BYTE ControlMessage:1; SSTP_LENGTH Length; union { SSTP_CONTROL_MESSAGE ControlMessage; BYTE Payload[0] }; } SSTP_HEADER, PSSTP_HEADER; Version—1 Byte Control/Data—1 byte with just the least significant bit being used. The rest are reserved bits Length—2 Bytes—Restricted to 12 bits The Length field is the length of the SSTP packet excluding the SSTP_HEADER. It cannot exceed 4095 bytes. The SSTP protocol should not accept transmission requests (from higher layers—in our case PPP) exceeding this limit, as otherwise SSTP protocol will have to handle fragmentation. Control Message Format The SSTP control message, as discussed above, will be present after the SSTP_HEADER, provided the PacketType is SSTP_PACKET_TYPE_CONTROL. The control message will consist of a ControlMessageType and a number of attribute-length-value fields which form the complete control message. The control message types are defined as follows: Name Value SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECT_REQUEST 0x0001 SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECT_ACK 0x0002 SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECT_NAK 0x0003 SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECTED 0x0004 SSTP_MSG_CALL_ABORT 0x0005 SSTP_MSG_CALL_DISCONNECT 0x0006 SSTP_MSG_CALL_DISCONNECT_ACK 0x0007 SSTP_MSG_ECHO_REQUEST 0x0008 SSTP_MSG_ECHO_RESPONSE 0x0009 typedef struct _SSTP_CONTROL_MESSAGE { USHORT MessageType; USHORT NumAttributes; BYTE Attributes[0]; } SSTP_CONTROL_MESSAGE, PSSTP_CONTROL_MESSAGE; typedef struct _SSTP_CONTROL_ATTRIBUTE { BYTE Reserved; // Can be used for metadata for attribute BYTE AttributeId; SSTP_LENGTH AttributeLength; BYTE Value[0]; // Of size AttributeLength bytes to follow } SSTP_CONTROL_ATTRIBUTE, PSSTP_CONTROL_ATTRIBUTE; Name Value SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_ENCAPSULATED_PROTOCOL_ID 0x01 SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_STATUS_INFO 0x02 SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_CRYPTO_BINDING 0x03 SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_CRYPTO_BINDING_REQ 0x04 SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_SESSION_COOKIE 0x05 The SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_SESSION_COOKIE is an optional attribute which, when sent in the SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECT_REQUEST, may act as a differentiator for the server to categorize this request to be a new session to an already existing SSTP connection as against a new SSTP connection itself. This optional attribute may be a nonce received with an earlier connection establishment from the server. The SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_CRYPTO_BINDING_REQ attribute may be sent by the server to the client if it chooses to validate the authenticity of the client based on the authentication data from the higher layer (for example, PPP). This may comprise the nonce, which may be the session cookie for multi-session establishment, and the hash protocol to be used for computing the crypto-binding. The SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_CRYPTO_BINDING is an attribute sent by the client to the server once the higher layer authentication is complete which may use the hash algorithm as specified by the server and use the higher layer authentication data to compute the crypto-binding value. The SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_COMPLETION_STATUS attribute is used to indicate the completion status of a request. This can occur more than once in a control message. The value is of 8 bytes size with the following structure: typedef struct _SSTP_ATTRIB_VALUE_COMPLETION_STATUS { BYTE Reserved[3]; BYTE AttribId; DWORD Status; BYTE AttribValue [0]; } SSTP_ATTRIB_VALUE_COMPLETION_STATUS, PSSTP_ATTRIB_VALUE_COMPLETION_STATUS; In a negative acknowledgement (NAK) message, this attribute will provide more information on why a specific attribute is being rejected. For example, a server may response with AttribId SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_ENCAPSULATED_PROTOCOL_ID and Status being ERROR_NOT_SUPPORTED to indicate that transporting the specific protocol over SSTP is not supported by the server. In the above event, the original attribute has some specific value to which the server is not adhering, this attribute will have some value specific to the attribute being rejected starting with AttribValue. For example, if the client is negotiating for SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_ENCAPSULATED_PROTOCOL_ID with values A, B and C, if the server is not accepting B and C, it may send 2 COMPLETION_STATUS attribute with the AttribValue holding a USHORT of the protocol ID not being accepted. If the attribute value that is being rejected exceeds 64 bytes, the value size will be truncated to 64 bytes in the NAK message. The SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_ENCAPSULATED_PROTOCOL_ID attribute specifies the protocol id that will be transmitted over the SSTP encapsulation. In a given message, there can be multiples of this attribute for all the various protocol IDs to be supported. typedef enum_SSTP_ENCAPSULATED_PROTOCOL_ID { SSTP_PROTOCOL_ID_PPP =1 } SSTP_ENCAPSULATED_PROTOCOL_ID, *PSSTP_ENCAPSULATED_PROTOCOL_ID; When a client tries to establish a SSTP session with the server, the SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECT_REQUEST attribute will be the first message that gets sent out. This has the following attributes: SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_PRIMARY_SESSION_COOKIE SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_ENCAPSULATED_PROTOCOL_ID A client can resend this message with different values for the various attributes (or a different set of attributes) based on the outcome of the earlier request. There may be a predefined number of renegotiation of parameters after which the connection will be aborted. SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECT_ACK may be sent in response to a connect request and it will have the CRYPTO_BINDING_REQ. Otherwise, this message will not have any attributes: SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_CRYPTO_BINDING_REQ. The SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECT_NAK attribute may be sent in response to a connect request and it will have the list of attributes that are not accepted by the server. In response to a NAK, the client MUST send out a new CONNECT_REQUEST with all the attributes and their values that it wants. It cannot provide only the adjusted values. Unless the server is ACKing, it will not store the attribute values passed by the client. The SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECTED attribute may be sent by the client to complete the handshake with the server in response to SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECT_ACK. This may have the SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_CRYPTO_BINDING computed after the higher layer authentication is done. When a client wants to add more sessions to an existing SSTP session, it may do so by passing the SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_PRIMARY_SESSION_COOKIE (which may be a nonce established in the earlier session establishment) in SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECT_REQUEST. This may enable the server to identify the appropriate authentication data that should be used to validate the crypto-binding. The server will provide the SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_CALL_CONNECT_ACK with the crypto-binding request with a different Nonce value which the client has to use to recomputed the crypto-binding. SSTP_MSG_CALL_ECHO_REQUEST is a keep-alive message and it does not have any associated attributes. SSTP_SG_CALL_ECHO_RESPONSE is a keep-alive message sent in response to the echo request and it doesn't have any attributes associated. If the response has not been received from the remote site for 2 iterations and there is no data traffic flowing, the connection will be aborted. The SSTP_MSG_CALL_DISCONNECT attribute may be sent by either the client/server to initiate disconnect. All the data packets received from the server after a disconnect request has been sent will be dropped. This can optionally have a SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_COMPLETION_STATUS. After the disconnect request has been sent to the remote site, the local site should wait for a disconnect timeout or until the disconnect ACK is received. There will not be any retransmission done. The SSTP_MSG_CALL_DISCONNECT_ACK attribute may be sent by either the client or server, after receiving the SSTP_MSG_CALL_DISCONNECT from the remote site. This may not have any attributes. The SSTP_MSG_CALL_ABORT attribute may be sent whenever there is a failure in the basic SSTP negotiation. It could be a failure to converge on the connect request parameters or it could be due to a failure to match the Fast Reconnect cookie to a connection context. This may have the SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_COMPLETION_STATUS to indicate the reason for the failure. Data Message Format When the ControlMessage bit is OFF, the payload will represent the protocol data negotiated. As discussed above, in one embodiment, the payload of one protocol may be supported. However, in another embodiment, the SSTP channel protocol may be used to route packets of heterogeneous protocols. FIG. 4 is a simplified and representative block diagram of functional blocks (e.g., components or modules) supporting one embodiment of a SSTP connection showing the relationships of the functional blocks with respect to user and kernel modes of operation. This figure is used to illustrate in more detail the control and data traffic associated with the SSTP protocol. User mode modules 402 support all user applications and are restricted from direct access to hardware. Kernel mode modules 404 maintain control over all hardware resources and are the only modules to have direct access to hardware, such as a network interface. In this illustrative figure, the user mode modules are an application/socket interface 406, a remote access connection manager and PPP engine 408 (RASMAN), a SSTP service 410 (SSTPSVC) and a HTTP/WinHTTP module 412. Kernel mode modules include a network driver interface specification 414 (NDIS) that is the definition of application to hardware network protocols and HTTP/HTTPS system files 416. The NDIS 414 includes a TCP/IP module 418, a wide area network (WAN) framing module 420, a NDIS wide area network module 422, and a SSTP driver 424 (SSTPDRV). The dashed lines in FIG. 4 indicate trans-mode connections, while solid lines indicate connections within a mode. In operation, after the HTTPS session is successfully established (e.g., a TCP connection and the SSL handshake are performed), the SSTPSVC 410 at a first computer, e.g., first computer 202 of FIG. 2, may setup a SSTP session context with the remote site, for example, second computer 204 of FIG. 2. That is, after the SSL handshake is done, the SSTPSVC 410 may trigger contextual setup activity within the HTTPS module. After this is done, the SSTPDRV 424 may then start a SSTP finite state machine over the HTTPS session. During this phase, only SSTPDRV/SSTPSVC 410 and 424 and HTTPS 416 modules are interacting. Once this setup is complete, a binding will be created between the NDISWAN 422 and the SSTP session. The remote access connection manager (RASMAN) 408 may be notified of the SSTP session by the NDISWAN and may initiate the PPP negotiation over the SSTP connection. The PPP finite state machine may be implemented in the RASMAN 408 (within a loaded PPP module). The PPP control packet will be passed directly from RASMAN 408 to the NDISWAN 422. The NDISWAN 422 will pass it to SSTPDRV 424. The SSTP driver will hand over the packet to SSTPSVC 410 and the SSTPSVC 410 will pass it on to HTTPS module 412. Typically, the HTTPS module 412 passes the data to the TCP/IP module 418 for routing over the network. There will be an outstanding SSTP_POST request with just the initial header sent to the remote server. The server will immediately reply back with a PUT response. The PUT request continuation (as entity body) will form the client-to-server data traffic and the response entity body will be the server-to-client data traffic. After the headers are exchanged, the SSTP protocol is available for use. After the PPP negotiation is complete, the channel may be ready for tunneling application traffic. When the channeling tunnel is ready, data traffic may be carried over the link. The kernel mode TCP/IP module 418 may accept traffic in a form of a data packet from the application and socket interface 406 in the user mode. The TCP/IP module 418 identifies that the packet is to be routed through the SSTP tunnel and hands it over to the WAN framing module 420. The WAN framing module 420 may map the connection (SSTP) to a correct interface and pass it to the NDISWAN module 422. This is roughly the equivalent to PPP module 308 of FIG. 3. The NDISWAN module 422 is responsible for PPP framing and compression. Any encryption that might be done at a PPP module at this layer is turned off because it will be SSL encrypted. From this point on, the sequence of operations will be the same as the control traffic above, that is, to the RASMAN 408, SSTPDRV 414, SSTPSVC 410 and HTTPS module 416. Once the SSTP/PPP encapsulated data bytes reach the HTTPS module, the HTTPS module will send them over the TCP connection (default port 443) after doing SSL encryption. So the packet again comes to TCP/IP module 418 from the user-mode HTTPS module but the routing will determine that this traffic may go over the Ethernet interface (not shown) instead of to the WAN framing module 420 as with the original application data. The description above describes how a secure tunnel (e.g., a SSTP tunnel) with a single link (e.g., a single SSTP session) may be established. Using the SSTP protocol, data traffic (e.g., PPP traffic), which is datagram oriented may be encapsulated over stream oriented SSL session. Therefore, the PPP traffic may traverse NATs and firewalls. SSL may enable data encryption and PPP may enable client authentication. As described above, Applicants have appreciated that network capabilities may sometimes be underutilized when a secure tunnel is used to transmit data between a client and a server, such that benefits can be achieved by employing multiple sessions for a secure tunnel. In some embodiments, the performance of the network can be evaluated (e.g., by evaluating one or more network characteristics) to evaluate the desirability of forming multiple links for a single secure tunnel. In some embodiments of the invention, the network characteristics that may be monitored and/or evaluates to determine whether additional sessions or links may be desired may comprise network latency and/or packet loss rate. However, it should be appreciated that the invention is not limited in this respect, as any other suitable network characteristics may be used to make a decision regarding the desirability of establishing multiple sessions for a secure tunnel. The bandwidth under-utilization may depend on the Network latency and packet loss rate. The available bandwidth is typically negotiated between a client computer and an ISP, and can be measured in any suitable way. Some client computers (e.g., SSTP client 102 or 202) include components that provide functionality of measuring network latency between the client and a server. For example, SSTP module 314 shown in FIG. 3 and/or the TCP/IP protocol stack of the client computer may be used to measure latency using known techniques. However, the embodiment wherein latency is evaluated to determine the desirability of establishing multiple links is not limited to using these techniques for measuring latency, as any suitable technique may be employed. FIG. 5 is a flow chart that schematically illustrates a method of establishing multiple sessions for a SSTP tunnel in accordance with one embodiment of the invention. The process may start at block 502 where a SSTP tunnel is established between any two computers (e.g., a client and a server) that are enabled to be connected via a secure tunnel. It should be appreciated that in the example illustrated, the secure tunnel is a VPN tunnel based on the SSTP protocol, but the invention is not limited in this respect, and can be used to establish multiple links for other types of secure tunnels based on SSTP. In the description below, the connection is described as by a tunnel between a client and server, with the client initiating the establishment of multiple links, but the invention is not limited in this respect, as the method can be employed between any two computers. The SSTP tunnel may be established in any suitable way. For example, as described above, the client may connect to the server via a TCP connection followed by a SSL handshake which establishes a HTTPS session. A state machine that manages the SSTP protocol may then by activated by a SSTP driver (e.g., SSTPDRV 424) to establish a SSTP connection. This may be followed by negotiating a PPP session over the SSTP connection which renders the SSTP tunnel ready for tunneling application traffic via the PPP protocol. It should be appreciated that any suitable application traffic using any suitable protocol may be communicated over the SSTP connection. To determine whether it is desirable to add additional links for the established SSTP tunnel, performance parameters of the TCP connection may be measured, as shown in block 504. Available bandwidth may be higher than bandwidth that a TCP connection may utilize, which may affect performance of the SSTP tunnel established over the TCP connection. As mentioned above, any suitable parameters may be measured. For example, such performance measure parameters as, for example, network connection latency (e.g., the time required for a byte to travel from one end of the connection to another) and data loss rate, may be determined by a SSTP layer (e.g., SSTP module 314) or within the TCP/IP stack (e.g., by TCP/IP module 418). In some embodiments, the additional links may also be established based on configuration settings present in the system. In one embodiment of the invention, network latency of data traffic between the client and the server higher than 100 milliseconds and/or data loss greater than 10% may indicate that the TCP connection is saturated at a throughput of about 2 Mbps, despite the fact that available bandwidth may be higher. Thus, such conditions may indicate that the performance of the connection may benefit from forming additional links. It should be appreciated that the invention is not limited in this respect, as other thresholds for latency and/or data loss may be used, and other network performance measure parameters may be evaluated, to determine that performance of the SSTP tunnel could be improved via one or more additional links. Based on the measurements of the network performance, in decision block 506, it may be determined whether the capabilities of the network connection are underutilized. If so, the process proceeds to block 508, where the client may send a request to the server to establish another session over the existing SSTP tunnel. Otherwise, if the measured network characteristics do not indicate that the network is underutilized, the process may return to block 504 where network performance may continue to be monitored. In accordance with one embodiment, it is desirable to employ some techniques for associating multiple links established for a single tunnel, so that the multiple links can be used in parallel for the tunnel, as opposed to being treated as forming separate tunnels. This can be done in any suitable way, as the invention is not limited in this respect. In one embodiment, upon sending the request to the server to establish an additional session over the SSTP tunnel in block 508, the client authenticates with the server to associate the additional session with the SSTP tunnel, as shown in block 510. This can be done in any suitable way. In one embodiment, a crypto-binding mechanism may be provided by the SSTP protocol whereby a higher-layer protocol (e.g., PPP) may provide the client authentication, which is described in detail below. The process may then proceed to block 512 where the additional session over the SSTP tunnel may be established. The client may optionally return to block 504 to continue monitoring network performance to determine whether more sessions should be established over the SSTP tunnel. In one embodiment, the use of multiple SSTP sessions in a SSTP tunnel may be transparent to applications communicating via the tunnel. Data may be distributed among the multiple sessions using any suitable technique, including a round-robin mechanism or any other. Furthermore, data may be sent based on characteristics of the applications and protocols utilizing the tunnel. In some embodiments of the invention, data is distinguished along the multiple sessions. As described above, in one embodiment, additional sessions established for a secure tunnel are associated with the tunnel. In one embodiment, an authentication mechanism based on the Fast Reconnect of the SSTP protocol may be used to perform the authentication of multiple sessions within a secure tunnel such as a SSTP tunnel, although other techniques are possible. The Fast Reconnect may demonstrate that a new SSTP session belongs to the same client that negotiated a higher protocol layer (e.g., a PPP layer). As described above, during the SSL handshake, or negotiation, performed as part of a HTTPS session establishment, the SSTP client may authenticate the SSTP server. The SSTP server may optionally authenticate the SSTP client. When the client is not authenticated with the SSTP server, there is a risk of an attacker implementing a man-in-the-middle attack whereby the attacker may establish a HTTPS connection to the SSTP server and forward data packets (e.g., PPP packets) that are received from the SSTP client for communications other than SSTP communications (e.g., wireless communications). To prevent man-in-the-middle attacks, the authentication of the SSTP client with the SSTP server and the authentication of the SSTP server with the SSTP client may be cryptographically bound. The SSTP protocol may implement such cryptographic binding by requiring the client send, as a SSTP message, a value derived from authentication parameters negotiated during an authentication provided by a higher-layer protocol (e.g., PPP authentication) over the HTTPS connection. However, the invention is not limited in this respect, as other authentication credentials may be used as part of the SSTP message. For example, in one embodiment, a cryptographic nonce may be substituted. The SSTP client may be authenticated by the SSTP server during the higher-layer protocol authentication. Using the SSTP message, the SSTP client can prove that it was authenticated with the SSTP server, and the higher-layer protocol authentication was for SSTP communications. Because the client has already been authenticated to the SSTP server during SSL negotiation as part of HTTPS connection establishment, the client can also confirm from the SSTP server either that there is no man-in-the-middle attack or that the entity between the client and server is an entity that the SSTP server may trust. This process, which is referred to herein as crypto-binding, may be used to protect the SSTP connection against man-in-the-middle attacks. The crypto-binding mechanism may be used to establish additional sessions over the SSTP tunnel, which is schematically shown in FIGS. 6A-6D. As illustrated in FIG. 6A, a server (e.g., a SSTP server) sends a connection identification by way of example only as a nonce to a client (e.g., a SSTP client) during establishment of a secure tunnel 600 (e.g., a SSTP tunnel) with a single session 602 (e.g., a SSTP session). To establish an additional session over the secure tunnel, the client may send to the server a Call Connect Request that may comprise the nonce that was previously provided by the server to the client during establishment of the secure tunnel, as shown in FIG. 6B. The server may then authenticate the additional session using the nonce and send a Call Connect Acknowledgment to the client, along with a nonce for authentication of subsequent sessions, as shown in FIG. 6C. In essence, the server may validate that the client that is requesting additional session is the same client that has previously established the secure tunnel with the server. Finally, the client may send the server a Call Connected message along with the crypto-binding to establish the identity of the client as claimed with the nonce that it sent initially and an additional session 604 is established over the secure tunnel 604, as shown in FIG. 6D. Any higher-layer data traffic may now be transmitted over the session 604 or the session 602. It should be appreciated that the particular messages described above as being sent between the client and server are shown by way of example only and any other suitable messages and attributes may be used. The methods and systems described herein can be implemented on any suitable computer system, including a single computer devices or a collection of distributed devices coupled in any suitable way. FIG. 7 illustrates an exemplary computer system for implementing some embodiments. FIG. 7 illustrates computing device 700, which includes at least one processor 702 and memory 704. Depending on the configuration and type of computing device, memory 704 may be volatile (such as RAM), non-volatile (such as ROM, flash memory, etc.) or some combination of the two. Device 700 may include at least some form of computer readable media. By way of example, and not limitation, computer readable media may comprise computer storage media. For example, device 700 may also include storage (removable and/or non-removable) including, but not limited to, magnetic or optical disks or tape. Such additional storage is illustrated in FIG. 7 by removable storage 708 and non-removable storage 710. Computer storage media may include volatile and nonvolatile media, removable, and non-removable media of any type for storing information such as computer readable instructions, data structures, program modules or other data. Memory 704, removable storage 608 and non-removable storage 710 all are examples of computer storage media. Computer storage media includes, but is not limited to, RAM, ROM, EEPROM, flash memory or other memory technology, CD-ROM, digital versatile disks (DVD) or other optical storage, magnetic cassettes, magnetic tape, magnetic disk storage or other magnetic storage devices, or any other medium which can be used to store the desired information and which can accessed by device 700. Any such computer storage media may be part of device 700. Device 700 may also contain network communications module(s) 712 that allow the device to communicate with other devices via one or more communication media. By way of example, and not limitation, communication media may include wired media such as a wired network or direct-wired connection, and wireless media such as acoustic, RF, infrared and other wireless media. Network communication module(s) 712 may be a component that is capable of providing an interface between device 700 and the one or more communication media, and may be one or more of a wired network card, a wireless network card, a modem, an infrared transceiver, an acoustic transceiver and/or any other suitable type of network communication module. In one embodiment, the methods and systems described herein may be implemented via software code that is stored on one or more computer readable media and includes instructions that when executed (e.g., on processor 702) implement parts or all of the techniques described herein. Device 700 may also have input device(s) 714 such as a keyboard, mouse, pen, voice input device, touch input device, etc. Output device(s) 716 such as a display, speakers, printer, etc. may also be included. All these devices are well known in the art and need not be discussed at length here. It should be appreciated that the techniques described herein are not limited to executing on any particular system or group of systems. For example, embodiments may run on one device or on a combination of devices. Also, it should be appreciated that the techniques described herein are not limited to any particular architecture, network, or communication protocol. The techniques described herein are not limited in their application to the details of construction and the arrangement of components set forth in the following description or illustrated in the drawings. The techniques described herein are capable of other embodiments and of being practiced or of being carried out in various ways. Also, the phraseology and terminology used herein is for the purpose of description and should not be regarded as limiting. The use of “including,” “comprising,” or “having,” “containing,” “involving,” and variations thereof herein, is meant to encompass the items listed thereafter and equivalents thereof as well as additional items.	H	H04	H04L	9	32
11671001	US20080126431A1-20080529	Method and Device for Data Backup	ACCEPTED	20080514	20080529		[]	G06F1730	["G06F1730", "G06F1200"]	7822725	20070205	20101026	707	698000	98964.0	BIBBEE	JARED	[{"inventor_name_last": "Walliser", "inventor_name_first": "Stefan", "inventor_city": "Zimmern o.R.", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Haug", "inventor_name_first": "Oliver", "inventor_city": "Rottweil", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Jiao", "inventor_name_first": "Yu", "inventor_city": "Villingen-Schwenningen", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Volk", "inventor_name_first": "Dejan", "inventor_city": "Rence", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "SI"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Beltram", "inventor_name_first": "Tomaz", "inventor_city": "Nova Gorica", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "SI"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Rejc", "inventor_name_first": "Dario", "inventor_city": "Ljubljana", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "SI"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Lautar", "inventor_name_first": "Igor", "inventor_city": "Trse", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "HR"}]	A method for storing data with a first storage system and a second storage system, wherein the second storage system is used for backing up the data from the first storage system, wherein the first storage system comprises a file system on which the data that is to be backed up is stored, with a client that monitors the first storage system, and a server that administers the second storage system, with the method comprising the following steps: checking the files on the first storage system for any changes by the client, depending on one or several events; if changes have been detected, determining a hash value in relation to the file, which hash value is structured such that the identity of the file can be determined, transmitting the hash value to the server, checking, by means of the hash value, by the server as to whether the identical file is stored on the second storage system, and if the file already exists, the file is not requested, but an annotation is made to the effect that the file is stored on the first storage system, and if the file does not exist, requesting the entire file, or parts of the file that have changed, from the first storage system, and storing the file on the second storage system, with an annotation relating to the first storage system.	1. A method for storing data, with a first storage system and a second storage system, wherein the second storage system is used for backing up the data from the first storage system, wherein the first storage system comprises a file system on which the data that is to be backed up is stored, with a client that monitors the first storage system, and a server that administers the second storage system, with the method comprising the following steps: checking the files on the first storage system for any changes by the client, depending on one or several events; if changes have been detected, determining a hash value in relation to the file, which hash value is structured such that the identity of the file can be determined, transmitting the hash value to the server, checking, by means of the hash value, by the server as to whether the identical file is stored on the second storage system, and if the file already exists, the file is not requested, but an annotation is made to the effect that the file is stored on the first storage system, and if the file does not exist, requesting the entire file, or parts of the file that have changed, from the first storage system, and storing the file on the second storage system, with an annotation relating to the first storage system. 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein the server comprises a database in which the hash values are stored such that a relation to the first storage system and to the file on the second storage system can be established. 3. The method according to claim 2, wherein in addition the position of the file in the file system is stored on the first storage system. 4. The method according to claim 1, wherein the hash is an SHA1 hash. 5. The method according to claim 1, wherein the hash is structured such that by means of the hash value it can be detected which parts, preferably blocks or regions, of the file have changed, so that only those parts that have changed are transmitted, and on the server this file is reconstituted by means of the existing file. 6. The method according to claim 1, wherein the hash value is expanded so that the allocation to a volume on the second storage system is evident from the hash value. 7. The method according to claim 1, wherein the second storage system has been designed so as to be redundant, and the data is stored at least in duplicate. 8. The method according to claim 7, wherein the storage system is set up hierarchically so that the data automatically migrates from one hierarchical level to the next. 9. The method according to claim 7, wherein hard disk systems and tape systems are used. 10. The method according to claim 7, wherein there are at least two independent hard disk systems, each of which is designed so as to be redundant. 11. The method according to claim 9, wherein there are at least two tape drives, which keep the data on different tapes as copies. 12. The method according to claim 10, wherein during storing and loading, by means of the hash value a check is made as to whether the data is correct. 13. The method according to claim 1, wherein for a backup a first time window for the storage period can be determined, and the server keeps the data for such a period of time as determined by the first time window. 14. The method according to claim 1, wherein for archival a second time window can be determined, and the server keeps the data for such a period of time as determined by the second time window. 15. The method according to claim 1, wherein criteria can be determined that selectively determine files or exclude files that are to be backed up or archived. 16. The method according to claim 1, wherein the server provides a web surface, by way of which a user can select files that are to be restored. 17. The method according to claim 1, wherein the server provides a NAS or an iSCSI system on the second storage system. 18. The method according to claim 1, wherein the client, using FindFirstChangeNotification by Microsoft®, monitors the files on the first storage system for changes. 19. The method according to claim 1, wherein the client at predeterminable intervals checks the files for any changes in order to then notify the server of such changes. 20. The method according to claim 1, wherein the client receives a message from the operating system to the effect that a file has been changed, so that subsequently a hash value can be calculated, which hash value is transmitted to the server. 21. A method for the backup or archival of e-mails that are stored on a first storage system, comprising a server that administers a second storage system on which the e-mails are to be backed up and/or archived, comprising a client that has access to the e-mails, involving the following steps: on the basis of a predetermined event, the client calculates a hash value for the e-mails; the hash value is transmitted to the server by the client; the server checks whether an e-mail with the same hash value already exists; if this is not the case the e-mail is requested by the client; otherwise the server makes an entry to the effect that the e-mail has been sent to a further recipient; the client sends a copy of the requested e-mail; the server stores the received e-mail on the second storage system in relation to a recipient. 22. The method according to claim 21, wherein hash values are specially calculated for the e-mail attachments so that the server can determine whether the attachment has already been backed up, so as to then only generate a reference to the attachment in relation to the e-mail, or to back up only the attachment or only the e-mail without attachment if said e-mail is not yet stored on the second storage system. 23. The method according to claim 21, wherein the client accesses the e-mails by way of an API of the mail server or by way of an API of the mail client. 24. The method according to claim 23, wherein the client accesses the e-mails by way of one or several of the following interfaces: journaling mailbox, MAPI, POP, IMAP. 25. The method according to claim 21, wherein the server comprises a database in which the hash values are stored such that a relation to the recipient of the e-mail can be established on the second storage system. 26. The method according to claim 21, wherein the hash is an SHA1 hash. 27. The method according to claim 21 wherein the hash value is expanded so that any allocation to a volume on the second storage system is evident from the hash value. 28. A method for the safe transfer of data in a hierarchical storage system, with the storage system comprising storage devices of different speeds, wherein the data automatically migrates from one hierarchy to another according to predeterminable criteria, comprising the following steps: generating a first hash value for the data, from which hash value the identity of the data can be established prior to migration; checking the integrity of the data after migration by reading the data and generating a second hash value so that it can be compared with the first hash value; and if the hash values do not agree, renewed copying of the data. 29. The method according to the claim 28, wherein the hash value is stored in a database so that fast access is made possible, wherein the database is preferably stored so as to be redundant. 30. The method according to the claim 28, wherein the data relates to files or e-mails. 31. The method according to the claim 28, wherein during storing and loading, checks are made, by means of the hash value, as to whether the data is correct. 32. The method according to the claim 28, wherein the hash is an SHA1 hash. 33. A client system that monitors a first storage system that accesses a network interface in order to transmit data to a server with a second storage system, wherein the second storage system is used for backing up the data of the first storage system, wherein the first storage system comprises a file system on which files are stored that are to be backed up, or is used to store e-mails, wherein the client comprises a processing unit for checking files, or a processing unit for checking e-mails, which processing unit checks whether any files or e-mails on the first storage system have been changed, comprising: a processing unit for generating hash values, which processing unit if any changes are detected generates a hash value in relation to the file or e-mail, which hash value is structured such that the identity of the file or e-mail can be determined; a communication unit which transmits the hash value to the server, which server checks whether a file or e-mail with a corresponding hash value is already stored on the second storage system, and, if the file or e-mail is not yet stored on the second storage system, sends the complete file or e-mail or parts thereof to the server. 34. The client system according to the claim 33, wherein the processing unit for the purpose of generating a hash value generates an SHA1-hash. 35. The client system according to claim 33, wherein the processing unit for hash-value generation creates the hash such that by means of the hash value it can be detected which parts, in particular blocks, of the file have changed, so that only those parts that have changed are transmitted, and on the server this file is reconstituted by means of the existing file. 36. The client system according to claim 33, wherein the processing unit for generating the hash value expands the hash value so that any allocation to a volume on the second storage system is evident from the hash value. 37. The client system according to claim 33, wherein the processing unit is designed to generate hash values in order to monitor e-mails of a mail server by a client, and calculate hash values for the mails that are transmitted to the server so that the server can determine which e-mails are to be transmitted as copies. 38. The client system according to the preceding claim 36, wherein the processing unit for generating hash values calculates hash values only for the e-mail attachments so that the server can determine whether the attachment has already been backed up, in order to then only generate a reference to the attachment. 39. The client system according to claim 33, wherein criteria can be determined that selectively determine files or exclude files that are to be checked for changes. 40. The client system according to claim 33, wherein the client by means of FindFirstChangeNotification by Microsoft® monitors the data on the first storage system for any changes. 41. The client system according to claim 33, wherein the client in predeterminable intervals examines the files for any changes, in order to then notify the server of such changes. 42. The client system according to claim 33, wherein the client receives a message from the operating system to the effect that a file has been changed, so that subsequently a hash value can be calculated that is transmitted to the server. 43. A server system for storing data from a client with a first storage system, wherein the server system administers a second storage system, wherein the second storage system is used for backing up the data from the first storage system, wherein the first storage system comprises a file system or a mail system on which files or e-mails are stored that are to be backed up, comprising a database in which unambiguous hash values of files or e-mails are stored that are stored on the first storage system, and whose copies are stored on the second storage system, wherein the database in relation to each hash value stores the location of storage or the e-mail addressee on one or several of the first storage systems, and stores the place of storage on the second storage system, wherein a file or an e-mail or parts of a file are only requested by the client and stored on the second storage system if the hash value is not yet present in the database. 44. The server system according to claim 43, wherein the hash is an SHA1 hash. 45. The server system according to claim 43, wherein the hash is structured such that by means of the hash value it can be detected which blocks of the file have changed, so that only those blocks that have changed are requested by the server, and on the server this file is reconstituted by means of the existing file. 46. The server system according to claim 43, wherein the hash value is expanded so that an allocation to a volume on the second storage system is evident from the hash value. 47. The server system according to claim 43, wherein the second storage system has been designed so as to be redundant, and the data is backed up at least in duplicate. 48. The server system according to claim 47, wherein the storage system is set up hierarchically so that the data automatically migrates from one hierarchical level to the next. 49. The server system according to claim 47, wherein hard disk systems and tape systems are used. 50. The server system according to claim 47, wherein there are at least two independent hard disk systems that are designed so as to be redundant. 51. The server system according to claim 47, wherein there are at least two tape drives, which keep the data on different tapes as copies. 52. The server system according to claim 50, wherein during storing and loading, by means of the hash value a check is made as to whether the data is correct. 53. The server system according to claim 51, wherein the e-mails of a mail server are copied to the second storage system on the basis of the hash value. 54. The server system according to claim 53, wherein hash values are only calculated in relation to the e-mail attachments, so that it can be determined whether the attachment has already been backed up, in order to then only generate a reference to the attachment. 55. The server system according to claim 54, wherein for backup a first time window for the storage can be determined, and the server keeps the data for such a period of time as determined by the first time window. 56. The server system according to claim 43, wherein for archival a second time window can be determined, and the server keeps the data for such a period of time as determined by the second time window. 57. The server system according to claim 43, wherein criteria can be determined that selectively determine files or exclude files that are to be backed up or archived. 58. The server system according to claim 43, wherein a web surface is provided by way of which a user can select files that are to be restored. 59. The server system according to claim 43, wherein a NAS or an iSCSI system is provided on the second storage system. 60. A hierarchical storage system comprising storage devices of different speeds, which storage devices are arranged in a hierarchy, wherein data automatically migrates between the hierarchies according to predeterminable criteria, comprising the following components: means for generating a first hash value for data, from which hash value the identity of the data is determinable prior to migration; means for checking the integrity of the data after migration by reading the data and generating a second hash value so that it can be compared with the first hash value; and if the hash values do not agree, the means undertake renewed copying of the data. 61. The device according to the preceding claim 60, wherein the hash value is stored in a database so that fast access is made possible, wherein the database is preferably stored so as to be redundant. 62. The device according to claim 60, wherein the data relates to files or e-mails. 63. The device according to claim 60, wherein means are provided which during storing and loading, check the hash value, as to whether the data is correct. 64. The device according to claim 60, wherein the hash is an SHA1 hash. 65. A data carrier with a data structure that is designed such that, when it is loaded by a computer, it implements a method according to the preceding method-related claim 1.	<SOH> FIELD OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention generally relates to a storage system, in particular to a backup- and archival system, which makes it possible to autonomously store and archive data from a multitude of computers and servers (clients). With increased frequency, ecological, political and social aspects of life are administered by way of digital data. Thus, transactions and the prosperity of our society are often generated on the basis of digital information. The quantity of data that has to be administered in the form of computer programs or databases is increasing exponentially. As a result of the increase in the performance of computers and operating systems, applications are becoming larger and larger. Furthermore, there is a desire to have permanent access to large databases, for example multimedia data bases or large files. The growth rate of data resulting from increased file sizes and multiple storage of identical files makes it necessary to back up and administer such files efficiently. Due to the fact that an ever increasing number of data storage devices have to be used, there is continuous pressure on suppliers of storage solutions to reduce the costs of storage systems. Furthermore, data management systems should be scalable. They should not merely be in a position to handle current demand but also any expected future demand. Preferably, storage systems are incrementally scalable so that users can acquire the additional capacity whenever it is required at a corresponding point in time. Moreover, excellent availability and excellent reliability are important aspects because users do not accept data loss or data damage. Furthermore, legal requirements in relation to the archival of data are becoming increasingly more stringent. Archival periods, data integrity, inalterability, data protection guidelines and access authority are increasingly prescribed in regulations and laws. For example, a multitude of documents have to be archived, at times in excess of 10 years, and administered so as to be secure against falsification in order to be able to provide proof of the existence and integrity of these documents. Known storage systems that operate on the basis of hard disks often comprise a number of hard disks that are designed so as to be redundant (RAID: Redundant Array of Independent Disks). However, these systems are permanently online, they consume a considerable amount of electricity and are only of limited suitability for archival because data stored on these systems can be altered many times. These RAIDs often comprise RAID levels 1, 3, 5, 10 or 6 so as to prevent data loss. Furthermore, they comprise several controllers so that there is no single point of failure. Servers can be connected to these RAID systems, with such connection being implemented e.g. by way of TCP/IP/iSCSI (internet Small Computer System Interface), Fibre Channel or SCSI. Individual systems also provide the data via NAS (Network Attached Storage). However, for data backup, tape drives are used which store the data on tapes. Such tape drives can also be installed in robots that transport the tapes to the individual tape drives. Essentially there are standard formats in the context of such tape drives, for example DDS, SDLT, LTO, AIT and SAIT. Other standards are also imaginable. Known systems utilise backup- and archival programs that request data at regular intervals from the computers, and store such data on tapes. There is a central backup- and archival server which requests the data from the computers at regular intervals in order to make a backup of this data. Often however, data backup takes place every 24 hours so that a large part of the data is lost if the computer or the storage system crashes within this period of time. Furthermore, such backup software provides limited options for archiving data permanently and in a way that it cannot be altered. U.S. Pat. No. 6,704,730, U.S. Pat. No. 6,810,398, U.S. Pat. No. 6,826,711 and U.S. Pat. No. 7,000,143 disclose storage systems and attempted solutions which are within the scope of the invention. FalconStor Software (falconstor.com), Quantum (quantum.com), Rocksoft, Sepaton (sepaton.com), DeltaStor, Diligent Technologies (diligent.com) with ProtectTIER VTL software, and Avamar Technologies (avamar.com) are providers of storage solutions in this field.	<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES <EOH>Below, the figures to which the detailed description refers are described in brief. FIG. 1 : shows a network with a central switch to which a number of PCs are connected, which by way of this switch are connected to the backup system on which the server runs; FIG. 2 : shows a network with a central switch to which a number of PCs are connected, which by way of this switch are connected to the backup system, with a structure of the central database (CAS); FIG. 3 : shows a network to which a number of PCs are connected, which by way of the aforesaid are connected to the backup system, wherein only parts of the files are transmitted; FIG. 4 : shows a flow chart for checking the hash values; FIG. 5 : shows a flow chart for checking the hash values after renewed downloading of data. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?	FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention generally relates to a storage system, in particular to a backup- and archival system, which makes it possible to autonomously store and archive data from a multitude of computers and servers (clients). With increased frequency, ecological, political and social aspects of life are administered by way of digital data. Thus, transactions and the prosperity of our society are often generated on the basis of digital information. The quantity of data that has to be administered in the form of computer programs or databases is increasing exponentially. As a result of the increase in the performance of computers and operating systems, applications are becoming larger and larger. Furthermore, there is a desire to have permanent access to large databases, for example multimedia data bases or large files. The growth rate of data resulting from increased file sizes and multiple storage of identical files makes it necessary to back up and administer such files efficiently. Due to the fact that an ever increasing number of data storage devices have to be used, there is continuous pressure on suppliers of storage solutions to reduce the costs of storage systems. Furthermore, data management systems should be scalable. They should not merely be in a position to handle current demand but also any expected future demand. Preferably, storage systems are incrementally scalable so that users can acquire the additional capacity whenever it is required at a corresponding point in time. Moreover, excellent availability and excellent reliability are important aspects because users do not accept data loss or data damage. Furthermore, legal requirements in relation to the archival of data are becoming increasingly more stringent. Archival periods, data integrity, inalterability, data protection guidelines and access authority are increasingly prescribed in regulations and laws. For example, a multitude of documents have to be archived, at times in excess of 10 years, and administered so as to be secure against falsification in order to be able to provide proof of the existence and integrity of these documents. Known storage systems that operate on the basis of hard disks often comprise a number of hard disks that are designed so as to be redundant (RAID: Redundant Array of Independent Disks). However, these systems are permanently online, they consume a considerable amount of electricity and are only of limited suitability for archival because data stored on these systems can be altered many times. These RAIDs often comprise RAID levels 1, 3, 5, 10 or 6 so as to prevent data loss. Furthermore, they comprise several controllers so that there is no single point of failure. Servers can be connected to these RAID systems, with such connection being implemented e.g. by way of TCP/IP/iSCSI (internet Small Computer System Interface), Fibre Channel or SCSI. Individual systems also provide the data via NAS (Network Attached Storage). However, for data backup, tape drives are used which store the data on tapes. Such tape drives can also be installed in robots that transport the tapes to the individual tape drives. Essentially there are standard formats in the context of such tape drives, for example DDS, SDLT, LTO, AIT and SAIT. Other standards are also imaginable. Known systems utilise backup- and archival programs that request data at regular intervals from the computers, and store such data on tapes. There is a central backup- and archival server which requests the data from the computers at regular intervals in order to make a backup of this data. Often however, data backup takes place every 24 hours so that a large part of the data is lost if the computer or the storage system crashes within this period of time. Furthermore, such backup software provides limited options for archiving data permanently and in a way that it cannot be altered. U.S. Pat. No. 6,704,730, U.S. Pat. No. 6,810,398, U.S. Pat. No. 6,826,711 and U.S. Pat. No. 7,000,143 disclose storage systems and attempted solutions which are within the scope of the invention. FalconStor Software (falconstor.com), Quantum (quantum.com), Rocksoft, Sepaton (sepaton.com), DeltaStor, Diligent Technologies (diligent.com) with ProtectTIER VTL software, and Avamar Technologies (avamar.com) are providers of storage solutions in this field. OVERVIEW OF THE INVENTION It is the object of the present invention to provide a backup system which makes it possible at the shortest possible intervals to send data to a central storage location so that even users that use a mobile computer, e.g. a laptop, PDA or similar, back up all the data, even if these users work on the computer only for a short time. Furthermore, the quantity of data transferred is to be reduced. It should be noted that the invention is not limited to mobile computers. All types of computers that are connected to a network can be taken into account in the backup. This object is met by an invention with the characteristics of the independent claims. A preferred exemplary embodiment relates to a method for storing data with a first storage system and a second storage system, wherein the second storage system is used for backing up the data from the first storage system. The first storage system can be a PC, a special server such as e.g. an email server or a server hard disk/flash memory whose data is to be backed up. The data is stored as files in a file system. The first system comprises a client/agent which monitors the file system/s. Preferably, this client/agent is a software program. In a preferred embodiment, said client/agent is based on the Microsoft FindFirstChangeNotification® solution, which forms part of Microsoft Directory Management®, and which reports to the controlling client software of the present invention. A server is installed on a second system, which server administers the second storage system. As a rule, the server is software that runs on a computer with an operating system. The server administers the storage of the backed-up data on the second storage system. The second storage system is a hard disk RAID (flash RAID), preferably in combination with tape drives. These components are arranged hierarchically so that data migration can take place. The method comprises the following steps: The client checks the data and preferably the file system on the first storage system for any changes. This includes, in particular but not exclusively, any addition of new data and any change in already existing files and data records. This can occur at regular intervals or in an event-controlled manner (e.g. interrupt by the operating system, which provides notification if files have been changed). If changes have been detected, a hash value in relation to the file is calculated, with the hash value being designed such that the identity of the file can be established. A change in the file can be determined by a change date or by filters or events provided by the operating system. The above are, for example, based on Microsoft FindFirstChangeNotification®, which forms part of Microsoft Directory Management®. Of course it is also imaginable that the change is notified by the hardware. The hash value is structured such that the identity of a file can be determined. In other words, the hash value is identical if the file is identical. In cases where changes to the file have been made, the hash value also changes. After the hash value has been determined it is transmitted to the server, which receives the hash value. As a rule, transmission is by way of a network, such as a LAN or WLAN. By means of the hash value, the server checks whether a corresponding copy of the file is already stored on the second storage system, because in a network there are often duplicates of files. Should this be the case, the server does not request the file anew, but instead establishes on the second storage system a further reference relating to the storage location of the file, as well as an entry which regulates access authorisation. In this process the first storage system is not changed. In concrete terms this means that the reference comprises on the one hand the identity of the client or of the computer and its hard disk, and on the other hand a possible volume and the storage place within the file system that has been established on the volume. In a preferred embodiment the server comprises a fast database (CAS), by means of which it is possible for said server to quickly access the hash values in order to determine whether or not these hash values have already been stored. Furthermore, in this database a reference to the file is stored on one or several client systems. Furthermore, access restrictions within the database can be stored. These access restrictions can also be obtained by way of an interface to the active directory of Windows. Other directory services such as LDAP are of course also imaginable. The invention achieves a situation where the volume of traffic on the network is very small, and where if at all possible each file is stored only once on the second storage system (this does not take into account the redundancy of the second storage system). Explicitly, first of all only hash values are transferred by way of the network; and only in cases where data records and files have not yet been stored on the second storage system are these data records and files transferred once only over the network. In this way duplication and multiple storage of files can be prevented, and the use of the storage space on the second storage system can be optimised. Despite all this, the database makes it possible to make the files available individually to all the systems although the file has physically been stored only once. If a check shows that the hash value does not exist, i.e. that the file is not yet present, then the server requests from the client system the entire file or parts of the file that have changed when compared to a previous file. Thereafter the file is stored on the second storage system, and the necessary information is supplied to the database. In contrast to this, if only part of the file has been transmitted, then either this part is completely reconstructed and stored on the second storage system, or only the changed parts are stored with a reference to the original complete file. However, it is also imaginable that a multitude of references exist, each reference reflecting different file versions in which at various points in time various changes have been made. If a file is to be restored, the server system then reconstructs the desired file in that all the changes are effected in sequence. First the original file is loaded, followed by the respective changes that were effected sequentially, which changes are then to be applied to the original file. Determining the changes or the parts that have been changed can on the one hand be effected by means of the hash value, or on the other hand by the client, which locally calculates the changes of the file on the basis of the original file. In this process the hash value is preferably structured such that it is always prepared for a defined number of bytes of a file (e.g. 1,000 bytes) so as to subsequently compose the total hash value from these individual hash values. In this way it is possible to determine which of the 1,000 byte blocks have changed. Alternative ways of calculating the changes are also imaginable and can be used. In a preferred embodiment only those blocks of the file are transmitted that have changed. In an alternative embodiment, calculation of the change is undertaken by the server. Said server analyses the files and their predecessor versions and calculates the delta. Only the delta is then stored on the second storage system, together with a rule as to how this file is to be reconstituted. While in this way the entire file is transmitted by way of the network, it is, however, ensured that only the changes are stored on the server. In a possible embodiment the hash value is stored such that an unambiguous relation to the clients and to the file on the second storage system can be established. In this process the path is stored on the file system in relation. Furthermore, the access authorisation is stored. In the preferred embodiment the hash is an HSA1 hash based on 256 bits. The calculation method of this manufacturer is likely to be known. Information relating to the literature is provided below. Preferably, the hash value is structured such that by means of the hash value it can be detected which blocks or regions of the file have changed, so that only those blocks that have changed are transmitted, and on the server this file is reconstituted by means of the existing file. Reconstitution can take place directly so that the part is completely stored on the second storage system, or it can be reconstituted only when a restoration copy has been requested. Details relating to this have already been described. In a alternative embodiment the hash value is composed of several individual hash values. Thus the first part of the hash value can determine the first 10 MB of a file; the second part 10-90 MB, and the third part everything above it. It is, of course, also possible to have a finer gradation. In a further alternative embodiment the hash value is expanded so that an allocation to a volume on the second storage system is evident from the hash value. Often, a storage system comprises a multitude of logically separate volumes that extend over one or several storage systems. In Microsoft operating systems, such volumes are, for example, designated by a letter. In Unix operating systems or Linux operating systems these volumes can be accessed by way of a path. In order to ensure the highest possible data protection, the second storage system is set up so as to be redundant. Preferably, the storage system is even set up to provide multiple redundancy, as will be described below. In this arrangement hierarchical storage models are taken into consideration. In hierarchical storage models the fastest and highest-quality storage devices are at the highest positions. These storage devices are fast hard disk systems with Fibre Channel, SCSI or SAS interfaces and fast rotary speeds (10,000 r/min and above). It is also imaginable that in future faster flash memories, holographic storage devices or optical storage technologies will assume this role. At present there is a trend towards combined systems with a hard disk and a flash memory so that it can be expected that in the long term the hard disk in its current form will play a lesser role. These fast and durable storage discs can be interconnected as RAIDs. This ensures high speeds and safe data keeping at the first level of the second storage system. A copy of the data is kept on a second storage region, which is somewhat slower, as part of the second storage system. This can be a SATA storage system or a storage system with lesser access times and with lesser rotary speeds. Permanent synchronisation takes place between these two hard disk systems so that data redundancy is provided: redundancy on the one hand as a result of the hard disk RAIDS on each hierarchical level, and on the other hand redundancy as a result of the use of two hard disk systems that are arranged parallel to each other and that are mirrored. In the next hierarchical level a tape robot is arranged, which preferably but not mandatorily, comprises at least two tape drives, each of which writes data to two tapes in copy. This ensures that the data on the tapes is always present in duplicate independently of the other data. In future, tape technology might also be replaced by some other technology, such as e.g. flash memories, holographic storage devices or optical storage technologies. As soon as the data is redundantly stored on the last hierarchical level it can be deleted, based on settable rules, from the higher-performing and more expensive storage levels so as to clear space thereon for new data. In this arrangement there is an automatic distinction between active and inactive data after the data has been classified. By means of the tape system, which then also keeps the data in duplicate, the above-described data redundancy is obtained even if the data has been deleted from the technology components that rank higher in the hierarchy. During data migration from one hierarchy to the next, an integrity check is carried out on the basis of the hash values. After the file has been written, or after the data to be shifted has been read, the hash value is generated and compared to the hash value stored in the database. If in this process any changes are detected, the copying process is to be carried out anew, or the data is to be loaded from another medium. In a further exemplary embodiment, further duplicates of the tapes can be made, if desired, in order to store a copy of the data at an external location. The system that administers the second storage system is advised that a copy of all archived data is to be made. The tape robot asks the user to provide corresponding tapes onto which a copy of all data is then made and issued. In this arrangement it would also be possible to access an export function with integrated conversion to standard formats, e.g. .pdf data records. Migration of data takes place automatically and can be predetermined in relation to time thresholds or data volumes. The alternative embodiment in addition comprises an archival function in the system, which archival function meets legal requirements and does not allow any change in the data after writing. To this effect, for example, a special tape medium can be used such as the WORM (Write Once Read Multiple) medium. Furthermore, it is imaginable that the data is given a signature that is obtained from a public-key infrastructure (PKI) system. General data verification can also take place by way of the implemented and already described HSA-1 calculation. The detailed process of archival is subject to standard processes which hereinafter are not described in more detail because they are well known to the average person skilled in the art. However, the device ensures that the archived data cannot be changed. The system further provides an option, by way of a user interface, to determine the types of files to be archived and the positions of the first storage system in which positions the files are stored. In this way a user can determine which files are to be backed up, which files are to be archived, and which files are to be indexed for the purpose of a contents search. In order to ensure that data is not damaged during migration between the individual hierarchical levels, the hash values are used to verify the data after it has been copied to the new storage medium or the new hierarchical level. By means of the signature key it is also possible to check that the data has not been changed. This ensures that data integrity and consistency are maintained across all hierarchical levels. Prior to data transmission, the hashes are calculated from the first storage system, stored in a database in the server, and recalculated after the data has been stored in the second storage system. The two values are compared to each other, and data integrity and consistency can thus be ensured. The same process is carried out once more when data is copied and migrated within the storage hierarchy of the second storage system. In a further embodiment, the invention is extended to cover e-mail traffic. In the alternative embodiment the MS ExchangeServer by Microsoft® is supported (however, other mail systems are imaginable). Access to its e-mails is by a predetermined interface, for example the MAPI interface, with data backup and archival of the e-mail being carried out according to the same principle as with files. However, there is a significant difference in that the hash value is not applied to the entire file or e-mail (but separately, in addition, also to its attachments) but instead in each case separately to the e-mail itself and to its attachments. This is because it is often the case that a multitude of identical attachments are located in a mail server, so that their storage entails an enormous overload of the system. Within a mail group, attachments are frequently sent to many participants so that said attachments are held in duplicate or multiple times by users. In order to avoid large storage requirements and increased network load during backup or archival, only those attachments are stored on the second storage system which have previously not been able to be identified by means of the calculated hash values. In relation to this attachment, an annotation/pointer is then made in the database, stating that said attachment belongs to a specific e-mail. Consequently, in relation to a hash value it is possible to reference not only one file to a file system, but also a file within one or several e-mails. This approach can be taken on the one hand by a client which runs on the mail server and accesses the entire mail traffic by way of an interface of the mail server, or on the other hand by a client which runs on the client computers on which a mail client (e.g. Outlook) is installed so as to access all mails by way of an interface of Outlook (or IMAP, POP, MAPI etc.). In this way, for the purpose of monitoring mail traffic, on each client that administers or comprises a mail client, monitoring can take place locally in order to then communicate with the server and in order to transmit the e-mails and their attachments if applicable. In the alternative exemplary embodiment with respect to an exchange server, the access to the journaling mailbox is given by way of a corresponding API. The hash value is calculated (for the mail itself and if applicable for its attachments). If the mail has not yet been backed up, it is indexed for a full-text search and is then copied to the second storage system with a respective reference and access authorisation. The journaling mailbox thus temporarily makes the e-mails available for processing. After a predeterminable period of time the e-mails will then be deleted. However, in parallel to the above, the e-mails have already been transmitted to the recipient. This approach can be further developed for other storage systems such as databases. It is understood that considering the exchange server should not result in any limitations relating to the applicability of this method. Mail servers by IBM®, such as Lotus Notes® or a host of e-mail servers in the Unix® and Linux® fields can also be covered by this approach. With these systems, too, on the basis of the stored information a search takes place to check whether there are files that are present multiple times so that multiple storage is avoided. There are also database structures (BLOBs, Binary Large Objects) that accommodate entire files. For these data structures the avoidance of duplicates would be of interest. Single instancing can thus also be practised for mails and furthermore between all the described applications. Thus application-spanning single instancing is implemented so that for example backup, archive and NAS (Network Attached Storage) access the same physical data level. This approach can also be considered for Fibre Channel systems, iSCSI systems and document management systems. In an alternative embodiment such monitoring is carried out regularly at 30-minute intervals. Of course other intervals, which can be set, are also imaginable. This decisively depends on the daily generated data volume and thus on the load on the computer systems. Basically, the invention makes it possible to specify the interval at which, and the extent to which, data is to be backed up and archived. It is imaginable for a file to be monitored every 30 minutes on the first storage system and to back it up if required. Shorter intervals are also imaginable. Furthermore, the length of time this data or these files are to be kept for a total backup can be specified. For example it can be ensured that the data is to be kept on the first storage system for 3 months. For archival it can for example be specified that the data is to be archived for 10 years. Furthermore, selection criteria can be determined that selectively determine or exclude files that are to be backed up or archived, or that are not to be backed up. This can take place by way of selection patterns with placeholders, or by way of other selection criteria that are determined via a graphic user interface. Furthte a Classification of the data takes place so that a differentiation between active and inactive data can be made, so that the data is on different levels of the HSM, depending on the classification (access frequency, last modification, creation date). This user interface can be addressed by way of a web browser, like a web server. Alternatives by way of software administration clients are of course also imaginable. In order to make it possible to restore files without having to contact the administrator, the server comprises a web server that makes it possible, by way of an input mask, to state selection criteria that are used to determine the files that are to be restored. This can take place either by direct input of the file name or by navigation within a file system in the form of a tree. Access to a file is, of course, limited by way of an authorisation check so that not all available files can be restored by each user, but only those files for which a given user has authorisation. Authorisation can be obtained either by the authorisation system of Microsoft (active directory), or by entering user name and password that are based on the systems own authorisation system. In addition, the server can be integrated by iSCSI or TCP/IP as network-attached storage, NAS (file share) so that said server is not only used for data backup, but in addition also for the provision of storage space in the network. To users it is then not evident that in each case they are dealing with a special backup system. Instead, the characteristic of the operating system that is used on the server system is used to provide further services for the users in the network. A Windows Storage Server® is used, as the alternative operating system, on the backup server which administers the second storage system. This operating system provides the described interfaces and services. It is also imaginable to use some other operating system such as Linux or Unix. Further components of the invention include the monitoring of the mail traffic, the integrity of the files in a hierarchical storage system, and the design of the client, which as a rule runs as software on a PC or computer, or the server itself, which as a rule is implemented as software, or is a combination of software and hardware and is installed on a server that administers several RAID systems. In this case the server in turn is connected to a backup system or to a tape library by way of Fibre Channel, iSCSI or SCSI. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES Below, the figures to which the detailed description refers are described in brief. FIG. 1: shows a network with a central switch to which a number of PCs are connected, which by way of this switch are connected to the backup system on which the server runs; FIG. 2: shows a network with a central switch to which a number of PCs are connected, which by way of this switch are connected to the backup system, with a structure of the central database (CAS); FIG. 3: shows a network to which a number of PCs are connected, which by way of the aforesaid are connected to the backup system, wherein only parts of the files are transmitted; FIG. 4: shows a flow chart for checking the hash values; FIG. 5: shows a flow chart for checking the hash values after renewed downloading of data. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION FIG. 1 shows a central switch 1 to which a number of workstations A, B, C and D are connected, which in turn have their data stored on file servers 2, 3. Furthermore, a mail server 4 is connected to the network. The device 5 according to the invention is also integrated in the network. On the individual work stations A, B, C and D as well as on the servers 2, 3, 4 the client runs, while the server runs on the device 5 according to the invention. The device 5 according to the invention comprises a hierarchical storage system that is made up from a fast storage system 6, a somewhat slower storage system 7 and a tape system 8. On the workstation B, a file A that is to be backed up is determined by the client. A hash value SS52 is calculated and sent to the server 5. The server checks whether this hash value already exists in the database (CAS). Since this file has already been backed up by the workstation A, no request for the entire file is issued, instead only a new entry is made in the database (CAS), which entry refers to client B. The details of this database entry are shown in FIG. 2. Furthermore, on the mail server there is an item of mail X, which has file A as an attachment. This file, too, is not transferred to the device 5 by the client, because it is already stored on the hierarchical storage system of the device according to the invention. Instead, a reference is entered in the database (CAS). FIG. 2 shows a section of the database (CAS). For each file there is an entry in the table. The entry comprises the hash value and the owner, wherein the owner is the computer on which the client runs. The table shows that for the files with the hash value FD12 and SS52 there are three owners (access authorisations). Furthermore, the table shows where they are stored on the storage system. The information comprises the original path, the time to be stored, which is separated for backup and archival. Indexing information is done to get a fast access to the data. Data can thus be stored on the first level 6, the second level 7, and the third level, namely on the tape backup system 8. The diagram clearly shows that the file with the hash value SS52 is stored on the second level and in addition as a copy on the third level, i.e. on the slower tape system 7. Furthermore there is an overview of the content of these files. FIG. 3 shows a further special characteristic in which the differences of the files are determined, and thus only those parts of a file are transmitted that have been changed. Consequently the delta of the file that is stored on the client is calculated. The method used for calculating the delta has already been described above. Furthermore, this file is stored on the computer. The difference is calculated by the client, which on request transmits the difference to the device 5 according to the invention. As a rule it only makes sense to transmit the difference in those cases where a file is very frequently changed and the backup interval is very short. This can be the case in files where frequent changes are made, for example in database files, so that it is not necessary always to transmit the entire database file but instead only the part of this file that has changed. On the backup server the files are subsequently completely reconstituted, a process which is possible because the history of the delta changes is available, and the file can thus be reconstituted piece by piece. FIG. 4 show a flow chart of the present invention, which flow chart is used for calculating the hash value. SHA1 is a well-known algorithm for calculating the HASH value. This hash value is a value of a fixed size, irrespective of the length of the input. The size is 160 bits. There are also other variants of the SHA, which variants have a larger number of bits, as a rule 256 bits (SHA-256 . . . ). Methods for calculation are described in RFC 3174 (http://www.rfc-archive.org/getrfc.php?rfc=3174) so that there is no need to discuss them in this document. However, in the alternative embodiment an expanded ABSHASH is used. This expanded ABSHASH is used to improve the efficiency of the backup system. The backup system according to the invention comprises a number of volumes depending on the storage capacity of the hard disk systems that are used. In the end the database (CAS) has to make a decision as to the volume on which the files that are transmitted are to be stored. To avoid frequent copying operations the HASH value has been adapted accordingly so that it shows the volume in which the objects or files are to be filed. To this effect two additional bytes are used, whose purpose it is to determine the volume on which the file is to be stored. This results in the complete hash value then comprising 176 bits. The volume is calculated taking into account the total number of volumes. To this effect a corresponding modulo operation is used. FIG. 4 shows that the client transmits data. The server receives the data and checks whether the hash has been calculated in respect of this data. If this is not the case, the server checks whether a certain number of N-bytes have already been received. If this is also not the case, data is further received by the client. If N-bytes have already been received, the volume is calculated. The same occurs if the hash value has already been calculated. A check is made whether a temporary file has already been created in the corresponding volume. If this is the case the data is stored in the temporary file. If this is not the case, first a temporary file is created in which the data is then stored. After this file has been backed up the file is moved to the correct position within the volume. As a rule this can be achieved very easily because it is only a matter of changing the pointer, while there is no need to carry out a copy operation. FIG. 5 shows a transfer of the files from different storage levels. Externally, a request for restoring a certain file is made. The corresponding file is located on storage level 7. A check is made whether the newly calculated hash tallies with the name and the hash from the database. If this is the case, the file is provided; if this is not the case, the file is loaded from the storage system 8, in this case from the tape level, in order to make said file available. The alternative embodiments described in this document are not intended to limit the invention in any way. Instead, they have been provided to help understand the invention. The scope of protection of the invention is to be determined solely by the enclosed claims.	G	G06	G06F	17	30
11737278	US20070247481A1-20071025	PRINTING APPARATUS AND METHOD OF DETERMINING AMOUNT OF PRINTING MATERIAL	ACCEPTED	20071010	20071025		[]	B41J2938	["B41J2938"]	7695083	20070419	20100413	347	007000	59408.0	HUFFMAN	JULIAN	[{"inventor_name_last": "ZHANG", "inventor_name_first": "Junhua", "inventor_city": "Shiojiri-shi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]	A printing apparatus comprising a dismountable printing material storage container having a piezoelectric element and a memory in which the characteristic frequency of the piezoelectric element is stored, comprising an acquiring unit configured to acquire the frequency information from the memory, a drive signal generating unit configured to generate and output a drive signal having a first and second signal waveform with differing frequencies, a supply unit configured to select a waveform from the first and second waveforms which increases the amplitude of oscillations of the piezoelectric element and supplies only the selected drive signal to the piezoelectric element; a detecting unit configured to detect the response of the oscillation of the piezoelectric element; a measuring unit configured to measure the oscillation frequency of the piezoelectric element included in the response; and a determining unit configured to determine the amount of printing material stored in the printing material storing container.	1. A printing apparatus comprising a dismountable printing material storage container having a piezoelectric element for detecting the amount of stored printing material and a memory unit in which information relating to the characteristic frequency of the piezoelectric element is stored, the printing apparatus further comprising: an acquiring unit capable of acquiring the frequency information from the memory; a drive signal generating unit capable of generating and outputting a drive signal which has a first signal waveform at a first frequency and a second signal waveform at a second frequency which is different from the first frequency; a supply unit capable of selecting a waveform from the first signal waveform and the second signal waveform, by selecting a signal waveform which increases the amplitude of the piezoelectric oscillations, and supplying only the selected signal waveform to the piezoelectric element; a detecting unit capable of detecting a response signal outputted in response to the oscillation of the piezoelectric element; a measuring unit capable of measuring the oscillation frequency of the piezoelectric element included in the response signal; and a determining unit capable of determining the amount of printing material stored in the printing material storing container on the basis of the measured oscillation frequency. 2. The printing apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the drive signal generating unit is capable of generating and outputting the drive signal with the first signal waveform and the second signal waveform in a series. 3. The printing apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the supply unit comprises: a supply control information generating unit capable of generating supply control information relating to the selected drive signal based on information relating to the drive signal frequency; and a supply control unit capable of supplying the selected drive signal to the piezoelectric element on the basis of the supply control information. 4. The printing apparatus according to claim 3, further comprising: a first terminal located within the printing material storage container which is electrically connected to the printing apparatus; a second terminal to be connected to the first terminal; and a connecting portion located in the supply unit for connecting the drive signal generating unit and the second terminal; wherein the supply control unit controls the connecting state of the connecting portion on the basis of the supply control information. 5. The printing apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the first waveform signal includes at least two waveform cycles and the second waveform signal includes at least two waveform cycles. 6. The printing apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the number of waveform cycles included in the first and second waveform signal are the same. 7. In a printing apparatus comprising a dismountable printing material storage container having a piezoelectric element and a memory unit in which frequency information relating to the characteristic frequency of the piezoelectric element is stored, a method of determining the amount of printing material remaining in the printing material storage container comprising: acquiring the frequency information from the memory; generating and outputting a drive signal in order to drive the piezoelectric element, the drive signal having a first waveform signal at a first frequency and a second waveform signal at a second frequency which is different from the first frequency; selecting a waveform from the first signal waveform and the second signal waveform, by selecting a signal waveform on the basis of the frequency information and supplying a drive signal having only the selected signal waveform to the piezoelectric element; detecting a response signal outputted in response to the oscillation of the piezoelectric element; measuring the oscillation frequency of the piezoelectric element included in the response signal; and determining the amount of the printing material stored in the printing material storing container on the basis of the measured oscillation frequency. 8. A printing apparatus comprising a dismountable printing material storage container having a piezoelectric element for detecting the amount of stored printing material and a memory unit in which information relating to the characteristic frequency of the piezoelectric element is stored, the printing apparatus further comprising: an acquiring unit capable of acquiring the frequency information from the memory; a drive signal generating unit capable of generating and outputting a drive signal which has a first signal waveform at a first frequency and a second signal waveform at a second frequency which is different from the first frequency, where the drive signal transmits the waveforms in a series; a supply unit capable of selecting a waveform from the first signal waveform and the second signal waveform, by selecting a signal waveform which increases the amplitude of the piezoelectric oscillations, and supplying only the selected signal waveform to the piezoelectric element; a detecting unit capable of detecting a response signal outputted in response to the oscillation of the piezoelectric element; a measuring unit capable of measuring the oscillation frequency of the piezoelectric element included in the response signal; a determining unit capable of determining the amount of printing material stored in the printing material storing container on the basis of the measured oscillation frequency; and displaying the amount of material stored in the printing material storing container to a user.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The entire disclosure of Japanese Patent Application No. 2006-115482, filed Apr. 19, 2006 is expressly incorporated herein by reference. 1. Technical Field The present invention relates to a printing apparatus. More specifically, the present invention relates to a method of detecting the amount of a printing material in a printing material storage container. 2. Related Art Many ink jet printing apparatuses contain a printing material storage container which includes a sensor for detecting the amount of remaining printing material in the container. One example of a sensor is a piezoelectric element which has the ability to expand and contract upon application of a voltage. The piezoelectric element oscillates upon application of the voltage and outputs an output signal. Thus, the printing apparatus applies the voltage to the piezoelectric element and measures the oscillation frequency of the piezoelectric element contained in the output signal to determine whether or not a predetermined amount of printing material remains in the printing material storage container. Typically, the frequency of the voltage applied to the piezoelectric element is adjusted to be a resonant frequency of the sensor and the printing material stored in the printing material storage container, so that the amplitude of the oscillation of the piezoelectric element is increased and oscillation frequency measurement is more accurate. Often, however, the sensors contain manufacturing errors generated during the manufacturing process. Often, the amplitude of the oscillation of the piezoelectric element may be reduced according to the manufacturing errors of the sensors, while the drive signal which is used to drive the sensors are constant. This makes the measurement of the oscillation frequency of the piezoelectric element difficult to measure with a high degree of accuracy, that the output signals outputted from the sensors may differ even though the same amount of printing material remains in the printing material storage container. Consequently, there is currently a problem accurately measuring the amount of printing material stored in the printing material storage container.	<SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In order to solve at least part of the problems shown above, one aspect of the invention provides a printing apparatus configured to measure the amount of the printing material stored in the printing material storage container. Further, one advantage of the invention is a more accurate measurement of the amount of printing material stored in a printing material storage container. The printing apparatus of the invention comprises an acquiring unit capable of acquiring frequency information from a memory, a drive signal generating unit capable of generating and outputting a drive signal which may be used for driving a piezoelectric element which has a first signal waveform at a first frequency and a second signal waveform at a second frequency which is different from the first frequency, a supply unit capable of selecting a waveform which increases the amplitude of oscillations of the piezoelectric element from the first signal waveform and the second signal waveform of the outputted drive signal based on frequency information and supplying a selected drive signal having the selected signal waveform to the piezoelectric element, a detecting unit capable of detecting a response signal which is outputted in association with the oscillation of the piezoelectric element after having stopped the supply of the selected drive signal, a measuring unit configured to measure the oscillation frequency of the piezoelectric element included in the response signal, and a determining unit configured to determine the amount of the printing material stored in the printing material storing container on the basis of the oscillation frequency. One advantage of the present invention is that the residual oscillation of the piezoelectric element is excited effectively using only one drive signal. Therefore, since it is no longer necessary to generate a drive signal for each printing material storage container, the processing load and processing time of the printing apparatus is reduced. Furthermore, the present invention is capable of detecting the response signal more accurately, resulting in a more accurate measurement of the amount of the printing material in the storage container.	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The entire disclosure of Japanese Patent Application No. 2006-115482, filed Apr. 19, 2006 is expressly incorporated herein by reference. 1. Technical Field The present invention relates to a printing apparatus. More specifically, the present invention relates to a method of detecting the amount of a printing material in a printing material storage container. 2. Related Art Many ink jet printing apparatuses contain a printing material storage container which includes a sensor for detecting the amount of remaining printing material in the container. One example of a sensor is a piezoelectric element which has the ability to expand and contract upon application of a voltage. The piezoelectric element oscillates upon application of the voltage and outputs an output signal. Thus, the printing apparatus applies the voltage to the piezoelectric element and measures the oscillation frequency of the piezoelectric element contained in the output signal to determine whether or not a predetermined amount of printing material remains in the printing material storage container. Typically, the frequency of the voltage applied to the piezoelectric element is adjusted to be a resonant frequency of the sensor and the printing material stored in the printing material storage container, so that the amplitude of the oscillation of the piezoelectric element is increased and oscillation frequency measurement is more accurate. Often, however, the sensors contain manufacturing errors generated during the manufacturing process. Often, the amplitude of the oscillation of the piezoelectric element may be reduced according to the manufacturing errors of the sensors, while the drive signal which is used to drive the sensors are constant. This makes the measurement of the oscillation frequency of the piezoelectric element difficult to measure with a high degree of accuracy, that the output signals outputted from the sensors may differ even though the same amount of printing material remains in the printing material storage container. Consequently, there is currently a problem accurately measuring the amount of printing material stored in the printing material storage container. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In order to solve at least part of the problems shown above, one aspect of the invention provides a printing apparatus configured to measure the amount of the printing material stored in the printing material storage container. Further, one advantage of the invention is a more accurate measurement of the amount of printing material stored in a printing material storage container. The printing apparatus of the invention comprises an acquiring unit capable of acquiring frequency information from a memory, a drive signal generating unit capable of generating and outputting a drive signal which may be used for driving a piezoelectric element which has a first signal waveform at a first frequency and a second signal waveform at a second frequency which is different from the first frequency, a supply unit capable of selecting a waveform which increases the amplitude of oscillations of the piezoelectric element from the first signal waveform and the second signal waveform of the outputted drive signal based on frequency information and supplying a selected drive signal having the selected signal waveform to the piezoelectric element, a detecting unit capable of detecting a response signal which is outputted in association with the oscillation of the piezoelectric element after having stopped the supply of the selected drive signal, a measuring unit configured to measure the oscillation frequency of the piezoelectric element included in the response signal, and a determining unit configured to determine the amount of the printing material stored in the printing material storing container on the basis of the oscillation frequency. One advantage of the present invention is that the residual oscillation of the piezoelectric element is excited effectively using only one drive signal. Therefore, since it is no longer necessary to generate a drive signal for each printing material storage container, the processing load and processing time of the printing apparatus is reduced. Furthermore, the present invention is capable of detecting the response signal more accurately, resulting in a more accurate measurement of the amount of the printing material in the storage container. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings, wherein like numbers reference like elements. FIG. 1 is an exemplary schematic configuration of a printing system. FIG. 2 is an exemplary illustration of a main controller. FIG. 3 is an explanatory drawing showing an electric configuration of a sub-controller and a cartridge according to the first example. FIG. 4 is an explanatory drawing showing an example of a functional block of a switch controller according to the first example. FIG. 5A is an explanatory front view showing a configuration of an ink cartridge according to the first example. FIG. 5B is an explanatory side view showing the configuration of the ink cartridge according to the first example. FIG. 6A is an explanatory pattern cross-sectional view of a peripheral portion of a sensor provided on the ink cartridge when ink remains according to the first example. FIG. 6B is an explanatory pattern cross-sectional view of the peripheral portion of the sensor provided on the ink cartridge when ink does not remain according to the first example. FIG. 7A is an explanatory drawing showing an error range of the characteristic frequency of the cartridge when ink remains according to the first example. FIG. 7B is an explanatory drawing showing the error range of the characteristic frequency of the cartridge when ink does not remain according to the first example. FIG. 8 is a waveform chart showing an example of a pulse waveform of a drive signal according to the first example. FIG. 9 is an explanatory drawing showing an example of switch control data according to the first example. FIG. 10 is a flowchart showing an ink amount determination process according to the first example. FIG. 11 is a timing chart for explaining a frequency measurement process according to the first example. FIG. 12 is a waveform chart showing an example of a pulse waveform of a drive signal according to a second example. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring now to the drawings, the invention will be described using a series of examples listed below. A. FIRST EXAMPLE A1. System Configuration FIG. 1 is a schematic configuration of an exemplary printing system. The printing system includes a printer 20 and a computer 90. The printer 20 is connected to the computer 90 via a connector 80. The printer 20 includes a secondary scan feeding mechanism, a main scan feeding mechanism, a head control mechanism, and a main controller 40 for controlling the respective mechanisms. The secondary scan feeding mechanism includes a paper feed motor 22 and a platen 26. The secondary scan feeding mechanism transports paper P by transmitting the rotation of the paper feed motor to the platen in the secondary scanning direction. The primary scan feeding mechanism includes a carriage motor 32, a pulley 38, a drive belt 36 tightly extended between the carriage motor 32 and the pulley 38, and a sliding shaft 34 placed parallel to the platen shaft 26. The sliding shaft 34 holds a carriage which is fixed to the drive belt 36 in a manner that allows the carriage to slide along the sliding shaft 34. The rotation of the carriage motor 32 is transmitted to the carriage 30 via the drive belt 36. The carriage 30 moves reciprocally along the axial direction (primary scanning direction) of the platen 26 via the sliding shaft 34. The head control mechanism includes a printing head unit 60 mounted to the carriage 30. The head control mechanism causes the printing head 69 to discharge ink on the paper P. The printer 20 further includes an operating unit 70 which allows the user to select various settings and confirm the status of the printer. The printing head unit 60 includes a print head 69 and a cartridge mounting portion. The cartridge mounting portion accommodates six ink cartridges 100a to 100f. The printing head unit 60 further includes a sub-controller 50. The print head 69 includes a plurality of nozzles and a plurality of piezoelectric elements, and discharge ink drops from the respective nozzles according to the voltage applied to the respective piezoelectric elements to form dots on the paper P. The ink cartridges 100a to 100f each are provided with a sensor which includes a piezoelectric element. The printer 20 supplies a drive signal to the piezoelectric elements of the sensors. The printer 20 determines the amount of ink stored in the ink cartridges by measuring the oscillation frequencies of the piezoelectric elements which is included in the response signals that are outputted from the piezoelectric elements, compared to the residual oscillations generated in the piezoelectric elements after the drive signal is stopped. Hereinafter, the ink cartridge is referred simply to as “cartridge.” A2. Circuit Configuration of Printer Referring now to FIGS. 2-4, a circuit configuration of the printer 20 will be described. FIG. 2 is a drawing illustrating an exemplary electrical configuration of the main controller 40. FIG. 3 is a drawing illustrating an exemplary electric configuration of the sub-controller 50 and a cartridge. FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating the switch controller. The main controller 40 includes a CPU 41, a memory 42, an oscillator 43 configured to generate clock signals, an input and output unit (PIO) 44 configured to transmit signals between peripheral devices and transmit information to the sub-controller 50, a drive signal generating circuit 46, a drive buffer 47, and an allotter 48. These components are connected via buses 49. The busses 49 are also connected to a connector 80, and the main controller 40 is connected to the computer 90 via the busses 49 and the connector 80. Within this configuration, the above-described components are capable of exchanging data. The drive buffer 47 is used as a buffer for supplying dot ON and OFF signals to the print head 69. The allotter 48 allots drive signals from the drive signal generating circuit 46 to the print head 69 at predetermined times. The drive signal generating circuit 46 generates head drive signals PS, which are supplied to the print head 69 via the allotter 48, along with drive signals DS which are supplied to the piezoelectric elements 112 via the sub-controller 50. Hereinafter, the term “drive signal” is a “sensor drive signal.” The drive signal generating circuit 46 outputs the drive signal DS via the sub-controller 50. The drive signal DS has a first signal waveform at a frequency F1 and a second signal waveform at a frequency F2 which is different from the frequency F1. In this example, the first signal waveform and the second signal waveform are generated so as to be arranged in series, and are outputted in sequence from the drive signal generating circuit 46. The CPU 41 acquires frequency information 135 (shown in FIG. 3) stored in the memory 42 from the sub-controller 50. The CPU 41 generates a first switch control data SD1 for selecting either the first signal waveform SP1 or the second signal waveform SP2, based on the acquired frequency information 135, and supplies a drive signal having only the selected signal waveform to the piezoelectric elements. Hereinafter, the drive signal having only the selected signal waveform is referred to as the “selected drive signal.” The CPU 41 sends the generated first switch control data SD1 to the sub-controller 50. The first switch control data SD1 is data for controlling a first switch SW1. The CPU 41 generates second switch control data SD2 for controlling a second switch SW2 and third switch control data SD3 for controlling a third switch and sends the same to the sub-controller 50. The switch control data SD will be described in detail later. The sub-controller 50 is a circuit for executing a process relating to the cartridges 100a to 100f in cooperation with the main controller 40. FIG. 3 the shows the portions of the circuit which are used during the ink measuring process. The sub-controller 50 is provided with a calculator 51, the three switches SW1 to SW3, and an amplifier 52. The calculator 51 includes a CPU 511, a memory 513, an interface (“I/F”) 514, an I/O portion (“SIO”) 515 for transmitting signals between the components in the sub-controller 50 and the cartridges 100a to 100f, and a switch controller 516. The respective components of the main controller 40 are connected via basses 519. The calculator 51 receives signals from the main controller 40 via the interface 514. The calculator 51 controls the three switches SW1 to SW3 via the switch controller 516. The calculator 51 transmits output from the amplifier 52 via the SIO 515. The switch controller 516 controls the first switch SW1 to the third switch SW3 according to the switch control data SD. The detailed functional blocks of the switch controller 516 will be described in reference to FIG. 4. As shown in FIG. 4, the switch controller 516 includes a controller 210, and switch control signal output circuits 220a, 220b and 220c which are configured for each switch. The switch control signal output circuit 220a is connected to the first switch SW1 and controls the connecting state of the first switch SW1. The switch control signal output circuit 220b is connected to the second switch SW2 and controls the connecting state of the second switch SW2. The switch control signal output circuit 220c is connected to the third switch SW3 and controls the connecting state of the third switch SW3. Each of the switch control signal output circuits 220a to 220c include a shift register 200, a latch circuit 201, and a data decoder 202. Clock signals CLK, latch signals LAT, change signals CH, and switch control data SD are each supplied from the CPU 41 to the switch controller 516. The switch control data SD is transferred to the shift register 200 synchronously with the clock signals CLK from the oscillator 43 of the main controller 40. The transferred switch control data SD is latched once by the latch circuit 201. The latched switch control data SD is entered to the data decoder 202. The controller 210 receives input of the latch signals LAT and the change signals CH. The controller 210 generates the switch control signal CS for ON and OFF, controlling the switch on the basis of the latch signals LAT and the change signal CH. The switch control signal CS which is generated by the controller 210 is supplied to the data decoder 202. The data decoder 202 outputs the switch control signal CS to the switch on the basis of the latched switch control data SD. The switch control signal CS will be described in greater detail below. The first switch SW1 is a one-channel analog switch. One of the terminals of the first switch SW1 is connected to the drive signal generating circuit 46 of the main controller 40, and the other terminal is connected to the second switch SW2 and the third switch SW3. The first switch SW1 is set to the connected state while a selected drive signal SDS is supplied, and is set to the disconnected state when detecting a response signal RS from the sensor 110. The second switch SW2 is a 6-channel analog switch. One of the terminals on one side of the second switch SW2 is connected to the first switch SW1 and the third switch SW3, and the six terminals on the other side are each connected to the electrodes of the sensors 110 of the six cartridges 100a to 100f. The other electrode of each sensor 110 is grounded. The six cartridges 100a to 100f are selected in sequence by switching the second switch SW2 in sequence. The third switch SW3 is a one-channel analog switch. One of the terminals of the third switch SW3 is connected to the first switch SW1 and the second switch SW2, and the other terminal is connected to the amplifier 52. The third switch SW3 is set to the disconnected state when supplying the drive signal DS to the sensor 110, and is set to the connected state by receiving a supply of the ON signals from the switch controller 516 when detecting the response signal RS from the sensor 110. The amplifier 52 includes an OP amplifier, and functions as a comparator for comparing the response signal RS and a reference voltage Vref, and outputs high signals when the voltage of the response signal RS is the reference voltage Vref or higher and outputs low signals when the voltage of the response signal RS is lower than the reference voltage Vref. Therefore, output signals QC from the amplifier 52 are digital signals including only the high signals and the low signals. The CPU 41 counts the output signals QC outputted from the amplifier 52, measures the oscillation frequencies of the piezoelectric elements 112, and determines the amount of ink stored in the ink cartridges based on the oscillation frequencies. Accordingly, the CPU 41 displays the result of on a display of the computer 90, so that the user is notified of the ink amount. A3. Detailed Configuration of Ink Cartridge and Sensor FIGS. 5A-B and FIGS. 6A-B illustrate a detailed configuration of the ink cartridge and the sensor. FIGS. 5A and 5B are a front view and side view of the ink cartridge. FIGS. 6A and 6B are cross-sectional views of a peripheral portion of the sensor located on the ink cartridge. As shown in FIG. 5A and FIG. 5B, a casing 102 of the cartridge 100a includes a plurality of storage chambers for storing ink. A main storage chamber MRM occupies a major portion of a capacity of the entire storage chamber. A first sub-storage chamber SRM1 is in communication with an ink supply port 104, which is located on its bottom surface. A second sub-storage chamber SRM2 is also in communication with the main storage chamber MRM, and is located near the main storage chamber MRM's bottom surface. FIGS. 6A and 6B are cross-sectional views of a portion of the sensor taken along the line A-A in FIG. 5B, as viewed from above. As shown in FIGS. 6A and 6B, the sensor 110 includes a piezoelectric element 112 and a sensor attachment 113. The piezoelectric element 112 includes a piezoelectric unit 114 and two electrodes 115, 116 on either side of the piezoelectric unit 114, and is installed to the sensor attachment 113. The piezoelectric unit 114 is a ferroelectric substance, and is formed of, for example, PZT (Pb(ZrxTi1-x)O3). Within the sensor attachment 113 a substantially angular C-shaped bridge flow channel BR is formed. A portion of the sensor attachment 113 between the bridge flow channel BR and the piezoelectric element 112 is comprised of a thin film. In this arrangement, a peripheral portion of the piezoelectric element 112 including the bridge flow channel BR oscillates with the piezoelectric element 112. The ink stored in the cartridge 100a flows as indicated by a solid arrow in FIGS. 5A, 5B, 6A, and 6B. More specifically, the ink stored in the main storage chamber MRM flows from the bottom surface area into the second sub-storage chamber SRM2. The ink flowing into the second sub-storage chamber SRM2 flows from a first side hole 76, to the bridge flow channel BR of the sensor attachment 113, through a second side hole 75, and into the first sub-storage chamber SRM1. The ink flowed into the first sub-storage chamber SRM1 passes through the ink supply port 104 and is supplied to the print head unit 60. FIG. 6A shows the state wherein a predetermined amount of ink remains in the cartridge 100a (hereinafter referred to as “remaining ink”). As shown in FIG. 6A, the term “remaining ink” represents the state wherein the ink is in the bridge flow channel BR. That is, the term “remaining ink” represents a state wherein ink exists at a position of the cartridge 100a where the sensor 110 is installed (ink detecting position), and the ink is in contact with a portion of the thin film sandwiched between the bridge flow channel BR and the piezoelectric element 112 (ink detecting area) of the sensor attachment 113. In contrast, FIG. 6B shows the state wherein the ink is less than the predetermined amount (hereinafter referred to as “no remaining ink”). The term “no remaining ink” represents the state wherein the ink is not in the bridge flow channel BR. That is, the term “no remaining ink” represents a state wherein the ink does not exist at the ink detecting position, and the ink is not in contact with the ink detecting area. A4. Drive Signal The drive signal with improved detection accuracy of the oscillation frequencies will now be described. As described above, the printer 20 determines the amounts of the ink stored in the cartridges by supplying the drive signal to the piezoelectric elements provided on the cartridges and measuring the frequencies of the response signals outputted from the piezoelectric elements. Therefore, it is desirable to increase the amplitude of the response signals in order to improve the detection accuracy of the oscillation frequencies. Further, it is preferable to adjust the frequency of the drive signal to be equal to characteristic frequencies of the piezoelectric elements 112 in order to improve the detection accuracy of the oscillation frequencies of the response signals. The piezoelectric elements resonate and output response signals with large amplitudes by supplying a drive signal having the same frequency as the characteristic frequencies of the piezoelectric elements to the piezoelectric elements. However, difficulties arise as the cartridge sensor is subject to the manufacturing errors within the manufacturing process. Therefore, in general, the characteristic frequency fF when ink remains and the characteristic frequency fE when ink does not remain have margins of error with respect to a target characteristic frequencies H1 and H2, respectively. This margin of error will be described using FIGS. 7A and 7B. FIGS. 7A and 7B are drawings showing an exemplary error range of the characteristic frequency of the cartridge. FIG. 7A shows an error range of the characteristic frequency of the piezoelectric element when there is remaining ink in the container, and FIG. 7B shows an error range of the characteristic frequency of the piezoelectric element when there is no ink remaining in the container. As shown in FIG. 7A, when there is ink remaining in the container, there is an error range ER1 from HFmin (KHz) to HFmax (KHz). On the other hand, as shown in FIG. 7B, when there is no remaining ink, there is an error range ER2 from HEmin (KHz) to HEmax (KHz). As shown in the figures, there is a smaller range of oscillations included in the error range ER2 than in the error range ER1. The method of generating the response signal when ink does not remain will be described. When the frequency of the drive signal is set to the same frequency as the intermediate frequency Hm of the error range ER1 and is supplied to the piezoelectric element, the characteristic frequency fE of the piezoelectric element of the cartridge is included within the accuracy range of Equation 1 shown below. Hereinafter, the range expressed by the Equation 1 is referred to as a detectable range DR. (drive signal frequency F3)α%≦characteristic frequency fE≦(drive signal frequency F3)+α% Equation 1: In Equation 1, the value a is an allowable limit of error calculated on the basis of the manufacturing test in the manufacturing process, and is α=8 in this example. When the characteristic frequency fE of the cartridge to be processed is included in the detectable range DR (DRmin (KHz) to DRmax (KHz)), the residual oscillation of the piezoelectric element is effectively excited and hence the amplitude of the response signal may be amplified. However, in situations, such as those shown in FIG. 7, when the characteristic frequency fE of the cartridge to be processed is higher than DRmax (KHz) (the hatched range in FIG. 7B) the residual oscillation of the piezoelectric element is not effectively excited, and the detection accuracy of the response signal is lowered. In order to adjust the frequency of the drive signal to be the same as the characteristic frequency of the piezoelectric element of the cartridge, it is necessary to generate different drive signals every time the ink amount determination process is performed, requiring significant process time. In order to solve this problem, the printer according to the invention generates and outputs a drive signal including two types of signal waveforms, SP1 and SP2, each having different frequencies. The printer controls the connecting state of the first switch SW1, selects the signal waveform having a frequency closer to the characteristic frequency of the piezoelectric element from between SP1 and SP2, and supplies a drive signal associated with the selected signal waveform to the piezoelectric element. Accordingly, it is not necessary to generate drive signals with differing frequencies for each cartridge to be processed, meaning that a drive signal capable of effectively exciting the residual oscillations of the piezoelectric elements is supplied. In this example, a waveform of a given frequency F1, which is included in the error range ER1 and is a frequency higher than the intermediate frequency Hm of the error range ER1 is determined to be the first signal waveform SPA, and the waveform of a given frequency F2, which is included in the error range ER1 and is a frequency lower than the intermediate frequency Hm of the error range ER1 is determined to be the second signal waveform SP2. Referring now to FIG. 8, the drive signal DS generated by the drive signal generating circuit 46 will be described. FIG. 8 is a waveform chart showing an outputted drive signal and the selected drive signal SDS to be applied to the piezoelectric elements. The CPU 41 issues instructions in order to generate the drive signal to the drive signal generating circuit 46 using a drive signal generating parameter stored in the memory 42. The drive signal generating circuit 46 generates the drive signal DS according to the instructions in order to generate a drive signal, which is then issued from the CPU 41. The drive signal generating parameter includes various parameters required for generating drive signal such as a drive voltage Vh, a maximum voltage VH, a minimum voltage VL, a ratio for defining the relation between the drive voltage Vh and the reference voltage Vref, the frequency F1, and the frequency F2. The drive signal DS includes the first signal waveform SP1 generated during a term Ta and the second signal waveform SP2 generated during a term Tb of a drive signal cycle T. The term Ta is one cycle of the first signal waveform SP1 and follows the equation Ta=1/F1. The term Tb is one cycle of the second signal waveform SP2 and follows the equation Tb=1/F2. The drive signal cycle T (term Ta+term Tb) corresponds to one cycle T of the drive signal DS. The method of selecting the drive signal waveform of the selected drive signal to be supplied to the piezoelectric element from the first signal waveform SP1 and the second signal waveform SP2 will now be described. The drive signal selecting process is executed by the CPU 41. The characteristic frequency fF is calculated from the error range ER1, the error range ER2, and the characteristic frequency fE, using Equation 2 shown below. The characteristic frequency fE when there is no remaining ink is obtained through a test measurement during the manufacturing process. fF=(fE−HEmin)*(HFmax−HFmin)/(HEmax−HEmin)+HFmin Equation 2: The memory 130 includes the characteristic frequency fE of the piezoelectric element when there is no remaining ink, which is stored in advance as frequency information 135. The CPU 41 acquires the characteristic frequency fE from the memory 130 of the cartridge to be processed via the sub-controller 50, and calculates the characteristic frequency fF using Equation 2. When the calculated characteristic frequency fF is higher than the intermediate frequency Hm, the CPU 41 selects the first signal waveform SP1 as a waveform of the selected drive signal, and when the calculated characteristic frequency fF is lower than the intermediate frequency Hm, the CPU 41 selects the second signal waveform SP2 as a waveform of the selected drive signal. When the selected drive signal comprising the first signal waveform SP1 is supplied to the piezoelectric element, the detectable range DR is calculated using Equation 1. When the characteristic frequency fE of the piezoelectric element of the cartridge when there is no remaining ink is included in the detectable range DR of Equation 1, the residual oscillation of the piezoelectric element is effective. When the characteristic frequency fF when there is ink remaining in the cartridge, is included within the range of “drive signal frequency F±25%”, the residual oscillation of the piezoelectric element is effectively excited. A5. Switch Control Data The CPU 41 generates the first switch control data SD1 on using the selection process shown above. Referring now to FIG. 9, the first switch control data SD1 will be described. FIG. 9 is an explanatory illustration showing the selection patterns of the selected drive signal and the first switch control data SD1. The selection table 500 shown in FIG. 9 shows selected patterns of the signal waveform together with an association function between the first switch control data SD1 and the characteristic frequency fF. For example, the CPU 41 selects (shown as “0”) the first signal waveform SP1 as the waveform of the selected drive signal in the case where the characteristic frequency fF>intermediate frequency Hm. In this case, as shown in FIG. 9, since the first switch control data SD1 is [10], the CPU 41 generates the first switch control data SD1[10]. On the other hand, when the characteristic frequency fF≦intermediate frequency Hm, the second signal waveform SP2 is selected as the waveform of the selected drive signal. In this case, since the first switch control data SD1 is [01,] the CPU 41 generates the first switch control data SD1[01] and sends the same to the calculator 51. A6. Switch Control Signal The calculator 51 outputs the first switch control signal CS, which controls the connecting state of the first switch SW1 according to the first switch control data SD1 sent from the CPU 41. The waveforms of the switch control signals and the selected drive signals to be applied to the piezoelectric elements will be described in reference to FIG. 8. The selected drive signals shown in FIG. 8 indicate the drive signals to be applied to the piezoelectric elements. The switch controller 516 outputs the switch control signal CS for controlling ON and OFF of the first switch SW1 on the basis of the latch signal LAT, the change signal CH, and the first switch control data SD1 supplied from the CPU 41. When the switch control signal CS is at a high level, the first switch SW1 is in the connected state. Therefore, as shown in FIG. 8, when the first switch control data SD1 is [10], the switch controller 516 outputs high-level signals (ON signals) over the term Ta, and the first switch SW1 is in the connected state. In contrast, when the switch controller 516 outputs low-level signals over the term Tb, the first switch SW1 is in the disconnected state. Therefore, as shown in the selected drive signal SDS1 in FIG. 8, only the signals having the first signal waveform SP1 are supplied to the piezoelectric elements 112. When the first switch control data SD1 is [01], since the switch controller 516 outputs low-level signals over the term Ta, the switch is in the disconnected state, and the switch controller 516 outputs high-level signals over the term Tb, and the switch is in the connected state. Therefore, as shown in the selected drive signal SDS2 in FIG. 8, only the signals having the second signal waveform SP2 are supplied to the piezoelectric elements 112. Accordingly, a drive signal DS which excites the piezoelectric elements 112 effectively is selected from the two signal waveforms SP1 and SP2. A7. Ink Amount Determination Process: Referring now to FIGS. 10 and 11, the ink amount determination process that the main controller 40 and the sub-controller 50 of the printer 20 execute in cooperation will be described. FIG. 10 is a flowchart explaining the ink amount determination process. FIG. 11 is a timing chart for explaining a frequency measuring process. The process of determining the ink amount is a process for determining whether the ink amount stored in the cartridge is more or less than a predetermined amount for each cartridge. The process of determining the ink amount is typically executed when the power of the printer 20 is turned ON. The CPU 41 of the main controller 40 selects a cartridge as a target of the process of determining the ink amount from among the six cartridges 100a to 100f when the process is started (Step S101). The main controller 40 acquires the frequency information 135 relating to the characteristic frequency of the piezoelectric element 112 from the memory 130 provided on the target cartridge (Step S102). More specifically, the main controller 40 sends a command for causing the sub-controller 50 to acquire the frequency information 135 stored in the memory 130 of the cartridge, in order to send the information to the calculator 51 of the sub-controller 50. The CPU 511 of the calculator 51 acquires the frequency information 135 and sends the acquired frequency information 135 to the sub-controller 50. The main controller 40 generates the switch control data for determining the first switch control data SD1 on the basis of the acquired frequency information 135 (Step S103), using the process described above. In this example, the second signal waveform SP2 is selected, and the first switch control data SD1[01] is generated. The main controller 40 generates the drive signal DS having the first signal waveform SP1 and the second signal waveform SP2 and outputs the same to the piezoelectric element in order to execute the frequency measuring process (Step S105). Referring now to a timing chart shown in FIG. 11, the frequency measuring process will be described. The clock signal CLK, a measurement command CM, the latch signal LAT, and the change signal CH shown in FIG. 11 are signals that may be sent to the calculator 51 of the sub-controller 50 from the main controller 40 in the frequency measuring process. The switch control signal CS is a signal outputted from the switch controller 516. The measurement command CM includes information for specifying the cartridge to be processed together with a command that instructs execution of the frequency measurement process. The drive signal DS is a signal outputted from the drive signal generating circuit 46 of the main controller 40 as described above. The response signal RS is a signal generated in association with the residual oscillation of the piezoelectric element after having supplied the drive signal DS. The calculator 51 of the sub-controller 50 controls the second switch SW2 according to the measurement command CM which the calculator 51 has received in advance to the timing when the latch pulse P1 of the latch signal was received, and brings the piezoelectric element 112 of the cartridge to be processed into the state of being connected with the sub-controller 50. Furthermore, the calculator 51 controls the connecting state of the first switch SW1 on the basis of the first data of the first switch control data SD1 at the time when the latch pulse P2 is received. In this example, the first switch control data SD1[01] is supplied to the switch controller 516. Since the first data of the first switch control data SD1 is [0], the ON signal is not outputted to the first switch SW 1 from the switch controller 516, and hence the first switch SW1 is in the disconnected state. Furthermore, The calculator 51 brings the third switch SW3 into the disconnected state at a timing when the latch pulse P1 is received. Accordingly, the amplifier 52 is electrically disconnected from the drive signal generating circuit 46 and the piezoelectric element 112, and hence the drive signal DS is not applied to the amplifier 52. The main controller 40 generates a change pulse P2 of the change signal at a timing when the term Ta terminates. The calculator 51 controls the connected state of the first switch SW1 based on the second data of the first switch control data SD1 at the time when the change pulse P2 is received. In this example, since the second data of the first switch control data SD1 is [1], the ON signal is outputted from the switch controller 516 to the first switch SW1. The first switch SW1 is set to the connected state upon reception of the ON signal. Accordingly, only the selected drive signal having the second signal waveform SP2 is applied to the piezoelectric element 112. The main controller 40 generates a change pulse P3 at the time when the application of the drive signal is terminated. The calculator 51 of the sub-controller 50 brings the first switch SW1 into the disconnected state at the time when the change pulse P3 is received. A term from the latch pulse P1 to the change pulse P3 is referred to as the drive voltage application term T1. After having terminated the drive voltage application term T1, the piezoelectric element 112 is oscillated by the drive signal. The piezoelectric element 112 outputs a response signal RS according to distortion in association with the oscillation. After having generated the change pulse P3, the main controller 40 generates a change pulse P4. The calculator 51 of the sub-controller 50 brings the third switch SW 3 into the connected state at upon reception of the change pulse P4. Consequently, the response signal RS from the piezoelectric element 112 is supplied to the amplifier 52. The amplifier 52 functions as a comparator as described above, and outputs the output signal QC as a digital signal according to the waveform of the response signal RS to the calculator 51. The calculator 51 calculates an oscillation frequency H of the response signal RS on the basis of the acquired output signal QC and sends the signal RS to the main controller 40. The main controller 40 determines the amount of ink in the cartridge based on the oscillation frequency H (Step S105). Next, the main controller 40 determines if the amount of ink in the cartridge to be more than the predetermined amount when the oscillation frequency H is compared to the above-described characteristic frequency H1 (Step S106). Similarly, the main controller 40 determines if the amount of ink in the cartridge is smaller than the predetermined amount when the oscillation frequency H is compared to the characteristic frequency H2 (Step S107). The main controller 40 sends the result of determination of the ink amount to the computer 90. Accordingly, the computer 90 may notify the result of determination of the received ink amount to the user. In the printing system of this invention, the drive signal has a plurality of signal waveforms with different frequencies. The plurality of signal waveforms are outputted and one is selected to form a drive signal according to the characteristic frequency of each ink cartridge, so that a selected drive signal includes only the selected signal waveform is supplied to the piezoelectric element. Therefore, in the ink amount determination process, it is no longer necessary to regenerate the drive signal for each cartridge, alleviating the processing load of the printing apparatus, and reducing the processing time of the process. Since it is not necessary to configure a circuit individually for each signal waveform in order to generate the plurality of signal waveforms, the circuit required to execute the process of determining the amount of ink is simplified. In accordance with one embodiment of the invention, the drive signal which is used to oscillate the piezoelectric element is selected from a first signal waveform SP1 and a second signal waveform SP2, there is improved accuracy in detecting the response signal, and the accuracy of the ink amount determination is improved. B. SECOND EXAMPLE In the example described above, one shot (one cycle) each of the first signal waveform SP1 and the second signal waveform SP2 are included in one cycle of the drive signal DS. In the second example, for example, two shots (two cycles) each of the signal waveforms may be included. B1. Waveform of Drive Signal FIG. 12 is a waveform chart showing a drive signal DS′ according to the second example. The drive signal DS′ is a signal outputted from the drive signal generating circuit 46. Within the drive signal generating circuit 46, a first signal waveform SP1′ and a second signal waveform SP2′ containing the waveforms for two cycles respectively are included in the drive signal cycle T of the drive signal DS′ as shown in FIG. 12. The term Ta indicates one cycle T of the signal at the frequency F1, and the term Tb indicates one cycle of the signal at the frequency F2. In this example, when the first signal waveform SP1 is selected as a waveform of the selected drive signal, only the first signal waveform SP1′ including the waveforms for two cycles is supplied to the piezoelectric element, and the second signal waveform SP2′ is not supplied to the piezoelectric element. The piezoelectric element is excited in order to create a residual oscillation with a large amplitude in association with the increase in number of cycles (number of shots) of the waveform, resulting in improved detection accuracy of the response signal. However, this example results in increased processing time, in association with increase in number of shots of the waveform to be supplied to the piezoelectric element. Therefore, the waveform of the selected drive signal is preferably two shots or smaller. Accordingly, the amplitude of the oscillation of the piezoelectric element 112 is increased, the detection accuracy of the response signal is further improved, and the processing time is reduced. As shown in FIG. 12, the numbers of shots included in the first signal waveform SP1′ and the second signal waveform SP2′ are preferably the same. This allows response signals of the same level to be detected at a high degree of accuracy irrespective of which one of the first signal waveform SP1′ and the second signal waveform SP2′ is supplied to the piezoelectric element. C. MODIFICATION In the examples described above, the drive signal having the waveforms at the two different frequencies are generated from within the error range ER1 of the characteristic frequency when ink remains in the cartridge. However, it is also possible to generate the drive signal having a waveform of the drive signal for executing the ink amount determination process both when there is ink remaining in the cartridge and when there is no ink remaining in the cartridge. In this configuration, it is not necessary to regenerate the drive signal during the ink amount determination processes when ink remains in the cartridge and when ink does not remain in the cartridge, and hence the processing time may be preferably reduced. Since it is not necessary to configure the circuit for generating the drive signal to be used when executing the each of the processes for determining the ink amount, the circuit size may be reduced. Although various examples of the invention have been described thus far, the invention is not limited to the examples shown above and, needless to say, various configurations may be employed without departing the scope of the invention.	B	B41	B41J	29	38
11752955	US20080001284A1-20080103	Heat Dissipation Structure With Aligned Carbon Nanotube Arrays and Methods for Manufacturing And Use	ACCEPTED	20071218	20080103		[]	H01L23373	["H01L23373", "C01B3102"]	8890312	20070524	20141118	257	712000	67733.0	NGUYEN	DUY	[{"inventor_name_last": "Yuen", "inventor_name_first": "Matthew", "inventor_city": "Hong Kong", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CN"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Zhang", "inventor_name_first": "Kai", "inventor_city": "Hong Kong", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CN"}]	A heat dissipation structure with aligned carbon nanotube arrays formed on both sides. The carbon nanotube arrays in between a heat source and a cooler are used as thermal interface material extending and dissipating heat directly from a heat source surface to a cooler surface. In some embodiments, an adhesive material can be used to dispense around carbon nanotube arrays and assemble the heat dissipation structure in between a heat source and a cooler. In some other embodiments, carbon nanotube arrays are formed on at least one of a heat source surface and a cooler surface and connect them together by further growing. The carbon nanotube arrays can be exposed to the environment instead of being in between a heat source and a solid cooler, and can serve as fins to enlarge heat dissipation area and improve thermal convection.	1. A packaged semiconductor structure, comprising: a heat source; a heat sink; an aligned array of carbon nanotubes which thermally connects said source to said sink; and a peripheral connecting material which runs along at least some edges of said aligned array, while mechanically contacting said source and said sink to provide a fixed positional relationship there between. 2. The packaged semiconductor structure of claim 1, wherein the heat sink is an electronic structure which dissipates heat when operating. 3. The packaged semiconductor structure of claim 1, wherein the heat sink comprises a high thermal conductivity substrate; and a plurality of carbon nanotube arrays are grown on both sides of the substrate. 4. The packaged semiconductor structure of claim 1, wherein said heat sink comprises a metal substrate. 5. The packaged semiconductor structure of claim 1, wherein said carbon nanotube arrays are synthesized by chemical vapor deposition. 6. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 1, wherein said heat sink carries said aligned carbon nanotube arrays in a patterned configuration. 7. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 1, wherein said heat sink carries said aligned array of carbon nanotubes in a patterned configuration which is determined by patterning of a preformed catalyst. 8. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 1, wherein said heat sink carries said aligned array of carbon nanotubes in a patterned configuration which is determined by patterning of a modification layer when using a sublimed catalyst. 9. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 1, wherein said heat sink carries said aligned array of carbon nanotubes, some of which are patterned to form fins for convective cooling. 10. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 1, wherein said heat source is an electronic structure which generates heat when operating. 11. A packaged semiconductor structure, comprising: an extended structure which carries heat; and first and second mutually separate aligned carbon nanotube arrays which are thermally connected to opposite surfaces of said extended structure; wherein said first array terminates in a connection to another heat-conducting structure, and said second array terminates in bare carbon nanotube ends. 12. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 11, wherein the extended structure is an electronic structure which dissipates heat when operating. 13. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 11, wherein the extended structure comprises a high thermal conductivity substrate, and a plurality of carbon nanotube arrays are grown on both sides of the substrate. 14. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 11, wherein the extended structure comprises a metal substrate. 15. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 11, wherein said aligned carbon nanotube arrays are synthesized by chemical vapor deposition. 16. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 11, wherein said extended structure carries the aligned carbon nanotube arrays in a patterned configuration. 17. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 11, wherein said extended structure carries the aligned carbon nanotube arrays in a patterned configuration which is determined by patterning of a preformed catalyst. 18. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 11, wherein said extended structure carries the aligned carbon nanotube arrays in a patterned configuration which is determined by patterning of a modification layer when using a sublimed catalyst. 19. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 11, wherein said extended structure carries the aligned carbon nanotube arrays, some of which are patterned to form fins for convective cooling. 20. A method of transferring heat from a microelectronic heat source, comprising: conducting heat through an array of aligned nanotube fibers; separating a heat source and heat sink by placing a spacer in a positional relationship with the heat source and heat sink; and mechanically stabilizing the position of the heat source relative to the heat sink, using an adhesive material. 21-57. (canceled)	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTIONS <EOH>The present application generally relates to thermal management solutions, and more specifically to heat dissipation structures using aligned carbon nanotube arrays, and to methods of fabricating such a heat dissipation structure and applying it to a package. With the development of microelectronic systems, for example, high brightness light emitting diode (HB-LED) for solid-state lighting, significant challenges of thermal management have to be faced to meet the increasing requirements of smaller profile, higher performance and longer product life time. More heat generated by devices needs to be effectively dissipated from a smaller area. Several kinds of heat sink are developed to expect to dissipate more heat from device to the environment. However it is very important to first conduct heat from device to heat sink by thermal interface materials. Unfortunately, conventional thermal interface materials, such as thermal grease thermal adhesives, phase change materials, etc., cannot meet the increasing requirement of the heat dissipation from a small area. Carbon nanotube (CNT) is an attractive candidate to improve the thermal performance of thermal interface materials because of their ultrahigh thermal conductivity up to 3000 W/m·K for multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWNT). Further information regarding CNT properties may be found in the Journal of the American Physical Society, Physical Review Letters , Vol. 87, page 215502 (2001), herein incorporated by reference. However thermal interface materials with randomly directed carbon nanotubes dispersed in epoxy resins or other matrix materials does not perform well because of the highly anisotropic nature of the thermal conduction by carbon nanotubes. Aligned carbon nanotube arrays directly extending from a first surface, for example a heat source surface, to a second surface, for example a cooler surface, is expected. U.S. Pat. No. 6,965,513 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,924,335, incorporated by reference herein for all purposes, disclose thermal interface materials with carbon nanotube bundles embedded in matrix materials. However, the phonon heat transfer modes in matrix materials and carbon nanotubes are not compatible, which significantly limits the advantage of heat conduction by carbon nanotube. In addition, solidified matrix material is less flexible to fill in the uneven surfaces of heat source and heat sink. As a result, the thermal conductivity of thermal interface material with aligned carbon nanotube arrays in matrix is only 1.21 W/m·K and the contact thermal resistance is more than 50 mm 2 ·K/W. Additional information regarding the thermal conductivity of thermal interface materials are detailed in Advanced Materials, Vol. 17, page 1652 (2005) incorporated by reference herein. U.S. Pat. No. 6,856,01 and U.S. Patent Application Publication US 2004/0150100, both incorporated by reference herein for all purposes, disclose a thermal interface layer with carbon nanotubes grown on the surface of semiconductor die. However, the processes are not compatible for carbon nanotubes synthesis and device fabrication. If carbon nanotubes are grown before device fabrication, the decreased wafer cleanliness and ability to protect carbon nanotubes will make it difficult to conduct device fabrication using normal processes and equipments. Alternatively, if a device is fabricated before carbon nanotubes growth, the high temperature required by growing carbon nanotubes will damage the device or increasing the device cost by changing the processes and materials. As for the connecting methods, U.S. Patent Application Publication U.S. 2004/0261987, incorporated by reference herein for all purposes, use an adhesion promoting layer to connect heat source and the array of carbon nanotubes. However, it is very difficult to form a very thin layer so that the tips of carbon nanotubes can still make contact with the heat source surface. As a result, there is actually another added layer with additional thermal resistance, which reduces the thermal performance of the thermal management solution. In U.S. Pat. No. 6,891,724, incorporated by reference herein for all purposes, carbon nanotubes grown from the opposed surfaces intermesh as the surfaces are mated. However, it is difficult for carbon nanotubes from any surface to extend directly to the other surface.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTIONS <EOH>The present inventions provide a new way to use high thermal conductivity carbon nanotube (CNT) arrays. To avoid the process incompatibility of carbon nanotube growth and device fabrication the aligned CNT arrays are formed on heat dissipation structure surfaces instead of a heat source surface. To simplify the fabrication process and decrease the cost, aligned CNT arrays are grown on both sides of heat dissipation structure surfaces at one time. The heat dissipation structure with CNT arrays are used to directly dissipate heat from a heat source to a cooler. The CNT arrays in between a heat source and a cooler are used as thermal interface material extending and dissipate heat directly from a heat source surface to a cooler surface. The CNT arrays exposed to the environment instead of being in between a heat source and a solid cooler serve as fins to enlarge heat dissipation area and improve thermal convection. In various embodiments, the disclosed inventions provide several of the following advantages: lower cost and more scalable manufacturing fast and simple process using efficient CNT synthesis and assembly method better heat sinking better convective cooling Other advantages and detailed novel features of the inventions will be explained with the descriptions of the example drawings.	CROSS-REFERENCE TO OTHER APPLICATION The present application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) of U.S. Patent Application No. 60/808,433, filed May 26, 2006, and entitled Heat Dissipation Structure with Carbon Nanotube Arrays and Method for Manufacturing the Same. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTIONS The present application generally relates to thermal management solutions, and more specifically to heat dissipation structures using aligned carbon nanotube arrays, and to methods of fabricating such a heat dissipation structure and applying it to a package. With the development of microelectronic systems, for example, high brightness light emitting diode (HB-LED) for solid-state lighting, significant challenges of thermal management have to be faced to meet the increasing requirements of smaller profile, higher performance and longer product life time. More heat generated by devices needs to be effectively dissipated from a smaller area. Several kinds of heat sink are developed to expect to dissipate more heat from device to the environment. However it is very important to first conduct heat from device to heat sink by thermal interface materials. Unfortunately, conventional thermal interface materials, such as thermal grease thermal adhesives, phase change materials, etc., cannot meet the increasing requirement of the heat dissipation from a small area. Carbon nanotube (CNT) is an attractive candidate to improve the thermal performance of thermal interface materials because of their ultrahigh thermal conductivity up to 3000 W/m·K for multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWNT). Further information regarding CNT properties may be found in the Journal of the American Physical Society, Physical Review Letters, Vol. 87, page 215502 (2001), herein incorporated by reference. However thermal interface materials with randomly directed carbon nanotubes dispersed in epoxy resins or other matrix materials does not perform well because of the highly anisotropic nature of the thermal conduction by carbon nanotubes. Aligned carbon nanotube arrays directly extending from a first surface, for example a heat source surface, to a second surface, for example a cooler surface, is expected. U.S. Pat. No. 6,965,513 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,924,335, incorporated by reference herein for all purposes, disclose thermal interface materials with carbon nanotube bundles embedded in matrix materials. However, the phonon heat transfer modes in matrix materials and carbon nanotubes are not compatible, which significantly limits the advantage of heat conduction by carbon nanotube. In addition, solidified matrix material is less flexible to fill in the uneven surfaces of heat source and heat sink. As a result, the thermal conductivity of thermal interface material with aligned carbon nanotube arrays in matrix is only 1.21 W/m·K and the contact thermal resistance is more than 50 mm2·K/W. Additional information regarding the thermal conductivity of thermal interface materials are detailed in Advanced Materials, Vol. 17, page 1652 (2005) incorporated by reference herein. U.S. Pat. No. 6,856,01 and U.S. Patent Application Publication US 2004/0150100, both incorporated by reference herein for all purposes, disclose a thermal interface layer with carbon nanotubes grown on the surface of semiconductor die. However, the processes are not compatible for carbon nanotubes synthesis and device fabrication. If carbon nanotubes are grown before device fabrication, the decreased wafer cleanliness and ability to protect carbon nanotubes will make it difficult to conduct device fabrication using normal processes and equipments. Alternatively, if a device is fabricated before carbon nanotubes growth, the high temperature required by growing carbon nanotubes will damage the device or increasing the device cost by changing the processes and materials. As for the connecting methods, U.S. Patent Application Publication U.S. 2004/0261987, incorporated by reference herein for all purposes, use an adhesion promoting layer to connect heat source and the array of carbon nanotubes. However, it is very difficult to form a very thin layer so that the tips of carbon nanotubes can still make contact with the heat source surface. As a result, there is actually another added layer with additional thermal resistance, which reduces the thermal performance of the thermal management solution. In U.S. Pat. No. 6,891,724, incorporated by reference herein for all purposes, carbon nanotubes grown from the opposed surfaces intermesh as the surfaces are mated. However, it is difficult for carbon nanotubes from any surface to extend directly to the other surface. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTIONS The present inventions provide a new way to use high thermal conductivity carbon nanotube (CNT) arrays. To avoid the process incompatibility of carbon nanotube growth and device fabrication the aligned CNT arrays are formed on heat dissipation structure surfaces instead of a heat source surface. To simplify the fabrication process and decrease the cost, aligned CNT arrays are grown on both sides of heat dissipation structure surfaces at one time. The heat dissipation structure with CNT arrays are used to directly dissipate heat from a heat source to a cooler. The CNT arrays in between a heat source and a cooler are used as thermal interface material extending and dissipate heat directly from a heat source surface to a cooler surface. The CNT arrays exposed to the environment instead of being in between a heat source and a solid cooler serve as fins to enlarge heat dissipation area and improve thermal convection. In various embodiments, the disclosed inventions provide several of the following advantages: lower cost and more scalable manufacturing fast and simple process using efficient CNT synthesis and assembly method better heat sinking better convective cooling Other advantages and detailed novel features of the inventions will be explained with the descriptions of the example drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The embodiments of the inventions are illustrated by examples shown in the following figures but not limited in these figures. These drawings are not necessarily drawn to scale. The inventions will be described and explained with additional specificity and detail through the use of the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a heat dissipation structure with carbon nanotube arrays on both sides, showing the surfaces of the heat dissipation structure are fully covered with grown carbon nanotube arrays without any pattern; FIG. 2 is a heat dissipation structure with carbon nanotube arrays on both sides, showing an example of carbon nanotubes with pattern on one side; FIG. 3 is a schematic cross sectional side view of an electronic package including a heat dissipation structure with carbon nanotube arrays on both sides in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a heat dissipation structure with carbon nanotube arrays on both sides having modification layers in between the carbon nanotube arrays and the heat dissipation structure surfaces; FIG. 5 is a detailed view of a heat dissipation structure showing some connecting methods with adhesive materials formed around the outside edges of the gap between the coupling heat source surface and cooler surface with carbon nanotube arrays in between; FIG. 6 is a detailed view of a heat dissipation system with carbon nanotube arrays directly grown on a heat source surface and a cooler surface and directly connected together by further growth; FIG. 7 shows some applications of the heat dissipation structure with some carbon nanotube arrays exposed to the environment; FIG. 8 is a general flowchart for manufacturing a heat dissipation structure in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 9 is a flowchart for manufacturing an embodiment of a heat dissipation structure in accordance with the present invention with the least processes; FIG. 10 is a general flowchart for manufacturing a heat dissipation system with carbon nanotube arrays directly grown on a heat source surface and a cooler surface and further growing to connect together; FIG. 11 is a chart showing the experimental results of thermal resistance of different TIM; FIG. 12 is a plan view of a device illustrating the relationship between the adhesive material and a heat source as well as a heat sink; FIG. 13 is a side view of the device of FIG. 12 illustrating the relationship between a heat source, the CNT-TIM, the adhesive material and a heat sink; FIG. 14 illustrates the heat conduction and heat convection flow paths of a CNT structure; and FIG. 15 illustrates a schematic of a thermal Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) system for CNT synthesis. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The present application discloses embodiments of a heat dissipation structure with aligned carbon nanotube (CNT) arrays on both sides that serve as thermal interface material or heat dissipation fins for enlarging the thermal convection area and methods for manufacturing it. Details are set forth to provide a thorough understanding of the embodiments of the present inventions with the help of the drawings but not limited to. The features, structures, materials, and characteristics of the inventions can be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments. In one embodiment, to simplify the fabrication process and decrease the cost, the aligned CNT arrays are grown on both sides of heat dissipation structure surfaces at one time. No catalyst is predeposited on heat dissipation structure surfaces or pretreated for growing. Sublimed catalyst, such as Ferrocence, is used as raw material. In addition, carbon nanotubes are synthesized on heat dissipation structure surfaces without pattern or pretreatment. Therefore, no microelectronic fabrication is needed for manufacturing the inventive heat dissipation structure with carbon nanotube arrays. Thermal chemical vapor deposition is adopted to synthesize carbon nanotube arrays because it is much cheaper than plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition. A heat dissipation structure with CNT arrays can be simply connected to the heat source surface and cooler surface by mechanical attachment with contact pressure. In some embodiments for high performance application with special requirements, modification layers and catalyst predeposition may be needed to modify the thermal and other properties of heat dissipation structure with CNT arrays. In some embodiments, an adhesive material can be formed around the outside edges of the gap between heat source and a cooler with CNT arrays in between. This connecting method avoids adding an additional thermal resistance to the heat dissipation structure. In some embodiments, CNT arrays are directly formed on at least one of the heat source surface and cooler surface and then connected together by further growth. The strong or good bonding formed by direct growth of the CNT arrays on both coupling surfaces is beneficial to reduce the thermal contact resistance. In some other embodiments, some CNT arrays are exposed to the environment to which the heat will dissipate instead of being in between a heat source and a solid cooler. In this case, carbon nanotube arrays serve as fins of heat dissipation structure to significantly enlarge the heat dissipation area and dissipate heat more effectively to the environment by thermal convection. The measured thermal contact resistance of CNT thermal interface material (TIM) synthesized by thermal chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is only about 15 mm2W/K, which is much less than that of commercial available TIM. Further information regarding TIMs is disclosed in the Proceedings of the 56th Electronics Components and Technology Conference, pp. 177-182, herein incorporated by reference. The measured thermal contact resistance of heat spreader with CNT arrays on both sides synthesized by thermal CVD is only about 51 mm2W/K, which is only 30% of that of conventional heat spreader with TIM. Further experimental results show that CNTs synthesized by Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD) has better thermal performance. References throughout this specification to “heat source” mean a structure that generates heat when operating or only a body with higher temperature, for example, a die or a device or a module or combination of several dies, devices or modules, or even a heat spreader dissipating heat to a heat sink. References throughout this specification to “cooler” mean a structure that serves to absorb heat and may further help dissipate the heat to other media, for example, a heat spreader absorbing heat from a heat source, a heat sink, or even an air environment or a fluid, etc. References throughout this specification to “coupling surface” mean the surface used to connect to other structures or materials. FIG. 1 shows an embodiment of inventive heat dissipation structure with CNT arrays 2 and 4 grown on heat dissipation structure surfaces 8 and 9. In the present invention, heat dissipation structure 3 can be made of any suitable high thermal conductivity materials, such as silicon, silicon oxide, silicon with silicon oxide layer, glass, some metals such as aluminum, copper, some metal alloys, such as aluminum alloy, copper alloy, or these metals or metal alloys with their oxide layers, or oxide of these metals or metal alloys, or any material containing at least one of the above materials. CNT arrays 2 and 4 can be grown on heat dissipation structure surfaces by thermal chemical vapor deposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, arc-discharge, or laser ablation method. FIG. 2 shows an embodiment with a smaller area of CNT arrays 2 on heat dissipation structure surface 8 than the area of CNT arrays 4 on heat dissipation structure surface 9 in some specific applications. For example, the area of CNT arrays 2 is the same as the area of heat source surface 6 and the area of CNT arrays 4 is the same as the area of the cooler surface 7. In other embodiment, the area of CNT array 2 and 4 can be larger or smaller than the area of heat source surface 6 and the area of cooler surface 7. Heat dissipation structure surfaces 8 and/or 9 can also be patterned to other desired features to make carbon nanotube arrays grow to the desired pattern in different applications. In FIG. 3, an application of an embodiment of the inventions in an electronic package with the inventive heat dissipation structure is shown schematically. A heat source 1 is connected to a cooler 5 through a heat dissipation structure 3 with carbon nanotube arrays 2 and 4 grown on both sides. In this embodiment, high density carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are grown on heat dissipation structure surfaces 8 and 9 without pattern by chemical vapor deposition using a sublimed catalyst, such as Ferrocene. Other sublimed catalysts can comprise at least one of dicyclopentadienyl iron (Ferrocene), dicyclopentadienyl cobalt (Cobaltocene), dicyclopentadienyl nickel (Nickelocene), iron titanium hydride, cobalt titanium hydride, nickel titanium hydride, or any materials containing at least one of these materials. A specific example of CNT array growth and CNT array growth conditions including temperature, pressure, source gases, and growth time is provided later in this application. There is no need for a microelectronic fabrication process to prepare the substrate and catalyst and, as a result, the manufacturing method is easy and low cost. High density CNT arrays are benefit to heat conduction because there are more heat conduction paths. In addition, CNT arrays with higher density can withstand the contact pressure in normal electronic packaging process without collapse. Therefore, aligned CNT arrays 2 are vertically extending from heat source surface 6 to heat dissipation structure surface 8 and CNT arrays 4 vertically extending from heat dissipation structure surface 9 to cooler surface 7, respectively. Under the contact pressure, some tips of CNT arrays 2 fill in the voids of uneven surface 6 and some even insert into the surface 6 of heat source 1. Similarly, some tips of CNT arrays 4 fill in the voids of uneven surface 7 and some even insert into the surface 7 of cooler 5. As a result, the inventive heat dissipation structure 3 with carbon nanotube arrays 2 and 4 as thermal interface material forms a high thermal conductive path from a heat source 1 to a cooler 5. FIG. 4. shows an embodiment with a layer 10 between CNT arrays 2 and heat dissipation structure surface 8 and layer 11 between CNT arrays 4 and heat dissipation structure surface 9. In some embodiments, the layers 10 and 11 can be a catalyst layer and/or multiple catalyst layers deposited on at least one of heat dissipation structure surfaces 8 and 9 for growing CNT arrays. Iron, nickel, cobalt, aluminum, silicon, copper, platinum, palladium, gold, silver, oxides of these materials, any combination of these materials and/or their oxides, or any materials containing at least one of these materials or their oxides can be the catalyst. In other embodiments, the layers 10 and 11 can be a modification layer or multiple modification layers formed on at least one of heat dissipation structure surfaces 8 and 9. They may be used to improve the bonding between CNT arrays and heat dissipation structure surfaces, and therefore reduce the thermal contact resistance between them. They may also be used to improve the distribution uniformity of CNT arrays on heat dissipation structure surfaces. Titanium, tungsten, silicon, aluminum, oxide of these materials, any combination of these materials, or any materials containing at least one of them can be used to form the modification layers. The layers 10 and 11 can also be multiple layers consisting of a catalyst layer and a modification layer. In some embodiments layers 10 and 11 may not be used at all or only one of them be used. FIG. 5 is a detail part of a heat dissipation structure showing some connecting methods with adhesive materials formed around the outside edges of the gap between a heat source and a cooler where there are CNT arrays grown in between. In FIGS. 5(a) and (b), the dimensions of the heat source 1 and the cooler 5 are the safe. The adhesive material 12 formed around the outside edges of the gap may only cover the gap and connect the heat source 1, CNT arrays 13 and the cooler 5, as shown in FIG. 5(a). It can also extend to a larger area, as shown in FIG. 5(b). The adhesive material can be an epoxy resin with or without fillers, thermal conductive polymers, a low melting metal or alloy, a phase change material, adhesive materials, or any materials containing any of these materials. In FIG. 5(c), the dimensions of the heat source 1 and the cooler 5 are not the same. The adhesive material 12 formed around the outside edges of the gap may shape like a fillet or any other shapes to connect the heat source 1 and the cooler 5 together with CNT arrays 13 extending from the heat source surface 6 to the cooler surface 7. The adhesive material 12 around the outside edges of the gap can help make CNT arrays have a good contact to the coupling surfaces as well as assembly the heat source and the cooler together. The adhesive material can be epoxy resins with or without fillers, thermal conductive polymers, low melting metals or alloys, phase change materials, adhesive materials, or any materials containing any of these materials. FIG. 6 is a detailed view of one embodiment of an inventive heat dissipation system. In this embodiment, CNT arrays 13 are directly grown face-to-face on a heat source surface 6 and a cooler surface 7 and further grow to connect together. In another embodiment, CNT arrays 13 can start to grow on one of the two coupling surfaces 6 and 7 till bonded to the opposite surface. FIG. 7 shows embodiments with some CNT arrays exposed to environment. In this case, CNT arrays serve as fins of heat dissipation structure to significantly enlarge the heat dissipation area and dissipate heat more effectively to the environment by thermal convection. In FIG. 7(a), heat dissipation structure serves as a heat spreader. CNT arrays 15 that are not in between the heat source, the heat dissipation structure and the cooler serve as fins to improve heat convection. In FIG. 7(b), heat dissipation structure serves as a heat sink. Part of CNT arrays on surface 8 of heat dissipation structure and all CNT arrays on surface 9 of heat dissipation structure function as fins to enlarge heat convection area. In FIG. 7(c), heat dissipation structure serves as a heat sink. Only part of CNT arrays on surface 8 of heat dissipation structure functions as fins to enlarge heat convection area. There are no CNT arrays grown on surface 9 of heat dissipation structure. CNT arrays can be formed with desired pattern. For example, in. FIG. 7(d). CNT arrays are formed with the center area the same as the heat resource and leaving a gap around the center CNT arrays to apply the adhesive material 12. More CNT arrays can be further grown on the outer surface to serve as fins to improve heat convection. CNT arrays can also be grown to form CNT bundles instead of uniformly distributed CNTs. FIG. 8 shows a flowchart for manufacturing the heat dissipation structure in accordance with the present invention. The method comprises the following steps: Step 801: providing a heat dissipation structure 3 with the desired dimension. Step 802: forming catalyst layers and/or modification layers 10 and 11 on at least one of heat dissipation structure surfaces 8 and 9; or no catalyst layer or modification layers at all. Step 803: growing carbon nanotube arrays 2 and 4 on both sides of heat dissipation structure surfaces 8 and 9. Step 804: forming adhesive material 12 around outside edges of CNT arrays; or no adhesive material at all. Step 805: assembling the heat source 1, heat dissipation structure 3 with CNT arrays 2 and 4 on both sides and the cooler 5 by mechanical contact pressure or by solidifying the adhesive material 12. FIG. 9 shows a flowchart for manufacturing one embodiment of the heat dissipation structure in accordance with the present invention with the least processes. The method comprises the following steps: Step 901: providing a heat dissipation structure 3 with the desired dimension. Step 902: growing carbon nanotube arrays 2 and 4 on both sides of heat dissipation structure surfaces 8 and 9 at one time with sublimed catalyst such as Ferrocene. No pretreatment of heat dissipation structure surfaces is needed. No pretreatment or deposition of catalyst is needed. Step 903: assembling the heat source 1, heat dissipation structure 3 with carbon nanotube arrays 2 and 4 on both sides and the cooler 5 by mechanical contact pressure. FIG. 10 shows a flowchart for manufacturing one embodiment of the inventive heat dissipation structure with CNT arrays directly grown on a heat source surface and a cooler surface and further growing to connect together. The method comprises the following steps: Step 1001: providing a heat source 1 and a cooler 5 with desired dimensions. Step 1002: putting the heat source 1 and the cooler 5 together while leaving them separated by spacers 14. Step 1003: forming catalyst layers and/or modification layers 10 and 11 on at least one of the heat source surface 6 and the cooler surface 7; or no catalyst layer or modification layer at all. Step 1004 growing CNT arrays 13 on the heat source surface 6 and/or the cooler surface 7 and further growing to connect them together. FIG. 11 is the experimental results of thermal resistance of different thermal interface material (TIM). The thermal resistance includes the contact resistance of TIM and coupling surfaces as well as thermal resistance of TIM layer. The thermal resistance of CNT-TIM is much less than that of commercial TIM with silver particles in epoxy resin. It is also less than that of solder TIM with Titanium (Ti) and copper (Cu) as the supporting layers. CNT-TIM synthesized by Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD) has less thermal resistance than CNT-TIN synthesized by thermal chemical vapor deposition (CVD). However, PECVD equipment is more expensive than thermal CVD furnace. FIG. 12 is a view of a is a plan view of a high brightness light emitting diode device package 20 that shows the structural relationship of the heat sink 5, adhesive material 12 and the device 1. FIG. 13 illustrates a side view of the high brightness light emitting diode device package 20 that depicts the relationship of the CNT-TIM 2 to the adhesive material 12 and the heat sink 5. FIG. 14 illustrates a two-sided CNT array structure that shows the convective heat transfer flow and conductive heat transfer flow through the structure of one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 15 is merely one embodiment of a CNT synthesis process in which a CNT arrays has been synthesized by thermal Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) using sublimed Ferrocene. In this embodiment, a one-stage CVD furnace system 40 was employed to grow CNT arrays on Silicon (SI) based substrates 48. The diameter of the internal quartz reactor (not shown) is 1.5 inches. The flow rate of gases was controlled by mass controllers. A volume of Argon (Ar) 42 equaling 200 standard cubic centimeters per minute (sccm) was input as the carrier gas and 50 sccm of Ethylene 44 was used as one part of the carbon source. 100-200 milligrams (mg) of Ferrocene 46 was used as a catalyst and as another part of the carbon source. The Ferrocene 46 was introduced into the quartz reactor of the system at a location having a temperature of 200 degrees Celsius. CNTs were grown at 750 degrees Celsius (750° C.) for 10-20 minutes. Finally, the whole system was naturally cooled down to room temperature. During the CNT synthesis the pressure in the quartz tube was kept at atmospheric pressure. In one embodiment, there is disclosed a packaged semiconductor structure, comprising a heat source, a heat sink, an aligned array of carbon nanotubes which thermally connects said source to said sink; and a peripheral connecting material which runs along at least some edges of said aligned array, while mechanically contacting said source and said sink to provide a fixed positional relationship there between. In another embodiment there is disclosed a packaged semiconductor structure, comprising an extended structure which carries heat; and first and second mutually separate aligned carbon nanotube arrays which are thermally connected to opposite surfaces of said extended structure, wherein said first array terminates in a connection to another heat conducting structure, and said second array terminates in bare carbon nanotube ends. In some embodiments, a method of transferring heat from a microelectronic heat source, comprises conducting heat through an if array of aligned nanotube fibers; separating a heat source and heat sink by placing a spacer in a positional relationship with the heat source and heat sink; and mechanically stabilizing a relative position of the heat source to the heat sink using an adhesive material. In some embodiments there is disclosed a method of operating an electronic system, comprising operating at least one electronic component, coupling heat from said electronic component into a thermal plane, the thermal plane having thermal interface material; laterally conducting heat along said plane; and conducting heat out of said plane through the thermal interface material, wherein the thermal interface material are aligned carbon nanotube arrays. In other embodiments, a method for thermal connection is disclosed. The method comprises separating a heat source and a heat sink by placing a spacer in a positional relationship with the heat source and heat sink; growing a first aligned carbon nanotube array in a first perpendicular direction from a heat source; growing a second aligned carbon nanotube array in a second perpendicular direction opposite to the first perpendicular direction from a heat sink; coupling the first and second carbon nanotube arrays by allowing the growth of the first carbon nanotube array to connect with the growth of the second nanotube array. In some embodiments, there is disclosed a method of fabricating an electronic system, comprising actions of a) forming a dry carbon nanotube (CNT) array on a heat spreader; b) thereafter positioning a packaged electronic device in a position which is spaced from at least part of said dry CNT array; and c) growing carbon nanotubes from both said CNT array and said packaged device, to thereby form a unified CNT array which provides a low-resistance heat path from said device to said heat spreader. In another embodiment, there is disclosed a method of fabricating an electronic system, comprising actions of a) forming a dry CNT array on a heat spreader; b) thereafter positioning a packaged electronic device in a position which is spaced from at least part of said dry CNT array by a spacer; and c) growing carbon nanotubes from both said CNT array and said packaged device, to thereby, form a unified CNT array which provides a low-resistance heat path from said device to said heat spreader. Another embodiment discloses a thermal management structure, comprising a heat source, thermally linked to a heat spreader by an aligned nanotube array and a heat sink, also thermally linked to said heat spreader by another aligned nanotube array. In another embodiment, a method is disclosed for operating an electronic device, comprising actions of conducting heat from a heat source to a heat spreader through an aligned nanotube array; and conducting heat from said heat spreader to a heat sink through another aligned nanotube array. In another embodiment, a cooling structure is disclosed comprising a heat source, which is operatively coupled to drive heat flow through an aligned nanotube array; and a convective cooling area, where at least some of said aligned nanotube array couples heat to a fluid. Some other embodiments disclose a method for operating an electronic device, comprising actions of conducting heat from a heat source to a heat spreader through an aligned nanotube array; and conducting heat from said heat spreader to a heat sink through another aligned nanotube array. The foregoing, detailed description and accompanying drawings are only illustrative and not restrictive. It is to be understood that the general nature revealed in the invention may be sufficient to those skilled in the art to devise with addition, deletion, modification and adaptation in various applications as well as alternative arrangements without departing from the spirit of the disclosed embodiments and the scope of the appended claims. Modifications and Variations As will be recognized by those skilled in the art, the innovative concepts described in the present application can be modified and varied over a tremendous range of applications and accordingly the scope of patented subject matter is not limited by any of the specific exemplary teachings given. For example, it should be noted that a heat source may be a heat dissipation structure that generates heat when in operation or may be a structure having a high temperature. The heat dissipation structure could be a die, device, a module or a combination of several dies, devices, modules or even a heat spreader that dissipates heat to a heat sink. Similarly, a cooler may be a structure that absorbs heat and further may help to dissipate heat to other media including a heat spreader, a heat sink, or even ambient air or a fluid. Note that the carbon nanotube array can be used not only to couple to a gas phase for convective or forced cooling, but also to a liquid phase. The carbon nanotube (CNT) arrays of the inventions may be grown or synthesized using processes such as thermal chemical vapor deposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, arc discharging, or laser ablation. The carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are usually grown in a perpendicular alignment to the substrate. In some embodiments a high thermal conductivity substrate may, form particular patterns specific to certain applications and the CNT arrays may be grown within the particular pattern. The high thermal conductivity substrate comprises one of silicon, silicon oxide, silicon with silicon oxide layer, glass, some metals such as aluminum, copper, some metal alloys such as aluminum alloy, copper alloy, or these metals or metal alloys with their oxide layers, or oxide of these metals or metal alloys, or any materials containing at least one of the above materials. The CNT arrays may be grown by using sublimed catalysts such as dicyclopentadienyl iron (Ferrocene), dicyclopentadienyl cobalt (Cobaltocene), dicyclopentadienyl nickel (Nickelocene), iron titanium hydride, cobalt titanium hydride, nickel titanium hydride, or similar compounds containing at least one of these substances. CNT arrays may be grown from preformed catalyst dispersed on the high thermal conductivity substrate surfaces. Deformed catalyst types include iron, nickel, cobalt, aluminum, silicon, copper, platinum, palladium, gold, silver, oxides of these materials, and any combination or compound of these substances and/or their oxides. Some embodiments may, include a modification layer formed on the high thermal conductivity substrate surface that is operational to modify the distribution and density of the CNT arrays and modify the bonding between the CNT and the high thermal conductivity substrate surfaces. The modification layer may at least one of titanium, tungsten, silicon, aluminum, oxides of these elements, or any compounds containing at least one of these elements. In some embodiments, the electronic system is comprised of CNT arrays disposed in a gap exposed between a heat source and a cooler. Adhesive material may be placed around the outside edges of the exposed gap. The adhesive material may include epoxy resin with or without fillers, thermal conductive polymers, a low melting metal or alloy, a phase change material, adhesive materials, or any substances containing any of these materials. In some embodiments, the CNT arrays increase the heat dissipation from the electronic structure by operating as heat fins. The CNT heat fins significantly increase the heat dissipation area of the heat, dissipation structure resulting in increased heat dissipation to the environment by heat convection. The CNT arrays are positioned to effectively dissipate the heat into the environment by thermal convection. CNT arrays may be grown or synthesized into a specific pattern required for a particular application or may be adapted for a specific feature of an application. In some embodiments, aligned CNT arrays may be grown to vertically extend from a heat source surface or a cooler surface and may be grown until contact is made to the opposite surface. In other embodiments, aligned CNT arrays may be grown to vertically extend from a heat source surface and a cooler surface and may be grown until the opposite CNT arrays overlap. In one embodiment, the dimensions of the heat source and the cooler may be the same; the dimensions of the electronic structures may be device and application dependent. One example may be a 1 W LED package where the heat source is 1 millimeter (mm) by 1 mm and the cooler or heat sink is 20 mm by 20 mm. In other applications, the heat source may be much larger than 1 mm by 1 mm and the heat sink will be a corresponding dimension. None of the description the present application should be construed as implying that any particular element, step, or function is an essential element which must be included in the claim scope THE SCOPE OF PATENTED SUBJECT MATTER IS DEFINED ONLY BY THE ALLOWED CLAIMS. Moreover, none of these claims are intended to invoke paragraph six of 35 U.S.C. section 112 unless the exact words “means for” are followed by a participle. The claims as filed are intended to be as comprehensive as possible, and NO subject matter is intentionally relinquished, dedicated, or abandoned.	H	H01	H01L	233	73
12002209	US20080148712A1-20080626	Exhaust control device for an internal combustion engine	ACCEPTED	20080612	20080626		[]	F01N310	["F01N310", "F01N900"]	8033097	20071214	20111011	60	285000	58970.0	BRADLEY	AUDREY	[{"inventor_name_last": "Wada", "inventor_name_first": "Katsuji", "inventor_city": "Wako", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Suzuki", "inventor_name_first": "Norio", "inventor_city": "Wako", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Morita", "inventor_name_first": "Tomoko", "inventor_city": "Wako", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]	An exhaust control device for an internal combustion engine, comprises: a NOx purifying catalyst disposed in an exhaust system; and a rich control means for calculating a fuel injection amount based on a difference between a target exhaust air fuel ratio and an actual exhaust air fuel ratio to feedback-control the actual exhaust air fuel ratio so that a reducing atmosphere is created in the exhaust system to thereby reduce NOx trapped by the NOx purifying catalyst, wherein the rich control means includes a learning means for calculating and updating a control correction value of the fuel injection amount based on an actual control value of the fuel injection amount during the feedback control, and wherein the fuel injection amount is calculated during the feedback control by using the control correction value.	1. An exhaust control device for an internal combustion engine, comprising: a NOx purifying catalyst disposed in an exhaust system; and a rich control means for calculating a fuel injection amount based on a difference between a target exhaust air fuel ratio and an actual exhaust air fuel ratio to feedback-control the actual exhaust air fuel ratio so that a reducing atmosphere is created in the exhaust system to thereby reduce NOx trapped by the NOx purifying catalyst, wherein the rich control means includes a learning means for calculating and updating a control correction value of the fuel injection amount based on an actual control value of the fuel injection amount during the feedback control, and wherein the fuel injection amount is calculated during the feedback control by using the control correction value. 2. The exhaust control device for an internal combustion engine according to claim 1, wherein the rich control means has a combustion rich mode for controlling an amount of main fuel injection and a post rich mode for controlling an amount of post fuel injection that is conducted after combustion, and wherein the learning means comprises a control correction value storing means for storing the control correction value for each of the combustion rich mode and the post rich mode. 3. The exhaust control device for an internal combustion engine according to claim 1, wherein: the rich control means is provided with a target air fuel ratio storing means for storing the target air fuel ratio that has been predetermined corresponding to operational conditions; the learning means comprises a control correction value storing means for storing the control correction value corresponding to operational conditions; and a data storing point of the target air fuel ratio and a data storing point of the control value correspond to each other for a given operational condition. 4. The exhaust control device for an internal combustion engine according to claim 1, wherein the control correction value of the fuel injection amount consists of a feedforward correction value of the fuel injection amount. 5. The exhaust control device for an internal combustion engine according to claim 1, wherein at least at a beginning of the feedback control, the fuel injection amount is calculated by using the control correction value calculated and updated during a previous feedback control. 6. An exhaust control method for an internal combustion engine provided with a NOx purifying catalyst disposed in an exhaust system, wherein the method comprising the steps of: calculating a fuel injection amount based on a difference between a target exhaust air fuel ratio and an actual exhaust air fuel ratio to feedback-control the actual exhaust air fuel ratio in such a way that a reducing atmosphere is created in the exhaust system to thereby reduce NOx trapped by the NOx purifying catalyst; and calculating and updating a control correction value of the fuel injection amount based on an actual control value of the fuel injection amount during a conduction of the feedback control, wherein the fuel injection amount is calculated during the feedback control by using the control correction value. 7. The exhaust control method according to claim 6, wherein the step of calculating a fuel injection amount comprises a step of selecting either of a combustion rich mode for controlling an amount of main fuel injection or a post rich mode for controlling an amount of post fuel injection that is conducted after combustion, and wherein the step of calculating and updating a control correction value comprises a step of storing the control correction value for the combustion rich mode and a step of storing the control correction value for the post rich mode. 8. The exhaust control method according to claim 6, further comprising the steps of: storing the target air fuel ratio that has been predetermined corresponding to operational conditions in a target air fuel ratio storing means; and storing the control correction value corresponding to operational conditions in a control correction value storing means, wherein a data storing point of the target air fuel ratio and a data storing point of the control value correspond to each other for a given operational condition. 9. The exhaust control method according to claim 6, wherein the control correction value of the fuel injection amount consists of a feedforward correction value of the fuel injection amount. 10. The exhaust control method according to claim 6, wherein at least at a beginning of the feedback control, the fuel injection amount is calculated by using the control correction value calculated and updated during a previous feedback control. 11. A computer-readable medium having computer-executable instructions for performing an exhaust control method for an internal combustion engine provided with a NOx purifying catalyst disposed in an exhaust system, wherein the method comprising the steps of: calculating a fuel injection amount based on a difference between a target exhaust air fuel ratio and an actual exhaust air fuel ratio to feedback-control the actual exhaust air fuel ratio in such a way that a reducing atmosphere is created in the exhaust system to thereby reduce NOx trapped by the NOx purifying catalyst; and calculating and updating a control correction value of the fuel injection amount based on an actual control value of the fuel injection amount during a conduction of the feedback control, wherein the fuel injection amount is calculated during the feedback control by using the control correction value. 12. The computer-readable medium according to claim 11, wherein the step of calculating a fuel injection amount comprises a step of selecting either of a combustion rich mode for controlling an amount of main fuel injection or a post rich mode for controlling an amount of post fuel injection that is conducted after combustion, and wherein the step of calculating and updating a control correction value comprises a step of storing the control correction value for the combustion rich mode and a step of storing the control correction value for the post rich mode. 13. The computer-readable medium according to claim 11, wherein the method further comprises the steps of: storing the target air fuel ratio that has been predetermined corresponding to operational conditions in a target air fuel ratio storing means; and storing the control correction value corresponding to operational conditions in a control correction value storing means, wherein a data storing point of the target air fuel ratio and a data storing point of the control value correspond to each other for a given operational condition. 14. The computer-readable medium according to claim 11, wherein the control correction value of the fuel injection amount consists of a feedforward correction value of the fuel injection amount. 15. The computer-readable medium according to claim 11, wherein at least at a beginning of the feedback control, the fuel injection amount is calculated by using the control correction value calculated and updated during a previous feedback control.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The exhaust passage of a diesel engine is sometimes fitted with a lean NOx catalyst (referred to as LNC hereinafter) for reducing and eliminating nitrogen oxides (referred to as NOx hereinafter) in the exhaust gas, where the NOx is particularly generated in a large amount in lean combustion. The LNC functions to trap (more specifically adsorb) NOx in an oxidizing atmosphere where an exhaust air fuel ratio is higher than a prescribed value (referred to as “lean” hereinafter) and reducing the trapped NOx into a harmless form in a reducing atmosphere where the exhaust air fuel ratio is lower than the prescribed value (referred to as “rich” hereinafter). The NOx purification ability of the LNC tends to decrease as the amount of trapped NOx increases. Therefore, in order to avoid saturation of amount of NOx trapped by the LNC, a process for regenerating the LNC is conducted by executing a rich spike control from time to time to make the exhaust air fuel ratio rich and reduce the NOx trapped by the LNC. In the rich spike control, the reducing atmosphere is created in the exhaust system by decreasing an amount of air intake by restricting the opening of the intake control valve and/or increasing an amount of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) than in a usual operation, and at the same time increasing an amount of fuel injection. It is common that the fuel injection amount is feedback-controlled such that an actual value of exhaust air fuel ratio detected by an O 2 sensor or the like approaches a target value. During the rich spike control, in order to shorten the time period from the start of control to the convergence of the exhaust air fuel ratio to the target value, it is conceivable to add, depending on an actual amount of air intake, a predetermined increment of fuel injection (feedforward term) to the current amount of fuel injection, in addition to an increment of fuel injection (feedback term) that is feedback-controlled based on a difference between the target and actual values of exhaust air fuel ratio. The actual amount of air intake may be measured by an air flow meter. However, because characteristics of some component parts such as the air flow meter, fuel injection valve or the like may differ from one to another and also may change with time, the predetermined value of the feedforward term can be or become inappropriate, and this can result in unsatisfactory control accuracy and response characteristics, which in turn can lead to increased emission in the exhaust gas and lower fuel economy. In order to cope with such problems and thereby improve the response characteristics in the rich spike control, Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open Publication No. 2002-201985 has proposed to conduct a stoichiometric (referred to as “stoic” hereinafter) combustion at a constant interval and learn a correction value used in the feedback control. However, in the technique disclosed in JPA 2002-201985, it is necessary to conduct the stoic combustion only for the purpose of learning the correction value and this can deteriorate the fuel economy and/or drive characteristics. Further, the learning is not always possible and requires a certain time period of stationary driving in order to maintain desired control accuracy, and thus the opportunities for learning are inconveniently limited.	<SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is made to solve such prior art problems, and a primary object of the present invention is to provide an exhaust control device for an internal combustion engine that is provided with a control correction value learning means that can learn an appropriate control correction value without requiring change of the combustion state for the purpose of correction value learning. To achieve such an object, the present invention provides an exhaust control device for an internal combustion engine, comprising: a NOx purifying catalyst disposed in an exhaust system; and a rich control means for calculating a fuel injection amount based on a difference between a target exhaust air fuel ratio and an actual exhaust air fuel ratio to feedback-control the actual exhaust air fuel ratio so that a reducing atmosphere is created in the exhaust system to thereby reduce NOx trapped by the NOx purifying catalyst, wherein the rich control means includes a learning means for calculating and updating a control correction value of the fuel injection amount based on an actual control value of the fuel injection amount during the feedback control, and wherein the fuel injection amount is calculated during the feedback control by using the control correction value. According to the above structure of the present invention, every time the feedback control for reducing NOx trapped by the NOx purifying catalyst is conducted, the correction value (or feedforward term) for fuel injection increment control is updated, and therefore, even when the characteristics of the air flow meter and/or fuel injection valve may differ from one to another or may change with time, the correction value can be adjusted to an appropriate value in accordance with such difference and/or change. Therefore, it is possible to allow the exhaust air fuel ratio to rapidly converge to the target value in the feedback control without deteriorating exhaust emission and fuel economy. Preferably, the rich control means has a combustion rich mode for controlling an amount of main fuel injection and a post rich mode for controlling an amount of post fuel injection that is conducted after combustion, and the learning means comprises a control correction value storing means for storing the control correction value for each of the combustion rich mode and the post rich mode. The combustion rich mode and the post rich mode may require different target air intake amounts and target fuel injection amounts to achieve a same exhaust air fuel ratio for a given operational condition. It should be particularly mentioned that in the post rich mode, the injected fuel flows into the exhaust system as unburnt components irrespective of an amount of fuel injection while in the combustion rich mode, an increase of fuel injection can affect an amount of soot generation, and therefore, the control value should be determined taking into account such differences. The control correction value storing means as above allows different control values to be set for different control modes, and therefore, the fuel injection amount can be optimally controlled in each of the control modes. Also preferably, the rich control means is provided with a target air fuel ratio storing means for storing the target air fuel ratio that has been predetermined corresponding to operational conditions, the learning means comprises a control correction value storing means for storing the control correction value corresponding to operational conditions, and a data storing point of the target air fuel ratio and a data storing point of the control value correspond to each other for a given operational condition. According to such a structure, it is possible to make a control correction value correspond to each target exhaust air fuel ratio, and therefore, an optimal correction can be made for a selected exhaust air fuel ratio and this can contribute to achieving faster convergence of the air fuel ratio to the target value. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided an exhaust control method for an internal combustion engine provided with a NOx purifying catalyst disposed in an exhaust system, wherein the method comprising the steps of: calculating a fuel injection amount based on a difference between a target exhaust air fuel ratio and an actual exhaust air fuel ratio to feedback-control the actual exhaust air fuel ratio in such a way that a reducing atmosphere is created in the exhaust system to thereby reduce NOx trapped by the NOx purifying catalyst; and calculating and updating a control correction value of the fuel injection amount based on an actual control value of the fuel injection amount during a conduction of the feedback control, wherein the fuel injection amount is calculated during the feedback control by using the control correction value. According to a further aspect of the present invention, there is provided a computer-readable medium having computer-executable instructions for performing the above method.	TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to an exhaust control device for an internal combustion engine, and particularly relates to an exhaust control device for conducting a regeneration process of a NOx purifying catalyst for decreasing nitrogen oxides in the exhaust gas. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The exhaust passage of a diesel engine is sometimes fitted with a lean NOx catalyst (referred to as LNC hereinafter) for reducing and eliminating nitrogen oxides (referred to as NOx hereinafter) in the exhaust gas, where the NOx is particularly generated in a large amount in lean combustion. The LNC functions to trap (more specifically adsorb) NOx in an oxidizing atmosphere where an exhaust air fuel ratio is higher than a prescribed value (referred to as “lean” hereinafter) and reducing the trapped NOx into a harmless form in a reducing atmosphere where the exhaust air fuel ratio is lower than the prescribed value (referred to as “rich” hereinafter). The NOx purification ability of the LNC tends to decrease as the amount of trapped NOx increases. Therefore, in order to avoid saturation of amount of NOx trapped by the LNC, a process for regenerating the LNC is conducted by executing a rich spike control from time to time to make the exhaust air fuel ratio rich and reduce the NOx trapped by the LNC. In the rich spike control, the reducing atmosphere is created in the exhaust system by decreasing an amount of air intake by restricting the opening of the intake control valve and/or increasing an amount of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) than in a usual operation, and at the same time increasing an amount of fuel injection. It is common that the fuel injection amount is feedback-controlled such that an actual value of exhaust air fuel ratio detected by an O2 sensor or the like approaches a target value. During the rich spike control, in order to shorten the time period from the start of control to the convergence of the exhaust air fuel ratio to the target value, it is conceivable to add, depending on an actual amount of air intake, a predetermined increment of fuel injection (feedforward term) to the current amount of fuel injection, in addition to an increment of fuel injection (feedback term) that is feedback-controlled based on a difference between the target and actual values of exhaust air fuel ratio. The actual amount of air intake may be measured by an air flow meter. However, because characteristics of some component parts such as the air flow meter, fuel injection valve or the like may differ from one to another and also may change with time, the predetermined value of the feedforward term can be or become inappropriate, and this can result in unsatisfactory control accuracy and response characteristics, which in turn can lead to increased emission in the exhaust gas and lower fuel economy. In order to cope with such problems and thereby improve the response characteristics in the rich spike control, Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open Publication No. 2002-201985 has proposed to conduct a stoichiometric (referred to as “stoic” hereinafter) combustion at a constant interval and learn a correction value used in the feedback control. However, in the technique disclosed in JPA 2002-201985, it is necessary to conduct the stoic combustion only for the purpose of learning the correction value and this can deteriorate the fuel economy and/or drive characteristics. Further, the learning is not always possible and requires a certain time period of stationary driving in order to maintain desired control accuracy, and thus the opportunities for learning are inconveniently limited. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is made to solve such prior art problems, and a primary object of the present invention is to provide an exhaust control device for an internal combustion engine that is provided with a control correction value learning means that can learn an appropriate control correction value without requiring change of the combustion state for the purpose of correction value learning. To achieve such an object, the present invention provides an exhaust control device for an internal combustion engine, comprising: a NOx purifying catalyst disposed in an exhaust system; and a rich control means for calculating a fuel injection amount based on a difference between a target exhaust air fuel ratio and an actual exhaust air fuel ratio to feedback-control the actual exhaust air fuel ratio so that a reducing atmosphere is created in the exhaust system to thereby reduce NOx trapped by the NOx purifying catalyst, wherein the rich control means includes a learning means for calculating and updating a control correction value of the fuel injection amount based on an actual control value of the fuel injection amount during the feedback control, and wherein the fuel injection amount is calculated during the feedback control by using the control correction value. According to the above structure of the present invention, every time the feedback control for reducing NOx trapped by the NOx purifying catalyst is conducted, the correction value (or feedforward term) for fuel injection increment control is updated, and therefore, even when the characteristics of the air flow meter and/or fuel injection valve may differ from one to another or may change with time, the correction value can be adjusted to an appropriate value in accordance with such difference and/or change. Therefore, it is possible to allow the exhaust air fuel ratio to rapidly converge to the target value in the feedback control without deteriorating exhaust emission and fuel economy. Preferably, the rich control means has a combustion rich mode for controlling an amount of main fuel injection and a post rich mode for controlling an amount of post fuel injection that is conducted after combustion, and the learning means comprises a control correction value storing means for storing the control correction value for each of the combustion rich mode and the post rich mode. The combustion rich mode and the post rich mode may require different target air intake amounts and target fuel injection amounts to achieve a same exhaust air fuel ratio for a given operational condition. It should be particularly mentioned that in the post rich mode, the injected fuel flows into the exhaust system as unburnt components irrespective of an amount of fuel injection while in the combustion rich mode, an increase of fuel injection can affect an amount of soot generation, and therefore, the control value should be determined taking into account such differences. The control correction value storing means as above allows different control values to be set for different control modes, and therefore, the fuel injection amount can be optimally controlled in each of the control modes. Also preferably, the rich control means is provided with a target air fuel ratio storing means for storing the target air fuel ratio that has been predetermined corresponding to operational conditions, the learning means comprises a control correction value storing means for storing the control correction value corresponding to operational conditions, and a data storing point of the target air fuel ratio and a data storing point of the control value correspond to each other for a given operational condition. According to such a structure, it is possible to make a control correction value correspond to each target exhaust air fuel ratio, and therefore, an optimal correction can be made for a selected exhaust air fuel ratio and this can contribute to achieving faster convergence of the air fuel ratio to the target value. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided an exhaust control method for an internal combustion engine provided with a NOx purifying catalyst disposed in an exhaust system, wherein the method comprising the steps of: calculating a fuel injection amount based on a difference between a target exhaust air fuel ratio and an actual exhaust air fuel ratio to feedback-control the actual exhaust air fuel ratio in such a way that a reducing atmosphere is created in the exhaust system to thereby reduce NOx trapped by the NOx purifying catalyst; and calculating and updating a control correction value of the fuel injection amount based on an actual control value of the fuel injection amount during a conduction of the feedback control, wherein the fuel injection amount is calculated during the feedback control by using the control correction value. According to a further aspect of the present invention, there is provided a computer-readable medium having computer-executable instructions for performing the above method. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Now the present invention is described in the following with reference to the appended drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is an overall structural view of an internal combustion engine to which the present invention is applied; FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a control device to which the present invention is applied; FIG. 3 is a conceptual diagram of a map showing regions for determining a control mode; FIG. 4 is a flowchart of a main routine of the control according to the present invention; FIG. 5 is a conceptual diagram of a feedforward correction value storing map; FIG. 6 is a conceptual diagram of an air fuel ratio target value storing map; and FIG. 7 is a flowchart of a subroutine of the control according to the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS FIG. 1 is a basic structural view of an internal combustion engine E to which the present invention is applied. The mechanical structure of this internal combustion engine (diesel engine) E is no different from a conventional one, and the engine E comprises a turbocharger 1 equipped with a variable boost pressure mechanism. An intake passage 2 is connected to a compressor side of the turbocharger 1 and an exhaust passage 3 is connected to a turbine side of the turbocharger 1. An air cleaner 4 is connected to an upstream end of the intake passage 2, and an intake control valve 5 for controlling a flow rate of fresh air flowing into a combustion chamber and a swirl control valve 6 for restricting a cross-section of the flow passage to increase the air flow velocity in a low rotational speed/low load operation region are provided at appropriate positions in the intake passage 2. Further, on a downstream end of the exhaust passage 3 is connected an exhaust gas purifying device 10, which comprises a three-way catalyst (referred to as TWC hereinafter ) 7, a filter (DPF) 8 for removing particulate matter such as soot, and an LNC 9, where the TWC 7, filter 8 and LNC 9 are arranged in this order in the direction of exhaust gas flow. The swirl control valve 6 and a part of the exhaust passage 3 near the exit of the combustion chamber are connected to each other via an exhaust gas recirculating (hereinafter referred to as EGR) passage 11. This EGR passage 11 comprises a cooler passage 11a and a bypass passage 11b which are bifurcated at a switching valve 12, and an EGR control valve 13 is provided at a junction of the passages 11a and 11b for controlling an EGR flow rate toward the combustion chamber. A fuel injection valve 14 is provided to a cylinder head of the internal combustion engine E such that an end of the fuel injection valve 14 extends into the combustion chamber. The fuel injection valve 14 is connected to a common rail 15 containing fuel at a prescribed high pressure, and the common rail 15 is connected to a fuel pump 17 driven by a crankshaft to pump up fuel from a fuel tank 16. The variable boost pressure mechanism 19 for the turbocharger 1, the intake control valve 5, EGR passage switching valve 12, EGR control valve 13, fuel injection valve 14, fuel pump 17 and so on are configured to operate according to control signals from an electronic control unit (ECU) 18 (see FIG. 2). As shown in FIG. 2, the ECU 18 in turn receives signals from an intake valve opening sensor 20, crankshaft rotational speed sensor 21, intake flow rate sensor 22, boost pressure sensor 23, EGR valve opening sensor 24, common rail pressure sensor 25, accelerator pedal sensor 26, O2 sensors 27, TWC temperature sensor 28, LNC temperature sensor 29 and so on which are provided in appropriate parts of the internal combustion engine E. A memory for ECU 18 stores a map for setting target values of various controlled quantities such as an optimum fuel injection amount that can be typically obtained experimentally with respect to a torque demand (accelerator pedal displacement) and crankshaft rotational speed, so that the various control quantities can be optimally controlled and an optimum combustion state can be achieved for a current operational condition of the internal combustion engine E specified by the torque demand and the crankshaft rotational speed. In this internal combustion engine E, a regeneration process for reducing NOx trapped by the LNC 9 is conducted from time to time in order to prevent decrease in the NOx purifying ability of the LNC 9. In the regeneration process, the exhaust air fuel ratio is made temporarily rich (rich spike control). In conducting the rich spike control, either of a combustion rich mode, in which a main fuel is increased, or a post rich mode in which supplemental fuel is injected during expansion or exhaust strokes (i.e., after the combustion), is selected depending on operational conditions of the internal combustion engine E by referring to a rich mode region defining map (FIG. 3), which defines regions for selecting the combustion rich mode or post rich mode with respect to the torque demand and crankshaft rotational speed. Next, an explanation is made to a feedback control of the amount of fuel injection (or exhaust air fuel ratio) with reference to FIG. 4. First, a determination is made on whether the rich spike control is currently conducted or not by referring to a prescribed flag, for example (step 1). As such a flag, it is conceivable to use a flag that is set to 1 (one) when the exhaust air fuel ratio is made rich when an operation has changed from the lean operation to the stoic operation, or a flag that is set to 1 (one) when a sum of an estimated value of an amount of NOx trapped by the LNC 9 during the lean operation and an amount of NOx estimated to be trapped during a reduction rich control has exceeded a prescribed saturation judging value, for example. When it is determined that the rich spike control is not currently conducted, i.e., that a usual operation is conducted (“NO” in step 1), an air intake amount map for usual operation is accessed to retrieve a target air intake amount Qair_des as a control target value appropriate for the current operational state, where the air intake amount map for usual operation is adapted to be accessed by using the torque demand and the crankshaft rotational speed as an address (step 2). Further, an access is made to a fuel injection amount map for usual operation to retrieve a target fuel injection amount Qinj_lean as a control target value appropriate for the current operational state, where the fuel injection amount map for usual operation is adapted to be accessed by using the torque demand and the crankshaft rotational speed as an address (step 3) The intake control valve 5 and the fuel injection valve 14 are controlled so as to achieve the target values of air intake amount and fuel injection amount. On the other hand, when it is determined in step 1 that the rich spike control is currently conducted (“YES” in step 1), the above described rich mode region defining map (FIG. 3) is accessed to determine whether the current operational condition is in the post rich mode region or not (step 4). When it is determined that the current operational condition is not in the post rich mode region (“NO” in step 4), i.e., the current operational condition is in the combustion rich mode region, an air intake amount map for combustion rich mode is accessed to retrieve a target air intake amount Qair_des appropriate for the current operational condition, where the air intake amount map for combustion rich mode is adapted to be accessed by using the torque demand and the crankshaft rotational speed as an address (step 5). Subsequently, an access is made to a main fuel injection amount map for combustion rich mode to retrieve a target main fuel injection amount Qinj_main appropriate for the current operational condition, where the main fuel injection amount map for combustion rich mode is adapted to be accessed by using the torque demand and the crankshaft rotational speed as an address (step 6). Thereafter, an access is made to an exhaust air fuel ratio map for combustion rich mode to retrieve a target exhaust air fuel ratio AF_des as a control target value appropriate for the current operational condition, where the exhaust air fuel ratio map for combustion rich mode is adapted to be accessed by using the torque demand and the crankshaft rotational speed as an address (step 7). Then, a fuel injection increment feedback correction coefficient Qinj_fb is calculated (step 8). In the step 8, first, a difference ΔAF between an actual exhaust air fuel ratio AF_act and the target exhaust air fuel ratio AF_des is obtained (ΔAF=AF_act−AF_des). In parallel with this, a new feedback correction proportion term Qinj_fbp for fuel injection amount is obtained by adding a product between an appropriate correction coefficient kp and the difference ΔAF to the previous feedback correction proportional term Qinj_fbp (Qinj_fbp=Qinj_fbp+ΔAF×kp). Further, a new feedback correction integral term Qinj_fbi for fuel injection amount is obtained by adding a product between an appropriate correction coefficient ki and the difference ΔAF to the previous feedback correction integral term Qinj_fbi (Qinj_fbi=Qinj_fbi+ΔAF×ki). Yet further, a new feedback correction differential term Qinj_fbd for fuel injection amount is obtained by adding a product between an appropriate correction coefficient kd and an amount of change of the difference ΔAF to the previous feedback correction differential term Qinj_fbd (Qinj_fbd=Qinj_fbd+[ΔAF(i)−ΔAF(i−1)]×kd). Thereafter, the feedback correction proportional term Qinj_fbp, feedback correction integral term Qinj_fbi, and feedback correction differential term Qinj_fbd are added together to obtain the fuel injection increment feedback correction coefficient Qinj_fb (Qinj_fb=Qinj_fbp+Qinj_fbi+Qinj_fbd). Then, if a difference ΔQair between an actual air intake amount ΔQair_act and the target air intake amount Qair_des is equal to or below a prescribed value (“YES” in step 9) and the difference ΔAF between the actual exhaust air fuel ratio AF_act and the target exhaust air fuel ratio AF_des is equal to or below a prescribed value (“YES” in step 10), i.e., the actual values have converged to the respective target values, an appropriate feedforward correction value Qinj_ff is calculated from the actual fuel injection amount control value at that time, and the thus-calculated feedforward correction value Qinj_ff is used to update a value at a data storing point in a correction value map (FIG. 5) corresponding to the torque demand and the crankshaft rotational speed in the current operational condition, where the correction value map sets and stores the fuel injection increment feedforward correction value Qinj_ff for varying torque demand and crankshaft rotational speed (step 11). In this way, a learning means for maintaining an optimal fuel injection increment feedforward correction value Qinj_ff as a control correction value is configured. A detailed explanation to the learning routine (or how the feedforward correction value Qinj_ff is calculated) in step 11 will be made later. Thus, the fuel injection increment feedforward correction value Qinj_ff appropriate for the current operational state is obtained from the updated correction value map (FIG. 5) which serves as a control correction value storing means (step 12). If the determination in step 9 or step 10 results in “NO”, i.e., when the actual values have not converged to the target values, the fuel injection increment feedforward correction value Qinj_ff is not updated, and the fuel injection increment feedforward correction value Qinj_ff appropriate for the current operational state is obtained from the unupdated map. Thereafter, the fuel injection increment feedback correction coefficient Qinj_fb obtained in step 8 is multiplied with a sum between the target main injection amount Qinj_main for combustion rich mode obtained in step 6 and the fuel injection increment feedforward correction value Qinj_ff obtained in step 11, to thereby obtain a final main injection amount Qinj_mainf for combustion rich mode (step 13). Thus, the fuel injection increment feedforward correction value Qinj_ff, which serves as a control correction value used in calculating the final main injection amount Qinj_mainf, is updated when the actual air fuel ratio AF_act has converged to the target air fuel ratio AF_des during the feedback control for the rich spike control, and the updated feedforward correction value Qinj_ff is stored in the map therefor. In a subsequent feedback control for the rich spike control, the Qinj_ff updated in the previous feedback control can be used from the beginning of the feedback control to calculate an appropriate final main injection amount Qinj_mainf, and therefore, the air fuel ratio AF_act can converge to the target value AF_des faster. On the other hand, if it is determined in step 4 that the current condition is in the post rich mode region (“YES” in step 4), an air intake amount map for post rich mode is accessed to retrieve a target air intake amount Qair_des for post rich mode appropriate for the current operational condition, where the air intake amount map for post rich mode is adapted to be accessed by using the torque demand and the crankshaft rotational speed as an address (step 14). Subsequently, an access is made to a main fuel injection amount map for post rich mode to retrieve a target main fuel injection amount Qinj_main for post rich mode appropriate for the current operational condition, and an access is also made to a post fuel injection amount map to retrieve a target post fuel injection amount Qinj_post for post rich mode appropriate for the current operational condition, where the main fuel injection amount map for post rich mode and the post fuel injection amount map are adapted to be accessed by using the torque demand and the crankshaft rotational speed as an address (step 15). Thereafter, an access is made to an exhaust air fuel ratio map for post rich mode to retrieve a target exhaust air fuel ratio AF_des for post rich mode as a control target value appropriate for the current operational condition, where the exhaust air fuel ratio map for post rich mode is adapted to be accessed by using the torque demand and the crankshaft rotational speed as an address (step 16). Then, in the same fashion as in step 8, a fuel injection increment feedback correction coefficient Qinj_fb is calculated (step 17). If a difference ΔQair between an actual air intake amount ΔQair_act and the target air intake amount Qair_des is equal to or below a prescribed value (“YES” in step 18) and the difference ΔAF between the actual exhaust air fuel ratio AF_act and the target exhaust air fuel ratio AF_des is equal to or below a prescribed value (“YES” in step 19), i.e., the actual values have converged to their respective target values, an appropriate feedforward correction value Qinj_ff is calculated from the actual fuel injection amount control value at that time, and the thus-calculated feedforward correction value Qinj_ff is used to update a value at a data storing point in a correction value map (FIG. 5) corresponding to the torque demand and the crankshaft rotational speed in the current operational state, where the correction value map (FIG. 5) sets and stores the fuel injection increment feedforward correction value Qinj_ff corresponding to the torque demand and the crankshaft rotational speed (step 20), and the fuel injection increment feedforward correction value Qinj_ff appropriate for the current operational condition is obtained from the updated correction value map (step 21). It should be mentioned that the learning routine in step 20 is the same as that for the map for main fuel injection (step 11). If the determination in step 18 or step 19 results in “NO”, i.e., when the actual values have not converged to the target values, the fuel injection increment feedforward correction value Qinj_ff is not updated, and the fuel injection increment feedforward correction value Qinj_ff appropriate for the current operational state is obtained from the map before updating. Thereafter, the target main injection amount Qinj_main for post rich mode obtained in step 15 is added to a product between the fuel injection increment feedforward correction value Qinj_ff obtained in step 21 and a weighting coefficient a (a value from 0 (zero) to 1 (one)), which may be experimentally obtained beforehand, to obtain a final main injection amount Qinj_mainf for post rich mode. At the same time, the target post fuel injection amount Qinj_post for post rich mode obtained in step 15 is added to a product between the fuel injection increment feedforward correction value Qinj_ff obtained in step 21 and (1−a), and then multiply the sum by the fuel injection increment feedback correction coefficient Qinj_fb obtained in step 17 to thereby obtain a final post fuel injection amount Qinj_postf for post rich mode (step 22). In this way, the post fuel injection amount added to the main fuel injection amount is determined. In general, in a low rotational speed/low load region, a large change in the main fuel injection amount can lead to a large torque fluctuation, and therefore, the exhaust air fuel ratio is preferably controlled only by controlling the post fuel injection amount. It should be noted that the target exhaust air fuel ratio for rich spice control can be experimentally obtained for varying operational conditions beforehand and stored in a data map, and this data map sets a leaner target air fuel ratio for a higher speed and higher load, as shown in FIG. 6. This is to suppress generation of soot which tends to be produced in a larger amount for a higher speed and load. Further, for a same load region, the target exhaust air fuel ratio is leaner in the post rich mode than in the combustion rich mode. This is because the fuel amount should be slightly decreased in the post rich mode taking into consideration that the fuel economy tends to be lowered in the post rich mode. Next, with reference to FIG. 7, an explanation is made to the learning routine of the fuel injection increment feedforward correction value map. First, a product between the current feedback correction integral term Qinj_fbi and an averaging coefficient z is added to the previous fuel injection increment feedforward correction value Qinj_ff to obtain a new fuel injection increment feedforward correction value Qinj_ff (step 23). Then, the new fuel injection increment feedforward correction value is used to update a value at a data storing point corresponding to the current torque demand and crankshaft rotational speed in the fuel injection increment feedforward correction value map (step 24). According to the embodiment of the present invention, the map storing the feedforward correction values (FIG. 5) and the map storing the target air fuel ratios (FIG. 6) have the same number of discrete data storing points that can be specified by the torque demand and the crankshaft rotational speed. Therefore, there is a one-to-one relationship between the target air fuel ratio and the correction value which can vary for different operational conditions, and their resolutions are the same. By thus making a correction value completely correspond to the target air fuel ratio for each operational condition, even when the air fuel ratio is set with a high resolution for varying operational states, a correction value most appropriate for the current target air fuel ratio can be used and the data storing point of a correction value used for a target air fuel ratio at a certain data storing point can be always the same, and therefore, a favorable control accuracy can be achieved. As described above, according to the present invention, the feedforward control correction value is updated based on the control value (correction integral term) of the fuel injection amount up to when the air fuel ratio has converged to the target value in the previous feedback control, and the control target value of the fuel injection amount is calculated by using the updated control correction value. Therefore, even when the characteristics of component parts such as the air flow meter or fuel injection valve may vary from one to another or change with time, an appropriate feedforward control value can be always obtained. Thus, it is possible to ensure desirable control accuracy and response characteristics to be achieved and prevent deteriorated exhaust gas emission and fuel consumption efficiency. Although the present invention has been described in terms of preferred embodiments thereof, it is obvious to a person skilled in the art that various alterations and modifications are possible without departing from the scope of the present invention which is set forth in the appended claims. The disclosure of the original Japanese patent application (Japanese Patent Application No. 2006-337698 filed on Dec. 15, 2006) on which the Paris Convention priority claim is made for the present application is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.	F	F01	F01N	3	10
11874840	US20080037099A1-20080214	Micro-Electro Mechanical Light Modulator Device	ACCEPTED	20080130	20080214		[]	G02F109	["G02F109", "G02F101"]	7570417	20071018	20090804	359	291000	89009.0	THOMPSON	TIMOTHY	[{"inventor_name_last": "McKinnell", "inventor_name_first": "James", "inventor_city": "Salem", "inventor_state": "OR", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Piehl", "inventor_name_first": "Arthur", "inventor_city": "Corvallis", "inventor_state": "OR", "inventor_country": "US"}]	A micro-electro mechanical light modulator device includes a movable reflective plate, a fixed partial reflective plate, an optical gap defined between the reflective plate and the fixed plate, and an actuator configured to move the reflective plate through an operating range wherein a neutral state position of the reflective plate approximately corresponds to a black state value of the optical gap.	1-29. (canceled) 30. A projector assembly, comprising: a light source configured to generate white light; a first light modulator device in optical communication with said light source; a second light modulator device in optical communication with said first light modulator device; wherein, during normal operation, said first light modulator device being configured to selectively absorb a first component of said white light and to direct a second component of said white light to said second light modulator device, said second light modulator device being configured to reflect said second component and during black operation, said first light modulator device being configured to selectively absorb said first component of said white light and to direct a second component of said white light to said second light modulator device, said second light modulator device being configured to selectively absorb a substantial portion of said second component. 31. The assembly of claim 30, wherein during black operation, said first component includes red and green light and said second component includes blue light. 32. The assembly of claim 30, wherein each of said light modulator devices include interference type light modulator devices. 33. The assembly of claim 32, wherein each of said light modulator devices further comprises piezo-electrically actuated flexures, said piezo-electrically actuated flexures being configured to move said plate through said operational displacement range in response to applied voltage. 34. The assembly of claim 32, wherein each of said light modulator devices further comprises a fixed magnetic plate and a top plate, wherein said plate comprises a magnetic plate, and wherein said fixed magnetic plate and said plate are separated by a magnetic gap and said magnetic plate and said top plate are separated by an optical plate such that said magnetic plate is drawn toward said fixed magnetic plate in response to opposing polarities established on said magnetic plate and said fixed magnetic plate. 35. The assembly of claim 34, wherein said fixed magnetic plate comprises a coil around a plate. 36. A method of forming a micro-electro mechanical light modulator device, comprising: forming an electrode plate; forming a first sacrificial layer; forming flexures; forming a reflective plate; forming a second sacrificial layer; forming a top plate; and removing said first sacrificial layer and said second sacrificial layer to form a non-optical gap and removing said second sacrificial layer to form an optical gap. 37. The method of claim 36, wherein forming said reflective flexures includes forming a pinwheel flexure. 38. The method of claim 37, wherein forming said flexures comprises forming a piezo-electrically actuated flexures. 39. The method of claim 36, wherein forming said reflective plate comprises forming a magnetic reflective plate and further comprising the steps of forming a fixed magnetic plate and establishing a magnetic gap between said fixed magnetic plate and said reflective plate. 40. A light modulator device, comprising: a reflective plate; a fixed semi-reflective plate; and non-contact operating means for moving said reflective plate through an operational control range without contacting said fixed semi-reflective plate. 41. The light modulator device of claim 40, and further comprising means for establishing a non-contact black state position between said reflective plate and said fixed semi-reflective plate. 42-56. (canceled)	<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) are used in a variety of applications such as optical display systems. Such MEMS devices have been developed using a variety of approaches. In one approach, a deformable deflective membrane is positioned over an electrode and is electrostatically attracted to the electrode. The gap between the two electrodes determines the output of the device. Accordingly, the output of the device is controlled by controlling the gap distance. One approach for controlling the gap distance between electrodes is to apply a continuous control voltage to the electrodes, wherein the control voltage is increased to decrease the gap distance, and vice-versa. In such approaches the gap distance changes as charge accumulates on the electrodes, creating an electrostatic force therebetweeen. This electrostatic force is opposed by a mechanical restoring force provided by the deflection of flexures that supports one of the electrodes. This approach suffers from electrostatic instability that greatly reduces a usable operating range over which the gap distance can be effectively controlled. This is because the electrodes form a variable capacitor in which capacitance increases as the gap distance decreases. When the gap distance is reduced to a certain threshold value, usually about two-thirds of an initial gap distance, the electrostatic force of attraction between the electrodes overcomes the mechanical restoring force causing the electrodes to “snap” together or to mechanical stops. This is because at a distance less than the minimum threshold value, the capacitance is increased to a point where excess charges are drawn on the electrodes resulting in increased electrostatic attraction. This phenomenon is known as “charge runaway.” As introduced, the electrodes are sometimes snapped to mechanical stops. The size of the optical gap when the electrodes are in contact with the mechanical stops often corresponds to the black state size of the optical gap, such that when the electrodes are in this position, the device absorbs light incident thereon. This mechanical contact may result in the electrodes sticking together (or stiction). Further, this electrical contact may also result in spot welding. Accordingly, the contact may reduce the reliability and/or operating life of a device and consequently the display system that makes use of such a device.	<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>A micro-electro mechanical light modulator device includes a movable reflective plate, a fixed partial reflective plate, an optical gap defined between the reflective plate and the fixed plate, and an actuator configured to move the reflective plate through an operating range wherein a neutral state position of the reflective plate approximately corresponds to a black state value of the optical gap.	BACKGROUND Micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) are used in a variety of applications such as optical display systems. Such MEMS devices have been developed using a variety of approaches. In one approach, a deformable deflective membrane is positioned over an electrode and is electrostatically attracted to the electrode. The gap between the two electrodes determines the output of the device. Accordingly, the output of the device is controlled by controlling the gap distance. One approach for controlling the gap distance between electrodes is to apply a continuous control voltage to the electrodes, wherein the control voltage is increased to decrease the gap distance, and vice-versa. In such approaches the gap distance changes as charge accumulates on the electrodes, creating an electrostatic force therebetweeen. This electrostatic force is opposed by a mechanical restoring force provided by the deflection of flexures that supports one of the electrodes. This approach suffers from electrostatic instability that greatly reduces a usable operating range over which the gap distance can be effectively controlled. This is because the electrodes form a variable capacitor in which capacitance increases as the gap distance decreases. When the gap distance is reduced to a certain threshold value, usually about two-thirds of an initial gap distance, the electrostatic force of attraction between the electrodes overcomes the mechanical restoring force causing the electrodes to “snap” together or to mechanical stops. This is because at a distance less than the minimum threshold value, the capacitance is increased to a point where excess charges are drawn on the electrodes resulting in increased electrostatic attraction. This phenomenon is known as “charge runaway.” As introduced, the electrodes are sometimes snapped to mechanical stops. The size of the optical gap when the electrodes are in contact with the mechanical stops often corresponds to the black state size of the optical gap, such that when the electrodes are in this position, the device absorbs light incident thereon. This mechanical contact may result in the electrodes sticking together (or stiction). Further, this electrical contact may also result in spot welding. Accordingly, the contact may reduce the reliability and/or operating life of a device and consequently the display system that makes use of such a device. SUMMARY A micro-electro mechanical light modulator device includes a movable reflective plate, a fixed partial reflective plate, an optical gap defined between the reflective plate and the fixed plate, and an actuator configured to move the reflective plate through an operating range wherein a neutral state position of the reflective plate approximately corresponds to a black state value of the optical gap. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings illustrate various embodiments of the present apparatus and method and are a part of the specification. The illustrated embodiments are merely examples of the present apparatus and method and do not limit the scope of the disclosure. FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary display system. FIG. 2A illustrates an exemplary light modulator device in a neutral position state position. FIG. 2B illustrates the light modulator device of FIG. 2A in which the reflective plate is at an intermediate position within the operational displacement range of the reflective plate. FIG. 2C illustrates the light modulator device of FIGS. 2A-2B in which the reflective plate is at an extreme position of the operational displacement range of the reflective plate. FIG. 3 illustrates a top view of the light modulator device of FIGS. 2A-2C showing the pinwheel support structure in more detail. FIG. 4 is a flowchart illustrating an exemplary method of forming a light modulator device. FIG. 5 illustrates an exemplary light modulator device that includes piezo-electrically actuated flexures. FIG. 6 illustrates an exemplary light modulator device that includes a magnetically controlled reflective plate. FIG. 7 illustrates a schematic view of a display system according to one exemplary embodiment. FIG. 8 illustrates a light modulator device according to one exemplary embodiment. Throughout the drawings, identical reference numbers designate similar, but not necessarily identical, elements. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Several exemplary light modulator devices are described herein that may improve the reliability of a display system by providing non-contact operation. Non-contact operation refers to minimizing or eliminating contact between individual parts or components of the light modulator device, such as a reflective plate. Non-contact operation minimizes stiction or spot welding associated with contact between individual components or parts of the light modulator device. According to several exemplary embodiments, an optical gap and an electrical gap are separated to provide non-contact operation. The sizes of the optical gap and electrical gap are varied by adjusting the position of a reflective plate. Several different support structures may be used to support the reflective plate as it moves through its operational displacement range. Further, according to several exemplary embodiments, the neutral position of the reflective plate approximately corresponds to the black state position of the light modulator device. In some of such embodiments, the position of the reflective plate is controlled by electrostatic forces. Other embodiments make use of piezo-electric actuators or magnetically controlled actuators to control the position of the reflective plate. The operational displacement range refers to the distance the reflective plate travels between a black state position and the position of the reflective plate corresponding to the maximum optical gap. In the following description, for purposes of explanation, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present method and apparatus. It will be apparent, however, to one skilled in the art, that the present method and apparatus may be practiced without these specific details. Reference in the specification to “one embodiment” or “an embodiment” means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment. The appearance of the phrase “in one embodiment” in various places in the specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment. Display Systems FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary display system (100). The components of FIG. 1 are exemplary only and may be modified or changed as best serves a particular application. As shown in FIG. 1, image data is input into an image processing unit (110). The image data defines an image that is to be displayed by the display system (100). While one image is illustrated and described as being processed by the image processing unit (110), it will be understood by one skilled in the art that a plurality or series of images may be processed by the image processing unit (110). The image processing unit (110) performs various functions including controlling the illumination of a light source (120) and controlling a spatial light modulator (SLM) (130). The SLM (130) will now be discussed in more detail. The SLM (130) includes an array of micro-electro mechanical (MEM) devices, or light modulator devices, which have optical cavities defined therein. Each optical cavity has an optical gap formed between two opposing reflectors. The size of the gap is controlled by balancing a spring force and an electrostatic force between the two reflectors. Light that enters each light modulator device is modulated or manipulated to achieve desired characteristics. These characteristics, which include the hues and intensities of the transmitted light, are manipulated by varying the gap between the reflectors. Returning to the operation of the display system (100) in general, the SLM (130) manipulates incoming light to form an image-bearing beam of light that is eventually displayed or cast by display optics (140) on a viewing surface (not shown). The display optics (140) may comprise any device configured to display or project an image. For example, the display optics (140) may be, but are not limited to, a lens configured to project and focus an image onto a viewing surface. The viewing surface may be, but is not limited to, a screen, television, wall, liquid crystal display (LCD), or computer monitor. The light modulator device structures described herein allow the size of the reflectors to be precisely controlled while minimizing or eliminating undesired contact between the two reflectors and/or other parts of the light modulator device. This control also includes the control of the black state of the light modulator device. Non-Contact Mode Micro-Electro Mechanical FIGS. 2A-2C illustrates the operation of a single light modulator device or light modulator device (200). The light modulator device (200) includes a reflective plate (205) and a fixed electrode plate (210) separated by a non-optical gap, such as an electrical gap (215). The light modulator device (200) also includes a top plate (220) that is separated from the reflective plate (205) by an optical gap (225). Decreasing the size of the electrical gap (215) increases the size of the optical gap (225). As will be discussed in more detail below, the light modulator device (200) is configured to allow the reflective plate (205) to move between a black state position and a maximum color displacement value while minimizing or eliminating contact between the reflective plate (205) and other parts of the light modulator device (200). The configuration of the light modulator device (200) will now be discussed in more detail. The light modulator device (200) is supported by a substrate (230). For example, a support structure supports the reflective plate (205) and an outside support structure supports the top plate (220). In particular, the fixed electrode plate (210) is supported by the substrate (230). Posts (235) are also supported by the substrate (230). Flexures (245) are coupled to the posts (235) and support the reflective plate (205) above the substrate. Supports (250) are coupled to the posts (235) such that the supports (250) suspend the top plate (220) above the reflective plate (205). The flexures (245) may be any suitable flexible material, such as a polymer, a metal or single crystal silicon, that has linear or non-linear spring functionality. For example, the flexures (245) may be part of a pin-wheel type support structure, as will be discussed in more detail with reference to FIG. 3. The light modulator device shown (200) functions as a Fabry-Perot light modulator. As a result, a portion of the top of reflective plate (205) is treated with a highly reflective coating (255) while a portion of the underside of the top plate (220) is treated with a partially reflective coating (256). A portion of a beam of light incident on the light modulator device (200) will pass through the top plate (220) and be partially reflected by the partially reflective coating (256) on the underside of the top plate (220) while another portion of the beam of light will pass through the top plate (220) and the partially reflective coating (256) and into the optical gap (225). Once the light enters the optical gap (225), it is bounced between the partially reflective coating on the underside of the top plate (220) and the highly reflective coating on the reflective plate (205). Each time the light inside the optical gap (225) becomes incident on the partially reflective top plate (220), some portion of the light passes through the partially reflective coating and the top plate (220) and escapes the light modulator device (200). The wavelengths of the light that are thus able to pass through the top plate (220) depend at least in part on the size of the optical gap (225). Accordingly, varying the size of the optical gap (225) controls the characteristics of light that exits the light modulator device (200). The size of the optical gap (225) is controlled by movement of the reflective plate (205). The optical gap (225) of the light modulator device (200) shown in FIGS. 2A-2C may be precisely controlled over a broad range of displacements, or an operating displacement range, while minimizing or eliminating contact between the reflective plate (205). This operational displacement range includes movement from a neutral position to produce a black state response through positions for producing light of selected wavelengths within the visible spectrum. The relative position of the reflective plate (205) and corresponding optical gap and the electrical gap will first be discussed with reference to a black state/neutral state position, followed by a discussion of intermediate displacement positions and the extreme displacement positions. FIG. 2A shows the light modulator device (200) in a neutral state position. A neutral state position refers to the relative position of each of the light modulator device's components in the absence of a force applied to the reflective plate (205). The neutral state position of the light modulator device (200) may correspond to the black state position of the reflective plate (205). In particular, as shown in FIG. 2A, the flexures (245) are not substantially deflected in response to electrostatic force between the reflective plate (205) and the fixed electrode plate (210). In particular, the reflective plate (210) and the top plate (220) are coupled to the same reference voltage. As a result, the light modulator device (200) is in its neutral state when no electrostatic force is established between the reflective plate (205) and the top plate (220) and the fixed electrode plate (210) and the reflective plate (205) have little or no electrostatic force between them. The optical gap (225) in this configuration is at its minimum size. More specifically, the optical gap (225), may be between about 50-200 nm, or approximately 100 nm, which allows the light modulator device (200) to absorb sufficient light to be in a black state. For example, the size of the optical gap (225) while the reflective plate (205) is in a black state position allows the light modulator device (200) to trap essentially all of the light that enters therein, such that the light modulator device produces black output. Accordingly, the light modulator device (200) may be reliably placed in its black state while minimizing or eliminating the need for the use of bumps, posts, or other protrusions to maintain the proper gap distance. The black state position thus introduced may be considered as a default black state gap. This gap can be adjusted by controlling the size of the optical gap (225). As previously introduced, controlling the size of the optical gap (225) controls the output of the light modulator device (200). Accordingly, in addition to establishing the neutral state position of the reflective plate (205) to correspond with the black state response of the light modulator device (200), the neutral state position may cause the optical gap (225) at a neutral state position to be smaller than at the black state response. In such a case, the black state response may then be controlled by controlling the electrostatic force between the reflective plate (205) and the fixed electrode plate (210). Further, as previously discussed, the size of the optical gap (225) shown in FIGS. 2A-2C depends, at least in part, on the size of the electrical gap (215). These relative positions will now be discussed in more detail. Establishing electrical charge on the plates (205, 210) varies the optical gap (225), such that a desired wavelength at a desired intensity may be selected. The flexures (245) allow the electrical gap (215) to vary when charge is stored on the plates (205, 210). The charge stored on the plates (205, 210) results in an electrostatic force between the plates (205, 210), thereby drawing the reflective plate (205) toward the fixed electrode plate (210). This force is opposed by the spring force associated with the deflection of the flexures (245). When an electrostatic force exists between the plates (205, 210), the reflective plate (205) will continue to be drawn toward the fixed electrode plate (210) until the spring force and the electrostatic force reach equilibrium. When these two forces reach equilibrium, the reflective plate (205) will be held in this position. One possible intermediate position of the reflective plate (205) is shown in FIG. 2B. Accordingly, the relative position of the reflective plate (205) with respect to the fixed electrode plate (210) and the top plate (220) may be varied by the amount of charge applied to the plates (205, 210). Once the electrostatic force is released, such as by dissipating the accumulated charges, the spring force returns the flexures (245) to a neutral state position. While the present exemplary embodiment has been discussed with reference to establishing an electrostatic force between the plates, those of skill in the art will appreciate that an electric field may be established between the plates such that the size of the electric gap is controlled with bias. As previously introduced, the reflective plate (205) is moved about a range of positions to control the output of the light modulator device (200) in response to control signals from the image processing unit (110; FIG. 1). FIG. 2C illustrates the reflective plate (205) near one extreme of its range of motion. As shown in FIG. 2C, at this position, the instantaneous electrical gap (215) is substantially more than ⅔ the size of the electrical gap when the reflective plate (205) is in the neutral state location shown in FIG. 2A. As a result, the electrical gap (215) at the neutral position is approximately three times as large as the operational displacement range of the reflective plate (205). Accordingly, the reflective plate (205) moves through a range of motion while maintaining an electrical gap (215) that is above the minimum threshold to prevent the reflective plate (205) from snapping to the electrode plate (210) when the reflective plate (205) is controlled by bias control. As a result, the light modulator device (200) is able to provide both black state responses and normal operating state responses while minimizing or eliminating contact between the reflective plate (205) and other parts of the light modulator device (200). In addition, the top surface of the reflective plate (205) and the bottom surface of top plate (220), which are adjacent the optical gap (225), may be coated with dielectric materials. These surfaces may be coated with a layer of protective material (255), such as a layer of dielectric material, because the optical gap (225) and the electrical gap (215) are separated. More specifically, the bottom surface of the reflective plate (205) and the top surface of the fixed electrode plate (210) are adjacent the electrical gap (215). Consequently, these surfaces are the surfaces that have electrostatic charge accumulated thereon to provide the electrostatic forces discussed above. The top surface of the conductive plate (205) and the bottom surface of top plate (220) in the exemplary embodiment shown in FIGS. 2A-2C do not accumulate charges and therefore may be coated with protective layers (257, 258). The protective layers (257, 258) may be useful in protecting the top plate (220) and/or the reflective plate (205) during formation and/or use of the light modulator device (200). The protective layers (257, 258) are shown separated from the highly reflective coating (255) and the partially reflective coating (256) to emphasize that multiple layers may be applied. According to other exemplary embodiments, the top plate (220) is coupled to a voltage source that may be different than the voltage source coupled to the reflective plate (205). In such an embodiment, the neutral state position of the reflective plate (205) may be adjusted by establishing a potential between the reflective plate (205) and the top plate (220). Accordingly, the voltage difference between the reflective plate (205) and the top plate (220) may be used to fine tune the black state response of the light modulator device (200). Accordingly, the configuration of the present light modulator device (200) allows the light modulator device (200) to modulate light, including black state display, while minimizing or eliminating contact between the reflective plate (205) and other parts of the light modulator device (200). Minimizing or eliminating contact between components minimizes stiction or other adverse affects, which may decrease the reliability and operating life of the light modulator device (200). As previously introduced, the flexures (245) allow the reflective plate (205) to move, thereby varying the size of the electrical gap (215) and the optical gap (225). Several support structures may be employed to allow this movement, including a pinwheel type support structure, which is shown in more detail in FIG. 3. Pinwheel Flexure Structure FIG. 3 illustrates a top partial cutaway side view respectively of a light modulator device (200) incorporating a pinwheel flexure structure (300). In particular, the supports (250) and the top plate (220) have been cutaway to focus on the pinwheel flexure structure (300). The reflective plate (205) is suspended over the fixed electrode plate (210; FIGS. 2A-2C) by the posts (235) which extend from the substrate (230; FIGS. 2A-2C) in a pinwheel configuration. In this configuration, the flexures (245) extend from the posts (235) to the corners of the reflective plate (205) to thereby suspend the reflective plate (205). As an electrostatic force is established between the reflective plate (205) and the fixed electrode plate (210), the flexures (245) deflect in response to the force, thereby allowing control of the size of the optical gap (225) as discussed above. While a pinwheel cantilever or torsional-type flexure structure (300) has been discussed above, any number of support structures may be used. Some other exemplary support structures include, without limitation, cantilever type support structures, torsional type support structures, and other suitable support structures may be used in place of the pinwheel type support structure discussed herein to provide a non-contact operating mode and black state control. The formation of an exemplary light modulator device that provides such properties will now be discussed. Method of Forming Non-Contact Mode Light Modulator Device FIG. 4 illustrates a method of forming a non-contact mode light modulator device. The method begins by providing a substrate (step 400). The substrate serves as a base or foundation for the light modulator device. In particular embodiments, the substrate may be formed as part of a larger member or wafer serving as a foundation for a plurality of light modulator devices and may be made of silicon. Thereafter, the fixed electrode plate is formed on the substrate (step 410). The electrode plate may be formed by depositing a layer of conductive material. The layer of conductive material is then processed. This processing may include applying a bottom charge plate photoresist pattern and etching through the exposed areas. As the bottom charge plate layer is etched, the bottom fixed electrode plate is established on the substrate. A first sacrificial layer is then formed on the bottom electrode plate layer (step 420). One exemplary first sacrificial layer includes a 200 angstroms layer of silicon nitrate (SiN) and a layer of amorphous-Silicon (a-Silicon). The layer of a-Silicon may range in thickness from about 1000-7000 angstroms. According to one exemplary embodiment, the a-Silicon layer is approximately 3300 angstroms thick. The first sacrificial layer is then processed to form flexure vias that extend through first sacrificial layer to the substrate. These flexure vias correspond in shape to the bottom portion of the posts (235; FIGS. 2A-2B). The flexures are then formed (step 430) by depositing a layer of flexure material, applying a flexure photoresist pattern, and etching through to the first sacrificial layer. The resulting flexures are thus formed on top of the first sacrificial layer. The reflective plate is then formed (step 440). The reflective plate layer is deposited on the flexures, thereby coupling the flexures to the reflective plate. The reflective plate layer then has a photoresist pattern applied thereto and etched to establish the reflective plate and remove material from the flexure vias. Once the reflective plate has been formed, a second sacrificial layer (450) is formed on the reflective plate layer. Thereafter, the posts are formed (step 460). The posts are formed by first applying a post via photoresist pattern to the second sacrificial layer. The post via photoresist pattern includes exposed areas above the flexure vias. These exposed areas are then etched, such that post vias are formed that extend to the bottom of the flexure vias previously formed. A layer of post material is then deposited in the post vias. Thereafter, a post formation photoresist pattern is applied to the layer of post material. The post photoresist pattern positively covers the post vias. Thereafter, the exposed layer of post material is etched through to the remaining second sacrificial layer, which may range in thickness from about 500-3000 angstroms. The partially reflective top plate is then formed (step 470) on the second sacrificial layer and posts. Once this structure has been formed, the first sacrificial layer, the flexure space sacrificial layer (625), and the second sacrificial layer (635) may be removed (step 480), thereby establishing the electrostatic gap, the flexure space, and the optical gaps discussed above. The resulting light modulator device includes a reflective plate movably supported by flexures. The movement of the reflective plate in response to an electrostatic force controls the size of the electrical gap and the optical gap. This control is accomplished while minimizing or eliminating contact between the reflective plate and other parts of the light modulator device. Piezo-Electric and Magnetically Actuated Flexures In addition, other actuation mechanisms may be used in place of electrostatic attraction. For example, FIG. 5 illustrates a light modulator device (200-1) that includes piezo-electrically actuated flexures (500). The light modulator device (200-1) generally includes a reflective plate (230-1) that is separated from a fixed mirror (510) by an optical gap (225-1). When the reflective plate (230-1) is in its neutral position, the optical gap (225-1) approximately corresponds to the black state gap of the light modulator device (200-1). The optical gap (225-1) is then controlled by selectively controlling the piezo-electric flexures. The piezo-electrically actuated flexures (500) are coupled to a power source (not shown), which selectively provides voltage thereto. The flexures (500) expand in response to the applied voltage, thereby causing the reflective plate (230-1) to move away from the fixed mirror (510), thereby enlarging the optical gap (225-1). As previously discussed, controlling the size of the optical gap (225-1) controls the characteristics of light output by the light modulator device (200-1). Accordingly, these light output characteristics, including black state, may be controlled while minimizing or eliminating contact between the reflective plate (230-1) and other parts of the light modulator device (200-1). In addition, magnetic control may also be used to provide black state and other color outputs from a light modulator device. As shown in FIG. 6, a light modulator device (200-2) is shown that includes a magnetic reflective plate (205-2) and a fixed magnetic plate (600) separated by a magnetic gap (610). The magnetic reflective plate (205-2) is shown in a neutral position in which field symmetry exists between the magnetic reflective plate (205-2) and the fixed magnetic plate (600). In this position, the magnetic reflective plate (205-2) is separated from the top plate (220-2) by an optical gap (225-2). This configuration allows the light modulator device to produce a black state response while minimizing or eliminating the contact between the magnetic reflective plate (205-2) and other parts of the light modulator device. The magnetic reflective plate (205-2) is drawn toward the fixed magnetic plate (500) by increasing the magnetic B field strength of magnetic plate (600) thereby increasing the field gradient between the two plates. The magnetic B field strength is varied by changing the magnetic H field applied to a fixed magnetic plate by changing the current in an electromagnet coil (not shown) that surrounds the fixed magnetic plate. As the magnetic reflective plate (205-2) is drawn toward the fixed magnetic plate (600), the optical gap (225-2) is varied, thereby effecting modulation of light that enters the light modulator device (200-2). Accordingly, the light output characteristics of the light modulator device (200-2), including black state, may be controlled while minimizing or eliminating contact between the magnetic reflective plate (220-2) and other parts of the light modulator device (200-2). Accordingly, several different actuation mechanisms may be used to operate in non-contact modes to provide color responses, including black state responses. In conclusion, several exemplary light modulator devices are described herein that may improve the reliability of a display system by providing non-contact operation. Non-contact operation refers to minimizing or eliminating contact between individual parts or components of the light modulator device, such as a reflective plate. Non-contact operation minimizes stiction or spot welding associated with contact between individual components or parts of the light modulator device. According to several exemplary embodiments, an optical gap and an electrical gap are separated to provide non-contact operation. The sizes of the optical gap and electrical gap are varied by varying the position of a reflective plate. Several different support structures may be used to support the reflective plate as it moves through its operating range. Further, according to several exemplary embodiments, the neutral position of the reflective plate approximately corresponds to the black state position of the light modulator device. In some of such embodiments, the position of the reflective plate is controlled by electrostatic forces. Other embodiments make use of piezo-electric actuators or magnetically controlled actuators to control the position of the reflective plate. ALTERNATIVE EMBODIMENTS Other embodiments are possible that establish a black state response while maintaining non-contact operation of the components of the light modulator device. One of these exemplary embodiments will now be discussed. FIG. 7 illustrates a schematic view of display system (700) in which first and second light modulator devices (710-1, 710-2) are placed in series. In such a system, white light, which includes red, green, and blue components (720-1, 720-2, 720-3) is directed to the first light modulator device (710-1). In providing a black state response, the first light modulator device (710-1) may be operated to provide an optical gap of approximately 3800 angstroms, which corresponds to the transmission of the blue component (720-3) and an absorption of a substantial portion of the red and green components (720-1, 720-2) of the incoming white light. The blue component is then directed to the second light modulator device (710-2) which may be operated to establish a gap of approximately 3000 angstroms. In such a case, the blue component would be absorbed by the device, such that a black state response would be detected on a display (730). During periods of non-black state response, the gaps of first light modulator device (720-1) and the second light modulator device (710-2), are controlled to the same optical gap spacing to provide color response to the display (730). Accordingly, the present display system (700) provides for black state responses while reducing or eliminating contact between components of the individual light modulator devices. Further, to this point single posts have been described. Those of skill in the art will appreciate that separate posts may be used to support the top plate (220) and the reflective plate (205). In particular, FIG. 8 illustrates a light modulator device (200-3) in which inner posts (240) are used to support the reflective plate (205) while outer posts (242) are used to support the top plate (220). The preceding description has been presented only to illustrate and describe the present method and apparatus. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the disclosure to any precise form disclosed. Many modifications and variations are possible in light of the above teaching. It is intended that the scope of the disclosure be defined by the following claims.	G	G02	G02F	1	09
11844106	US20070286096A1-20071213	Portable Networking Interface Method And Apparatus For Distributed Switching System	ACCEPTED	20071128	20071213		[]	H04L1228	["H04L1228"]	7711001	20070823	20100504	370	466000	97318.0	MEW	KEVIN	[{"inventor_name_last": "Alexander", "inventor_name_first": "Cedell", "inventor_city": "Durham", "inventor_state": "NC", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Larsen", "inventor_name_first": "Loren", "inventor_city": "Beaverton", "inventor_state": "OR", "inventor_country": "US"}]	An apparatus and method to provide a portable networking interface for distributed switching systems. Two Application Program Interfaces (APIs) are defined for communication to a Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL). The FDDL sits between network client applications and the switch device driver in order to provide a uniform interface to the switch device driver. Towers may be added to the FDDL to provide additional functionality specific to certain client applications.	1-2. (canceled) 3. A network switch comprising: a CPU; a memory system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU; a switch fabric system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU; a port controller having circuitry operable to attach to the switch fabric system; a software application operable to execute on the CPU; a Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL) system operable to execute on the CPU; a switch device driver operable to execute on the CPU; wherein the software application is operable to communicate with the FDDL system, the FDDL system is operable to communicate with the switch device driver, and the switch device driver is operable to communicate with the switch fabric; wherein the FDDL system defines an FDDL API for communication with the software application, and the FDDL system defines a Switch Services API for communication with the switch device driver. 4. A network switch comprising: a CPU; a memory system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU; a switch fabric system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU; a port controller having circuitry operable to attach to the switch fabric system; a software application operable to execute on the CPU; a Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL) system operable to execute on the CPU; a switch device driver operable to execute on the CPU; and a second software application operable to execute on the CPU, wherein the second software application communicates with the FDDL system; wherein the software application is operable to communicate with the FDDL system, the FDDL system is operable to communicate with the switch device driver, and the switch device driver is operable to communicate with the switch fabric; wherein the FDDL system defines an FDDL API for communication with the software application and the second software application, and the FDDL system defines a Switch Services API for communication with the switch device driver. 5-6. (canceled) 7. A network switch comprising: a CPU; a memory system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU; a switch fabric system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU; a port controller having circuitry operable to attach to the switch fabric system; a software application operable to execute on the CPU; a Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL) system operable to execute on the CPU; a switch device driver operable to execute on the CPU; an independent software application operable to execute on the CPU; an independent software application shim operable to execute on the CPU; wherein the software application is operable to communicate with the FDDL system, the FDDL system is operable to communicate with the switch device driver, and the switch device driver is operable to communicate with the switch fabric; wherein the independent software application communicates with the independent software application shim and the independent software application shim communicates with the switch device driver; and a second software application operable to execute on the CPU, wherein the FDDL system defines an FDDL API for communication with the software application and the second software application, and the FDDL system defines a Switch Services API for communication with the switch device driver. 8-10. (canceled) 11. A network switch comprising: a CPU; a memory system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU; a switch fabric system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU; a port controller having circuitry operable to attach to the switch fabric system; a protocol means for providing a service to a network system; a Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL) means for communicating with the protocol means; and a switch device driver means for communicating with the FDDL means and the port controller; wherein the FDDL means defines an FDDL API for communication with the software application, and the FDDL means defines a Switch Services API for communication with the switch device driver. 12. A network switch comprising: a CPU; a memory system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU; a switch fabric system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU; a port controller having circuitry operable to attach to the switch fabric system; a protocol means for providing a service to a network system; a Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL) means for communicating with the protocol means; a switch device driver means for communicating with the FDDL means and the port controller; and a second protocol means for providing a second service to the network system, wherein the FDDL means communicates with the second protocol means; wherein the FDDL means defines an FDDL API for communication with the protocol means and the second protocol means, and the FDDL system defines a Switch Services API for communication with the switch device driver means. 13-28. (canceled) 29. A network system comprising: a network switch comprising a CPU, a memory system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU, a switch fabric system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU a port controller having circuitry operable to attach to the switch fabric system, a software application operable to execute on the CPU, a Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL) system operable to execute on the CPU, and a switch device driver operable to execute on the CPU, wherein the software application is operable to communicate with the FDDL system, the FDDL system is operable to communicate with the switch device driver, and the switch device driver is operable to communicate with the switch fabric; a backbone; and a workstation, wherein the workstation is logically connected to the backbone, and wherein the backbone is logically connected to the port controller of the network switch; wherein the FDDL system defines an FDDL API for communication with the software application, and the FDDL system defines a Switch Services API for communication with the switch device driver. 30. A network system comprising: a network switch comprising a CPU, a memory system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU, a switch fabric system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU a port controller having circuitry operable to attach to the switch fabric system, a software application operable to execute on the CPU, a Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL) system operable to execute on the CPU, and a switch device driver operable to execute on the CPU, wherein the software application is operable to communicate with the FDDL system, the FDDL system is operable to communicate with the switch device driver, and the switch device driver is operable to communicate with the switch fabric; a backbone; a workstation; and a second software application operable to execute on the CPU, wherein the second software application communicates with the FDDL system; wherein the workstation is logically connected to the backbone; wherein the backbone is logically connected to the port controller of the network switch; and wherein the FDDL system defines an FDDL API for communication with the software application and the second software application, and the FDDL system defines a Switch Services API for communication with the switch device driver. 31-32. (canceled) 33. A network system comprising: a network switch comprising a CPU, a memory system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU, a switch fabric system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU a port controller having circuitry operable to attach to the switch fabric system, a software application operable to execute on the CPU, a Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL) system operable to execute on the CPU, and a switch device driver operable to execute on the CPU, wherein the software application is operable to communicate with the FDDL system, the FDDL system is operable to communicate with the switch device driver, and the switch device driver is operable to communicate with the switch fabric; a backbone; a workstation, an independent software application operable to execute on the CPU; an independent software application shim operable to execute on the CPU; wherein the workstation is logically connected to the backbone, wherein the backbone is logically connected to the port controller of the network switch; and wherein the independent software application communicates with the independent software application shim and the independent software application shim communicates with the switch device driver; and a second software application operable to execute on the CPU, wherein the FDDL system defines an FDDL API for communication with the software application and the second software application, and the FDDL system defines a Switch Services API for communication with the switch device driver. 34. (canceled)	<SOH> BACKGROUND INFORMATION <EOH>The proliferation of personal computers, digital telephones, telephony and telecommunications technology has resulted in the development of complex switches in order to efficiently communicate digital data between a number of different devices. These communication systems are generally referred to as networks. Each network operates on the basis of one or more switches which route digital data from an originating device to a destination device. To this end, communication protocols have been developed in order to standardize and streamline communications between devices and promote connectivity. As advances are made in telecommunications and connectivity technology, additional protocols are rapidly being developed in order to improve the efficiency and interconnectivity of networking systems. As these advances occur, modifications are required to the switches in order to allow the switches to appropriately deal with the new protocols and take advantage of the new efficiencies that they offer. Unfortunately, a switch can represent a large capital investment in a network system. The frequency in which new protocols are developed makes it impractical to upgrade switches with every protocol introduced to the market. Accordingly, what is needed is a system and device for improving interface portability within the switch so that switches can be quickly and easily upgraded and new network interface protocols can be written and supported on multiple switch fabrics.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The invention solves the problem of portability by defining two primary interfaces within the switch. The first interface is called the Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL) Application Program Interface (API). The primary purpose of this interface is to allow each protocol application to distribute its database and functionality to intelligent port controllers within the switch. Such distribution facilitates hardware forwarding at the controller. Each protocol application may define a specific set of FDDL messages that are exchanged between the protocol application and the switch fabric, which passes the messages to software running at each port controller. The second interface defined by the invention is called the Switch Services API. This interface is primarily a generic way for controlling data message flow between the ports interfaces and the switch device driver. A set of specific messages is defined to allow uniform exchange of information about the hardware status of the port as well as an interface for sending and receiving data frames. The forgoing broadly outlines the features and technical advantages of the present invention in order that the detailed description of the invention that follows may be better understood. Additional features and advantages of the invention will be described hereafter, which form the basis of the claims of the invention.	TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates in general to a switching system for use in a network. More particularly, the invention relates to a portable interface method and system for accessing a switch device driver from the various network services applications supported by a switch BACKGROUND INFORMATION The proliferation of personal computers, digital telephones, telephony and telecommunications technology has resulted in the development of complex switches in order to efficiently communicate digital data between a number of different devices. These communication systems are generally referred to as networks. Each network operates on the basis of one or more switches which route digital data from an originating device to a destination device. To this end, communication protocols have been developed in order to standardize and streamline communications between devices and promote connectivity. As advances are made in telecommunications and connectivity technology, additional protocols are rapidly being developed in order to improve the efficiency and interconnectivity of networking systems. As these advances occur, modifications are required to the switches in order to allow the switches to appropriately deal with the new protocols and take advantage of the new efficiencies that they offer. Unfortunately, a switch can represent a large capital investment in a network system. The frequency in which new protocols are developed makes it impractical to upgrade switches with every protocol introduced to the market. Accordingly, what is needed is a system and device for improving interface portability within the switch so that switches can be quickly and easily upgraded and new network interface protocols can be written and supported on multiple switch fabrics. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention solves the problem of portability by defining two primary interfaces within the switch. The first interface is called the Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL) Application Program Interface (API). The primary purpose of this interface is to allow each protocol application to distribute its database and functionality to intelligent port controllers within the switch. Such distribution facilitates hardware forwarding at the controller. Each protocol application may define a specific set of FDDL messages that are exchanged between the protocol application and the switch fabric, which passes the messages to software running at each port controller. The second interface defined by the invention is called the Switch Services API. This interface is primarily a generic way for controlling data message flow between the ports interfaces and the switch device driver. A set of specific messages is defined to allow uniform exchange of information about the hardware status of the port as well as an interface for sending and receiving data frames. The forgoing broadly outlines the features and technical advantages of the present invention in order that the detailed description of the invention that follows may be better understood. Additional features and advantages of the invention will be described hereafter, which form the basis of the claims of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a more complete understanding of the present invention, and the advantages thereof, reference is now made to the following descriptions taken in conjunction with the accompanied drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a system block diagram of a network switch, including workstations connected to the network switch; FIG. 2 is a system block diagram of a data processing system which may be used as a workstation within the present invention; FIG. 3 is a block diagram describing the FDDL defined by the present invention and its relationship with the switch device driver and protocol drivers; FIG. 4 is a software system block diagram of a portion of a network switch embodying the present invention which describes the relationship between the FDDL, the other services provided by the switch, and the in relation to the switch device driver; FIG. 5 is a system block diagram of the software architecture within a network switch embodying the present invention; FIG. 6 is a flow chart according to ANSI/ISO Standard 5807-1985 depicting the operation of the basic primitives defined by the Switch Services API of the instant invention; and FIG. 7 is a flow chart according to ANSI/ISO Standard 5807-1985 demonstrating the operation of the FDDL API as defined by the instant invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION In the following description, numerous specific details are set forth such as languages, operating systems, microprocessors, workstations, bus systems, networking systems, input/output (I/O) systems, etc., to provide a thorough understanding of the invention. However, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that the present invention may be practiced without such specific details In other instances, well-known circuits, computer equipment, network protocols, programming configurations, or wiring systems have been shown in blocked diagram form in order to not obscure the present invention in unnecessary detail. For the most part, details concerning timing considerations, specific equipment used, specific programming languages and protocols used, specific networking systems used, and the like have been omitted in as much as these details are not necessary to obtain a complete understanding of the present invention and are well within the skills of persons of ordinary skill in the art. The switch to which the present invention relates is shown with reference to FIG. 1. A network switch 100 is comprised of one or more intelligent port controllers 110, a switch fabric 112, and a central processing unit (CPU) 114. The switch 100 is connected to one or more backbones 104, which in turn are connected to one or more workstations 102. Each intelligent port controller 110 may be connected to one or more backbones 104 comprising a local area network (LAN) 106. The entire system may be referred to as a network 108. The switch fabric 112 is comprised of one or more processors that manage a shared pool of packet/cell memory. The switch fabric 112 controls the sophisticated queuing and scheduling functions of the switch 100. The intelligent port controller 110 provides connectivity between the switch fabric 112 and the physical layer devices, such as the backbones 104. The intelligent port controller 110 may be implemented with one or more bitstream processors. A typical workstation 102 is depicted with reference to FIG. 2, which illustrates the typical hardware configuration of workstation 213 in accordance with the subject invention. The workstation 213 includes a central processing unit (CPU) 210, such as a conventional microprocessor and a number of other units interconnected via a system bus 212. The workstation 213 may include a random access memory (RAM) 214, a read-only memory (ROM) 216, and an I/O adapter 218 for connecting peripheral devices, such as disk units 220 and tape drives 240 to the bus 212. The workstation 213 also include a user interface adapter 222 for connecting a keyboard 224, a mouse 226 and/or other user interface devices, such as a touch screen device (not shown) to the bus 212, a communication adapter 234 for connecting the workstation 213 to a network 242 (such as the one depicted on FIG. 1 at 108), and a display adapter 236 for connecting the bus 212 to a display device 238. The CPU 210 may include other circuitry not shown, which may include circuitry found within a microprocessor, e.g., execution unit, bus interface unit, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), etc. The CPU 210 may also reside on one integrated circuit (IC). The FDDL is defined with reference to FIG. 3. The FDDL is a library which defines a set of API's designed to enable protocol forwarding functions to be distributed in a manner that is simple, efficient, and deportable. The FDDL 310 is comprised of one or more towers 322, 324, 326, 328. As depicted, a tower may be provided for remote monitoring (RMON) in an RMON FDDL tower 322. Multi Protocol Over ATM (MPOA) services may be provided through an MPOA client FDDL tower 324. Bridging services may connect through a Bridge FDDL tower 326. Internet Protocol (IP) Autolearn connectivity may be provided through an Autolearn FDDL tower 328. Each of the FDDL towers 322, 324, 326, 328 is connected through the FDDL API 332 to its respective protocol services of the RMON application 314, the MPOA application 316, the Bridge 318, and the IP Autolearn application 320, as provided within the switch. The FDDL 310 functions to receive commands from the various protocol components 314, 316, 318, 320 into the corresponding FDDL towers 322, 324, 326, 328. When a command is received into a tower 322, 324, 326, 328, it is passed to the base FDDL subsystem 330 for translation and passage directly to the switch device driver 312 through the Switch Services API 334. The operation of the Switch Services API is demonstrated with reference to FIG. 4. The switch device driver 420 resides immediately below FDDL in the CPU protocol stack. As shown, there may be several users of the Switch Service API 410 which communicate with the switch device driver 420. In addition to the FDDL towers 418, other users may include an Ethernet Device Driver Shim 416 and an Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) Device Driver Shim 414. The Device Driver Shims 414, 416 are interface translation agents which complete the high-level of architecture of the switch. The shims translate between the existing device driver interfaces and the Switch Services API 410 of the instant invention. In this way, translation through the shims 414, 416 allows preservation of the existing device driver interfaces from the ATM and Ethernet protocols and avoids modification of those handlers for use with the switch services API 410. The bridging protocol application 412 may also communicate directly with the switch device driver 420 through the Switch Services API 410. The architecture into which the FDDL and APIs of the instant invention fit is demonstrated with reference to FIG. 5, which is a block diagram depicting the basic software architecture of a network switch embodying the instant invention. While the software depicted is depicted as running on a Power PC processor 510 and on the OS Open real time operating system 512, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the instant invention can be practiced with a number of processors running a number of different operating systems. However, since the Power PC platform is the preferred technology for products employing many of the networking technology described, it present many advantages with regard to the architectural goals of the instant invention. The Power PC box 518 is connected to the switch fabric 514 through the Switch Device Driver 516. In turn, the switch fabric 514 is connected to one or more port controllers 520. The Switch Device Driver 516 supports a Switch Services API 522 through which it can send and receive messages to the FDDL 524) as well as the ATM Device Driver Shim 526 and the Ethernet Device Driver Shim 528. The ATM Device Driver Shim 526 and the Ethernet Device Driver Shim 528 connect to their respective net handlers 530, 532 through device driver interfaces 534, 536. The MPOA client 538 may communicate to the switch device driver either through the ATM API 540 or through the FDDL API 542 as defined by the FDDL 524. The bridge services 544, including the Virtual LAN (VLAN) and IP Autolearn services may be provided through the Ethernet Net Handler 532, through the FDDL API 542 to the FDDL 524, or LAN Emulation Client (LEC) 546 may be provided to communicate through the ATM API 540 to the ATM Net Handler 530. Through the structure defined, the operating system 512 features such as Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) and RMON 548, other box services 550, and U) hosting services 552, such as Telnet, Ping, and other may be provided. The operation of the Switch Services API 522 as provided by the switch device driver 516 is shown with reference to FIG. 6. Execution begins 610 without precondition. The API is initiated with a switch_registration( ) call 612 to register an interface user of the Switch Services API. The registration call includes parameters of a code point identifying the interface application that is registering with the API and pointers to up-call functions which may be called when messages or data frames associated with the application are received by the switch device driver to be passed through the API. Once the switch_registration( ) called 612 is made, the API is active 614. While the API is active, calls may be made to at least any one of four primitives, including switch_send_MSG( ) 616, switch_send_data ( ) 618, switch_get_buffer ( ) 620, and switch_free_buffer ( ) 622. The switch_send_MSG( ) primitive 616 is called to transmit a message to one or more registered interfaces. Messages may be sent to one interface, a group of interfaces, or broadcast to all interfaces. A message may be generally formatted using the Type-Length-Value (TLV) convention. The switch_send_data( ) primitive 618 is called to transmit a data frame out of one or more interfaces. When a frame is to be transmitted to more than one interface, the set of destination interfaces may be specified with a bit mask or by other means well-appreciated within the art. The switch_get_buffer( ) primitive 620 is called to allocate frame buffers. Conversely, the switch_free_buffer( ) primitive 622 is called to deallocate frame buffers. Calls to the primitives may continue as long as the API is active 624. When an interface application wishes to disable the API, it does so by calling switch_deregistration( ) 626, which deregisters the application as a user of the switch services API. Execution of the Switch Services API then ceases 628. The operation of the base FDDL subsystem is demonstrated with reference to FIG. 7. Execution begins 710 without pre-condition. The FDDL_registration( ) primitive 712 is called to register a client application as a user of the FDDL API. A call to the FDDL_registration( ) primitive 712 specifies a code point identifying the data base of the calling application (e.g. bridging, MPOA, etc.) and provides a pointer to a message-reception call-back function that can be invoked when messages related to the specified client are received by the API. After the primitive FDDL_registration( ) 712 is called, the FDDL is active 714, beginning a looping process of calls. Within the loop, the FDDL_send( ) primitive 716 may be called to initiate transmission of a message from the CPU to one or more adapters. The message may be transmitted to a single adapter or broadcast to all adapters. The FDDL_registration_status( )primitive 718 may be called query whether a particular database is currently registered with the FDDL API. When it is no longer desired for the FDDL to be active 720, the primitive_deregistration( ) 722 may be called to deregister a client application as a user of the FDDL API. Following the call to the FDDL_deregistration( ) 722, execution of the FDDL subsystem ceases 724. It will be well appreciated by those skilled in the art that each of the FDDL towers as shown on FIG. 3, including the RMON tower 322, the MPOA tower 324, the Bridge tower 326, and the IP Autolearn tower 328 may each be optimized with primitives adapted to their respective applications 314, 316, 318, 320. Those skilled in the art will also appreciate that primitives need not be written for each tower and that additional towers may be added for client applications to be added in the future. However, the base FDDL subsystem 330 and its primitives may remain unchanged in order to provide a universal interface to the switch device driver 312. The FDDL towers 322, 324, 326, 328 may each have its own registration processes that allow instances of its specific protocol client applications to register. Additionally, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the FDDL tower calls may be providing for other networking features well-known in the art, such as providing reliable delivery of messages, acknowledgment and non-acknowledgment schemes, Cyclic Redundancy Code (CRC) code checking, and the like. Those skilled in the art will also appreciate that the Switch Services API need not provide for such flexibility. The Switch Device Drivers 312 are hardware dependent relying on the switch fabric (FIG. 5, 514) for their definition. As hardware will not be replaced or upgraded as easily or frequently as the client applications, the Switch Services API need not provide a towering structure. As to the manner of operation and use of the instant invention, the same is made apparent from the foregoing discussion. With respect to the above description, it is to be realized that although embodiments of specific material, representations, primitives, languages, and network configurations are disclosed, those enabling embodiments are illustrative and the optimum relationship for the parts of the invention is to include variations in composition, form, function, and manner of operation, which are deemed readily apparent to one skilled in the art in view of this disclosure. All relevant relationships to those illustrated in the drawings in this specification are intended to be encompassed by the present invention. Therefore, the foregoing is considered as illustrative of the principles of the invention, and since numerous modifications will occur to those skilled to those in the art, it is not desired to limit the invention to exact construction and operation shown or described, and a user my resort to all suitable modifications and equivalence, falling within the scope of the invention	H	H04	H04L	12	28
11985492	US20080118034A1-20080522	Cassette type radiation image detector	ACCEPTED	20080509	20080522		[]	G03B4204	["G03B4204"]	7663114	20071115	20100216	250	370090	75457.0	TANINGCO	MARCUS	[{"inventor_name_last": "Aoyagi", "inventor_name_first": "Shigeru", "inventor_city": "Tokyo", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]	A cassette type radiation image detector having a box-shaped cassette housing configured by engaging a front member that is light-shielding and radiation-transmissive, with a light-shielding back member, and a two-dimensional array type radiation detection sensor for detecting radiation images incorporated in the radiation image detector, the radiation image detector including: a sensor supporting member that supports the radiation detection sensor; a first engaging member provided at the sensor supporting member; a second engaging member provided at the back member; and a shock absorbing member positioned between the first engaging member and the second engaging member, wherein the box-shaped cassette housing is formed by engaging the first engaging member with the second engaging member via the shock absorbing member.	1. A cassette type radiation image detector having a box-shaped cassette housing configured by engaging a front member that is light-shielding and radiation-transmissive, with a light-shielding back member, and a two-dimensional array type radiation detection sensor for detecting radiation images incorporated in the radiation image detector, the radiation image detector comprising: a sensor supporting member that supports the radiation detection sensor; a first engaging member provided at the sensor supporting member; a second engaging member provided at the back member; and a shock absorbing member positioned between the first engaging member and the second engaging member, wherein the box-shaped cassette housing is formed by engaging the first engaging member with the second engaging member via the shock absorbing member. 2. The cassette type radiation image detector of claim 1, wherein the radiation detection sensor is provided at a first surface of the sensor supporting member and the first engaging member is provided at a second surface of the sensor supporting member, and wherein the cassette type radiation image detector further comprises a control circuit to control the radiation detector sensor provided at the second surface of the sensor supporting member. 3. The cassette type radiation image detector of claim 1, wherein the first engaging member is a member for supporting a battery.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to cassettes having built in 2-dimensional array type radiation detection sensors. 2. Description of the Related Art Radiation images typified by X-ray images have conventionally been used very widely in diagnosis of illnesses, non-destructive testing, etc. The technology of radiating the X-rays that have passed through the photographed object onto a phosphor screen, exposing a silver halide film using the visible light generated from the phosphor screen, and obtaining a radiation image by chemically developing this film has a long history and has been contributing in a big way to the diagnosis of illnesses. At present, in order to reduce the radiation dose, and to meet the requirements of compatibility with digital image processing, a technology has been widely adopted in which a latent image is formed by irradiating the X-rays that have passed through the photographed object onto an optically excitable phosphor sheet, and the X-ray image is read out by receiving the optically excited light emission produced by applying an excitation light such as a laser bean onto this latent image. Further, in the recent years, even radiation imaging systems of detecting the X-rays that have passed through the photographed object using a radiation image detector that uses a semiconductor two-dimensional array type radiation image detection sensor have come into wide use. This radiation image detector is very often used by enclosing it in a container that is usually called a cassette and that is a thin, lightweight, and is easy to carry box, so that it is very convenient for photographing a wide range of body parts quickly. Photography using such a cassette type radiation image detector is different from the fixed position photographing equipment in that it is carried out by positioning the cassette appropriately to suit the condition of the patient who is the target of photography. In such photography, since it is possible that the cassette is placed below the patient's body or, in some cases, since the patient is made to stand on the cassette, it is necessary to make the cassette have sufficient strength. In addition, there may also be unexpected accidents in which the cassette is dropped down to the ground while handling it. Therefore, cassette type radiation image detectors used in this manner are required to have the strength to protect the radiation detection sensor inside the unit against static loads, and also to have shock resistance so that the internal radiation image detection sensor doe not get damages when the cassette is dropped down to ground. For example, in Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2001-346788, concerning improvement of shock resistance, a proposal has been made of improving the shock resistance by providing shock absorbing material at the edges on the interior of the cassette. In addition, in Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2004-184679, a proposal has been made of filling the interior of the cassette by filler materials. However, in a cassette type radiation image detector according to these proposals, the means for improving the shock resistance obstructs the size reduction and weight reduction desired of a cassette, or may also decrease the ease of assembly during manufacture or the ease of maintenance in the market. The present invention was made in view of the above situation, and the purpose of the present invention is to provide a cassette type radiation image detector having a shock resistance that can protect the radiation image detection sensor sufficiently when the cassette is dropped, while at the same time not losing its small size and light weight.	<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>According to one aspect of the present invention, there is provided a cassette type radiation image detector, having a box-shaped cassette housing configured by engaging a front member that is light-shielding and radiation-transmissive, with a light-shielding back member, and a two-dimensional array type radiation detection sensor for detecting radiation images incorporated in the radiation image detector, the radiation image detector comprising: a sensor supporting member that supports the radiation detection sensor; a first engaging member provided at the sensor supporting member; a second engaging member provided at the back member; and a shock absorbing member positioned between the first engaging member and the second engaging member, wherein the box-shaped cassette housing is formed by engaging the first engaging member with the second engaging member via the shock absorbing member.	RELATED APPLICATION This application is based on Japanese Patent Application No. 2006-312623 filed on Nov. 20, 2006 in Japanese Patent Office, the entire content of which is hereby incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to cassettes having built in 2-dimensional array type radiation detection sensors. 2. Description of the Related Art Radiation images typified by X-ray images have conventionally been used very widely in diagnosis of illnesses, non-destructive testing, etc. The technology of radiating the X-rays that have passed through the photographed object onto a phosphor screen, exposing a silver halide film using the visible light generated from the phosphor screen, and obtaining a radiation image by chemically developing this film has a long history and has been contributing in a big way to the diagnosis of illnesses. At present, in order to reduce the radiation dose, and to meet the requirements of compatibility with digital image processing, a technology has been widely adopted in which a latent image is formed by irradiating the X-rays that have passed through the photographed object onto an optically excitable phosphor sheet, and the X-ray image is read out by receiving the optically excited light emission produced by applying an excitation light such as a laser bean onto this latent image. Further, in the recent years, even radiation imaging systems of detecting the X-rays that have passed through the photographed object using a radiation image detector that uses a semiconductor two-dimensional array type radiation image detection sensor have come into wide use. This radiation image detector is very often used by enclosing it in a container that is usually called a cassette and that is a thin, lightweight, and is easy to carry box, so that it is very convenient for photographing a wide range of body parts quickly. Photography using such a cassette type radiation image detector is different from the fixed position photographing equipment in that it is carried out by positioning the cassette appropriately to suit the condition of the patient who is the target of photography. In such photography, since it is possible that the cassette is placed below the patient's body or, in some cases, since the patient is made to stand on the cassette, it is necessary to make the cassette have sufficient strength. In addition, there may also be unexpected accidents in which the cassette is dropped down to the ground while handling it. Therefore, cassette type radiation image detectors used in this manner are required to have the strength to protect the radiation detection sensor inside the unit against static loads, and also to have shock resistance so that the internal radiation image detection sensor doe not get damages when the cassette is dropped down to ground. For example, in Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2001-346788, concerning improvement of shock resistance, a proposal has been made of improving the shock resistance by providing shock absorbing material at the edges on the interior of the cassette. In addition, in Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2004-184679, a proposal has been made of filling the interior of the cassette by filler materials. However, in a cassette type radiation image detector according to these proposals, the means for improving the shock resistance obstructs the size reduction and weight reduction desired of a cassette, or may also decrease the ease of assembly during manufacture or the ease of maintenance in the market. The present invention was made in view of the above situation, and the purpose of the present invention is to provide a cassette type radiation image detector having a shock resistance that can protect the radiation image detection sensor sufficiently when the cassette is dropped, while at the same time not losing its small size and light weight. SUMMARY According to one aspect of the present invention, there is provided a cassette type radiation image detector, having a box-shaped cassette housing configured by engaging a front member that is light-shielding and radiation-transmissive, with a light-shielding back member, and a two-dimensional array type radiation detection sensor for detecting radiation images incorporated in the radiation image detector, the radiation image detector comprising: a sensor supporting member that supports the radiation detection sensor; a first engaging member provided at the sensor supporting member; a second engaging member provided at the back member; and a shock absorbing member positioned between the first engaging member and the second engaging member, wherein the box-shaped cassette housing is formed by engaging the first engaging member with the second engaging member via the shock absorbing member. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS. 1(a) and 1(b) are cross-sectional view diagrams for explaining the configuration of a general cassette type radiation image detector 1. FIGS. 2(a) and 2(b) are figures showing a conventional example 1 of shock prevention. FIGS. 3(a) and 3(b) are figures showing a conventional example 2 of shock prevention. FIGS. 4(a) and 4(b) are diagrams for explaining the preferred embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a diagram showing an example of a battery supporting member being also a engaging member. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Some preferred embodiments of the present invention are described below referring to the drawings. FIG. 1 shows the cross-sectional view diagrams for explaining the configuration of a general cassette type radiation image detector 1. FIG. 1(a) is the plan view diagram, and FIG. 1(b) is the side view diagram. The cassette type radiation image detector 1 has a radiation detection sensor 30 which is a two-dimensional array type radiation detector sensor, a sensor supporting member 31, and a control board 32, etc., enclosed inside the cassette formed by a front member 10 and a back member 20 engaging with each other. The radiation detection sensor 30 and the control board 32 are respectively supported by the first surface and the second surface of the sensor supporting member 31. In addition, the radiation detection sensor 30 and the control board 32 are electrically connected to each other via a flexible printed circuit board 33. The position of the radiation detection sensor 30 along the horizontal direction of the cassette is determined by a supporting member (not shown in the figure) having shock absorbing characteristics that is provided between the sensor supporting member 31 and the back member 20. Further, the position along the thickness direction of the cassette is determined by the balance between the pressing forces of a first pressing member (not shown in the figure) that is provided on the front member 10 and that pushes the sensor supporting member 31 towards the back member 20, and a second pressing member (not shown in the figure) that is provided on the back member 20 and that pushes the sensor supporting member 31 towards the front member 10. When a cassette is dropped, and when either the top surface of the front member 10 shown in FIG. 1(b) or the bottom surface of the back member 20 hits against the floor, the shock is dispersed over the wide area of the front member 10 or the back member 20, and as a result, even the shock transmitted to the sensor supporting member 31 is dispersed over its entire surface. On the other hand, when the side surface of the front member 10 or of the back member 20, or the corner positions hit against the floor, the shock is concentrated in a small area, and in some cases, a part of the front member 10 or of the back member 20 may get deformed. In this manner, a shock that is concentrated on a part of the cassette is directly transmitted to the radiation detection sensor 30, the sensor supporting member 31, and the control board 32, and in order to avoid these becoming damaged, it is necessary to provide sufficient distance between the inner surface of the back member 20 and the outer periphery of the sensor supporting member, and to provide shock absorbing member that prevents shock between them. FIGS. 2(a) and 2(b) are figures showing a conventional example 1 of shock prevention. The parts shown by inclined lines in these figures are the shock absorbing members. On the outer periphery of the sensor supporting member 31, since a flexible printed circuit board 33 that electrically connects the radiation detection sensor 30 and the control board 32 is present between them, the shock absorbing member is provided at positions avoiding the flexible printed circuit board 33. As a consequence, it is difficult to provide a shock absorbing material with sufficient size or volume, and as a countermeasure, it will be necessary to provide a distance between the sensor supporting member 31 and the inner surface of the back member 20. However, since this countermeasure is not a desirable measure as it goes against size reduction of the cassette type radiation detection sensor 1. FIGS. 3(a) and 3(b) are figures showing a conventional example 2 of shock prevention. As explained with reference to FIGS. 1(a) and 1(b), the radiation detection sensor 30 and the control board 32 are respectively supported by the first surface and the second surface of the sensor supporting member 31. In addition, the radiation detection sensor 30 and the control board 32 are electrically connected to each other via the flexible printed circuit board 33. The parts shown by inclined lines in these figures are the shock absorbing members. As is shown in these figures, shock absorbing material is filled in the space inside the cassette, and the shocks from different directions are absorbed by the filled shock absorbing materials. However, although effect can be expected from this kind of countermeasure from the point of view of reducing the shock, it is highly likely that it creates new problems in terms of considerations for heat radiation, ease of assembly during the manufacturing process, and ease of maintenance in the market. FIGS. 4(a), and 4(b) are diagrams for explaining the placements of the first engaging member and the second engaging member which are the features of a cassette type radiation image detector 1 according to the present invention. FIG. 4(a) is a plan view of the cassette type radiation image detector 1 excepting the front member 10. The radiation detection sensor 30 is placed in the part shown by the single broken lines on the surface (the first surface) of the sensor supporting member 31. In addition, in the rear surface (the second surface), the first engaging members 311 to 314 are attached along each side. In this figure, although the description of the flexible printed circuit board 33 that electrically connects the radiation detection sensor 30 and the control board 32 that have been affixed to mutually different surfaces of the sensor supporting member 31 has been omitted, gaps of holes that pass the flexible printed circuit board 33 have been provided in the first engaging members 311 to 314. FIG. 4(b) is a side cross-sectional view diagram of the cassette type radiation image detector 1. In this figure, the thickness of the cassette type radiation image detector 1 has been exaggerated for the sake of making the explanations clear. The position in the direction of the thickness of the cassette (the position in the up-down direction in the figure) of the sensor supporting member 31 is determined by the springs S or members having an appropriate elasticity provided on the front member 10 and on the back member 20. In addition, shocks in the thickness direction are absorbed by these springs S or elastic members. As the elastic members, viscoelastic foam or other plastics may be used. The second engaging members 211 to 214 are provided on the back member 20 at positions corresponding to the first engaging members 311 to 314. The shock absorbing members 511 to 514 are placed at the surface at which the first engaging members 311 to 314 and the second engaging members 211 to 214 are opposing each other. In addition, the shock absorbing members 511 to 514 are affixed to either of the surfaces of the first engaging members 311 to 314 or the second engaging members 211 to 214. Appropriate gaps (for example, 0.1 to 0.5 mm) are provided between the surface of the shock absorbing member 511 to 514 that is opposite to the surface that has been fixed and the surface of the first engaging members 311 to 314 or of the second engaging members 211 to 214. Because of this gap, the assembling operation of fitting the sensor supporting member 31 to the back member 20 via the first engaging members 311 to 314, the second engaging members 211 to 214, and the shock absorbing members 511 to 514 becomes easy. In order to make this fitting easy, it is also possible to provide appropriate taper in the direction of fitting on the surfaces of the first engaging members 311 to 314, the second engaging members 211 to 214, and the shock absorbing members 511 to 514. Further, the numbers, positions, sizes, and shapes of the first engaging members 311 to 314 and the second engaging members 211 to 214, and sizes, shapes, and materials of the shock absorbing members 511 to 514 corresponding to the first engaging members and the second engaging members are determined at the time of designing based on the limiting conditions unique to the product. In the case of the present preferred embodiment, the absorption of shock when dropped in the up-down direction in FIG. 4(a) becomes possible due to the opposing first engaging member 314, second engaging member 214, shock absorbing member 514 and the first engaging member 312, second engaging member 212, shock absorbing member 512. Further, in a similar manner, the absorption of shock when dropped in the left-right direction in FIG. 4(a) becomes possible due to the opposing first engaging member 311, second engaging member 211, shock absorbing member 511 and the first engaging member 313, second engaging member 213, shock absorbing member 513. FIG. 5 is a diagram showing an example of a battery supporting member being also a engaging member. This figure is a plan view diagram corresponding to FIG. 4(a). The battery supporting members 323 and 324 not only support the battery B, but their side surfaces 333 and 334 have the same function as the surface at which the first engaging member 313 in FIG. 4 is opposite to the shock absorbing member 513. The supporting members that support a part having a large volume and mass among the control parts, naturally become large and will have to have strength. In the present invention, the cassette is aimed to be made compact by making the engaging members have the functions of such supporting members. Further, the battery supporting members 323 and 324 may be provided in the sensor supporting member, or in some cases, may be provided in the control board 32, or the back member 20. As has been explained above, since the cassette type radiation image detector 1 assembled by fitting the sensor supporting member 31 having the first engaging members 311 to 314 with the back member 20 having the second engaging members 211 to 214 via the shock absorbing members 511 to 514 has shock absorbing materials of sufficient sizes, shocks applied to the sides or to the corners of the cassette are absorbed, and as a result, the shock transmitted to the sensor supporting member 31 and the flexible printed circuit board 33 becomes small, and the radiation detection sensor 30 and the control board 32 supported by the sensor supporting member 31 are protected. Further, since the front member 10 and the back member 20 are easily separated and closed, the assembly during the manufacturing process and the maintenance operations in the market become easy. In addition, very often the front member is formed integrally from a carbon plastic having light-shielding characteristics and radiation-transmissive characteristics, and the back member 20 is formed integrally from a polycarbonate plastic, or an ABS plastic, or aluminum having light-shielding characteristics. Therefore, the second engaging members 211 to 214 described above can also be formed along with the back member 20. According to the present preferred embodiment, a cassette type radiation image detector is provided that has a shock resistance that can protect the radiation image detection sensor sufficiently when the cassette is dropped, while at the same time not losing its small size and light weight.	G	G03	G03B	42	04
11830481	US20090032122A1-20090205	Check Valve Structure for Use in Pump of Hydraulic Cylinder	ACCEPTED	20090122	20090205		[]	F16K1500	["F16K1500"]	8056575	20070730	20111115	137	102000	91348.0	MCCALISTER	WILLIAM	[{"inventor_name_last": "Hsu", "inventor_name_first": "Kun-Shan", "inventor_city": "Chiayi City", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "TW"}]	A check valve for use in pump of hydraulic cylinder comprises a check valve including a tubular member disposed therein and having a sheath member received therein, a pump including a chamber provided in an output pipe thereof for receiving the check valve, wherein the tubular member is constructed in the form of a hollow cylinder and includes a sealing sleeve fitted therearound, and includes an oil seal mounted on the front end thereof for the engagement with a hollow screw element in the chamber; the sheath member is comprised of a hollow cap member, a first spring element, a ball, a hollow disc element which are placed into the tubular member in turn, and a second spring element. By using the disc element and the second spring element, the tubular member may be fixed in the chamber, and by way of the screw element, the tubular member is enclosed in the chamber.	1. A check valve for use in pump of hydraulic cylinder comprising: a check valve including a tubular member disposed therein and having a sheath member received therein, a pump including a chamber provided in an output pipe thereof for receiving said check valve, wherein said tubular member is constructed in the form of a hollow cylinder and includes a sealing sleeve fitted therearound, and includes an oil seal mounted on the front end thereof for the engagement with a hollow screw element in said chamber; said sheath member is comprised of a hollow cap member, a first spring element, a ball, a hollow disc element and a second spring element; said hollow cap member, said first spring element, said ball and said disc element are placed into said tubular member in turn, and by using said disc element and said second spring element, said tubular member may be fixed in said chamber, thereafter, by way of said screw element, said tubular member is enclosed in said chamber, such that the front end of said tubular member is matingly engaged with said screw element by using the resilience of said second spring element through said disc element, said sealing sleeve corresponds to an air opening of said chamber, and said ball abuts against said disc element by means of said first spring element for achieving a checking purpose, thereby said pump may generate an air pressure to push said ball away and input the pressure into a cylinder, then after the air pressure in said cylinder of a jack is released, said tubular member is pushed to press against said second spring element such that said tubular member disengages from said air opening, and then the air pressure permits to vent from said air opening for a quick pressure releasing purpose, thereafter, said second spring element biases said tubular member to return the initial position such that said air opening may be sealed once more, thereby preventing the hydraulic oil from leakage during the accelerated operation of the jack. 2. The check valve for use in pump of hydraulic cylinder as claimed in claim 1, wherein said sealing sleeve may include radially enlarged bulges arranged at two ends thereof respectively for a preferred engagement in response to said chamber. 3. The check valve for use in pump of hydraulic cylinder as claimed in claim 1, wherein said tubular member may include one or more ring elements directly disposed on the exterior thereof for a sealing purpose relative to said chamber.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a check valve, and more particularly to a check valve for use in pump of hydraulic cylinder that may prevent the hydraulic oil from leakage during the accelerated operation of the jack. 2. Description of the Prior Arts Cylinder is an indispensable component provided in jacks due to its high bearing capacity, thus lifting objects easily. However, conventional cylinder had some disadvantages, such as poor operating stability, slow raising speed and the like. To overcome such defects, an improved cylinder provided with an air operated pump therein had been developed and applied in the related field. Such an improved air-operated pump is utilize an inputted air pressure to actuate a piston (including spring element disposed therein and designed in an air venting and position returning manner), a stem member of the piston is in communication with an oil route of the cylinder so as to cause a pump effect, such that the cylinder may generate larger fluid pressure during the operation of the air operated pump for enhancing the operating speed. Thereby, the lifting speed of the jack may be improved. However, such a lifting speed still can be accelerated. The present invention has arisen to mitigate and/or obviate the afore-described disadvantages.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The primary object of the present invention is to provide a check valve for use in pump of hydraulic cylinder that may prevent the hydraulic oil from leakage during the accelerated operation of the jack. Another object of the present invention is to provide a check valve for use in pump of hydraulic cylinder that the sealing sleeve may be replaced by the ring element 113 , thus saving the production cost. In accordance with one aspect of the present invention, there is provided a check valve for use in pump of hydraulic cylinder comprising a check valve including a tubular member disposed therein and having a sheath member received therein, a pump including a chamber provided in an output pipe thereof for receiving the check valve, wherein the tubular member is constructed in the form of a hollow cylinder and includes a sealing sleeve fitted therearound, and includes an oil seal mounted on the front end thereof for the engagement with a hollow screw element in the chamber; the sheath member is comprised of a hollow cap member, a first spring element, a ball, a hollow disc element and a second spring element; the hollow cap member, the first spring element, the ball and the disc element are placed into the tubular member in turn, and by using the disc element and the second spring element, the tubular member may be fixed in the chamber, thereafter, by way of the screw element, the tubular member is enclosed in the chamber, such that the front end of the tubular member is matingly engaged with the screw element by using the resilience of the second spring element through the disc element, the sealing sleeve corresponds to an air opening of the chamber, and the ball abuts against the disc element by means of the first spring element for achieving a checking purpose, thereby the pump may generate an air pressure to push the ball away and input the pressure into a cylinder, then after the air pressure in the cylinder of a jack is released, the tubular member is pushed to press against the second spring element, such that the tubular member disengages from the air opening, and then the air pressure permits to vent from the air opening for a quick pressure releasing purpose, thereafter, the second spring element biases the tubular member to return its initial position such that the air opening may be sealed once more, thus preventing the hydraulic oil from leakage during the accelerated operation of the jack. The present invention will become more obvious from the following description when taken in connection with the accompanying drawings, which show, for purpose of illustrations only, the preferred embodiment in accordance with the present invention.	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a check valve, and more particularly to a check valve for use in pump of hydraulic cylinder that may prevent the hydraulic oil from leakage during the accelerated operation of the jack. 2. Description of the Prior Arts Cylinder is an indispensable component provided in jacks due to its high bearing capacity, thus lifting objects easily. However, conventional cylinder had some disadvantages, such as poor operating stability, slow raising speed and the like. To overcome such defects, an improved cylinder provided with an air operated pump therein had been developed and applied in the related field. Such an improved air-operated pump is utilize an inputted air pressure to actuate a piston (including spring element disposed therein and designed in an air venting and position returning manner), a stem member of the piston is in communication with an oil route of the cylinder so as to cause a pump effect, such that the cylinder may generate larger fluid pressure during the operation of the air operated pump for enhancing the operating speed. Thereby, the lifting speed of the jack may be improved. However, such a lifting speed still can be accelerated. The present invention has arisen to mitigate and/or obviate the afore-described disadvantages. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The primary object of the present invention is to provide a check valve for use in pump of hydraulic cylinder that may prevent the hydraulic oil from leakage during the accelerated operation of the jack. Another object of the present invention is to provide a check valve for use in pump of hydraulic cylinder that the sealing sleeve may be replaced by the ring element 113, thus saving the production cost. In accordance with one aspect of the present invention, there is provided a check valve for use in pump of hydraulic cylinder comprising a check valve including a tubular member disposed therein and having a sheath member received therein, a pump including a chamber provided in an output pipe thereof for receiving the check valve, wherein the tubular member is constructed in the form of a hollow cylinder and includes a sealing sleeve fitted therearound, and includes an oil seal mounted on the front end thereof for the engagement with a hollow screw element in the chamber; the sheath member is comprised of a hollow cap member, a first spring element, a ball, a hollow disc element and a second spring element; the hollow cap member, the first spring element, the ball and the disc element are placed into the tubular member in turn, and by using the disc element and the second spring element, the tubular member may be fixed in the chamber, thereafter, by way of the screw element, the tubular member is enclosed in the chamber, such that the front end of the tubular member is matingly engaged with the screw element by using the resilience of the second spring element through the disc element, the sealing sleeve corresponds to an air opening of the chamber, and the ball abuts against the disc element by means of the first spring element for achieving a checking purpose, thereby the pump may generate an air pressure to push the ball away and input the pressure into a cylinder, then after the air pressure in the cylinder of a jack is released, the tubular member is pushed to press against the second spring element, such that the tubular member disengages from the air opening, and then the air pressure permits to vent from the air opening for a quick pressure releasing purpose, thereafter, the second spring element biases the tubular member to return its initial position such that the air opening may be sealed once more, thus preventing the hydraulic oil from leakage during the accelerated operation of the jack. The present invention will become more obvious from the following description when taken in connection with the accompanying drawings, which show, for purpose of illustrations only, the preferred embodiment in accordance with the present invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective diagram of a jack according to the present invention; FIG. 2 is a cross sectional diagram of a pump according to the present invention FIG. 3 is a perspective diagram illustrating the exploded components of a check valve for use in pump of hydraulic cylinder according to the present invention; FIG. 4 is a perspective diagram illustrating the assembly of the check valve for use in pump of hydraulic cylinder according to the present invention; FIG. 5 is a cross sectional diagram illustrating the check valve for use in pump of hydraulic cylinder of the present invention being associated with a pump; FIG. 6 is a cross sectional diagram illustrating the check valve for use in pump of hydraulic cylinder of the present invention outputting an air pressure; FIG. 7 is a cross sectional diagram illustrating the check valve for use in pump of hydraulic cylinder of the present invention venting the air pressure; FIG. 8 is a cross sectional diagram illustrating the operation of the pump according to the present invention; FIG. 9 is a cross sectional diagram illustrating a tubular member of the present invention being provided with one or more ring elements. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring to FIGS. 1 and 2, a check valve for use in pump of hydraulic cylinder in accordance with the present invention comprises a check valve 1 including a tubular member 11 disposed therein and having a sheath member 12 received therein, a pump 2 including a chamber 21 provided in an output pipe thereof for receiving the check valve 1, wherein the tubular member 11 is constructed in the form of a hollow cylinder and includes a sealing sleeve 111 fitted therearound, and includes an oil seal 112 mounted on the front end thereof for the engagement with a hollow screw element 22 in the chamber 21 (as shown in FIGS. 3 and 4); the sheath member 12 is comprised of a hollow cap member 121, a first spring element 122, a ball 123, a hollow disc element 124 and a second spring element 125. In assembly, the hollow cap member 121, the first spring element 122, the ball 123 and the disc element 124 are placed into the tubular member 11 in turn, and by using the disc element 124 and the second spring element 125, the tubular member 11 may be fixed in the chamber 21. Thereafter, by way of the screw element 22, the tubular member 11 is enclosed in the chamber 21, such that the front end of the tubular member 11 is matingly engaged with the screw element 22 by using the resilience of the second spring element 125 through the disc element 124, the sealing sleeve 111 corresponds to an air opening 23 of the chamber 21, and the ball 123 abuts against the disc element 124 by means of the first spring element 122 for achieving a checking purpose (as illustrated in FIG. 5). In operation, the pump 2 is compressed by the inputted air to actuate a piston so as to generate an internal pressure for being inputted into the chamber 21 through the output pipe, hence the air pressure may pass through the disc element 124 to push the ball 123 away (as shown in FIG. 6, the air pressure is greater than the resilience of the first spring element 122). Thereafter, the air pressure may further pass through the cap member 121 and the tubular member 11 to lead into the tank of the cylinder 3 for auxiliary pressure by using the pipe, such that the jack allows to lift object (as illustrated in FIG. 8). On the contrary, if desiring to lower the object, the pressure in the jack is released and the air release switch of the jack is turned on for returning air back to the chamber 21, since the air pressure is pressed with respect to the front end of the tubular member 11 (as illustrated in FIG. 7), and the ball 123 and the disc member 124 in the tubular member 11 form a checking effect, the air pressure pushes the tubular member 11 to move for pressing against the second spring element 125, such that the tubular member 11 disengages from the air opening 23, and then the air pressure permits to vent from the air opening 23 for a quick pressure releasing purpose. Thereafter, the second spring element 125 biases the tubular member 11 to return the initial position such that the air opening 23 may be sealed once more, thereby preventing the hydraulic oil from leakage during the accelerated operation of the jack. Furthermore, the sealing sleeve 111 may include radially enlarged bulges arranged at two ends thereof respectively for providing a preferred engagement in response to the chamber 21. Likewise, the tubular member 11 may include one or more ring elements 113 directly disposed on the exterior thereof for obtaining the sealing purpose relative to the chamber 21 (as shown in FIG. 9) such that the sealing sleeve 111 may be replaced by the ring element 113, thus saving the production cost. The invention is not limited to the above embodiment but various modifications thereof may be made. It will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and detail may made without departing from the scope and spirit of the present invention.	F	F16	F16K	15	00
11572003	US20070205323A1-20070906	ENGINE ASSEMBLY FOR AIRCRAFT	ACCEPTED	20070822	20070906		[]	B64D3300	["B64D3300"]	7770840	20070112	20100810	244	054000	92257.0	BENEDIK	JUSTIN	[{"inventor_name_last": "Lionel", "inventor_name_first": "Diochon", "inventor_city": "Toulouse", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "FR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Petrissans", "inventor_name_first": "Isabelle", "inventor_city": "Toueouse", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "FR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Seguin", "inventor_name_first": "Guillaume", "inventor_city": "Le Havre", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "FR"}]	An engine assembly for aircraft including a turboshaft engine, an attachment strut, and a plurality of engine mounts interposed between the attachment strut and the turboshaft engine. The plurality of engine mounts include two forward mounts arranged in a staggered manner in relation to each other in a vertical direction of the turboshaft engine, the first forward mount configured to assure uniquely taking up of stresses brought to bear along the transversal direction of the turboshaft engine, and the second forward mount configured to assure uniquely taking up of stresses brought to bear along the transversal and vertical directions.	1-8. (canceled) 9. An engine assembly for aircraft comprising: a turboshaft engine; an attachment strut; and a plurality of engine mounts interposed between the attachment strut and the turboshaft engine; the plurality of engine mounts comprising first and second forward mounts each configured to assure taking up of stresses brought to bear along a transversal direction of the turboshaft engine, the first and second forward mounts arranged in a staggered manner in relation to each other in a vertical direction of the turboshaft engine, wherein the first forward mount is configured to assure uniquely taking up of stresses brought to bear along the transversal direction of the turboshaft engine, whereas the second forward mount is configured to assure uniquely taking up of stresses brought to bear along the transversal and vertical directions. 10. An assembly for aircraft according to claim 9, wherein the first and second forward mounts include the first forward mount integral with a peripheral annular part of a fan casing of the turboshaft engine, and the second forward mount integral with a delivery casing of the turboshaft engine. 11. An assembly for aircraft according to claim 9, wherein the plurality of engine mounts further comprises a rear mount configured to assure taking up of stresses brought to bear along the transversal and vertical directions, and along a longitudinal direction of the turboshaft engine. 12. An assembly for aircraft according to claim 11, wherein each of the plurality of engine mounts is traversed by a plane defined by a longitudinal axis of the turboshaft engine, and the vertical direction of the engine. 13. An assembly for aircraft according to claim 9, wherein the attachment strut comprises a rigid structure comprising a center box extending substantially along a longitudinal direction of the turboshaft engine, and a front box integral with the center box and extending substantially along the vertical direction. 14. An assembly for aircraft according to claim 13, wherein the first and second forward mounts are mounted in an integral manner one above the other on the front box. 15. An assembly for aircraft according to claim 9, wherein the first forward mount comprises an intermediate bracket assembled on a first bracket integral with the attachment strut through the intermediary of two ball jointed axles oriented in parallel along the vertical direction, and a slug oriented along a longitudinal direction of the turboshaft engine and integral with the intermediate bracket, the slug being mounted with play in the longitudinal direction on a second bracket integral with the turboshaft engine. 16. An aircraft comprising at least one engine assembly according to claim 9.	<SOH> TECHNICAL FIELD <EOH>The present invention concerns in a general manner an engine assembly for aircraft, of the type comprising a turboshaft engine such as a turbojet, an attachment strut, and a plurality of engine mounts interposed between said attachment strut and the turbojet.	<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS <EOH>This description will be made with regard to the appended drawings, among which: FIG. 1 represents a perspective view of an engine assembly for aircraft, according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 represents a side view of the engine assembly represented in FIG. 1 ; FIG. 3 represents an overhead view of the engine assembly of FIGS. 1 and 2 , in which the attachment strut is in the form of an alternative; FIG. 4 represents a detailed perspective view of the first forward engine mount of the engine assembly of FIGS. 1 to 3 , interposed between the fan casing of the turbojet and the rigid structure of the attachment strut; FIG. 5 is a side view of the first forward engine mount represented in FIG. 4 ; and FIG. 6 is an overhead view of the first forward engine mount represented in FIGS. 4 and 5 . detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?	TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention concerns in a general manner an engine assembly for aircraft, of the type comprising a turboshaft engine such as a turbojet, an attachment strut, and a plurality of engine mounts interposed between said attachment strut and the turbojet. STATE OF THE PRIOR ART In a known manner, the attachment strut of such an engine assembly is provided to constitute the liaison interface between a turbojet and a wing of the aircraft equipped with said assembly. It makes it possible to transmit to the structure of said aircraft the stresses generated by its associated engine, and also allows the routing of fuel, electrical systems, hydraulics, and air between the engine and the aircraft. In order to assure the transmission of stresses, the strut comprises a rigid structure, for example of the “box” type, in other words formed by the assembly of spars and lateral panels joined together through the intermediary of cross ribs. An assembly system is interposed between the engine and the rigid structure of the strut, said system comprising in an overall manner a plurality of engine mounts, normally divided up into forward mount(s) integral with the fan casing of the engine and rear mount(s) integral with the delivery casing of said same engine. Moreover, the assembly system comprises a device for taking up thrust stresses generated by the engine. In the prior art, said device takes for example the form of two lateral connecting rods joined on the one hand to a rear part of the fan casing of the engine, and on the other hand to a mount assembled on the rigid structure of the strut, for example a rear mount. By way of indication, it is pointed out that the attachment strut is associated with a second assembly system interposed between said strut and the wing of the aircraft, said second system being habitually composed of two or three mounts. Finally, the strut is provided with a secondary structure assuring the segregation and the support of systems while at the same time supporting aerodynamic fairings. In the conventional embodiments of the prior art, the assembly system interposed between the turbojet and the rigid structure is generally designed in such a way that the take up of the moment brought to bear along a longitudinal direction of the turbojet is achieved by means of two rear mounts or half-mounts, spaced in a transversal direction of said turbojet and each formed in such a way as to be able to assure the taking up of stresses brought to bear along a vertical direction of said turbojet. In such a configuration, the spacing between the two rear mounts in the transversal direction is obviously limited by the width of the rigid structure of the strut, which is generally small, particularly for obvious reasons of perturbation of the bypass air. Consequently, the narrow spacing of the rear mounts implies that the stresses along the vertical direction, which each of said two mounts have to take up in order to assure the take up of the moment along the longitudinal direction, are very high. Thus, the major disadvantage stemming from this observation is that said rear mounts naturally need to be designed in a complex and costly manner. OBJECT OF THE INVENTION The aim of the invention is therefore to propose an assembly for aircraft that overcomes at least partially the above mentioned disadvantages relative to the embodiments of the prior art, and further to describe an aircraft having at least one such assembly. In order to achieve this aim, the object of the invention is an engine assembly for aircraft comprising a turboshaft engine, an attachment strut as well as a plurality of engine mounts interposed between the attachment strut and the turboshaft engine, the plurality of engine mounts comprising two forward mounts each designed in such a way as to assure the taking up of stresses brought to bear along a transversal direction of the turboshaft engine, the two forward mounts being arranged in a staggered manner in relation to each other in a vertical direction of the turboshaft engine. Moreover, the first forward mount is designed in such a way as to assure uniquely the taking up of stresses brought to bear along the transversal direction of the turboshaft engine, whereas the second forward mount is designed in such a way as to assure uniquely the taking up of stresses brought to bear along the transversal and vertical directions. In other words, the engine assembly according to the invention is formed in such a way that the take up of the moment brought to bear along the longitudinal direction of the turboshaft engine is achieved no longer by means of rear mounts, but through the intermediary of forward mounts staggered in height and capable of assuring the taking up of stresses brought to bear along the transversal direction. However, since the forward mounts may be made integral with, indiscriminately, a fan casing or a delivery casing of the turboshaft engine, it is then obviously possible to separate them considerably from each other in the vertical direction, for example by mounting one of them on the fan casing, and the other on the delivery casing. This wide spacing has the advantage of being able to considerably simplify the design of the engine mounts, due to the fact that the stresses that they have to take up, associated with the moment along the longitudinal direction, are naturally weakened compared to those encountered in the conventional solutions of the prior art in which the take up of said moment was assured by two rear mounts made integral with the delivery casing, which obviously could not be separated from each other to such an extent. It is pointed out that the two forward mounts could both be arranged on the fan casing, at different heights, without going beyond the scope of the invention. Furthermore, it is pointed out that if the two forward mounts are arranged in a staggered manner in relation to each other in the vertical direction of the turboshaft engine in order to assure the take up of the moment brought to bear along the longitudinal direction, this does not exclude the fact that they may also be staggered in relation to each other in the longitudinal direction and/or in the transversal direction. Preferably, the two forward mounts consist of a first forward mount integral with a peripheral annular part of the fan casing of the turboshaft engine, and a second forward mount integral with a delivery casing of the turboshaft engine. In this preferred configuration, it is effectively easily possible to obtain a spacing along the vertical direction, between the two forward mounts, which is very high compared to that encountered in the prior art and limited to the width of the rigid structure of the attachment strut. As has been stated above, the first forward mount is designed in such a way as to assure uniquely the taking up of stresses brought to bear along the transversal direction of the turboshaft engine, whereas the second forward mount is designed in such a way as to assure uniquely the taking up of stresses brought to bear along the transversal and vertical directions. In this case, the plurality of engine mounts may also comprise a rear mount designed in such a way as to assure the taking up of stresses brought to bear along the transversal and vertical directions, as well as along the longitudinal direction of the turboshaft engine. Preferably, each of the plurality of engine mounts is traversed by a plane defined by a longitudinal axis of the turboshaft engine, and the vertical direction of said engine. Thus, it is clear that the fact of centering all of the engine mounts on the above mentioned plane, and thus not to provide for mounts spaced from each other in the transversal direction, makes it possible to substantially reduce the width of the attachment strut along said same transversal direction. Thus, the reduction in the width observed advantageously makes it possible to reduce the perturbations of the bypass air in the turbofan annular duct, caused by the attachment strut. Preferentially, the attachment strut comprises a rigid structure comprising a center box extends substantially along the longitudinal direction of the turboshaft engine, as well as a front box integral with the center box and extending substantially along the vertical direction. In such a case, one may provide that the two forward mounts are assembled in an integral manner, one above the other, on the front box. Preferably, the first forward mount designed in such a way as to assure uniquely the taking up of stresses brought to bear along the transversal direction of the turboshaft engine comprises an intermediate bracket assembled on a first bracket integral with the attachment strut through the intermediary of two ball jointed axles oriented in parallel along the direction vertical, the first forward mount further comprising a slug oriented along the longitudinal direction of the turboshaft engine and integral with the intermediate bracket, the slug being mounted with play in the longitudinal direction on a second bracket integral with the turboshaft engine. A further aim of the invention is an aircraft comprising at least one engine assembly such as that which has just been described. Other advantages and characteristics of the invention will become clearer in the non-limitative detailed description that follows. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS This description will be made with regard to the appended drawings, among which: FIG. 1 represents a perspective view of an engine assembly for aircraft, according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 represents a side view of the engine assembly represented in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 represents an overhead view of the engine assembly of FIGS. 1 and 2, in which the attachment strut is in the form of an alternative; FIG. 4 represents a detailed perspective view of the first forward engine mount of the engine assembly of FIGS. 1 to 3, interposed between the fan casing of the turbojet and the rigid structure of the attachment strut; FIG. 5 is a side view of the first forward engine mount represented in FIG. 4; and FIG. 6 is an overhead view of the first forward engine mount represented in FIGS. 4 and 5. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS In reference to FIG. 1, an engine assembly 1 for aircraft according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention is shown, said assembly 1 being intended to be attached under the wing of an aircraft (not represented). In an overall manner, the engine assembly 1 comprises a turboshaft engine 2 that will be considered as being a turbojet 2 in the description hereafter, an attachment strut 4, as well as a plurality of engine mounts 6a, 6b, 8 assuring the attachment of the turbojet 2 under said strut 4. By way of indication, it is noted that the assembly 1 is intended to be enclosed within a nacelle (not represented), and that the attachment strut 4 comprises another series of mounts (not represented) that make it possible to assure the suspension of said assembly 1 under the wing of the aircraft. Throughout the following description, by convention, X is taken to mean the longitudinal direction of the turbojet 2 that is parallel to a longitudinal axis 5 of said turbojet 2, Y the transversal direction of said turbojet 2, and Z the vertical or height direction, these three directions being orthogonal to each other. Moreover, the terms “forward” and “rear” are to be considered in relation to a direction of progress of the aircraft encountered following the thrust exercised by the turbojet 2, said direction being represented schematically by the arrow 7. In FIG. 1, it may be seen that only one rigid structure 10 of the attachment strut 4 has been represented. The other non represented elements making up said strut 4, such as the secondary structure assuring the segregation and the maintenance of the systems while at the same time supporting the aerodynamic fairings, are conventional elements identical or similar to those encountered in the prior art, and known to those skilled in the art. Consequently, no detailed description will be made of them. In the same way, the assembly 1 is equipped with a device (not represented) for taking up thrust stresses generated by the turbojet 2, which is identical or similar to those encountered previously, and which will therefore not be described further. The turbojet 2 has at the front a fan casing 12 of large dimensions delimiting an annular duct of a turbofan 14, and comprises towards the rear a delivery casing 16 of smaller dimensions, enclosing the core of said turbojet. The casings 12 and 16 are obviously integral with each other, in a conventional manner and known in the prior art. As may be seen in FIG. 1, the particularity of the invention resides in the fact that the plurality of engine mounts 6a, 6b, 8 comprises two forward mounts 6a, 6b each designed in such a way as to assure the taking up of stresses brought to bear along the transversal direction Y, combined with the fact that said two forward mounts 6a, 6b are arranged in a staggered manner in relation to each other in the vertical direction Z. More precisely, the first forward mount 6a is integral on the one hand with the front of the rigid structure 10 of the strut 4, and on the other hand with a peripheral annular part 18 of the fan casing 12, preferably on the rear of said part 18, as is represented schematically in FIG. 1. Moreover, said first forward engine mount 6a is mounted on the highest portion of said peripheral annular part 18, implying that it is traversed by an imaginary plane (not represented) defined by the longitudinal axis 5 and the direction Z. In this respect, it is noted that the imaginary plane that has just been mentioned is a symmetry plane for the first forward mount 6a. As will be detailed hereafter, it is noted that said first mount is designed in such a way as to assure uniquely the taking up of stresses brought to bear along the direction Y of the turbojet, and not along the directions X and Z. Moreover, the second forward mount 6b is integral on the one hand with the front of the rigid structure 10 of the strut 4, and on the other hand with the delivery casing 16, in such a way that it is thereby situated below the first forward mount 6a. Moreover, said second forward engine mount 6b is mounted on the highest annular portion of the delivery casing 16. In this respect, it is noted that in the preferred embodiment represented, the two forward mounts 6a, 6b are uniquely staggered with respect to each other in the Z direction, and not in the X and Y directions. However, it would obviously have been possible to effect such a staggering, without going beyond the scope of the invention. Furthermore, this particular positioning of the second mount 6b implies that it is also traversed by the imaginary plane indicated previously and defined by the longitudinal axis 5 and the direction Z, said imaginary plane also constituting a symmetry plane for said second forward mount 6b. As is represented schematically by the arrows in FIG. 1, the second forward mount 6b is designed in such a way as to assure uniquely the taking up of stresses brought to bear along the direction Y and along the direction Z of the turbojet, but not those brought to bear along the direction X. The plurality of engine mounts 6a, 6b, 8 further comprises a unique rear mount 8, on which may for example be fastened the device for taking up thrust stresses of the assembly 1. Said rear mount 8 is integral on the one hand with the rear of the delivery casing 16, preferably at the level of a rear end of said casing 16, and on the other hand with the rigid structure 10 of the strut 4, preferably at the level of a part substantially central of said strut considered in the direction X. In the same way as for the second forward mount 6b, the rear mount 8 is formed according to any form known to those skilled in the art, such as for example that relative to the assembly of shackles and brackets. However, said rear mount 8 is for its part designed in such a way as to assure the taking up of stresses brought to bear along the three directions X, Y and Z. Consequently, with the plurality of engine mounts that have just been described, the taking up of stresses brought to bear along the direction X is achieved by means of the rear mount 8, that of the stresses brought to bear along the direction Y is achieved by means of three mounts 6a, 6b, 8, and that of the stresses brought to bear along the direction Z is achieved through the intermediary of the first forward mount 6a and the rear mount 8. Furthermore, the take up of the moment brought to bear along the direction X is achieved jointly by means of two forward mounts 6a, 6b, that of the moment brought to bear along the direction Y is achieved jointly by means of the second forward mount 6b and the rear mount 8, and that of the moment brought to bear along the direction Z is achieved jointly by means of three engine mounts 6a, 6b, 8. In reference jointly to FIGS. 1 and 2, it may be seen that in the preferred embodiment represented, the rigid structure 10 of the attachment strut 4 comprises a center box 20 extending substantially along the direction X, as well as a front box 22 integral with the center box 20 and extending substantially along the vertical direction Z. More precisely, the center box 20 located at the rear of the front box 22 is formed by assembling lower 24 and upper 26 spars joined together through the intermediary of cross ribs 28, preferably oriented in the planes YZ. The spars 24 and 26 are, for their part, oriented along the planes XY, or even along planes slightly inclined in relation to said planes. By way of illustration and as may be clearly seen in FIG. 2, the upper spar 26 is effectively situated in a plane XY, whereas a forward part of the lower spar 24 is slightly inclined in such a way as to descend in going towards the rear, and that a rear part of said lower spar 24 is slightly inclined in such a way as to rise in going towards the rear. In this respect, it is at the level of the junction between the forward and rear parts of the lower spar 24, which are both parallel to the direction Y, that the rear mount 8 is assembled on the rigid structure 10. It is pointed out that the lower spar 24 and the upper spar 26 may each be formed in a single piece, or instead consist of an assembly of several portions of spars rigidly attached to each other. Furthermore, the center box 20 is preferably closed laterally on either side by two lateral walls 30, 32, which each extend overall in a plane XZ. An upper part of the front box 22 is located in the forward extension of the center box 20. In other words, the front box 22 extending substantially along the direction Z has a forward spar 34 and a rear spar 36, which are both parallel to the direction Y, and which are connected to each other through the intermediary of cross ribs 38, preferably oriented in the planes XY. In this respect, it is noted that the highest cross rib 38 is constituted by the forward end of the upper spar 26 of the center box 20, said forward end also assuring an upper closure of the front box 22. In the same way, the second highest cross rib 38 is constituted by the forward end of the lower spar 24 of said center box 20. Preferably, the front box 22 is closed laterally on either side by the two lateral walls 30, 32 also assuring the lateral closure of the center box 20. In this way, in the same way as the rigid structure 10 considered as a whole, the two lateral walls 30, 32 each have an overall “L” shape, in which the base of said L is substantially oriented along the direction Z. As may be seen in FIG. 3 representing the rigid structure 10 of the attachment strut 4 in an alternative form, it is noted that the front box 22 may be formed in such a way that it gets slightly narrower, in the direction Y, going towards the front. Moreover, the forward spar 34 may have a section of a general “C” shape open towards the rear, the two branches of the C then being connected in such a way as to be located respectively in contact and in the continuity of the two edges of the upper spar 26, the narrowed forward shape of which may be obtained by beveling of each of said two same edges. Moreover, each of the branches of the C is also thus located in the continuation of one of the two lateral walls 30, 32, still in such a way as to obtain an aerodynamic continuity between the forward spar 34 and the lateral walls 30, 32. With this type of narrowed and rounded lay out at the front, the perturbations of the bypass air flowing through the annular duct of the turbofan 14 are advantageously considerably reduced. As regards the rigid structure 10 of the strut 4, as may be seen most clearly in FIG. 2, it is noted on the one hand that the first forward mount 6a is preferably integral with an upper part of the forward spar 34, which is oriented in a plane YZ, and on the other hand that the second forward mount 6b is preferably integral with the lowest cross rib 38, assuring the lower closure of the front box 22. Now in reference to FIGS. 4 to 6, the first forward mount 6a, uniquely capable of taking up the stresses brought to bear along the direction Y, will now be described. Said forward mount 6a has firstly a first bracket 40, which may be formed by assembly of several metallic parts, which is integral with the forward spar 34 of the front box 22, and more generally with the rigid structure 10 of the strut 4. The first bracket 40 has a symmetry in relation to the imaginary vertical plane passing through the longitudinal axis 5 of the turbojet 2, and comprises in particular two pairs of heads 44 respectively arranged on either side of said plane. Each pair of heads 44 comprises an upper head 42a and a lower head 42b spaced from said head in the direction Z, each of these two heads 42a, 42b may be double and are oriented in a plane XY. Furthermore, the upper head 42a has a through hole 44a oriented along the direction Z, in the same way that the lower head 42b has a through hole 44b also oriented along the direction Z, and located opposite the hole 44a. An intermediate bracket 46, preferably with a general “V” shape extending in a plane XY as may be seen in FIG. 6, is connected to the first bracket 40 through the intermediary of two ball jointed axles 48 each oriented along the direction Z. More precisely, each of the two ends of the V shaped intermediate bracket 46 is mounted on one of the two pairs of heads 44 by means of one of the two ball jointed axles 48, implying that said axles are arranged in a symmetrical manner in relation to the above mentioned imaginary plane. In this respect, it is pointed out that said imaginary plane also constitutes a symmetry plane for the intermediate bracket 46. Thus, at the level of each of the two pairs of heads 44, the axle 48 traverses successively the hole 44a of the upper head 42a, a through hole 50 formed in the end concerned of the intermediate bracket 46, and finally the hole 44b of the lower head 42b. Moreover, the through hole 50 indicated above is adapted to cooperate with a ball joint 52 of the axle 48, as may be seen in FIG. 5. In this way, it should be understood that the presence of said two axles 48 makes it possible to obtain two ball joint linkages oriented along the direction Z and arranged in a symmetrical manner in relation to the imaginary vertical plane indicated previously. At the level of the junction of the two branches of the V constituting the intermediate bracket 46, the forward mount 6a comprises a slug 56 oriented along the direction X and integral with said same intermediate bracket 46, the slug 56 being traversed diametrically by the imaginary vertical plane. The assembly constituted by the slug 56 and the intermediate bracket 46 therefore takes the form of a “Y”, the lower branch of which is oriented towards the front, along the direction X. The slug 56 is assembled with play in the direction X on a second bracket 58 integral with the turbojet 2, and more precisely on the upper portion of the peripheral annular part 18 of the fan casing 12. In other words, the mechanical linkage formed between the slug 56 and the second bracket 58 is of the “monoball” type, namely that it enables, on its own, the take up of stresses brought to bear along the directions Y and Z, whereas play in the direction X is allowed. Consequently, the slug 56 may if necessary slide in a very limited manner in the direction X in relation to a hole (not represented) through which it crosses and which is formed in a head 60 of the second bracket 58, oriented in a plane YZ and which may be double. The association of the monoball linkage with play along the direction X and the two ball joints oriented along the direction Z thereby leads the first forward mount 6a to take up uniquely the stresses brought to bear along the direction Y of the turbojet 2. Obviously, various modifications may be those skilled in the art to the engine assembly 1 for aircraft as has just been described, uniquely by way of example and in nowise limitative. In this respect, it should be pointed out in particular that although the engine assembly 1 has been presented in a configuration suitable for it to be suspended under the wing of the aircraft, said assembly 1 could also be in a different configuration allowing it to be assembled above said same wing. Furthermore, it is naturally conceivable to adopt any other configuration for the mounts 6a, 6b, 8, again providing that the two forward mounts 6a, 6b are each designed in such a way as to assure at least the taking up of stresses brought to bear along a direction Y of the turboshaft engine 2. By way of illustration, the second forward mount 6b may be designed in such a way as to assure the taking up of stresses brought to bear along the three directions X, Y and Z, implying that the rear mount 8 would then be designed in such a way as to assure uniquely the taking up of stresses brought to bear along the direction Y and along the direction Z of the turbojet, but not those brought to bear along the direction X.	B	B64	B64D	33	00
11861642	US20080082681A1-20080403	Programmable logic control device with integrated database driver	ACCEPTED	20080318	20080403		[]	G06F15173	["G06F15173"]	8205005	20070926	20120619	709	232000	66195.0	HUSSAIN	FARRUKH	[{"inventor_name_last": "Leseberg", "inventor_name_first": "Gerd", "inventor_city": "Bad Pyrmont", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Pollmann", "inventor_name_first": "Werner", "inventor_city": "Hoexter", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}]	The invention relates, in particular, to an automation system (10; 110), in which a programmable logic control device (20; 120) can be connected via a network (100; 200) to a database system (60; 160). So that the programmable logic control device (20; 120) can exchange data directly with the database system (60; 160), the programmable logic control device (20; 120) has a first driver module (42; 132) associated with a physical interface (50; 150) for controlling data transmission via the network (10; 110) and also a second driver module (41; 132) for controlling the data exchange with the database device (60; 160).	1. Data transmission system (10; 110) with at least one memory-programmable control device (20; 120) and at least one database device (60; 160) that are connected to each other via a network (100; 200), wherein the memory-programmable control device (20; 120) has the following features: a first driver module (42; 133) associated with a physical interface (50; 150) for controlling data transmission via the network (100; 200) and a second driver module (41; 132) for controlling the data exchange with the database device (60; 160). 2. Data transmission system according to claim 1, characterized in that the second driver module (132) is implemented in the application level (130) of the memory-programmable control device (120). 3. Data transmission system according to claim 2, characterized in that the second driver module (132) contains a database communications protocol that is written in a language according to the IEC 61131 standard. 4. Data transmission system according to claim 3, characterized in that the first driver module (133) is implemented in the user level (130) or is part of the operating system or the firmware of the memory-programmable control device (120). 5. Data transmission system according to claim 4, characterized in that the first driver module (133) contains a communications protocol that is written in a language of the IEC 61131 standard. 6. Data transmission system according to claim 2, characterized in that the database device (160) contains a standard database driver (181) for communications with the second driver module (132) of the memory-programmable control device (120). 7. Data transmission system according to claim 1, characterized in that the second driver module (41) is part of the operating system or the firmware (40) of the memory-programmable control device (20). 8. Data transmission system memory system according to claim 1, characterized in that the second driver module (41; 132) can execute commands and functions of a conventional communications protocol for database systems. 9. Database transmission system according to claim 1, characterized in that the network (100; 200) is a TCP/IP based network. 10. Memory-programmable control device (20; 120) comprising: a first driver module (42; 133) associated with a physical interface (50; 150) for controlling data transmission via a network (100; 200); and a second driver module (41; 132) for controlling the data exchange with an external database device (60; 160). 11. Memory-programmable control device (20; 120) according to claim 10, characterized in that the second driver module (132) is implemented in the application level (130) of the memory-programmable control device (120). 12. Memory-programmable control device (20; 120) according to claim 11, characterized in that the second driver module (132) contains a database communications protocol that is written in a language according to the IEC 61131 standard. 13. Memory-programmable control device (20; 120) according to claim 12, characterized in that the first driver module (133) is implemented in the user level (130) or is part of the operating system or the firmware of the memory-programmable control device (120). 14. Memory-programmable control device (20; 120) according to claim 13, characterized in that the first driver module (133) contains a communications protocol that is written in a language of the IEC 61131 standard. 15. Memory-programmable control device (20; 120) according to claim 10, characterized in that the second driver module (41) is part of the operating system or the firmware (40) of the memory-programmable control device (20).			The invention relates to a data transmission system with at least one programmable logic control device and at least one database device, which are connected to a network, for example, Ethernet. The invention further relates to a programmable logic control device, which is constructed preferably for use in such a data transmission system. In general, it is known to store large amounts of data, which occur, for example, in businesses, in database systems. In this way, the data generated, for example, by a personal computer, can be written into the database and also read out again by the personal computer. The data in the database is managed by data management software, which can include, among other things, a database language, for example, SQL (Structured Query Language). The data management software and thus also the database language are implemented in a database driver and allow, among other things, personal computers to store data in the database and to request data from the database. Large amounts of data also occur in the control, monitoring, and configuration of automation systems. The control and monitoring tasks are here performed, for example, by programmable logic controller (PLC), which provide corresponding input and output interfaces to which sensors or actuators can be connected. A disadvantage of the programmable logic controller that are used is to be seen in that the data to be managed must be stored in an internal data memory. Consequently, the invention is based on the task of making available a data transmission system, especially an automation system, in which all of the accumulating data, and also the data delivered by a programmable logic controller, can be stored in a separate database. A core idea of the invention is to be seen in that a programmable logic controller is equipped with an additional driver module that allows direct communications with a database device, so that the PLC can transfer data to the database device and can read it out again from the database device. The technical problem named above is solved, for one, by the features of claim 1. Accordingly, a data transmission system is provided that has at least one programmable logic control device and at least one database device, which are connected to each other via a network. The programmable logic control device has a first driver module associated with a physical interface for controlling data transmission via the network and also a second driver module for controlling the data exchange with the database device. Consequently, the programmable logic control device advantageously no longer requires an internal data memory of a large capacity in order to store all of the essential data, for example, control parameters, sensor data, and the like. Advantageous improvements are the subject matter of the subordinate claims. Advantageously, the second driver module, also called database driver below, is implemented in the application level of the programmable logic control device. To be able to keep the programming expense low and to be able to keep programmable logic control devices open for a plurality of database systems, the second driver module includes a database communications protocol which is written in a language according to the IEC 61131 standard typical for programmable logic control devices. Advantageously, all of the necessary functions and protocols for exchanging data with the database device are written in one of the IEC 61131 languages. If the second driver module is created in the application level, advantageously there is the possibility that the first driver module, also called hardware driver for short below, can be created in the application level, advantageously in a language of the IEC 611131 standard. In this case, the programmable logic control device can access the database device independent of its firmware or operating system. Alternatively, the hardware driver could also be created in the operating system of the programmable logic control device in a high-level language. As a rule, the database devices connected to the network use a standardized database driver as part of the operating system. To allow an open data exchange between the programmable logic control device and the database device, the second driver module of the programmable logic control device is constructed such that it can execute commands and functions of a conventional communications protocol for database systems. Alternatively, the second driver module of the programmable logic control device can be part of the operating system or the firmware of the programmable logic control device. In this case, the second driver module involves a manufacturer-dependent, that is, a proprietary, database driver. In this case, data exchange with the database device is only possible when the corresponding proprietary database driver is also implemented in the database device. Thanks to the measure of implementing an IEC 61131-based database driver in a programmable logic control device, it is possible to integrate essentially each programmable logic control device based on the IEC 61131 standard into a network in order to exchange data with a database device. The operating system or the firmware of the programmable logic control device must then still contain only a rudimentary hardware driver, which is necessary for setting up a physical connection between the programmable logic control device and the database device via the network. If, for example, Ethernet is used as the network, the hardware driver must support only an Ethernet connection between the programmable logic control device and the database server. In this way, it is sufficient for the first driver module of the programmable logic control device to contain only one Ethernet chipset. The necessary TCP/IP protocol driver can then be realized in the IEC 61131 application level or in the operating system/firmware environment of the programmable logic control device. The technical problem named above is also solved by the features of claim 10. Accordingly, a programmable logic control device is provided that has a first driver module associated with a physical interface for controlling data transmission via a network and also a second driver module for controlling the data exchange with an external database device. Advantageous refinements are described in the subordinate claims. The invention is described in more detail below with reference to two embodiments in connection with the enclosed drawings. Shown are: FIG. 1, an example data transmission system with a PLC and a database system, which can exchange data via a corresponding database driver, and FIG. 2, an alternative embodiment of a data transmission system, in which a PLC can exchange data with a database device. FIG. 1 shows schematically a section from an example automation system 10, in which a programmable logic control device 20, called PLC for short below, can exchange data directly with a database system 60 via a network. The network is shown schematically in the present example by a connection line 100, which can be, for example, an Ethernet connection. Conventionally, the programmable logic control device 20 has an application level 30, in which application software, for example for controlling, monitoring, and configuring the automation system 10, is stored. In the application level 30, a function block 31 is additionally shown which can start and terminate function calls for reading data from a database and/or for writing data into a database. It should be noted that the software in the application level 30 is preferably written in a language of the IEC 61131 standard. Furthermore, in a known way the PLC 20 contains an operating system and/or firmware level 40. So that the PLC 20 can transmit data to the database system 60 and can request data from this system, a proprietary database driver 41, which converts the function calls from the function block 31 into corresponding database control commands, is implemented in the operating system or the firmware level 40 of the PLC 20. With the help of the proprietary database driver 41, the PLC 20 is in the position to exchange data with the database system 60 via the network 100. In particular, the PLC 20 can request data from the database system 60 by means of the proprietary database driver 41. Furthermore, implemented in the operating system or firmware level 40 is a hardware driver that feeds the commands coming from the proprietary database driver 41 to a physical interface 50. The database control commands are then transmitted from the physical connection 100 via the network 100 to a corresponding physical interface 90 of the database system 60. In a known way, the database system 60 contains an operating system that has a hardware driver 82 and a proprietary database driver 81, which can exchange data with the proprietary database driver 41 of the PLC 20. In addition, the database system 60 contains a data memory, that is, the actual database 70. An alternative embodiment of a data transmission system 110 is shown in FIG. 2. A network is shown schematically, in turn, by a connection 200, which connects a programmable logic control device 120, called PLC for short, and a database system 160 to each other. An essential difference from the programmable logic control device 20 shown in FIG. 1 consists in that the PLC 120 contains a database driver 132 in the application level 130 of the PLC 120 instead of a proprietary database driver arranged in the firmware or in the operating system of PLC 20. Implemented in the database driver 132 is a communications protocol, for communications with the database system 160, that is written in a language of the IEC 61131 standard. Both the application software of the PLC 120 and also the function call module 131 are written in a language of the IEC 61131 standard. The function call module 131 comprises control software, with whose help application programs of the PLC 120 can be transmitted to the database system 160 and can be read from the database system 160 or a database 170 implemented in the database system. Because the database driver 132 has been written independent of the firmware or the operating system of the PLC 120, the PLC 120 can communicate with usual standard database drivers. Consequently, such a standard database driver 181 is implemented in the database system 160 in the operating system level 180. If the database driver 132 is written in an IEC 61131 language, it is also possible to write a hardware driver 133 in an IEC 61131 language and to implement it in the application level 130 of the PLC 120. Alternatively, the hardware driver 133 can also be a component of the firmware or the operating system of the PLC 120. This variant is not shown. Similarly to the system 10 shown in FIG. 1, both the PLC 120 and also the database system 160 have a physical interface 150 or 190, by means of which the data can be transmitted via the network 200. Similarly to the database system 60, the database system 160 also has a hardware driver 182 in the operating system level in addition to the standard database driver 181. Furthermore, the PLC 120 has at least one input interface 152, to which a sensor (not shown) can be connected. Furthermore, at least one output interface 154 is provided, to which an actuator (also not shown) can be connected. If the network is Ethernet, the hardware driver of the PLC and the database system contain the required TCP-IP protocol driver, which converts the data to be transmitted to the Ethernet format in a known way. As an example, the function of the database transmission system 110 is explained below in connection with FIG. 2. First, it shall be assumed that a temperature sensor, which regularly transmits temperature data to the PLC 120, is connected to the input interface 152 of the PLC 120. To be able to store the temperature data received at the PLC 120 in the database 170, a control program running in the PLC 120 accesses the function call module 131 in order to signal to the database driver 132 that data is now to be transmitted to the database system 160. The corresponding database write instruction is transmitted from the database driver 132 to the hardware driver 133, which converts the database write instruction into a data format that can be transmitted via the physical interface 150 and the Ethernet 200 to the physical interface 190 of the database system 160. From there, the database write instruction is forwarded via the hardware driver 182 to the standard database driver 181. Now it is signaled to the database system 160 that temperature data, which is to be stored in the database 170, is arriving from the PLC 120. The temperature data is transmitted from the PLC 120 either together with the database write instruction or writing at a later time to the database system 160 and written into the database 170. Under the control of a data management program, which is implemented in the standard database driver 181, the received temperature data is stored at corresponding locations in the database 170. Thanks to the database driver 132, an application program running in the PLC 120 can also read data from the database 170. For this purpose, the application program accesses the function call module 131 in order to prompt the PLC 120 to transmit a database read instruction via the database driver 132, the hardware driver 133, and the physical interface 150 to the physical interface 190 of the database system 160, and from there via the hardware driver 182 to the standard database driver 181 of the database system 160. The database read instruction contains information on the data that the application software of the PLC 120 would like to request. Then the corresponding data is read out from the database 170 under the control of the standard database driver 181 and transmitted to the PLC 120.	G	G06	G06F	151	73
11819230	US20080013739A1-20080117	Method of and device for updating group key	ACCEPTED	20080103	20080117		[]	H04L908	["H04L908", "H04L928"]	8401182	20070626	20130319	380	286000	67743.0	LANIER	BENJAMIN	[{"inventor_name_last": "Kim", "inventor_name_first": "Dae Youb", "inventor_city": "Seoul", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Huh", "inventor_name_first": "Mi Suk", "inventor_city": "Suwon-si", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Jung", "inventor_name_first": "Tae-Chul", "inventor_city": "Seongnam-si", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Kim", "inventor_name_first": "Hwan Joon", "inventor_city": "Seoul", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}]	A method and device for updating a group key are disclosed. The group key updating method comprises determining a start node for a key update on a binary tree, updating a node key of the start node for a key update, updating a node key of a parent node of a node corresponding to the updated node key using the updated node key, and repeatedly performing the updating of the node key of the parent node, and then updating a node key corresponding to a root node of the binary tree. With the disclosed method and device, it is possible to efficiently perform a group key update process.	1. A method of updating a group key, comprising: determining a start node for a key update on a binary tree; updating a node key of the start node for a key update; updating a node key of a parent node of a node corresponding to the updated node key using the updated node key; and repeatedly performing the updating of the node key of the parent node, and then updating a node key corresponding to a root node of the binary tree. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising: when the parent node has a group member corresponding to a descendent node besides the node corresponding to the updated node key, encrypting a node key of the parent node in an identical method as the descendent node and transmitting the encrypted node key of the parent node to the group member. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the encrypting a node key of the parent node comprises encrypting the node key of the parent node with a node key of the descendent node. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein updating a node key of the parent node comprises setting an output of a one-way function for the updated node key as the node key of the parent node. 5. The method of claim 4, wherein the one-way function includes the update node key and the updated information which are inputted. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the determining a start node for a key update comprises: when a new member joins the group, determining a node corresponding to the new member as the start node for a key update; and when an existing member leaves the group, determining, as the start node for a key update, a lowermost ancestor node having a descendent node corresponding to a group member except the existing member among ancestor nodes of a node corresponding to the existing member. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the node corresponding to the new member is one of nodes generated by splitting any one of a leaf node whose node ID is minimum and a leaf node whose node ID is maximum among leaf nodes of the binary tree when the binary tree is a complete binary tree. 8. The method of claim 6, wherein the node corresponding to the new member is one of nodes generated by splitting any one of a leaf node whose node ID is minimum and a leaf node whose depth is maximum among leaf nodes whose depth is the smallest when the binary tree is an incomplete binary tree. 9. The method of claim 6, wherein updating a node key of the start node for a key update comprises: when the new member joins the group, setting a member key of the new member as the node key of the start node for a key update; and when the existing member leaves the group, setting, as the node key of the start node for a key update, a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to the existing member, of the ancestor node having the descendent node. 10. The method of claim 6, wherein updating a node key of the start node for a key update comprises: when the new member joins the group, setting a member key of the new member as the node key of the start node for a key update; and when the existing member leaves the group, updating the node key of the start node for a key update using a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to the existing member, of the ancestor node having the descendent node. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein updating a node key of the start node for a key update comprises when the existing member leaves the group, setting, as the node key of the start node for a key update, an output of a one-way function for a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to the existing member of the ancestor node having the descendent node. 12. A computer-readable recording medium having a program stored therein for executing a method of updating a group key, comprising: determining a start node for a key update on a binary tree; updating a node key of the start node for a key update; updating a node key of a parent node of a node corresponding to the updated node key using the updated node key; and repeatedly performing the updating of the node key of the parent node and then updating a node key corresponding to a root node of the binary tree. 13. A device for updating a group key, comprising: a start node-determining section for determining a start node for a key update on a binary tree; a start node-updating section for updating a node key of the start node for a key update; a tree-updating section for updating a node key of a parent node of a node corresponding to the updated node key using the updated node key; and a key update controller for controlling the tree-updating section to sequentially perform a key update process for the binary tree so as to update a node key corresponding to a root node of the binary tree. 14. The device of claim 13, wherein the tree-updating section sets an output of a one-way function for the updated node key as the node key of the parent node. 15. The device of claim 14, wherein the one-way function includes the update node key and the updated information which are inputted. 16. The device of claim 13, wherein the start node-determining section determines a node corresponding to a new member as the start node for a key update when the new member joins the group, and determines, as the start node for a key update, a lowermost ancestor node having a descendent node corresponding to a group member except an existing member among ancestor nodes of a node corresponding to the existing member when the existing member leaves the group. 17. The device of claim 16, wherein the node corresponding to the new member is one of nodes generated by splitting any one of a leaf node whose node ID is minimum and a leaf node whose node ID is maximum among leaf nodes of the binary tree when the binary tree is a complete binary tree. 18. The device of claim 16, wherein the node corresponding to the new member is one of nodes generated by splitting any one of a leaf node whose node ID is minimum and a leaf node whose depth is maximum among leaf nodes whose depth is the smallest when the binary tree is an incomplete binary tree. 19. The device of claim 16, wherein the start node-updating section sets a member key of a new member as the node key of the start node for a key update when the new member joins the group, and sets, as the node key of the start node for a key update, a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to an existing member, of the ancestor node having the descendent node when the existing member leaves the group. 20. The device of claim 16, wherein the start node-updating section sets a member key of the new member as the node key of the start node for a key update when the new member joins the group, and updates the node key of the start node for a key update using a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to the existing member, of the ancestor node having the descendent node when the existing member leaves the group. 21. The device of claim 20, wherein the start node-updating section sets, as the node key of the start node for a key update, an output of a one-way function for a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to the existing member, of the ancestor node having the descendent node when the existing member leaves the group.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a group key-updating method and device, in which keys of members within a group are updated. More particularly, the present invention relates to a method and device for updating a group key in which when a new member joins a group or an existing member leaves the group, the keys of members in the group can be effectively updated. 2. Description of the Related Art Traditionally, contents provided to members in a group are encrypted in a server so as not to allow users, except the group members, to utilize the contents. Thus, all the members in the group have an encryption key for decrypting the encrypted contents provided by the server. Updating of the encryption key of the group members is a very crucial issue. For instance, in the case a new member is joining a group, it is required that the new member have access to only contents after a point in time when the new member join the group. Therefore, when a new member joins the group, a key of existing group members is updated and the new member can share the updated new key with the existing group members. In addition, in the case an existing member is leaving the group, it is required that the leaving member be refused further access to contents. Thus, a method is needed to update a key used by the group members prior to a point in time when the leaving member has left the group. When updating a group key is desired, the update can be performed in the following two exemplary implementations. In the first exemplary implementation, a server calculates the updated key to transmit it to an associated member. The server must calculate a key for all the members requiring the updating of the group key and transmit the calculated key, which can result in an increase in the server's load. In the second exemplary implementation, a member requiring the updating of the group key calculates the key by themselves and performs a necessary key-updating process. A server then calculates the updated key for only a member who cannot perform a self-update process and transmits the calculated key to the associated member, which results in a relative decrease in the server's load. However, it is difficult for a member requiring the updating of the key to efficiently perform the self-update process. Accordingly, there is a need for an improved method and device for updating a group key, which can efficiently perform a self-update process.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Exemplary embodiments of the present invention address at least the above problems and/or disadvantages and provide at least the advantages described below. Accordingly, an aspect of exemplary embodiments of the present invention is to provide an improved method and device for updating a group key which can efficiently perform a self-update process. Exemplary embodiments of the present invention provide an efficient method and device for transmitting the necessary keys to members who cannot perform a self-update process. Specifically, an object of exemplary embodiments of the present invention is to effectively select nodes requiring a self-update process and efficiently perform the updating of a key for the selected nodes. Accordingly, an aspect of exemplary embodiments of the present invention is to provide a method of updating a group key, including determining a start node for a key update on a binary tree, updating a node key of the start node for a key update, updating a node key of a parent node of a node corresponding to the updated node key using the updated node key, and updating a node key corresponding to a root not of the binary tree by repeatedly performing the updating of the node key of the parent node. In an exemplary embodiment, the group key updating method further includes encrypting a node key of the parent node in an identical method as the descendent node and transmitting the encrypted node key of the parent node to the group member when the parent node has a group member corresponding to a descendent node besides the node corresponding to the updated node key. In an exemplary embodiment, encrypting a node key of the parent node includes encrypting the node key of the parent node with a node key of the descendent node. In an exemplary embodiment, updating a node key of the parent node includes setting an output of a one-way function for the updated node key as the node key of the parent node. In an exemplary embodiment, the start node for a key update includes determining a node corresponding to the new member as the start node for a key update when a new member joins the group, and when an existing member leaves the group, determining a start node for a key update where a lowermost ancestor node having a descendent node corresponds to a group member, except the leaving member, among ancestor nodes of a node corresponding to the leaving member. In an exemplary embodiment, updating a node key of the start node for a key update includes setting a member key of the new member as the node key of the start node for a key update when a new member joins the group, and when the existing member leaves the group, updating the node key of the start node for a key update using a node key of a descendent node, except the node corresponding to the leaving member, of the ancestor node having the descendent node. In this case, when the existing member leaves the group, a node key of a descendent node, except the node corresponding to the existing member, of the ancestor node having the descendent node may be set as the node key of the start node for a key update, and an output of a one-way function for a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to the leaving member of the ancestor node having the descendent node may be set as the node key of the start node for a key update. According to another aspect of exemplary embodiments, there is provided a device for updating a group key including a start node-determining section for determining a start node for a key update on a binary tree, a start node-updating section for updating a node key of the start node for a key update, a tree-updating section for updating a node key of a parent node of a node corresponding to the updated node key using the updated node key, and a key update controller for controlling the tree-updating section to sequentially perform a key update process for the binary tree so as to update a node key corresponding to a root node of the binary tree. Other objects, advantages and salient features of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description, which, taken in conjunction with the annexed drawings, discloses exemplary embodiments of the invention.	CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. §119(a) of Korean Patent Application No. 10-2006-0059792, filed on Jun. 29, 2006 in the Korean Intellectual Property Office, the entire disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a group key-updating method and device, in which keys of members within a group are updated. More particularly, the present invention relates to a method and device for updating a group key in which when a new member joins a group or an existing member leaves the group, the keys of members in the group can be effectively updated. 2. Description of the Related Art Traditionally, contents provided to members in a group are encrypted in a server so as not to allow users, except the group members, to utilize the contents. Thus, all the members in the group have an encryption key for decrypting the encrypted contents provided by the server. Updating of the encryption key of the group members is a very crucial issue. For instance, in the case a new member is joining a group, it is required that the new member have access to only contents after a point in time when the new member join the group. Therefore, when a new member joins the group, a key of existing group members is updated and the new member can share the updated new key with the existing group members. In addition, in the case an existing member is leaving the group, it is required that the leaving member be refused further access to contents. Thus, a method is needed to update a key used by the group members prior to a point in time when the leaving member has left the group. When updating a group key is desired, the update can be performed in the following two exemplary implementations. In the first exemplary implementation, a server calculates the updated key to transmit it to an associated member. The server must calculate a key for all the members requiring the updating of the group key and transmit the calculated key, which can result in an increase in the server's load. In the second exemplary implementation, a member requiring the updating of the group key calculates the key by themselves and performs a necessary key-updating process. A server then calculates the updated key for only a member who cannot perform a self-update process and transmits the calculated key to the associated member, which results in a relative decrease in the server's load. However, it is difficult for a member requiring the updating of the key to efficiently perform the self-update process. Accordingly, there is a need for an improved method and device for updating a group key, which can efficiently perform a self-update process. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Exemplary embodiments of the present invention address at least the above problems and/or disadvantages and provide at least the advantages described below. Accordingly, an aspect of exemplary embodiments of the present invention is to provide an improved method and device for updating a group key which can efficiently perform a self-update process. Exemplary embodiments of the present invention provide an efficient method and device for transmitting the necessary keys to members who cannot perform a self-update process. Specifically, an object of exemplary embodiments of the present invention is to effectively select nodes requiring a self-update process and efficiently perform the updating of a key for the selected nodes. Accordingly, an aspect of exemplary embodiments of the present invention is to provide a method of updating a group key, including determining a start node for a key update on a binary tree, updating a node key of the start node for a key update, updating a node key of a parent node of a node corresponding to the updated node key using the updated node key, and updating a node key corresponding to a root not of the binary tree by repeatedly performing the updating of the node key of the parent node. In an exemplary embodiment, the group key updating method further includes encrypting a node key of the parent node in an identical method as the descendent node and transmitting the encrypted node key of the parent node to the group member when the parent node has a group member corresponding to a descendent node besides the node corresponding to the updated node key. In an exemplary embodiment, encrypting a node key of the parent node includes encrypting the node key of the parent node with a node key of the descendent node. In an exemplary embodiment, updating a node key of the parent node includes setting an output of a one-way function for the updated node key as the node key of the parent node. In an exemplary embodiment, the start node for a key update includes determining a node corresponding to the new member as the start node for a key update when a new member joins the group, and when an existing member leaves the group, determining a start node for a key update where a lowermost ancestor node having a descendent node corresponds to a group member, except the leaving member, among ancestor nodes of a node corresponding to the leaving member. In an exemplary embodiment, updating a node key of the start node for a key update includes setting a member key of the new member as the node key of the start node for a key update when a new member joins the group, and when the existing member leaves the group, updating the node key of the start node for a key update using a node key of a descendent node, except the node corresponding to the leaving member, of the ancestor node having the descendent node. In this case, when the existing member leaves the group, a node key of a descendent node, except the node corresponding to the existing member, of the ancestor node having the descendent node may be set as the node key of the start node for a key update, and an output of a one-way function for a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to the leaving member of the ancestor node having the descendent node may be set as the node key of the start node for a key update. According to another aspect of exemplary embodiments, there is provided a device for updating a group key including a start node-determining section for determining a start node for a key update on a binary tree, a start node-updating section for updating a node key of the start node for a key update, a tree-updating section for updating a node key of a parent node of a node corresponding to the updated node key using the updated node key, and a key update controller for controlling the tree-updating section to sequentially perform a key update process for the binary tree so as to update a node key corresponding to a root node of the binary tree. Other objects, advantages and salient features of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description, which, taken in conjunction with the annexed drawings, discloses exemplary embodiments of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and other exemplary features and advantages of certain exemplary embodiments of the present invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description of certain exemplary embodiments thereof when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to one example of a group according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to the case where a new member joins the group shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to another example of a group according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to the case where an existing member leaves the group shown in FIG. 3; FIG. 5 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to another example of a group according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to the case where an existing member leaves the group shown in FIG. 5; FIG. 7 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to a result of the case where an existing member leaves the group shown in FIG. 5; FIG. 8 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a group corresponding to one example of a fixed binary tree structure; FIG. 9 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a group corresponding to another example of a fixed binary tree structure; FIG. 10 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating another group corresponding to another example of a fixed binary tree structure; FIG. 11 is a flowchart illustrating the process of updating a group key according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 12 is a block diagram illustrating the construction of a device for updating a group key according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. Throughout the drawings, like reference numerals will be understood to refer to like elements, features and structures. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS The matters exemplified in this description are provided to assist in a comprehensive understanding of various exemplary embodiments of the present invention discloses with reference to the accompanying figures. Accordingly, those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that various changes and modifications of the exemplary embodiments described herein can be made without departing from the scope and spirit of the claimed invention. Also, descriptions of well-known functions and constructions are omitted for clarity and conciseness. FIG. 1 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to one example of a group according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 1, each group member A, B, C, D, E, F and G corresponds to a leaf node of a binary tree, where members A, B, C, D, E, F and G may correspond to a device or a user. Each leaf node of the binary tree has an inherent encryption key. A root node encrypted key can be transmitted by the server to the other nodes. For example, in FIG. 1, in the binary tree structure, a key corresponding to nodes other than the root node is used for the purpose of updating the key. In one exemplary embodiment of the present invention, the key corresponding to the nodes, other than the root node, is used to update a key of a parent node of a corresponding node. In another aspect of an exemplary embodiment, a key of a leaf node can be set as a member key of a corresponding member where each group member stores node keys of all the nodes on a path running from a corresponding leaf node to the root node. For example, a member, A, stores node keys of nodes 8, 4, 2 and 1, respectively, and member F stores node keys of nodes 13, 6, 3 and 1, respectively. FIG. 2 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to the case where a new member joins the group shown in FIG. 1. In FIG. 2, a path denoted by a solid line represents a self-update path and a path denoted by a dotted line represents an update path transmitted by a server. For example, in FIG. 2, when new member H joins the group, node 7 is split to generate node 14 and node 15. In this case, a node corresponding to member G is changed from node 7 to node 14 and node 15 corresponds to the new member H. In the case of the node split when a new member joins, it can be determined to be a node having a minimum or maximum node ID in a complete binary tree and can be determined to be a node having a minimum or maximum node ID among selected nodes with a leaf node whose depth is smallest in a incomplete binary tree. For example, in FIG. 3, when new member H joins the group, a node 15 corresponding to new member H is determined to be a start node for a key update. A node key of the start node for a key update is set as a member key of member H. The member key may be shared by the server and member H before the start of the key update. When the node key of node 15 is determined, the node key of node 7 is updated using the node key of node 15. Also, the node key of node 7 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 15. For example, when the node key of the node 15 is K15, an update value, nK7, of node key K7 of node 7 can be set to f(K15). In this case, f( ) is a one-way function. Additionally, in order to prevent the same key from being generated every time the node key is updated, an input value of the function f includes a node key value as well as update information (e.g. updated date, the frequency of updates and so on). For clarity, f(K) is equivalent to f(K, update information), herein. And so, when the node key of node 7 is updated, a node key of a node 3 is also updated using the updated node key of node 7. In this case, the node key of node 3 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 7. For example, when the node key of node 7 is K7, an update value, nK3, of node key K3 of node 3 can be set to f(K7). Also, when the node key of node 3 is updated, the node key of node 1 is also updated using the updated node key of node 3. In this case, the node key of node 1 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 3. When the node key of the node 3 is K3, an update value, nK1, of the node key K1 of node 1 can be set to f(K3). It can be seen from an example of the binary tree structure shown in FIG. 2 that a self-update process is performed repeatedly along a path running from node 15 via nodes 7 and 3 to node 1. Also, as seen in FIG. 2, since member G, that corresponds to node 14, does not know the updated node key of node 7, a server encrypts the updated node key of node 7 and transmits the encrypted node key of node 7 to the member G and the updated node key of node 7 is encrypted with a node key of node 14. Member G receives the encrypted key of node 7 from the server and can sequentially calculate the received node key of node 3 and the node key of node 1 using the one-way function for the node key of node 7. Accordingly, as seen in FIG. 2, since members E and F, that correspond to descendent nodes of a node 6, do not know the updated node key of node 3, the server can encrypt the updated node key of node 3 and transmit the encrypted node key of node 3 to the members E and F and the updated node key of node 3 is encrypted with a node key of node 6. The members E and F receive the encrypted key of node 3 from the server and can sequentially calculate the node key of node 1 using the one-way function for the node key of node 3. Further, since members A, B, C and D corresponding to descendent nodes of node 2 do not know the updated node key of the node 1, the server can encrypt the updated node key of node 1 and transmit the encrypted node key of the node 1 to the members A, B, C and D and the updated node key of node 1 is encrypted with a node key of node 2. The members A, B, C and D corresponding to descendent nodes of the node 2 cannot identify the node keys of the nodes 3, 6, 7, 12, 13, 14 and 15 using the encrypted node key of the node 1 in terms of the characteristic of the one-way function. FIG. 3 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to another example of a group according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention where member M leaves the group which causes a self-update path running from node 14 via nodes 7 and 3 to node 1 to be set. Specifically, node 14 is set as a start node for a key update and a node key update process is performed while following parent nodes along a path running from node 14 to the root node 1. FIG. 4 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to the case where an existing member leaves the group shown in FIG. 3. Specifically, FIG. 4 shows where an existing member M (as shown in FIG. 3) leaves the group, nodes 28 and 29 are cancelled and a node 14 becomes the node corresponding to a member N. In this case, node 14 is a start node for a key update and is set as a member key of member N. The key update process performed on a self-update path running from node 14 via nodes 7 and 3 to root node 1 is applied similarly to the self-update process described above with reference to FIGS. 1 and 2. That is, the node key of node 7 is updated using the node key of node 14. Also, the node key of node 7 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 14. For example, when the node key of the node 14 is K14, an update value nK7 of node key K7 of node 7 can be set as f(K14), where f( ) is a one-way function. Additionally, when the node key of node 7 is updated, a node key of node 3 is updated using the updated node key of node 7. The node key of node 3 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 7. For example, when a node key of the node 7 is K7, an update value nK3 of node key K3 of node 3 can be set as f(K7). Also, when the node key of node 3 is updated, a node key of node 1 is updated using the updated node key of the node 3. The node key of node 1 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 3. For example, when the node key of node 3 is K3, an update value nK1 of the node key K1 of node 1 can be set as f(K3). Since members O and P corresponding to node 15 do not know the updated node key of the node 7, a server can encrypt the updated node key of the node 7 and transmit the encrypted node key of node 7 to the members O and P. The updated node key of node 7 is encrypted with a node key of the node 15. The members O and P receives the encrypted key of the node 7 from the server and can sequentially calculate the received node key of node 3 and the node key of node 1 using the one-way function for the node key of node 7. Additionally, since members I, J, K, and L, that correspond to descendent nodes of node 6, do not know the updated node key of node 3, the server can encrypt the updated node key of node 3 and transmit the encrypted node key of node 3 to members I, J, K, and L. Accordingly, the updated node key of node 3 is encrypted with a node key of the node 6. Members I, J, K, and L receive the encrypted key of the node 3 from the server and can calculate the node key of the node 1 using the one-way function for the node key of the node 3. Further, since members A to H, that correspond to descendent nodes of node 2, do not know the updated node key of node 1, the server can encrypt the updated node key of node 1 and transmit the encrypted node key of node 1 to members A to H. In this case, the updated node key of node 1 is encrypted with a node key of node 2. Thus, when the number of group members is N, a data transfer size is no more than log2N−1 and a data storage size is no more than log2N through the use of a group key-updating method according to exemplary embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to another example of a group according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention where an existing member, I, leaves the group which causes a self-update path running from a node 3 to a node 1 to be set. Specifically, node 3 is set as a start node for a key update and a node key update process is performed while following parent nodes along a path running from node 3 to a root node. FIG. 6 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating modification of a binary tree structure corresponding to the case where an existing member leaves the group shown in FIG. 5. Specifically, FIG. 6 shows where an existing member I (as shown in FIG. 5) leaves the group and node 3 (which is a parent node of a node 6 corresponding to the member I) is replaced with node 7. That is, descendent node 7 replaces it's parent node 3, where, prior to the replacement, node 3 was the parent of node 6 corresponding to the leaving member I. FIG. 7 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to a result of the case where an existing member leaves the group shown in FIG. 5. For example, referring to FIGS. 5, 6 and 7, when nodes 3 and 6 and corresponding member I are removed from the binary tree shown in FIGS. 5 and 6, then node 7 is changed to node 3, node 14 is changed into node 6, node 15 is changed into node 7, node 28 is changed into node 12, node 29 is changed into node 13, node 30 is changed into node 14 and node 31 is changed into node 15, respectively, as shown in FIG. 7. In this case, the node key of the node 3 is replaced with the node key of node 7 prior to modification of the node, node key of node 6 is replaced with the node key of node 14 prior to modification of the node, node key of node 7 is replaced with the node key of node 15 prior to modification of the node, node key of node 12 is replaced with the node key of the node 28 prior to modification of the node, node key of node 13 is replaced with the node key of node 2 prior to modification of the node, node key of node 14 is replaced with the node key of node 30 prior to modification of the node and node key of the node 15 is replaced with the node key of node 31 prior to modification of the node. When the node key of node 3 (a start node) for a key update is replaced with the node key of the node 7, node key of node 1 is updated using a node key, nK3, of the updated node 3. That is, an output of a one-way function for the node key of the updated node 3 is updated into a node key of node 1. In this case, the members A to H corresponding to descendent nodes of node 2 receive the node key of the updated node 1 from the server. In this case, the node key of the updated node 1 is encrypted with a node key of node 2 for transmission to node 2. Referring to FIG. 7, as described above, in a binary tree structure corresponding to a group, the size of the binary tree may vary depending on the number of members, but the depth may be fixed irrespective of the number of members. That is, the binary tree corresponding to the group is a complete binary tree whose depth is fixed and leaf nodes of the complete binary tree can be divided into a subscribed node having corresponding members and unsubscribed nodes not having corresponding members. In this case, if it is assumed that the entire number of the members is N, the server constitutes a binary tree having a depth of log2N and each member must initially store a log2N number of node keys. FIG. 8 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a group corresponding to one example of such a fixed binary tree structure. For example, as shown in FIG. 8, nodes 8, 9, 10, and 11 are subscribed nodes corresponding to members A, B, C and D, respectively. Nodes 12, 13, 14 and 15 are unsubscribed nodes. In this case, a new member E joins the group in the state of the unsubscribed node and is assigned to a node 15. Upon new member E joining the group, node 15 is no longer unsubscribed. Node 15 is set as a start node for a key update and the node key of node 15 is set as a member key of the member E. When the node key of node 15 is determined, a node key of node 7 is updated using the node key of node 15. In this case, the node key of node 7 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 15. For example, when the node key of node 15 is K15, an update value nK7 of node key K7 of node 7 can be set as f(K15). Additionally, when the node key of node 7 is updated, a node key of node 3 is updated using the updated node key of node 7. In this case, the node key of node 3 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 7. For example, when the node key of node 7 is K7, an update value, nK3, of node key K3 of node 3 can be set to f(nK7). Also, when the node key of node 3 is updated, a node key of node 1 is updated using the updated node key of node 3. In this case, the node key of node 1 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 3. For example, when the node key of node 3 is K3, an update value, nK1, of the node key K1 of the node 1 can be set to f(nK3). Thus, it can be seen from an example of a binary tree structure shown in FIG. 8 that a self-update process is performed along a path running from node 15 via the nodes 7 and 3 to root node 1. Additionally, since a member corresponding to node 14 does not exist, the server may not encrypt the updated node key of the node 7 for transmission to the member. Since members A, B, C and D, that correspond to descendent nodes of a node 2, do not know the updated node key of node 1, the server can encrypt the updated node key of node 1 and transmit the encrypted node key of node 1 to members A, B, C and D. In this case, the updated node key of node 1 is encrypted with a node key of node 2. FIG. 9 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a group corresponding to another example of a fixed binary tree structure. Referring to FIG. 9, when an existing member M leaves the group, node 14 is set as a start node for a key update and a self-update path, running from node 14 via nodes 7 and 3 to a root node 1, is formed. Node 29 remains as a node corresponding to a member N, as is. When member M leaves the group, a node 28 becomes an unsubscribed node and node 14 as the start node for a key update is updated using a node key of node 29. A node key of node 14 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 29. A node key of node 7 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the updated node key of node 14, a node key of node 3 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the updated node key of node 7, and a node key of root node 1 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the updated node key of the node 3. An unsubscribed node is a node that does not have a corresponding member. A subscribed node is a node that has a corresponding member. Until this point, since members O and P, both corresponding to node 15 do not know the updated node key of node 7, a server can encrypt the updated node key of node 7 and transmit the encrypted node key of node 7 to members O and P. In this case, the updated node key of node 7 is encrypted with a node key of node 15. Members O and P receives the encrypted key of node 7 from the server and can sequentially calculate the node key of node 3 and the node key of node 1 using the received node key of node 7. Also, since members I, J, K, and L, that correspond to descendent nodes of node 6, do not know the updated node key of node 3, the server can encrypt the updated node key of node 3 and transmit the encrypted node key of node 3 to members I, J, K, and L. The updated node key of node 3 is encrypted with a node key of node 6. Members I, J, K, and L receive the encrypted key of the node 3 from the server and can calculate the node key of node 1 using the received node key of node 3. Additionally, since members A through H, that correspond to descendent nodes of node 2, do not know the updated node key of node 1, the server can encrypt the updated node key of node 1 and transmit the encrypted node key of node 1 to members A through H. In this case, the updated node key of node 1 is encrypted with a node key of node 2. FIG. 10 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating another group corresponding to another example of a fixed binary tree structure. Referring to FIG. 10, when member I leaves the group, node 3 is set as the start node for a key update and an update path running from node 3 to node 1 is formed. Node 3 is set as the start node for a key update since it is a node having descendent nodes corresponding to members in the group among ancestor nodes of node 24 corresponding to the member I. When member I leaves the group, node 24 becomes an unsubscribed node, node 3 is set as the start node for a key update and node 3 is updated using a node key of node 7. The node key of node 3 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 7. The node key of a node 1 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the updated node key of node 3. Further, since members A through H, that correspond to descendent nodes of node 2, do not know the updated node key of node 1, the server can encrypt the updated node key of node 1 and transmit the encrypted node key of node 1 to members A to H. The updated node key of node 1 is encrypted with a node key of node 2. The node keys of the nodes on a path running from node 24 to node 6 are managed while being updated by the server. Thereafter, when a corresponding node becomes a subscribed node, the server can transmit the node key of the subscribed node to a new member corresponding to the subscribed node. FIG. 11 is a flowchart illustrating the process of updating a group key according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 11, at step S110, a start node for a key update is determined on a binary tree. Specifically, in step S110, when a new member joins the group, a node corresponding to the new member can be determined as the start node for a key update. Also, in step S110, when an existing member leaves the group, it is possible to determine, as the start node for a key update, a lowermost ancestor node having a descendent node corresponding to a group member except the existing member among ancestor nodes of a node corresponding to the existing member. In the case of a new member, the node corresponding to the new member can be one of nodes generated by splitting any one of a leaf node whose node ID is minimum and a leaf node whose node ID is maximum among leaf nodes of the binary tree if the binary tree is a complete binary tree. Additionally, the node corresponding to the new member can be one of the nodes generated by splitting any one of a leaf node whose node ID is minimum and a leaf node whose depth is maximum among leaf nodes whose depth is the smallest if the binary tree is an incomplete binary tree. In the group key-updating method according to one exemplary embodiment of the present invention, at subsequent step S120, a node key of the start node for a key update is updated. In step S120, when a new member joins the group, a member key of the new member can be set as the node key of the start node for a key update and when an existing member leaves the group, it is possible to set, as the node key of the start node for a key update, a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to the existing member of the ancestor node having the descendent node. When the new member joins the group, a member key of the new member is set as the node key of the start node for a key update and when the existing member leaves the group, the node key of the start node for a key update can be updated using a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to the existing member of the ancestor node having the descendent node. In this case, if the existing member leaves the group, it is possible to set, as the node key of the start node for a key update, an output of a one-way function for a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to the existing member of the ancestor node having the descendent node. In step S130, a node key of a parent node of a node corresponding to the updated node key is updated using the updated node key and an output of a one-way function for the updated node key can be set as the node key of the parent node. In step S140, the updating of the node key of the parent node is repeatedly performed until a node key corresponding to the root node is updated. Although not shown in FIG. 11, the group key-updating method may further comprise a step of, when the parent node has a group member corresponding to a descendent node besides the node corresponding to the updated node key, encrypting a node key of the parent node in an identical method as the descendent node and transmitting the encrypted node key of the parent node to the group member. In this case, the step of encrypting the node key of the parent node may comprise encrypting the node key of the parent node with a node key of the descendent node. Additionally, the group key-updating method according to the above-described exemplary embodiment of the present invention may be recorded in computer-readable media including program instructions to implement various operations embodied by a computer. The media may also include, alone or in combination with the program instructions, data files, data structures, and the like. Examples of computer-readable media include magnetic media such as hard disks, floppy disks, and magnetic tape, optical media such as CD ROM disks and DVD, magneto-optical media such as optical disks, and hardware devices that are specially configured to store and perform program instructions, such as read-only memory (ROM), random access memory (RAM), flash memory, and the like. The media may also be a transmission medium such as optical or metallic lines, wave guides, and the like. including a carrier wave transmitting signals specifying the program instructions, data structures, and the like. Examples of program instructions include both machine code, such as produced by a compiler, and files containing higher level code that may be executed by the computer using an interpreter. The described hardware devices may be configured to act as one or more software modules in order to perform the operations of the above-described embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 12 is a block diagram illustrating the construction of a device for updating a group key according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 12, the group key-updating device according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention includes a start node-determining section 210, a start node-updating section 220, a tree-updating section 230 and a key update controller 240. The start node-determining section 210 determines a start node for a key update on a binary tree. The start node-updating section 220 updates a node key of the start node for a key update. The tree-updating section 230 updates a node key of a parent node of a node corresponding to the updated node key using the updated node key. The key update controller 240 controls the tree-updating section 230 to sequentially perform a key update process for the binary tree so as to update a node key corresponding to the root node of the binary tree. The contents not described in the construction of the device shown in FIG. 12 have been previously described with reference to FIGS. 1 through 11, and hence will be omitted below. The group key-updating method and device of exemplary embodiments of the present invention enables a self-update process to be efficiently performed. Additionally, it is possible to efficiently provide a necessary key to members who cannot perform a self-update process. Moreover, it is possible to effectively select nodes requiring a self-update process and efficiently perform the updating of a key for the selected nodes. While the present invention has been described with reference to the particular illustrative exemplary embodiments, it is not to be restricted by the exemplary embodiments but only by the appended claims and their equivalent. It is to be appreciated that those skilled in the art can change or modify the exemplary embodiments without departing from the scope and spirit of the present invention.	H	H04	H04L	9	08
11576432	US20070243124A1-20071018	Polymer-Free Carbon Nanotube Assemblies (Fibers, Ropes, Ribbons, Films)	ACCEPTED	20071003	20071018		[]	C01B3102	["C01B3102"]	7938996	20070330	20110510	264	108000	64174.0	HENDRICKSON	STUART	[{"inventor_name_last": "Baughman", "inventor_name_first": "Ray", "inventor_city": "Dallas", "inventor_state": "TX", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Kozlov", "inventor_name_first": "Mikhail", "inventor_city": "Dallas", "inventor_state": "TX", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Ebron", "inventor_name_first": "Von", "inventor_city": "Dallas", "inventor_state": "TX", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Capps", "inventor_name_first": "Ryan", "inventor_city": "Dallas", "inventor_state": "TX", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Ferraris", "inventor_name_first": "John", "inventor_city": "Coppell", "inventor_state": "TX", "inventor_country": "US"}]	Process, apparatus, compositions and application modes are provided that relate to nanofiber spinning without the use of superacids in the spinning solution. The methods employ either acids or bases for a flocculation solution. The advances disclosed therein enable the use of nanofibers, including carbon nanotubes, for a variety of applications including, but not limited to, electromechanical actuators, supercapacitors, electronic textiles, and in devices for electrical energy harvesting.	1. A process comprising the steps of: a) dispersing nanofibers in a dispersion liquid that has a proton-donating ability that is below that of 100% sulfuric acid to form a dispersion of nanofibers: b) providing a flocculation liquid, the liquid having a pH selected from the group consisting of acidic pH and basic pH, wherein the acidic pH is less than 3 and the basic pH is greater than 11. c) injecting the dispersion of nanofibers into the flocculation liquid such that flocculation occurs to yield a primary nanofiber assembly; and d) substantially removing the flocculation liquid from the primary nanofiber assembly to yield a secondary nanofiber assembly that is substantially free of the flocculation liquid, wherein said secondary nanofiber assembly has a form selected from the group consisting of a fiber, a rope, a sheet, a ribbon, a film, and combinations thereof. 2-4. (canceled) 5. The process of claim 1, wherein the pH of the dispersion liquid is between 3 and 11. 6. The process of claim 1, wherein the pH of the dispersion liquid is between 6 and 8. 7-29. (canceled) 30. The process of claim 1, wherein the step of dispersing involves using a dispersal aid that functions as a surfactant. 31. The process of claim 30, wherein the dispersal aid is selected from the group consisting of sodium dodecylsulfate, lithium dodecylsulfate, octylphenol ethoxylate, sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate, sodium dodecylsulfonate, sodium n-lauroylsarcosinate, a sodium alkyl allyl sulfosuccinate, the sodium salt of poly(styrene sulfonate), charged collidal particles, and combinations thereof. 32. The process of claim 1, wherein the step of dispersing involves ultrasonic assistance. 33. (canceled) 34. The process of claim 1, wherein said nanofibers comprise material selected from the group consisting of imogolite and similar aluminosilicate nanofibers; allophane nanofibers; SiC nanofibers; borne nitride nanofibers; carbon nanofibers; MgB2 nanofibers; carbon doped MgB2 nanofibers; Bi nanofibers, nanofibers of binary group III-V elements; Si nanofibers; ZnO nanofibers; silica nanofibers In2O3 nanofibers; V2O5 nanofibers; nanofibers of GaN, CdS, CdSe, ZnS and other (II-VI) materials; nanofibers of transition metal dichalcogenides that can be describes as MX2, wherein M═Mo, W, Nb, Ta, Ti, Zr, Hf, Re and wherein X═S, Se; selenium nanofibers; nanofibers that are compounds of Mo, S, I; derivatized nanofibers of any of the aforementioned types; and thereof. 35. The process of claim 1, wherein said nanofibers comprise species selected from the group consisting of singles walled nanotubes, double walled nanotubes, other types of multiwalled nanotubes other than double walled nanotubes, scrolled nanotubes, coiled nanofibers, functionalized nanofibers, crimped nanofibers, and combinations thereof. 36. The process of claim 35, wherein said nanotubes and other nanofibers comprise predominantly carbon by weight. 37. The process of claim 36, wherein the nanofiber comprises predominantly, by weight, material selected from the group consisting of singles walled carbon nanotubes, types of multiwalled nanotubes other than double walled nanotubes, and combinations thereof. 38. The process of claim 37, wherein at least some of the carbon nanotubes are formed functionalized carbon nanotubes. 39. The process of claim 1,additionally comprising a step of infiltrating said primary nanofiber assembly with a polymer to form an infiltrated polymer prior to producing a secondary nanofiber assembly that is substantially free of a liquid, wherein said secondary nanofiber assembly is a fiber, and wherein this fiber is mechanically drawn to at least 50% of the breaking strain, so as to thereby increase the orientation of nanofibers in the fiber. 40. The process of claim 39, wherein said fiber comprises predominantly, by weight, carbon nanotubes and impurities introduced during carbon nanotube synthesis. 41. The process of claim 39, wherein a polymer in the fiber is extracted after the mechanical draw via a technique selected from the group consisting of a liquid means, pyrolysis, and combinations thereof. 42. The process of claim 1, wherein the step of substantially removing the flocculation liquid is conducted while the primary nanofiber assembly is under mechanical tension, the tension having a maximum value during the liquid removal process that is at least 10% of the initial breaking stress of the primary nanofiber assembly. 43. The process of claim 1, wherein the flocculation agent comprises an acid selected from the group consisting of HCl, HBr, HI, HClO4 , HBF4, H2SO4, HNO3, H3PO4, oxalic acid, formic acid, acetic acid, benzoic acid, and combinations thereof. 44. The process of claim 1, wherein the flocculating agent comprises a base selected from the group consisting of NaOH, KOH, LiOH, NH4OH, and combinations thereof. 45-74. (canceled) 75. The process of claim 1 further comprising a step of thermally annealing the secondary fiber at at temperature of less than 300° C. 76. The process of claim 75, wherein said secondary fiber is comprised of carbon nanotubes, and wherein said thermal annealing involves a maximum temperature of less than 1500° C. 77. The process of claim 75, wherein said annealing is in a reactive atmosphere and wherein reaction induced by this atmosphere results in a treatment of the secondary fiber, the treatment selected from the group consisting of coating, infiltrating, and combinations thereof. 78. The process of claim 77, wherein said annealing is carried out in an environment selected from the group consisting of a vacuum, a substantially inert atmosphere, and combinations thereof. 79-114. (canceled) 115. The process of claim 1, wherein the flocculation liquid has a pH selected from the group consisting of acidic pH and basic pH, wherein the acidic pH is less than 2 and the basic pH is greater than 12. 116. The process of claim 115, wherein the flocculation liquid has a pH selected from the group consisting of acidic pH and basic pH, wherein the acidic pH is less than 1 and the basic pH is greater than 13. 117. (canceled)	<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Commercial synthesis methods produce nanofibers of either single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) or multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) as a soot-like material. The strength and elastic modulus of individual carbon nanotubes in this soot are known to be exceptionally high, ˜37 GPa and ˜0.64 TPa, respectively, for SWNTs of about 1.4 nm diameter SWNTs [R. H. Baughman, A. A. Zakhidov, and W. A. de Heer, Science 297, 787-792 (2002)]. Relevant for applications needing light structural materials, the density-normalized modulus and strength of individual SWNTs are even more impressive, i.e., higher than steel wire by factors of ˜19 and ˜54, respectively. A critical problem hindering applications of these and other nanofibers is the need for methods for assembling these fibers having nanoscale dimensions into long fibers and fiber-derived shaped articles, of macroscale dimensions, that effectively utilize the properties of the nanofibers. Since such nanofibers can impart functionalities other than mechanical properties, methods are needed for enhancing the mechanical properties of filaments made of the nanofibers without compromising these other functionalities. Important examples of these other functionalities, together with the mechanical functionality that make the fibers multifunctional, are electrochromism, electrical and thermal conductivity, electromechanical actuation, and electrical energy storage. A carbon single-wall (single-walled) nanotube (SWNT) consists of a single layer of graphite that has been wound up on itself into a seamless tube having a nanoscale diameter. A carbon multi-wall nanotube (MWNT), on the other hand, comprises two or more such cylindrical graphite layers that are coaxially nested one within the other in a manner analogous to Russian nesting dolls. Both single-wall and multi-wall nanotubes have been obtained using various synthetic routes that typically involve the use of metallic catalysts and very high processing temperatures. Typical synthesis routes are those employing a carbon arc, laser evaporation of carbon targets, and chemical vapor deposition (CVD). SWNTs are produced by the carbon-arc discharge technique using a pure carbon cathode and a carbon anode containing a mixture of graphite powder and catalytic metal(s), like Fe, Ni, Co and Cu [D. S. Bethune et al. Nature 363, 605-7 (1993) and S. Iijima and T. Ichihashi, Nature 363, 603-5 (1993)]. C. Journal et al. [ Nature 388, 756-758 (1997)] have described an improved carbon-arc method for the synthesis of SWNTs that uses Ni/Y (4.2/1 atom %) as the catalyst. Co-vaporization of carbon and the metal catalyst in the arc generator was shown to produce a web-like deposit of SWNTs that is intimately mixed with fullerene-containing soot. Smalley and co-workers [A. Thess et al., Science 273, 483-487(1996)] developed a pulsed laser vaporization technique for the synthesis of SWNT bundles from carbon targets containing 1 to 2% (w/w) Ni/Co. The dual laser synthesis, purification and processing of carbon single-wall nanotubes has been described in the following references: J. Liu et al., Science 280, 1253 (1998); A. G. Rinzler et al., Applied Physics A 67, 29 (1998); A. G. Rinzler et al., Science 269, 1550 (1995); and H. Dai et al., Nature 384, 147 (1996). A CVD method described by Cheng et al. [ Appl. Phys. Lett. 72, 3282 (1998)] involves the pyrolysis of a mixture of benzene with 1 to 5 % thiophene or methane, using ferrocene as a floating catalyst and 10% hydrogen in argon as the carrier gas. The nanotubes form in the reaction zone of a cylindrical furnace held at 1100-1200° C. Depending on the thiophene concentration, the carbon nanotubes form as either multi-wall nanotubes or bundles of single-wall nanotubes. Another useful method for growing carbon single-wall nanotubes uses methane as the precursor, ferric nitrate contained on an alumina catalyst bed, and a reaction temperature of 1000° C. [L. C. Qin et al, Applied Physics Letters, 72, 3437 (1998)]. Another CVD synthesis process was described by R. E. Smalley et al. in PCT Patent Application Publication Nos. WO 2000026138 and WO 2000017102, and by P. Nikolaev et al. in Chem. Phys. Lett. 313, 91-97 (1999). This process, known as the HiPco process, utilizes high pressure (typically 10-100 atm) carbon monoxide gas as the carbon source, and nanometer sized metal particles (formed in situ within the gas stream from metal carbonyl precursors) to catalyze the growth of single-wall carbon nanotubes. Suitable catalyst precursors are iron carbonyl (Fe(CO) 5 ) and mixtures of iron carbonyl and nickel carbonyl (Ni(CO) 4 ). The HiPco process produces a SWNT product that is essentially free of carbonaceous impurities, which are a major component of the laser-evaporation and carbon-arc products. Furthermore, the process enables control over the range of nanotube diameters produced, by controlling the nucleation and size of the metal cluster catalyst particles. In this way, it is possible to produce unusually small nanotube diameters (e.g., about 0.6 to 0.9 nm). The nanotube-containing products of the laser-evaporation and carbon-arc processes invariably contain a variety of carbonaceous impurities, including various fullerenes and less-ordered forms of carbon soot. The carbonaceous impurity content in the raw products of the laser and carbon arc processes typically exceeds 50 weight %. Purification of these products generally relies on a selective dissolution of the catalyst metals and highly ordered carbon clusters (called fullerenes), followed by a selective oxidation of the less ordered carbonaceous impurities. A typical purification process is described by Liu et al. [ Science 280, 1253 (1998)]. This method involves refluxing the crude product in 2.6 M nitric acid for 45 hours, suspending the nanotubes in pH 10 NaOH aqueous solution using a surfactant (e.g., TRITON X-100 from Aldrich, Milwaukee, Wis.), followed by filtration using a cross-flow filtration system While the effects of these purification processes on the nanotubes themselves are not completely understood, the carbon nanotubes are typically shortened by oxidation. As discussed by B. I. Yakobson and R. E. Smalley [ American Scientist 85, 325, (1997)], SWNT and MWNT materials are promising for a wide variety of potential applications because of the exceptional physical and chemical properties exhibited by the individual nanotubes or nanotube bundles. Some SWNT properties of particular relevance include metallic and semiconducting electrical conductivity (such conductivity being dependent upon the specific molecular structure), an extensional elastic modulus of 0.6 TPa or higher, tensile strengths of about 37 GPa and possibly higher, and surface areas that can exceed 300 m 2 /g [R. H. Baughman, A. A. Zakhidov, and W. A. de Heer, Science 297, 787-792 (2002)]. The proposed applications of carbon nanotubes include mechanical applications, such as in high-strength composites, electrical applications, and multifunctional applications in which different physical properties of the carbon nanotubes are simultaneously utilized. Tennent et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 6,031,711) describe the application of sheets of carbon nanotubes as high performance supercapacitors. In this latter application, a voltage difference is applied to two high-surface-area carbon nanotube electrodes that are immersed in a solid or liquid electrolyte. Current flows, thereby injecting charge in the nanotubes, by creating an electrostatic double-layer near the nanotube surfaces. The application of carbon nanotube sheets as electromechanical actuators has been recently described [R. H. Baughman et al., Science 284, 1340 (1999) and R. H. Baughman, C. Cui, J. Su, Z. Iqbal, and A. A. Zakhidov, U.S. Pat. No. 6,555,945]. These actuators utilize dimensional changes that result from the double-layer electrochemical charge injection into high-surface-area carbon nanotube electrodes. If carbon nanotubes can be assembled into high modulus and high strength assemblies (such as filaments, ribbons, or sheets) that maintain their ability to electrochemically store charge, then superior actuator performance should be obtainable. The problem has been that no methods are presently available for the manufacture of nanotube articles that have these needed characteristics. Those applications described above, as well as other promising applications, require assembling the individual nanotubes into macroscopic arrays that effectively use the attractive properties of the individual nanotubes. Failure to effectively achieve this has created an obstacle that has thus far hindered applications development. A primary problem is that MWNTs and SWNTs are insoluble in ordinary aqueous solvents and do not form melts even at very high temperatures. Nanotube sheets (called “nanotube paper” or “bucky paper”) comprising mostly nanotubes can be obtained by filtering a SWNT dispersion through a filter membrane, peeling the resulting sheet from the filter after washing and drying steps, and thermally annealing the sheet at high temperatures to remove impurities that convert to gases [A. G. Rinzler et al., Appl. Phys. A 67, 29 (1998) and Liu et al. in Science 280, 1253 (1998)]. This preparative method utilizes the fact that under certain conditions, and with the aid of surfactants and ultrasonic dispersion, bundles of SWNTs can be made to form a stable colloidal suspension in an aqueous medium. The obtained carbon nanotube sheets, which can range in conveniently obtainable thickness from 10-100 microns, possess mechanical strength derived from the micro-scale entanglement of the nanotube bundles. These nanotube sheets preserve the large accessible surface area of the nanotube bundles, but typically exhibit elastic modulus values (typically a few GPa) that are a very small fraction of the intrinsic elastic modulus of either the individual SWNTs or the SWNT bundles. Glatkowski et al., in U.S. Pat. No. 6,265,466, teach a method for preparing an electromagnetic shielding composite having nanotubes, wherein the nanotubes are oriented when a shearing force is applied to the composite. The method includes a step of providing a polymer with an amount of nanotubes, and imparting a shearing force to the molten polymer containing carbon nanotubes to orient the nanotubes. Glatkowski et al. generically teach that the nanotube concentration can be as high as 15 wt %, but that it is preferable that the concentration is 0.1 to 1.5 wt %. These materials do not have properties that would render them useful in actual mechanical or electrochemical applications, since they are made with such a low loading of the carbon nanotubes. Yashi et al. [Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, “Science and Technology of Fullerene Materials,” 359, pg. 81-6, 1995] have attempted to overcome these problems by using a method for forming fiber of aligned carbon nanotubes by extruding a mixture of carbon nanotubes and polypropylene through a small die having a diameter of 2 mm that is maintained at about 200° C., so that the polypropylene is in molten state. As in the case with Glatkowski above, these materials do not have properties that would render them useful in actual mechanical or electrochemical applications, since they are made with such a low loading of the carbon nanotubes and the polypropylene remains in the final product. Use of high nanotube concentrations results in very high viscosities for the nanotube mixture with molten polymer, which essentially prohibits extrusion. A. Lobovsky, J. Matrunich, R. H. Baughman, I. Palley, G. A. West, and I. Golecki have described (U.S. Pat. No. 6,764,628) a melt spinning process that attempts to avoid the usual limitations caused by low concentrations of carbon nanotubes in melt spun fibers. This process involved melt compounding 30 weight percent of very large diameter multi-walled carbon nanotubes (150-200 nm in diameter and 50-100 microns in length) in a polypropylene matrix. This nanotube/polymer mixture was successfully spun as the sheath of a sheath/core polymer comprising polypropylene as the core. Despite the high viscosity of the nanotube/polymer mixture in the sheath and the brittleness of the solidified composition, the presence of the polymer core permitted this sheath-core spinning and the subsequent partial alignment of nanotubes in the sheath. Pyrolysis of the polypropylene left a nanotube fiber that is hollow (outer diameter=0.015 inches, inner diameter=0.0084 inches). To increase the strength of the hollow nanotube fiber, it was coated with carbon using a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process. Even after this CVD coating process, however, the hollow nanotube fiber had low strength and low modulus and was quite brittle. Although advances have been made in spinning polymer solutions in which carbon nanotubes are dispersed, the solution viscosity become too high for conventional solution spinning when the nanotube content rises above about 10%. Nevertheless, impressive mechanical properties have been obtained for solution spinning SWNTs in a polymer to provide a polymer nanotube composite, which in large part express the high mechanical properties of the polymer matrix for the nanotubes [T. V. Sreekumar, T. Liu, B. Min, G. Byung, H. Guo, S. Kumar, R. H. Hauge, R. E. Smalley, Advanced Materials, 16, 58-61 (2004) and S. Kumar, T. D. Dang, F. E. Arnold, A. R. Bhattacharyya, B. G. Min, X. Zhang, R. A. Vaia, C. Park, W. W. Adams, R. H. Hauge, R. E. Smalley, S. Ramesh, P. A. Willis, Macromolecules 35, 9039-9043, (2002)]. One problem with such approaches, however, is that the nanotubes are not present in sufficient quantities to effectively dominate such properties as mechanical modulus, mechanical strength, and thermal and electrical conductivity. Methods are known for dry spinning multi-walled carbon nanotubes as yarns from MWNT forests [K. Jiang, Q. Li, S. Fan, Nature 419, 801 (2002)]. However, the fibers so obtained are so weak that they cannot be used for structural applications. In fact, such fibers are so weak that they cannot be processed into continuous lengths. In another process [V. A. Davis et al, United States Patent Application Publication No. 2003170166 and L. M. Ericson et al., Science 305, 1447-1450, (2004)], single-walled carbon nanotubes were first dispersed in 100% sulfuric acid, or in another super acid, and then wet-spun into a coagulation bath comprising diethyl ether, water, or 5 wt % sulfuric acid. This method is referred as the super-acid coagulation spinning method (SACS), since the spinning solution used is a mixture of carbon nanotubes and a super acid. The resulting fibers have compromised properties, in part due to a partial degradation of the SWNTs and super acid intercalation, caused by prolonged contact with the super acid in the spinning solution. This creates a serious obstacle for practical applications. In order to partially reverse property degradation caused by prolonged exposure to super acid spinning solutions, and to thereby enhance electrical conductivity, it was necessary to anneal the as-spun fibers at high temperatures (typically 850° C. and higher), which would increase the cost of fiber production. Also, the use of 100% sulfuric acid or super acid in the spinning solution causes other problems that are not present for processes that do not use strongly acidic spinning solutions. These include the need to blanket the spinning solution with an inert atmosphere and the use of spinnerets, spinning solution containment means, and pumping means for applying pressure during spinning that are not corroded by the super acid in the spinning solution. Polymer gel-based processes have been shown to enable the spinning of continuous fibers of SWNT/poly(vinyl alcohol) composites [B. Vigolo et al., Science 290, 1331 (2000); R. H. Baughman, Science 290, 1310 (2000); B. Vigolo et al., Applied Physics Letters 81, 1210-1212 (2002); A. Lobovsky, J. Matrunich, M. Kozlov, R. C. Morris, and R. H. Baughman, U.S. Pat. No. 6,682,677; and A. B. Dalton et al. Nature 423, 703 (2003)]. According to such processes, the carbon nanotubes are first dispersed in an aqueous or non-aqueous solvent with the aid of a surfactant. A jet of this nanotube dispersion is then injected into a viscous polymer solution that causes partial aggregation and alignment of the dispersed nanotube bundles to form a gel fiber, which is a dilute mixture of carbon nanotubes in an aqueous gel of the coagulation polymer. This gel fiber is weak; however, it has sufficient strength for slow manipulation leading to subsequent conversion of the gel fiber to a solid polymer fiber. In some processes, the wet gel fiber is washed in water or other liquid in order to remove some of the polymer binder, and the washed filament is subsequently withdrawn (drawn) from the wash bath and dried. During the draw-dry process, during which evaporation of the liquid occurs from the gel, capillary forces collapse the gel fiber into a solid fiber. This total process will henceforth be referred to as the polymer coagulation spinning (PCS) process. In a typical PCS process, as described by Bernier and co-workers [Vigolo et al., Science 290, 1331 (2000)], the nanotubes are dispersed in water with the aid of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) surfactant. The viscous carrier liquid is an aqueous solution of poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) in which the PVA serves to neutralize the effect of the SDS surfactant by directly replacing these molecules on the carbon nanotube surfaces during spinning. Bernier and co-workers describe preferred concentrations for the various ingredients, and viscosity ranges and flow velocities of the spinning solutions. Polarized light microscopy of the coagulated nanotube fibers confirms preferential alignment of the carbon nanotube along the fiber axis. Further evidence of carbon nanotube alignment is provided by the measured extensional elastic modulus, which is approximately 10-40 GPa for the final PCS fibers, as compared to typically 1 GPa for bucky paper. Present problems with this process are that the nanotube fibers are inherently self-assembled in combination with PVA, and this PVA interferes with the electrical and thermal contacts between carbon nanotubes. Using existing technology, this polymer can only be completely removed from the gel fiber by thermal annealing that causes pyrolysis of the polymer. This removal of polymer by thermal pyrolysis degrades the mechanical properties of the nanotube fibers by decreasing strength and modulus and making them rather brittle. Unfortunately, because of the presence of residual PVA, electrical and thermal conductivity of the fiber is smaller than that of nanofiber sheets. PVA, a typical insulating polymer, exhibits poor electrical and thermal conductivity as compared with carbon nanotubes. As a result, the conductivity of such composite fibers decreases with increasing PVA content; it also becomes substantially dependent on post-spinning washing, which does not remove all of the polymer. Other disadvantages of PVA-based fibers are poor thermal stability caused by decomposition of the polymer at 100-150° C., sensitivity to moisture, and reduced resistance to solvents. Also, the fibers made by the PCS process are not useful in applications as electrodes immersed in liquid electrolytes because of a surprising shape-memory effect. This shape-memory effect causes the PCS fibers to dramatically swell (by 100% or more) and lose most of their dry-state modulus and strength. Because of this structural instability of fibers made by the PCS process, they are unusable for critically important applications that use liquid electrolytes, such as in supercapacitors and in electromechanical actuators. In contrast, as-produced carbon nanotube sheets made from the same nanotubes can be used for both capacitor and actuator devices that use liquid electrolytes. Thus, the prior art spinning processes are unsatisfactory for providing high loadings of underivatized polymer-free nanotubes in macroscopic nanotube fibers, which most desirably have continuous lengths. This absence of a suitable technology for spinning polymer-free nanotube fibers has been a barrier to application of carbon nanotubes and other nanotube fibers for such applications as mechanical elements, elements having high thermal conductivity, and as components in devices that provide electromechanical actuation, mechanical energy harvesting, mechanical dampening, thermal energy harvesting, and energy storage. Although the individual nanotube fibers have very attractive performance attributes, the prior art has not demonstrated processes whereby the properties of these individual nanotubes can be effectively used in macrofibers comprising the nanofibers. Additionally, no prior art technology has provided a method for spinning hollow carbon nanotube fibers, and such carbon nanotube fibers can be usefully employed for such applications as filtration, materials absorption, and materials transport. Methods that overcome the above-described deficiencies would be most desirable.	<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Some embodiments of the present invention are directed to assemblies comprising nanofibers, wherein such assemblies can be in the form of fibers, ribbons, ropes, films, and other shaped articles, such articles typically having desirable electrical, mechanical, optical, and/or electrochemical properties. In some or other embodiments, the present invention is directed to methods/processes of making such assemblies, and to apparatus for implementing such methods and processes. In still other embodiments, the present invention is directed to articles and/or applications comprising and/or using such assemblies of nanofibers. There is considerable flexibility in the type of nanofibers used in embodiments of the present invention, and in the form that the assembly takes. Carbon nanotubes and nanoscrolls are exemplary nanofibers, but other types and combinations of nanofibers can be utilized instead of, or in addition to, carbon-based nanofibers. Likewise, fibers are an exemplary form of assembly, but assemblies of the present invention are not limited to such fibers. Judicious selection in the type and/or combination of nanofibers permits the assemblies described herein to be fabricated with the wide range of properties outlined above. In some embodiments, the present invention is directed to methods for making such assemblies, the methods generally comprising the steps of (a) dispersing nanofibers in a dispersion liquid that has a proton-donating ability below that of 100% sulfuric acid to form a dispersion of nanofibers, wherein said dispersion does not include intentionally added polymer; (b) providing a flocculation liquid, the liquid having a pH selected from the group consisting of acidic pH and basic pH, wherein the acidic pH is less than 3 and the basic pH is greater than 11; (c) injecting the dispersion of nanofibers into the flocculation liquid such that flocculation occurs to yield a primary nanofiber assembly; and (d) (optionally) substantially removing the flocculation liquid from the primary nanofiber assembly to yield a secondary nanofiber assembly that is substantially free of a liquid, wherein said secondary nanofiber assembly has a form selected from the group consisting of a fiber, a rope, a sheet, a ribbon, a film, and combinations thereof. For the purposes of this invention, aqueous and alcohol-based solutions are considered to possess proton-donating ability. In some embodiments, the nanofibers have a number-average diameter that is typically less than 1000 nm, more typically less than 100 nm, even more typically less than 10 nm, and most typically less than approximately 2 nm. By number-average diameter we mean the average outer diameter of a nanofiber weighted according to the frequency of occurrence of this diameter. In some embodiments, a majority weight fraction of the nanofibers have a maximum length-to-thickness ratio, in their thinnest lateral direction, of at least approximately 1000. In some embodiments, said nanofibers comprise material selected from the group consisting of imogolite and similar aluminosilicate nanofibers; allophane nanofibers; SiC nanofibers; boron nitride nanofibers; carbon nanofibers; MgB 2 nanofibers; carbon doped MgB 2 nanofibers; Bi nanofibers, nanofibers of binary group III-V elements; Si nanofibers; ZnO nanofibers; silica nanofibers; In 2 O 3 nanofibers; V 2 0 5 nanofibers; nanofibers of GaN, CdS, CdSe, ZnS and other (II-VI) materials; nanofibers of transition metal dichalcogenides that can be described as MX 2 , wherein M═Mo, W, Nb, Ta, Ti, Zr, Hf; Re and wherein X═S, Se; selenium nanofibers; nanofibers that are compounds of Mo, S, and I; derivatized nanofibers of any of the aforementioned types; and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, said nanofiber comprises single walled nanotubes, double walled nanotubes, other types of multiwalled nanotubes other than double walled nanotubes, scrolled nanotubes, coiled nanofibers, functionalized nanofibers, crimped nanofibers, and combinations thereof. In some such embodiments, said nanotubes and other nanofibers comprise predominantly carbon by weight. In some such embodiments, the nanofiber comprises predominantly, by weight, material selected from the group consisting of single walled carbon nanotubes, types of multiwalled nanotubes other than double walled nanotubes, and combinations thereof. In some such embodiments, at least some of the carbon nanotubes are functionalized carbon nanotubes. In some embodiments, the dispersion liquid comprises water as its majority component by weight. In some embodiments, the step of dispersing involves using a dispersal aid that functions as a surfactant. In some such embodiments, the dispersal aid is selected from the group consisting of sodium dodecylsulfate, lithium dodecylsulfate, octylphenol ethoxylate, sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate, sodium dodecylsulfonate, sodium n-lauroylsarcosinate, a sodium alkyl allyl sulfosuccinate, the sodium salt of poly(styrene sulfonate), charged colloidal particles, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the step of dispersing involves ultrasonic assistance. In some embodiments, there is an additional step of removing undesired particle components from the dispersion via a process selected from the group consisting of centrifugation, filtration, and combinations thereof. In some of the above-described embodiments, the pH of the dispersion liquid is typically between 3 and 11, and more typically between 6 and 8. In some embodiments, the step of removing the flocculation liquid involves a technique such as, but not limited to, filtration, evaporation, washing, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, this step of removing the flocculation liquid can be viewed as removing liquid from the primary nanofiber assembly to produce the secondary nanofiber assembly. In some embodiments, the processes of causing substantial displacement of the flocculation liquid is done with a secondary liquid followed by the substantial removal of said secondary liquid to provide a secondary nanofiber assembly that is substantially free of a liquid. In some embodiments, the secondary liquid has a pH between 3 and 11. In some embodiments, the secondary liquid is more volatile at the temperature used for substantial removal of said secondary liquid than is the flocculation liquid. In some embodiments, the secondary liquid comprises an alcohol. In some embodiments, removal of the flocculation and/or secondary liquid is conducted by exposing the primary nanofiber assembly to an environmental temperature between 100° C. and 1200° C., wherein the primary nanofiber assembly initially comprises a liquid selected from the group consisting of the flocculation liquid, a liquid that displaces this flocculation liquid, and combinations thereof. In some such embodiments, the environmental temperature is between 100° C. and 500° C. In some embodiments, conversion of the primary nanofiber structure to the secondary nanofiber structure involves a heating means, wherein this heating means is provided by a technique such as, but not limited to, resistive heating of the nanofibers by conducting current along the nanofiber assembly; absorption by the primary nanofiber assembly of radiation selected from the group consisting of visible, ultraviolet, infrared, radio frequency, and microwave frequency radiation; and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, removing liquid from the primary nanofiber assembly to produce the secondary nanofiber assembly is conducted by exposing the primary nanofiber assembly to an environmental temperature between room temperature and 100° C., wherein the primary nanofiber assembly initially comprises a liquid selected from the group consisting of the flocculation liquid, a liquid that displaces this flocculation liquid, and combinations thereof. In some such embodiments, said exposure is carried out in an environment selected from the group consisting of an inert gas atmosphere, a vacuum, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the flocculation agent comprises an acid selected from the group consisting of HCl, HBr, HI, HClO 4 , HBF 4 , H 2 SO 4 , HNO 3 , H 3 PO 4 , oxalic acid, formic acid, acetic acid, benzoic acid, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the flocculating agent is a base selected from the group consisting of NaOH, KOH, LiOH, NH 4 OH, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, any of the nanofiber dispersion, the flocculation solution, any liquid that displaces the flocculation solution in the primary nanofiber assembly, contains colloidal particles in addition to the nanofibers present in the nanofiber dispersion, and wherein these colloidal particles are at least partially acquired and retained in the secondary nanofiber assembly. In some such embodiments, at least a fraction of these colloidal particles are those that provide useful catalytic activity. In some such embodiments, said useful catalytic activity is useful for providing catalytic activity for a fuel cell electrode. In some embodiments, the flocculation liquid comprises a viscosity that is less than that for the dispersion of nanofibers, when both viscosities are measured under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. In some embodiments, the flocculation liquid comprises a viscosity that is less than that for the dispersion of nanofibers when measured at temperature and pressure conditions used for flocculation of the dispersion of nanofibers by contact between the dispersion of nanotubes and the flocculation liquid. In some embodiments, any liquid component in the flocculation liquid comprises a viscosity that is less than the viscosity of the dispersion of nanotubes when both viscosities are measured under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. In some embodiments, any liquid component in the flocculation liquid comprises a viscosity that is less than that of the dispersion of nanotubes when both viscosities are measured at temperature and pressure conditions used for flocculation of the dispersion of nanofibers by contact between the dispersion of nanotubes and the flocculation liquid. In some embodiments, the flocculation liquid comprises aqueous hydrochloric acid. In some embodiments, the fiber, rope, ribbon, or film (secondary nanofiber assembly) comprises at least 90% by weight nanofibers and associated impurities introduced during nanofiber synthesis. In some or other embodiments, the fiber, rope, ribbon, or film comprises at least 90% by weight carbon nanotubes and associated impurities introduced during nanotube synthesis. In some embodiments, the primary nanofiber assembly comprises a gel. In some embodiments, there is an infiltration of said primary nanofiber assembly with a polymer to form an infiltrated polymer prior to producing a secondary nanofiber assembly that is substantially free of a liquid. In some embodiments, no polymer is added to the nanofibers of nanofiber assemblies during processing. In some embodiments, the secondary nanofiber assembly contains less than 2% by weight polymer. In some such embodiments, a majority fraction of the polymer in the fiber is extracted via a technique selected from the group consisting of a liquid means, pyrolysis, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, wherein said secondary nanofiber assembly is a fiber, and wherein this fiber is mechanically drawn to at least 50% of the breaking strain, so as to thereby increase the orientation of nanofibers in the fiber. In some such embodiments, said fiber comprises predominantly, by weight, carbon nanotubes and impurities introduced during carbon nanotube synthesis. In some embodiments, the step of substantially removing the flocculation liquid is conducted while the primary nanofiber assembly is under mechanical tension, the tension having a maximum value during the liquid removal process that is at least 10% of the initial breaking stress of the primary nanofiber assembly. In some embodiments, the secondary fiber is thermally annealed at a temperature of less than 3000° C. In some such embodiments, said secondary fiber is comprised of carbon nanotubes, and wherein said thermal annealing involves a maximum temperature of less than 1500° C. In some such embodiments, said annealing is in a reactive atmosphere and wherein reaction induced by this atmosphere results in a treatment of the secondary fiber, the treatment selected from the group consisting of coating, infiltrating, and combinations thereof. In some such said annealing is carried out in an environment selected from the group consisting of a vacuum, a substantially inert atmosphere, and combinations thereof. In some such embodiments, the process of thermally annealing both the as-formed and water washed fiber results in an increased electrochemical capacitance for the fiber, and wherein the fiber comprises carbon nanotubes. In some embodiments, lateral pressure is applied to the primary nanofiber assembly during removal of either the flocculation liquid or a liquid that displaces the flocculation liquid. In some such embodiments, said lateral pressure is done by passing primary nanofiber assembly between cylinders that rotate in opposite directions, and wherein the separation of these rollers is substantially less than the initial thickness of the primary nanofiber assembly. In some such embodiments, said primary nanofiber assembly comprises a gel that has a shape selected from the group consisting of a fiber, a ribbon, and combinations thereof. Typically said gel does not include any organic polymer that is not present as an impurity in the as-synthesized nanofibers. In some such embodiments, said primary nanofiber assembly comprises carbon nanotubes. A variety of additives can be added to the assemblies of the present invention to modify their properties. Such additives include, but are not limited to, polymeric material, metal, alloys, and combinations thereof. Such additives can be added during the making of the assemblies, or post-production (vide infra). In some embodiments, significant improvement of mechanical properties of the assembly material can be achieved by introducing (e.g., infusing or infiltrating) various polymer or epoxy binders into the spun nanofiber assemblies (fibers, ropes, sheets, ribbons, or films) during a post-spinning treatment. In one such embodiment, the primary nanofiber assembly is soaked in solutions of various polymers such as poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), polystyrene, polyacrylonitrile, and/or different epoxy precursors at room or elevated temperature. Polymer and/or epoxy precursors thereby infiltrated, such as epoxy resins, are optionally reacted to form the polymer or set epoxy. The binders can penetrate the nanofiber network and can couple the nanofibers into a composite matrix. The composite fiber can optionally be subjected to drawing in a wet and/or dry state, which can further increase nanofiber alignment and mechanical strength. For an epoxy resin, this drawing is typically done before the epoxy is fully cured. Some embodiments of the present invention are directed toward assemblies that are hollow fibers, the hollow fibers comprising nanofibers, the nanofibers generally being selected from the group consisting of single walled carbon nanofibers, multiwalled carbon nanofibers, and combinations thereof, and wherein said hollow fibers are typically greater than one centimeter in length and less than 100 microns in external diameter. In some embodiments, such hollow fibers comprise typically less than 10% by weight, and more typically less than 2% by weight of a polymer that is not present as an impurity in the as-synthesized nanofibers. In some embodiments, the maximum ratio of fiber diameter to fiber wall thickness, for the hollow fiber, is greater than 5. In some embodiments, the hollow fiber comprises single walled carbon nanotubes. In some embodiments, such hollow fibers are filled with an infiltrating agent selected from the group consisting of a polymer, a polymer precursor that is subsequently polymerized, and combinations thereof. In some or other embodiments, such hollow fibers are filled with an electrolyte selected from the group consisting of solid electrolyte, liquid electrolyte, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the present invention is directed to fibers comprising nanofibers and made by an above-described process. In some such embodiments, said fiber predominantly comprises, by weight, carbon nanotubes. In some such embodiments, said fiber further comprises imogolite nanotubes. In some such embodiments, the fiber comprises less than 2% of polymer that is not present in the as-synthesized nanofibers. In some embodiments, the nanofibers are substantially aligned. In some embodiments, the fiber has an electrical conductivity typically above 10 S/cm and more typically above 100 S/cm In some embodiments, the present invention is directed to apparatus for facilitating implementation of one or more methods of the present invention directed at the spinning of fibers. Such apparatus generally comprise: (a) a spinneret comprising at least one orifice for injecting a spinning solution; (b) an injector for introducing a dispersion of nanofibers into the spinneret; (c) a flocculating liquid feed for continual delivery of flocculation liquid to the dispersion of nanofibers in a spinning tube; (d) a flocculation solution collector that collects the flocculation liquid from the exit of the spinning tube; and (e) a collection means for collecting spun material in a form selected from the group consisting of a spun gel, substantially liquid free fiber, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, such an apparatus further comprises a wash bath to remove flocculating liquid and impurities. In some such embodiments, said collection means comprises drawing rollers to draw polymer-free carbon nanotube assemblies through the wash bath and onto a winding device. In some such embodiments, the spinneret tube has an opening selected from the group consisting of round, slit-like, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the present invention is directed to devices which use the above-described secondary nanofiber assemblies. Such devices include, but are not limited to, electromechanical actuators, supercapacitors, devices for electrical energy harvesting, electrical heaters, heat exchangers, sensors, batteries, nanofiber-reinforced composites, incandescent light emitters, devices that provide field emission of electrons, electronic textiles, fuel cells, display devices, scaffolds for tissue growth, electronically conducting wires or cables, fluidic circuits, and combinations thereof. In some such embodiments, said secondary nanofiber assembly is a fiber. In some such embodiments, said fiber is electronically conducting. In some such embodiments, the fiber serves a function selected from the group consisting of a supercapacitor, an electromechanical actuator, a battery. In some such embodiments, the fiber serves as an electrode. Some such devices comprise a structure selected from the group consisting of a wire and a fiber, wherein the structure is located within the hollow region of the hollow fibers, and wherein the structure serves as a counter electrode to an electrode that comprises the hollow nanofiber and wherein the counter electrode and electrode are separated by an electrolyte. The foregoing has outlined rather broadly the features of the present invention in order that the detailed description of the invention that follows may be better understood. Additional features and advantages of the invention will be described hereinafter which form the subject of the claims of the invention.	CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This Application for Patent claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/615,468, filed on Oct. 1, 2004. The present invention was made with support from Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency Grant No. MDA 972-02-C-005, Texas Advanced Technology Program grant 009741-0130-2003, Robert A. Welch Foundation grant AT-0029, and the SPRING consortium in Texas. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to carbon nanotube structures, and more specifically to methods and apparatus for the processing of nanotube powders into polymer-free fibers, ribbons, ropes, films and other shaped articles having desirable electrical, mechanical, optical, and electrochemical properties. BACKGROUND Commercial synthesis methods produce nanofibers of either single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) or multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) as a soot-like material. The strength and elastic modulus of individual carbon nanotubes in this soot are known to be exceptionally high, ˜37 GPa and ˜0.64 TPa, respectively, for SWNTs of about 1.4 nm diameter SWNTs [R. H. Baughman, A. A. Zakhidov, and W. A. de Heer, Science 297, 787-792 (2002)]. Relevant for applications needing light structural materials, the density-normalized modulus and strength of individual SWNTs are even more impressive, i.e., higher than steel wire by factors of ˜19 and ˜54, respectively. A critical problem hindering applications of these and other nanofibers is the need for methods for assembling these fibers having nanoscale dimensions into long fibers and fiber-derived shaped articles, of macroscale dimensions, that effectively utilize the properties of the nanofibers. Since such nanofibers can impart functionalities other than mechanical properties, methods are needed for enhancing the mechanical properties of filaments made of the nanofibers without compromising these other functionalities. Important examples of these other functionalities, together with the mechanical functionality that make the fibers multifunctional, are electrochromism, electrical and thermal conductivity, electromechanical actuation, and electrical energy storage. A carbon single-wall (single-walled) nanotube (SWNT) consists of a single layer of graphite that has been wound up on itself into a seamless tube having a nanoscale diameter. A carbon multi-wall nanotube (MWNT), on the other hand, comprises two or more such cylindrical graphite layers that are coaxially nested one within the other in a manner analogous to Russian nesting dolls. Both single-wall and multi-wall nanotubes have been obtained using various synthetic routes that typically involve the use of metallic catalysts and very high processing temperatures. Typical synthesis routes are those employing a carbon arc, laser evaporation of carbon targets, and chemical vapor deposition (CVD). SWNTs are produced by the carbon-arc discharge technique using a pure carbon cathode and a carbon anode containing a mixture of graphite powder and catalytic metal(s), like Fe, Ni, Co and Cu [D. S. Bethune et al. Nature 363, 605-7 (1993) and S. Iijima and T. Ichihashi, Nature 363, 603-5 (1993)]. C. Journal et al. [Nature 388, 756-758 (1997)] have described an improved carbon-arc method for the synthesis of SWNTs that uses Ni/Y (4.2/1 atom %) as the catalyst. Co-vaporization of carbon and the metal catalyst in the arc generator was shown to produce a web-like deposit of SWNTs that is intimately mixed with fullerene-containing soot. Smalley and co-workers [A. Thess et al., Science 273, 483-487(1996)] developed a pulsed laser vaporization technique for the synthesis of SWNT bundles from carbon targets containing 1 to 2% (w/w) Ni/Co. The dual laser synthesis, purification and processing of carbon single-wall nanotubes has been described in the following references: J. Liu et al., Science 280, 1253 (1998); A. G. Rinzler et al., Applied Physics A 67, 29 (1998); A. G. Rinzler et al., Science 269, 1550 (1995); and H. Dai et al., Nature 384, 147 (1996). A CVD method described by Cheng et al. [Appl. Phys. Lett. 72, 3282 (1998)] involves the pyrolysis of a mixture of benzene with 1 to 5 % thiophene or methane, using ferrocene as a floating catalyst and 10% hydrogen in argon as the carrier gas. The nanotubes form in the reaction zone of a cylindrical furnace held at 1100-1200° C. Depending on the thiophene concentration, the carbon nanotubes form as either multi-wall nanotubes or bundles of single-wall nanotubes. Another useful method for growing carbon single-wall nanotubes uses methane as the precursor, ferric nitrate contained on an alumina catalyst bed, and a reaction temperature of 1000° C. [L. C. Qin et al, Applied Physics Letters, 72, 3437 (1998)]. Another CVD synthesis process was described by R. E. Smalley et al. in PCT Patent Application Publication Nos. WO 2000026138 and WO 2000017102, and by P. Nikolaev et al. in Chem. Phys. Lett. 313, 91-97 (1999). This process, known as the HiPco process, utilizes high pressure (typically 10-100 atm) carbon monoxide gas as the carbon source, and nanometer sized metal particles (formed in situ within the gas stream from metal carbonyl precursors) to catalyze the growth of single-wall carbon nanotubes. Suitable catalyst precursors are iron carbonyl (Fe(CO)5) and mixtures of iron carbonyl and nickel carbonyl (Ni(CO)4). The HiPco process produces a SWNT product that is essentially free of carbonaceous impurities, which are a major component of the laser-evaporation and carbon-arc products. Furthermore, the process enables control over the range of nanotube diameters produced, by controlling the nucleation and size of the metal cluster catalyst particles. In this way, it is possible to produce unusually small nanotube diameters (e.g., about 0.6 to 0.9 nm). The nanotube-containing products of the laser-evaporation and carbon-arc processes invariably contain a variety of carbonaceous impurities, including various fullerenes and less-ordered forms of carbon soot. The carbonaceous impurity content in the raw products of the laser and carbon arc processes typically exceeds 50 weight %. Purification of these products generally relies on a selective dissolution of the catalyst metals and highly ordered carbon clusters (called fullerenes), followed by a selective oxidation of the less ordered carbonaceous impurities. A typical purification process is described by Liu et al. [Science 280, 1253 (1998)]. This method involves refluxing the crude product in 2.6 M nitric acid for 45 hours, suspending the nanotubes in pH 10 NaOH aqueous solution using a surfactant (e.g., TRITON X-100 from Aldrich, Milwaukee, Wis.), followed by filtration using a cross-flow filtration system While the effects of these purification processes on the nanotubes themselves are not completely understood, the carbon nanotubes are typically shortened by oxidation. As discussed by B. I. Yakobson and R. E. Smalley [American Scientist 85, 325, (1997)], SWNT and MWNT materials are promising for a wide variety of potential applications because of the exceptional physical and chemical properties exhibited by the individual nanotubes or nanotube bundles. Some SWNT properties of particular relevance include metallic and semiconducting electrical conductivity (such conductivity being dependent upon the specific molecular structure), an extensional elastic modulus of 0.6 TPa or higher, tensile strengths of about 37 GPa and possibly higher, and surface areas that can exceed 300 m2/g [R. H. Baughman, A. A. Zakhidov, and W. A. de Heer, Science 297, 787-792 (2002)]. The proposed applications of carbon nanotubes include mechanical applications, such as in high-strength composites, electrical applications, and multifunctional applications in which different physical properties of the carbon nanotubes are simultaneously utilized. Tennent et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 6,031,711) describe the application of sheets of carbon nanotubes as high performance supercapacitors. In this latter application, a voltage difference is applied to two high-surface-area carbon nanotube electrodes that are immersed in a solid or liquid electrolyte. Current flows, thereby injecting charge in the nanotubes, by creating an electrostatic double-layer near the nanotube surfaces. The application of carbon nanotube sheets as electromechanical actuators has been recently described [R. H. Baughman et al., Science 284, 1340 (1999) and R. H. Baughman, C. Cui, J. Su, Z. Iqbal, and A. A. Zakhidov, U.S. Pat. No. 6,555,945]. These actuators utilize dimensional changes that result from the double-layer electrochemical charge injection into high-surface-area carbon nanotube electrodes. If carbon nanotubes can be assembled into high modulus and high strength assemblies (such as filaments, ribbons, or sheets) that maintain their ability to electrochemically store charge, then superior actuator performance should be obtainable. The problem has been that no methods are presently available for the manufacture of nanotube articles that have these needed characteristics. Those applications described above, as well as other promising applications, require assembling the individual nanotubes into macroscopic arrays that effectively use the attractive properties of the individual nanotubes. Failure to effectively achieve this has created an obstacle that has thus far hindered applications development. A primary problem is that MWNTs and SWNTs are insoluble in ordinary aqueous solvents and do not form melts even at very high temperatures. Nanotube sheets (called “nanotube paper” or “bucky paper”) comprising mostly nanotubes can be obtained by filtering a SWNT dispersion through a filter membrane, peeling the resulting sheet from the filter after washing and drying steps, and thermally annealing the sheet at high temperatures to remove impurities that convert to gases [A. G. Rinzler et al., Appl. Phys. A 67, 29 (1998) and Liu et al. in Science 280, 1253 (1998)]. This preparative method utilizes the fact that under certain conditions, and with the aid of surfactants and ultrasonic dispersion, bundles of SWNTs can be made to form a stable colloidal suspension in an aqueous medium. The obtained carbon nanotube sheets, which can range in conveniently obtainable thickness from 10-100 microns, possess mechanical strength derived from the micro-scale entanglement of the nanotube bundles. These nanotube sheets preserve the large accessible surface area of the nanotube bundles, but typically exhibit elastic modulus values (typically a few GPa) that are a very small fraction of the intrinsic elastic modulus of either the individual SWNTs or the SWNT bundles. Glatkowski et al., in U.S. Pat. No. 6,265,466, teach a method for preparing an electromagnetic shielding composite having nanotubes, wherein the nanotubes are oriented when a shearing force is applied to the composite. The method includes a step of providing a polymer with an amount of nanotubes, and imparting a shearing force to the molten polymer containing carbon nanotubes to orient the nanotubes. Glatkowski et al. generically teach that the nanotube concentration can be as high as 15 wt %, but that it is preferable that the concentration is 0.1 to 1.5 wt %. These materials do not have properties that would render them useful in actual mechanical or electrochemical applications, since they are made with such a low loading of the carbon nanotubes. Yashi et al. [Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, “Science and Technology of Fullerene Materials,” 359, pg. 81-6, 1995] have attempted to overcome these problems by using a method for forming fiber of aligned carbon nanotubes by extruding a mixture of carbon nanotubes and polypropylene through a small die having a diameter of 2 mm that is maintained at about 200° C., so that the polypropylene is in molten state. As in the case with Glatkowski above, these materials do not have properties that would render them useful in actual mechanical or electrochemical applications, since they are made with such a low loading of the carbon nanotubes and the polypropylene remains in the final product. Use of high nanotube concentrations results in very high viscosities for the nanotube mixture with molten polymer, which essentially prohibits extrusion. A. Lobovsky, J. Matrunich, R. H. Baughman, I. Palley, G. A. West, and I. Golecki have described (U.S. Pat. No. 6,764,628) a melt spinning process that attempts to avoid the usual limitations caused by low concentrations of carbon nanotubes in melt spun fibers. This process involved melt compounding 30 weight percent of very large diameter multi-walled carbon nanotubes (150-200 nm in diameter and 50-100 microns in length) in a polypropylene matrix. This nanotube/polymer mixture was successfully spun as the sheath of a sheath/core polymer comprising polypropylene as the core. Despite the high viscosity of the nanotube/polymer mixture in the sheath and the brittleness of the solidified composition, the presence of the polymer core permitted this sheath-core spinning and the subsequent partial alignment of nanotubes in the sheath. Pyrolysis of the polypropylene left a nanotube fiber that is hollow (outer diameter=0.015 inches, inner diameter=0.0084 inches). To increase the strength of the hollow nanotube fiber, it was coated with carbon using a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process. Even after this CVD coating process, however, the hollow nanotube fiber had low strength and low modulus and was quite brittle. Although advances have been made in spinning polymer solutions in which carbon nanotubes are dispersed, the solution viscosity become too high for conventional solution spinning when the nanotube content rises above about 10%. Nevertheless, impressive mechanical properties have been obtained for solution spinning SWNTs in a polymer to provide a polymer nanotube composite, which in large part express the high mechanical properties of the polymer matrix for the nanotubes [T. V. Sreekumar, T. Liu, B. Min, G. Byung, H. Guo, S. Kumar, R. H. Hauge, R. E. Smalley, Advanced Materials, 16, 58-61 (2004) and S. Kumar, T. D. Dang, F. E. Arnold, A. R. Bhattacharyya, B. G. Min, X. Zhang, R. A. Vaia, C. Park, W. W. Adams, R. H. Hauge, R. E. Smalley, S. Ramesh, P. A. Willis, Macromolecules 35, 9039-9043, (2002)]. One problem with such approaches, however, is that the nanotubes are not present in sufficient quantities to effectively dominate such properties as mechanical modulus, mechanical strength, and thermal and electrical conductivity. Methods are known for dry spinning multi-walled carbon nanotubes as yarns from MWNT forests [K. Jiang, Q. Li, S. Fan, Nature 419, 801 (2002)]. However, the fibers so obtained are so weak that they cannot be used for structural applications. In fact, such fibers are so weak that they cannot be processed into continuous lengths. In another process [V. A. Davis et al, United States Patent Application Publication No. 2003170166 and L. M. Ericson et al., Science 305, 1447-1450, (2004)], single-walled carbon nanotubes were first dispersed in 100% sulfuric acid, or in another super acid, and then wet-spun into a coagulation bath comprising diethyl ether, water, or 5 wt % sulfuric acid. This method is referred as the super-acid coagulation spinning method (SACS), since the spinning solution used is a mixture of carbon nanotubes and a super acid. The resulting fibers have compromised properties, in part due to a partial degradation of the SWNTs and super acid intercalation, caused by prolonged contact with the super acid in the spinning solution. This creates a serious obstacle for practical applications. In order to partially reverse property degradation caused by prolonged exposure to super acid spinning solutions, and to thereby enhance electrical conductivity, it was necessary to anneal the as-spun fibers at high temperatures (typically 850° C. and higher), which would increase the cost of fiber production. Also, the use of 100% sulfuric acid or super acid in the spinning solution causes other problems that are not present for processes that do not use strongly acidic spinning solutions. These include the need to blanket the spinning solution with an inert atmosphere and the use of spinnerets, spinning solution containment means, and pumping means for applying pressure during spinning that are not corroded by the super acid in the spinning solution. Polymer gel-based processes have been shown to enable the spinning of continuous fibers of SWNT/poly(vinyl alcohol) composites [B. Vigolo et al., Science 290, 1331 (2000); R. H. Baughman, Science 290, 1310 (2000); B. Vigolo et al., Applied Physics Letters 81, 1210-1212 (2002); A. Lobovsky, J. Matrunich, M. Kozlov, R. C. Morris, and R. H. Baughman, U.S. Pat. No. 6,682,677; and A. B. Dalton et al. Nature 423, 703 (2003)]. According to such processes, the carbon nanotubes are first dispersed in an aqueous or non-aqueous solvent with the aid of a surfactant. A jet of this nanotube dispersion is then injected into a viscous polymer solution that causes partial aggregation and alignment of the dispersed nanotube bundles to form a gel fiber, which is a dilute mixture of carbon nanotubes in an aqueous gel of the coagulation polymer. This gel fiber is weak; however, it has sufficient strength for slow manipulation leading to subsequent conversion of the gel fiber to a solid polymer fiber. In some processes, the wet gel fiber is washed in water or other liquid in order to remove some of the polymer binder, and the washed filament is subsequently withdrawn (drawn) from the wash bath and dried. During the draw-dry process, during which evaporation of the liquid occurs from the gel, capillary forces collapse the gel fiber into a solid fiber. This total process will henceforth be referred to as the polymer coagulation spinning (PCS) process. In a typical PCS process, as described by Bernier and co-workers [Vigolo et al., Science 290, 1331 (2000)], the nanotubes are dispersed in water with the aid of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) surfactant. The viscous carrier liquid is an aqueous solution of poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) in which the PVA serves to neutralize the effect of the SDS surfactant by directly replacing these molecules on the carbon nanotube surfaces during spinning. Bernier and co-workers describe preferred concentrations for the various ingredients, and viscosity ranges and flow velocities of the spinning solutions. Polarized light microscopy of the coagulated nanotube fibers confirms preferential alignment of the carbon nanotube along the fiber axis. Further evidence of carbon nanotube alignment is provided by the measured extensional elastic modulus, which is approximately 10-40 GPa for the final PCS fibers, as compared to typically 1 GPa for bucky paper. Present problems with this process are that the nanotube fibers are inherently self-assembled in combination with PVA, and this PVA interferes with the electrical and thermal contacts between carbon nanotubes. Using existing technology, this polymer can only be completely removed from the gel fiber by thermal annealing that causes pyrolysis of the polymer. This removal of polymer by thermal pyrolysis degrades the mechanical properties of the nanotube fibers by decreasing strength and modulus and making them rather brittle. Unfortunately, because of the presence of residual PVA, electrical and thermal conductivity of the fiber is smaller than that of nanofiber sheets. PVA, a typical insulating polymer, exhibits poor electrical and thermal conductivity as compared with carbon nanotubes. As a result, the conductivity of such composite fibers decreases with increasing PVA content; it also becomes substantially dependent on post-spinning washing, which does not remove all of the polymer. Other disadvantages of PVA-based fibers are poor thermal stability caused by decomposition of the polymer at 100-150° C., sensitivity to moisture, and reduced resistance to solvents. Also, the fibers made by the PCS process are not useful in applications as electrodes immersed in liquid electrolytes because of a surprising shape-memory effect. This shape-memory effect causes the PCS fibers to dramatically swell (by 100% or more) and lose most of their dry-state modulus and strength. Because of this structural instability of fibers made by the PCS process, they are unusable for critically important applications that use liquid electrolytes, such as in supercapacitors and in electromechanical actuators. In contrast, as-produced carbon nanotube sheets made from the same nanotubes can be used for both capacitor and actuator devices that use liquid electrolytes. Thus, the prior art spinning processes are unsatisfactory for providing high loadings of underivatized polymer-free nanotubes in macroscopic nanotube fibers, which most desirably have continuous lengths. This absence of a suitable technology for spinning polymer-free nanotube fibers has been a barrier to application of carbon nanotubes and other nanotube fibers for such applications as mechanical elements, elements having high thermal conductivity, and as components in devices that provide electromechanical actuation, mechanical energy harvesting, mechanical dampening, thermal energy harvesting, and energy storage. Although the individual nanotube fibers have very attractive performance attributes, the prior art has not demonstrated processes whereby the properties of these individual nanotubes can be effectively used in macrofibers comprising the nanofibers. Additionally, no prior art technology has provided a method for spinning hollow carbon nanotube fibers, and such carbon nanotube fibers can be usefully employed for such applications as filtration, materials absorption, and materials transport. Methods that overcome the above-described deficiencies would be most desirable. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Some embodiments of the present invention are directed to assemblies comprising nanofibers, wherein such assemblies can be in the form of fibers, ribbons, ropes, films, and other shaped articles, such articles typically having desirable electrical, mechanical, optical, and/or electrochemical properties. In some or other embodiments, the present invention is directed to methods/processes of making such assemblies, and to apparatus for implementing such methods and processes. In still other embodiments, the present invention is directed to articles and/or applications comprising and/or using such assemblies of nanofibers. There is considerable flexibility in the type of nanofibers used in embodiments of the present invention, and in the form that the assembly takes. Carbon nanotubes and nanoscrolls are exemplary nanofibers, but other types and combinations of nanofibers can be utilized instead of, or in addition to, carbon-based nanofibers. Likewise, fibers are an exemplary form of assembly, but assemblies of the present invention are not limited to such fibers. Judicious selection in the type and/or combination of nanofibers permits the assemblies described herein to be fabricated with the wide range of properties outlined above. In some embodiments, the present invention is directed to methods for making such assemblies, the methods generally comprising the steps of (a) dispersing nanofibers in a dispersion liquid that has a proton-donating ability below that of 100% sulfuric acid to form a dispersion of nanofibers, wherein said dispersion does not include intentionally added polymer; (b) providing a flocculation liquid, the liquid having a pH selected from the group consisting of acidic pH and basic pH, wherein the acidic pH is less than 3 and the basic pH is greater than 11; (c) injecting the dispersion of nanofibers into the flocculation liquid such that flocculation occurs to yield a primary nanofiber assembly; and (d) (optionally) substantially removing the flocculation liquid from the primary nanofiber assembly to yield a secondary nanofiber assembly that is substantially free of a liquid, wherein said secondary nanofiber assembly has a form selected from the group consisting of a fiber, a rope, a sheet, a ribbon, a film, and combinations thereof. For the purposes of this invention, aqueous and alcohol-based solutions are considered to possess proton-donating ability. In some embodiments, the nanofibers have a number-average diameter that is typically less than 1000 nm, more typically less than 100 nm, even more typically less than 10 nm, and most typically less than approximately 2 nm. By number-average diameter we mean the average outer diameter of a nanofiber weighted according to the frequency of occurrence of this diameter. In some embodiments, a majority weight fraction of the nanofibers have a maximum length-to-thickness ratio, in their thinnest lateral direction, of at least approximately 1000. In some embodiments, said nanofibers comprise material selected from the group consisting of imogolite and similar aluminosilicate nanofibers; allophane nanofibers; SiC nanofibers; boron nitride nanofibers; carbon nanofibers; MgB2 nanofibers; carbon doped MgB2 nanofibers; Bi nanofibers, nanofibers of binary group III-V elements; Si nanofibers; ZnO nanofibers; silica nanofibers; In2O3 nanofibers; V205 nanofibers; nanofibers of GaN, CdS, CdSe, ZnS and other (II-VI) materials; nanofibers of transition metal dichalcogenides that can be described as MX2, wherein M═Mo, W, Nb, Ta, Ti, Zr, Hf; Re and wherein X═S, Se; selenium nanofibers; nanofibers that are compounds of Mo, S, and I; derivatized nanofibers of any of the aforementioned types; and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, said nanofiber comprises single walled nanotubes, double walled nanotubes, other types of multiwalled nanotubes other than double walled nanotubes, scrolled nanotubes, coiled nanofibers, functionalized nanofibers, crimped nanofibers, and combinations thereof. In some such embodiments, said nanotubes and other nanofibers comprise predominantly carbon by weight. In some such embodiments, the nanofiber comprises predominantly, by weight, material selected from the group consisting of single walled carbon nanotubes, types of multiwalled nanotubes other than double walled nanotubes, and combinations thereof. In some such embodiments, at least some of the carbon nanotubes are functionalized carbon nanotubes. In some embodiments, the dispersion liquid comprises water as its majority component by weight. In some embodiments, the step of dispersing involves using a dispersal aid that functions as a surfactant. In some such embodiments, the dispersal aid is selected from the group consisting of sodium dodecylsulfate, lithium dodecylsulfate, octylphenol ethoxylate, sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate, sodium dodecylsulfonate, sodium n-lauroylsarcosinate, a sodium alkyl allyl sulfosuccinate, the sodium salt of poly(styrene sulfonate), charged colloidal particles, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the step of dispersing involves ultrasonic assistance. In some embodiments, there is an additional step of removing undesired particle components from the dispersion via a process selected from the group consisting of centrifugation, filtration, and combinations thereof. In some of the above-described embodiments, the pH of the dispersion liquid is typically between 3 and 11, and more typically between 6 and 8. In some embodiments, the step of removing the flocculation liquid involves a technique such as, but not limited to, filtration, evaporation, washing, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, this step of removing the flocculation liquid can be viewed as removing liquid from the primary nanofiber assembly to produce the secondary nanofiber assembly. In some embodiments, the processes of causing substantial displacement of the flocculation liquid is done with a secondary liquid followed by the substantial removal of said secondary liquid to provide a secondary nanofiber assembly that is substantially free of a liquid. In some embodiments, the secondary liquid has a pH between 3 and 11. In some embodiments, the secondary liquid is more volatile at the temperature used for substantial removal of said secondary liquid than is the flocculation liquid. In some embodiments, the secondary liquid comprises an alcohol. In some embodiments, removal of the flocculation and/or secondary liquid is conducted by exposing the primary nanofiber assembly to an environmental temperature between 100° C. and 1200° C., wherein the primary nanofiber assembly initially comprises a liquid selected from the group consisting of the flocculation liquid, a liquid that displaces this flocculation liquid, and combinations thereof. In some such embodiments, the environmental temperature is between 100° C. and 500° C. In some embodiments, conversion of the primary nanofiber structure to the secondary nanofiber structure involves a heating means, wherein this heating means is provided by a technique such as, but not limited to, resistive heating of the nanofibers by conducting current along the nanofiber assembly; absorption by the primary nanofiber assembly of radiation selected from the group consisting of visible, ultraviolet, infrared, radio frequency, and microwave frequency radiation; and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, removing liquid from the primary nanofiber assembly to produce the secondary nanofiber assembly is conducted by exposing the primary nanofiber assembly to an environmental temperature between room temperature and 100° C., wherein the primary nanofiber assembly initially comprises a liquid selected from the group consisting of the flocculation liquid, a liquid that displaces this flocculation liquid, and combinations thereof. In some such embodiments, said exposure is carried out in an environment selected from the group consisting of an inert gas atmosphere, a vacuum, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the flocculation agent comprises an acid selected from the group consisting of HCl, HBr, HI, HClO4, HBF4, H2SO4, HNO3, H3PO4, oxalic acid, formic acid, acetic acid, benzoic acid, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the flocculating agent is a base selected from the group consisting of NaOH, KOH, LiOH, NH4OH, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, any of the nanofiber dispersion, the flocculation solution, any liquid that displaces the flocculation solution in the primary nanofiber assembly, contains colloidal particles in addition to the nanofibers present in the nanofiber dispersion, and wherein these colloidal particles are at least partially acquired and retained in the secondary nanofiber assembly. In some such embodiments, at least a fraction of these colloidal particles are those that provide useful catalytic activity. In some such embodiments, said useful catalytic activity is useful for providing catalytic activity for a fuel cell electrode. In some embodiments, the flocculation liquid comprises a viscosity that is less than that for the dispersion of nanofibers, when both viscosities are measured under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. In some embodiments, the flocculation liquid comprises a viscosity that is less than that for the dispersion of nanofibers when measured at temperature and pressure conditions used for flocculation of the dispersion of nanofibers by contact between the dispersion of nanotubes and the flocculation liquid. In some embodiments, any liquid component in the flocculation liquid comprises a viscosity that is less than the viscosity of the dispersion of nanotubes when both viscosities are measured under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. In some embodiments, any liquid component in the flocculation liquid comprises a viscosity that is less than that of the dispersion of nanotubes when both viscosities are measured at temperature and pressure conditions used for flocculation of the dispersion of nanofibers by contact between the dispersion of nanotubes and the flocculation liquid. In some embodiments, the flocculation liquid comprises aqueous hydrochloric acid. In some embodiments, the fiber, rope, ribbon, or film (secondary nanofiber assembly) comprises at least 90% by weight nanofibers and associated impurities introduced during nanofiber synthesis. In some or other embodiments, the fiber, rope, ribbon, or film comprises at least 90% by weight carbon nanotubes and associated impurities introduced during nanotube synthesis. In some embodiments, the primary nanofiber assembly comprises a gel. In some embodiments, there is an infiltration of said primary nanofiber assembly with a polymer to form an infiltrated polymer prior to producing a secondary nanofiber assembly that is substantially free of a liquid. In some embodiments, no polymer is added to the nanofibers of nanofiber assemblies during processing. In some embodiments, the secondary nanofiber assembly contains less than 2% by weight polymer. In some such embodiments, a majority fraction of the polymer in the fiber is extracted via a technique selected from the group consisting of a liquid means, pyrolysis, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, wherein said secondary nanofiber assembly is a fiber, and wherein this fiber is mechanically drawn to at least 50% of the breaking strain, so as to thereby increase the orientation of nanofibers in the fiber. In some such embodiments, said fiber comprises predominantly, by weight, carbon nanotubes and impurities introduced during carbon nanotube synthesis. In some embodiments, the step of substantially removing the flocculation liquid is conducted while the primary nanofiber assembly is under mechanical tension, the tension having a maximum value during the liquid removal process that is at least 10% of the initial breaking stress of the primary nanofiber assembly. In some embodiments, the secondary fiber is thermally annealed at a temperature of less than 3000° C. In some such embodiments, said secondary fiber is comprised of carbon nanotubes, and wherein said thermal annealing involves a maximum temperature of less than 1500° C. In some such embodiments, said annealing is in a reactive atmosphere and wherein reaction induced by this atmosphere results in a treatment of the secondary fiber, the treatment selected from the group consisting of coating, infiltrating, and combinations thereof. In some such said annealing is carried out in an environment selected from the group consisting of a vacuum, a substantially inert atmosphere, and combinations thereof. In some such embodiments, the process of thermally annealing both the as-formed and water washed fiber results in an increased electrochemical capacitance for the fiber, and wherein the fiber comprises carbon nanotubes. In some embodiments, lateral pressure is applied to the primary nanofiber assembly during removal of either the flocculation liquid or a liquid that displaces the flocculation liquid. In some such embodiments, said lateral pressure is done by passing primary nanofiber assembly between cylinders that rotate in opposite directions, and wherein the separation of these rollers is substantially less than the initial thickness of the primary nanofiber assembly. In some such embodiments, said primary nanofiber assembly comprises a gel that has a shape selected from the group consisting of a fiber, a ribbon, and combinations thereof. Typically said gel does not include any organic polymer that is not present as an impurity in the as-synthesized nanofibers. In some such embodiments, said primary nanofiber assembly comprises carbon nanotubes. A variety of additives can be added to the assemblies of the present invention to modify their properties. Such additives include, but are not limited to, polymeric material, metal, alloys, and combinations thereof. Such additives can be added during the making of the assemblies, or post-production (vide infra). In some embodiments, significant improvement of mechanical properties of the assembly material can be achieved by introducing (e.g., infusing or infiltrating) various polymer or epoxy binders into the spun nanofiber assemblies (fibers, ropes, sheets, ribbons, or films) during a post-spinning treatment. In one such embodiment, the primary nanofiber assembly is soaked in solutions of various polymers such as poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), polystyrene, polyacrylonitrile, and/or different epoxy precursors at room or elevated temperature. Polymer and/or epoxy precursors thereby infiltrated, such as epoxy resins, are optionally reacted to form the polymer or set epoxy. The binders can penetrate the nanofiber network and can couple the nanofibers into a composite matrix. The composite fiber can optionally be subjected to drawing in a wet and/or dry state, which can further increase nanofiber alignment and mechanical strength. For an epoxy resin, this drawing is typically done before the epoxy is fully cured. Some embodiments of the present invention are directed toward assemblies that are hollow fibers, the hollow fibers comprising nanofibers, the nanofibers generally being selected from the group consisting of single walled carbon nanofibers, multiwalled carbon nanofibers, and combinations thereof, and wherein said hollow fibers are typically greater than one centimeter in length and less than 100 microns in external diameter. In some embodiments, such hollow fibers comprise typically less than 10% by weight, and more typically less than 2% by weight of a polymer that is not present as an impurity in the as-synthesized nanofibers. In some embodiments, the maximum ratio of fiber diameter to fiber wall thickness, for the hollow fiber, is greater than 5. In some embodiments, the hollow fiber comprises single walled carbon nanotubes. In some embodiments, such hollow fibers are filled with an infiltrating agent selected from the group consisting of a polymer, a polymer precursor that is subsequently polymerized, and combinations thereof. In some or other embodiments, such hollow fibers are filled with an electrolyte selected from the group consisting of solid electrolyte, liquid electrolyte, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the present invention is directed to fibers comprising nanofibers and made by an above-described process. In some such embodiments, said fiber predominantly comprises, by weight, carbon nanotubes. In some such embodiments, said fiber further comprises imogolite nanotubes. In some such embodiments, the fiber comprises less than 2% of polymer that is not present in the as-synthesized nanofibers. In some embodiments, the nanofibers are substantially aligned. In some embodiments, the fiber has an electrical conductivity typically above 10 S/cm and more typically above 100 S/cm In some embodiments, the present invention is directed to apparatus for facilitating implementation of one or more methods of the present invention directed at the spinning of fibers. Such apparatus generally comprise: (a) a spinneret comprising at least one orifice for injecting a spinning solution; (b) an injector for introducing a dispersion of nanofibers into the spinneret; (c) a flocculating liquid feed for continual delivery of flocculation liquid to the dispersion of nanofibers in a spinning tube; (d) a flocculation solution collector that collects the flocculation liquid from the exit of the spinning tube; and (e) a collection means for collecting spun material in a form selected from the group consisting of a spun gel, substantially liquid free fiber, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, such an apparatus further comprises a wash bath to remove flocculating liquid and impurities. In some such embodiments, said collection means comprises drawing rollers to draw polymer-free carbon nanotube assemblies through the wash bath and onto a winding device. In some such embodiments, the spinneret tube has an opening selected from the group consisting of round, slit-like, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the present invention is directed to devices which use the above-described secondary nanofiber assemblies. Such devices include, but are not limited to, electromechanical actuators, supercapacitors, devices for electrical energy harvesting, electrical heaters, heat exchangers, sensors, batteries, nanofiber-reinforced composites, incandescent light emitters, devices that provide field emission of electrons, electronic textiles, fuel cells, display devices, scaffolds for tissue growth, electronically conducting wires or cables, fluidic circuits, and combinations thereof. In some such embodiments, said secondary nanofiber assembly is a fiber. In some such embodiments, said fiber is electronically conducting. In some such embodiments, the fiber serves a function selected from the group consisting of a supercapacitor, an electromechanical actuator, a battery. In some such embodiments, the fiber serves as an electrode. Some such devices comprise a structure selected from the group consisting of a wire and a fiber, wherein the structure is located within the hollow region of the hollow fibers, and wherein the structure serves as a counter electrode to an electrode that comprises the hollow nanofiber and wherein the counter electrode and electrode are separated by an electrolyte. The foregoing has outlined rather broadly the features of the present invention in order that the detailed description of the invention that follows may be better understood. Additional features and advantages of the invention will be described hereinafter which form the subject of the claims of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a more complete understanding of the present invention, and the advantages thereof, reference is now made to the following descriptions taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIGS. 1A and B depict SEM images of sidewall and fracture surfaces, respectively, for fibers of HiPco nanotubes spun by the polymer-free flocculation process, wherein a degree of nanotube alignment is suggested by the sidewall structure (A). FIGS. 2 A-D depict cross-sections of fibers of HiPco nanotubes spun by the polymer-free flocculation process, wherein such cross-sections are hollow (A, B), folded ribbon (C), and free of aggregated void space (D). FIG. 3 depicts polarized Raman spectra of a fiber of HiPco nanotubes spun by the polymer-free flocculation process taken in YV geometry, wherein curves A and B correspond to orientations of light polarization parallel and perpendicular to the fiber axis, respectively. FIG. 4 depicts thermogravimetric analysis of retained weight versus temperature during the heating of as-synthesized HiPco SWNTs (▪) and a fiber comprising HiPco nanotubes spun by the polymer-free flocculation process (●). The heating was in flowing oxygen at 5° C./minute. The derivatives of these weight loss curves, dW/dT, for the as-synthesized nanotubes (□) and the fibers of HiPco nanotubes spun by the polymer-free flocculation process (◯) are also indicated. FIG. 5 is a photograph of an assembly of individual spinneret tubes used in accordance with some embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 6 depicts cyclic voltammogram of a fiber of HiPco nanotubes spun by the polymer-free flocculation process (vs. Ag/Ag+ (0.01M AgNO3)) for four different potential scan rates. FIG. 7 depicts stress vs. strain dependencies for fibers of HiPco nanotubes spun by the polymer-free flocculation process that were infiltrated by polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) while in spun gel state, wherein data for two consecutive production runs are shown (Fiber 1 and Fiber 2). FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram of a spinning apparatus that is useful in accordance with some embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 9 is a schematic diagram of compression rollers aimed at production of carbon nanotube ribbon in accordance with some embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 10 depicts stress vs. strain plots for both heat-treated and as-spun fibers in accordance with some embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 11 is an optical image of fibers of HiPco nanotubes spun by the polymer-free flocculation process, which was taken while this fiber was heated to incandescence by direct electrical heating of the fiber in an oxygen-free environment. FIGS. 12 A-C depict an SEM image of a fracture surface for fibers spun from dispersion containing 3:1 mixture of HiPco nanotubes and platinum black particles by the polymer-free flocculation process (A), an EDX spectrum of the investigated area evidencing platinum in the fiber (B), and a table of weighted atomic percentages corresponding to the EDX spectrum (C). DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The coagulation spinning processes of the conventional art have the following liabilities that are eliminated by the present invention. First, the prior-art PCS methods produce fibers that comprise substantial amounts of polymer, and this polymer interferes with the ability to obtain high electrical conductivity as well as the applications of fibers made by the PCS methods. None of these methods are capable of directly producing fiber and other shaped articles that comprise almost entirely carbon nanotubes or other types of nanofibers. Because of the presence of polymer binder, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, electrochemical activity, and thermal stability of the fibers and other nanofiber assemblies are severely compromised. The present invention solves the problems associated with the aforementioned prior art processes, by providing an efficient method for spinning nanofiber-containing fibers, wherein the nanofibers have a high loading in the fiber (up to 100%), and wherein such high loadings result in the electrical and mechanical properties, electrochemical activity, and thermal stability needed for key applications. For the purposes of describing this invention, “nanofibers” are defined as fiber-shaped articles having a diameter in the thinnest dimension of less than 1000 nm. A “fiber” is defined as a fiber-shaped article comprising a number of nanofibers. “Ribbons” are defined as a special type of fiber that has unequal thicknesses in different lateral directions. The term “polymer-free” is applied to an article if no polymer is intentionally added during the fabrication of an article, other than possibly a surfactant used for the dispersion of carbon nanotubes in the initial spinning solution. This definition is applied here to account for the possibility that some methods for synthesizing nanofibers can introduce minor amounts of polymer materials as an impurity. Also, while the surfactants typically used for dispersion of nanotubes are typically non-polymeric, polymeric surfactants can also be usefully employed. In addition, it is sometimes useful to add polymer to either the spinning solution or the flocculation solution. The term “polymer” means a material that principally has one-dimensional covalent connectivity. Materials that have a substantial degree of cross-linking are included in this definition of polymer. The term “solid” means that a material does not comprise a significant quantity of liquid. The term “multiwalled nanofiber” is used to describe both nanofibers that contain more than one wall in the nanofiber geometry, so it includes double-walled nanofibers and excludes single walled nanofibers. No differentiation is made between the terms solution, liquid, and fluid, and all denote a material containing a liquid. Also, the terms “primary assembly” and “primary nanofiber assembly” are used interchangeably, as are the terms “secondary assembly” and “secondary nanofiber assembly.” The term primary assembly denotes an item formed by spinning that includes a liquid, which can either be the liquid used for flocculation or a liquid that partially or completely displaces a liquid used for flocculation, prior to the assembly being initially made substantially free of liquid. This liquid can be incorporated in another material to form a gel state. The term secondary assembly denotes a material formed after substantially complete removal of the liquid from the primary assembly, whether or not said secondary assembly is later contacted with a liquid. The term “free of liquid” and like terms denote that an article is substantially free of gel that comprises an easily removable liquid. This spinning process of some of the invention embodiments will be referred to herein as the polymer-free flocculation spinning (PFFS) process. While most of the description herein will focus on the preparation of polymer-free carbon nanotube fibers, it should be understood that the methods of the present invention are also useful for the preparation of other assemblies such as ropes, ribbons, films, etc. and that the used nanofibers need not be restricted to carbon nanofibers. In some embodiments, the present invention is generally directed to methods comprising the steps of: 1) dispersing nanofibers in a fluid medium with or without aid of a surfactant to form a dispersion of nanofibers; 2) providing a flocculating solution comprising flocculation agent selected from the group consisting of acids and bases; 3) injecting the dispersion of nanofibers into the flocculating solution such that flocculation occurs to yield at least one assembly comprising nanofibers (primary nanofiber assembly); and 4) removing the flocculation solution or a solution that displaces the flocculation solution to yield at least one nanofiber assembly that is substantially free of liquid (called a secondary nanofiber assembly). This generally-described process can be used to make both nanofiber assemblies that are substantially free of polymer and ones that include polymer. Types of carbon nanotubes suitable for use with the present invention are not particularly limited, and can generally be made by any process known in the art. HiPco single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) made with a high pressure carbon monoxide process (such as those made by Carbon Nanotechnologies Inc.), SWNT prepared by the laser ablation process, double-walled nanotubes (such as those made by Nanocyl Inc.), and mixtures of SWNT and multi-walled nanotubes (such as those made by Sunnano Inc.) are very useful for invention embodiments. Unpurified nanotube-rich carbon soot, functionalized nanotubes (such as fluorinated SWNT or carboxylated SWNT) can be used, as can other nanofibers, some of which will be described. In some embodiments, a combination of carbon nanotubes and nanotubes of another type, such as aluminosilicate nanofibers commonly known as “imogolite,” can be spun by methods of the present invention. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) and single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) can be made by a variety of techniques. Laser deposition, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and the carbon-arc discharge methods are exemplary methods for making the carbon nanotubes, and these methods are well known in the literature (R. G. Ding et al., Journal of Nanoscietice and Nanotechnology 1, 7 (2001) and J. Liu et al., MRS Bulletin 29, 244 (2004)). Synthetic methods generally result in mixtures of nanotubes having different diameters. Use of catalyst for nanotube synthesis that is close to monodispersed in size (and stable in size at the temperatures used for synthesis) can dramatically decrease the polydispersity in SWNT diameter, and nanotubes having this narrower range of nanotube diameters can be useful for some invention embodiments. S. M. Bachilo et al. describe such a method in Journal of the American Chemical Society 125, 11186 (2003). The nanofibers used for spinning can optionally contain coiled or crimped nanofibers. One benefit of such inclusion is an increase in the elasticity of the articles obtained by spinning, as a consequence of the elasticity of the coiled or crimped nanofibers. Various methods of separating carbon single wall nanotubes according to electrical properties are useful in some invention embodiments, such as for enhancing achieved electrical conductivity. Examples of known methods for such separation involve: (1) use of charge transfer agents that complex most readily with metallic nanotubes, (2) complexation with selected types of DNA, and (3) dielectrophoresis [R. Krupke et al., Nano Letters 3, 1019 (2003) and R. C. Haddon et al., MRS Bulletin 29, 252-259 (2004)]. The performance of spun nanotube assemblies, especially carbon nanotube assemblies, can also be optimized by filling component nanotubes or nanotube scrolls with materials to enhance mechanical, optical, magnetic, or electrical properties. Various methods are particularly useful in invention embodiments for filling or partially filling nanotubes. These methods typically include a first step of opening nanotube ends, which is conveniently accomplished using gas phase oxidants, other oxidants (like oxidizing acids), or mechanical cutting. The opened nanotubes can be filled in various ways such as, but not limited to, vapor, liquid, or supercritical phase transport into the nanotube. Methods for filling nanotubes with metal oxides, metal halides, and related materials can be like those used in the prior art to fill carbon nanotubes with mixtures of KCl and UCl4; KI; mixtures of AgCl and either AgBr or AgI; CdCl2; Cdl2; ThCl4; LnCl3; ZrCl3; ZrCl, MoCl3, FeCl3, and Sb2O3. In an optional additional step, the thereby filled (or partially filled) nanotubes can be optionally treated to transform the material inside the nanotube, such as by chemical reduction or thermal pyrolysis of a metal salt to produce a metal, such as, but not limited to, Ru, Bi, Au, Pt, Pd, and Ag. M. Monthioux has provided [Carbon 40, 1809-1823 (2002)] a useful review of these methods for filling and partially filling nanotubes, including the filling of nanotubes during nanotube synthesis. The partial or complete filling of various other materials useful for invention embodiments is described in J. Sloan et al., J. Materials Chemistry 7, 1089-1095 (1997). The nanofibers need not contain carbon in order to be useful for invention embodiments, and a host of processes are well known in the art for making suitable nanofibers. Some examples are the growth of superconducting MgB2 nanowires by the reaction of single crystal B nanowires with Mg vapor [Y. Wu et al., Advanced Materials 13, 1487 (2001)], the growth of superconducting lead nanowires by the thermal decomposition of lead acetate in ethylene glycol [Y. Wu et al., Nano Letters 3, 1163-1166 (2003)], the solution phase growth of selenium nanowires from colloidal particles [B. Gates et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 122, 12582-12583 (2000) and B. T. Mayer et al., Chemistry of Materials 15, 3852-3858 (2003)], and the synthesis of lead nanowires by templating lead within channels in porous membranes or steps on silicon substrates. The latter methods and various other methods of producing metal and semiconducting nanowires suitable for the practice of invention embodiments are described in Wu et al., Nano Letters 3, 1163-1166 (2003), and are elaborated in associated references. Y. Li et al. (J. Am. Chem. Soc. 123, 9904-9905 (2001)) has shown how to make bismuth nanotubes. Also, X. Duan and C. M. Lieber (Advanced Materials 12, 298-302 (2000)) have shown that bulk quantities of semiconductor nanofibers having high purity can be made using laser-assisted catalytic growth. These obtained nanofibers are especially useful for invention embodiments and include single crystal nanofibers of binary group III-V elements (GaAs, GaP, InAs, InP), tertiary III-V materials (GaAs/P, InAs/P), binary II-VI compounds (ZnS, ZnSe, CdS, and CdSe), and binary SiGe alloys. Si nanofibers, and doped Si nanofibers, are also useful for invention embodiments. The preparation of Si nanofibers by laser ablation is described by B. Li et al. in Phys. Rev. B 59, 1645-1648 (1999). Various methods for making nanotubes comprising a host of useful materials are described by R. Tenne in Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 42, 5124-5132 (2003). Also, nanotubes of GaN can be usefully made by epitaxial growth of thin GaN layers on ZnO nanowires, followed by the removal of the ZnO. See J. Goldberger et al., Nature 422, 599-602 (2003). Nanofibers having an approximate composition MoS9-xIx, which are commercially available from Mo6 (Teslova 30, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia), are included as exemplary compositions (particularly for x between about 4.5 and 6). Nanoscrolls are especially useful for invention embodiments because Applicants have determined that they can in some cases provide mechanical property advantages over multiwalled nanotubes. These nanoscrolls are individual sheets, or a thin stack of sheets, of a layered material that automatically winds to make a scroll that is structurally analogous to a jelly roll. Almost any sheet-like material can self-assemble into scrolls-as long as the lateral sheet dimension is sufficiently large that the energy gain from non-covalent binding between layers of the scroll sufficiently compensates for the elastic energy cost of forming the scroll. Some examples of materials that have been shown to form nanoscrolls are bismuth, BN, C, V2O5, H2Ti3O7, gallium oxide hydroxide, zinc and titanium oxides, CdSe, Cu(OH)2, selected perovskites, InGa/GaAs and GexSi1-x/Si heterolayer structures, and mixed layer compounds like MTS3 and MT2S5 (M═Sn, Pb, Bi, etc.; T═Nb, Ta, etc.). This generality of the scroll formation process for layered materials, from bismuth to carbon and boron nitride, means that there is a host of candidate compositions to choose from for formation of substantially polymer-free flocculation spun fibers, ropes, films, and sheets. Since scrolls can be made by simply exfoliating materials that are presently made in high volume at low cost, polymer-free flocculation spun fibers, ropes, films, and sheets of this invention can also be made at low cost. Methods of synthesizing nanoscrolls of a host of layered materials are known, and these methods can be used in the practice of embodiments of the present invention. See L. M. Viculis, L. M., J. J. Mack, and R. B. Kaner, Science 299, 1361-1361 (2003); Z. L. Wang, Advanced Materials 15, 432-436 (2003); X. D. Wang et al., Advanced Materials 14, 1732- (2002); W. L. Hughes and Z. L. Wang, Applied Physics Letters 82, 2886-2888 (2003); J. W. Liu et al., Journal of Physical Chemistry B 107, 6329-6332 (2003); and Y. B. Li, Y. Bando, and D. Golberg, Chemical Physics Letters 375, 102-105 (2003). A variety of methods can be usefully employed in invention embodiments for the modification of nanofibers either pre- or post-spinning (such as by a post-spinning chemical derivatization process for carbon MWNTs). Chemical derivatization, physical derivatization, surface coating, or dopant insertion can be practiced before or after spinning, or even after fabrication of the spun nanofiber array into articles or precursors to articles, like woven textiles. An exemplary method for modifying carbon nanotubes is by gas phase reactions and plasma-induced reactions. Fluorination of carbon nanotubes with fluorine gas and plasma induced surface derivatization are useful examples. Useful reaction conditions for carbon nanotube fluorination and plasma-induced derivation are provided, for example, by T. Nakajima, S. Kasamatsu, and Y. Matsuo in European Journal Solid State Inorganic Chemistry 33, 831 (1996); E. T. Mickelson et al in Chem. Phys. Lett. 296, 188 (1998) and in J. Phys. Chem. B 103, 4318 (1999); and Q. Chen et al. in J. Phys. Chem. B 105, 618 (2001). Other useful methods that can be used for chemical derivatization of carbon nanotubes are described by V. N. Khabasheshu et al. in Accounts of Chemical Research 35, 1087-1095 (2002); by Y.-P. Sun et al. in Accounts of Chemical Research 35, 1096-1104 (2002); and by S. Niyogi et al in Accounts of Chemical Research 35, 1087-1095 (2002). Since many of these methods decrease the length of single walled nanotubes, there are benefits to applying these methods to double walled and multiwalled carbon nanotubes. In some embodiments, the nanofibers are optionally coated with a hydrophobic material, like poly(tetrafluoroethylene). One method for such coating on nanofibers is by the decomposition of hexafluoropropylene oxide at about 500° C. on heated filaments (by hot filament chemical vapor deposition) to produce CF2 radicals, which polymerize to produce poly(tetrafluoroethylene) on the surface of individual nanofibers. See K. K. S. Lau et al. in Nano Letters 3, 1701 (2003). Related hot filament chemical vapor deposition methods can be used to provide coatings of other polymers, like organosilicones and fluorosilicones. Due to the hydrophobic nature of these coatings, they are typically applied after the fabrication of a spun nanofiber assembly. Various and useful ways to chemically and non-chemically functionalize nanofibers for various applications have been described in the literature and these methods can be applied to the nanofibers and/or the spun nanofiber assemblies of the present invention. See Y. Li, et al., J. Materials Chemistry 14, 527-541 (2004). Since the PFFS fibers, ropes, films, and sheets can be useful for electrochemical applications that benefit from and utilize the extremely high surface area of nanofibers, a number of invention embodiments provide steps in which the primary nanofiber assembly or the secondary nanofiber assembly is infiltrated with solid or gel electrolyte. Examples of such applications include electromechanical artificial muscles, electrochiomic devices, supercapacitors, and batteries. Solid-state electrolytes can also be used advantageously, since such electrolytes enable all-solid-state electrochemical devices. Suitable organic-based solid-state electrolytes include, but are not limited to, polyacrylonitrile-based solid polymer electrolytes (with salts such as potassium, lithium, magnesium, or copper perchlorate, LiAsF6, and LiN(CF3SO2)2) and ionic liquids in polymer matrices (which can provide a wide redox stability range and high cycle life for electrochemical processes). Suitable (exemplary) gel or elastomeric solid electrolytes include, but are not limited to, lithium salt-containing copolymers of polyethylene oxide (because of high redox stability windows, high electrical conductivities, and achievable elastomeric properties), electrolytes based on the random copolymer poly(epichloridrin-co-ethylene oxide), phosphoric acid containing nylons (such as nylon 6,10 or nylon 6), and hydrated poly(vinyl alcohol)/H3PO4. Other suitable gel electrolytes include polyethylene oxide and polyacrylonitrile-based electrolytes with lithium salts (like LiClO4) and ethylene and propylene carbonate plasticizers. The so called “polymer in salt” elastomers (S. S. Zhang and C. A. Angell, J. Electrochem. Soc. 143, 4047 (1996)) are also optional and suitable for lithium-ion-based devices, since they provide very high lithium ion conductivities, elastomeric properties, and a wide redox stability window (4.5-5.5 V versus Li+/Li). Optional and well-suited electrolytes for high temperature device applications include ionic glasses based on lithium ion conducting ceramics (superionic glasses), ion exchanged β-alumina (up to 1,000° C.), CaF2, La2Mo2O9 (above about 580° C.) and ZrO2/Y2O3 (up to 2,000° C.). Additional optional and suitable inorganic solid-state electrolytes include AgI, AgBr, and Ag4RbI5. Some of the proton-conducting electrolytes that are useful in invention embodiments as the solid-state electrolyte include, among other possibilities, Nafion, S-PEEK-1.6 (a sulfonated polyether ether ketone), S-PBI (a sulfonated polybenzimidazole), and phosphoric acid complexes of nylon, polyvinyl alcohol, polyacryamide, and a polybenzimidazole (such as poly[2,2′-(m-phenylene)-5,5′-bibenzimidazole]). Polymer additives (for application to either the nanofiber primary assembly or nanofiber secondary assembly) that are especially useful for making polymer-free flocculation spun fibers, ropes, films, and sheets composites include polyvinyl alcohol; poly(phenylene tetrapthalamide) type resins (examples Kevlar® and Twaron®); poly(p-phenylene benzobisoxazole) (PBO); poly(p-phenylene benzobisthiozole); and polyacrylonitrile. Polymers that are pyrolizable to produce strong or highly conductive components can optionally be pyrolized in the nanofiber secondary assembly. Heat treatment and pyrolysis (such as the heat setting in an oxidative environment and further pyrolysis of polyacrylonitrile in an inert environment) is often accomplished while the nanofiber secondary assembly, such as a fiber, is under tension. Additives for enhancing the electronic conductivities of the nanofiber secondary assemblies of invention embodiments are especially important. Among the suitable materials for enhancing electronic conductivity are (1) elemental metals and metal alloys, (2) electronically conducting organic polymers, (3) and conducting forms of carbon. These additives can be added to the nanofiber secondary assemblies by one or more of a variety of known methods for synthesizing and/or processing these materials, such as by (a) chemical reaction (such as the chemically-induced polymerization of aniline or pyrrole to make, respectively, conducting polyaniline or polypyrrole, the electrode-less plating of metals, and the pyrolysis of a polymer like polyacrylonitrile to make carbon), (b) electrochemical methods for conducting nanofiber secondary assemblies (such as the electrochemical polymerization of aniline or pyrrole to make conducting polymers and the electroplating of metals), and (c) physical deposition methods (such as the vapor deposition of metals, the infiltration of a soluble conducting polymer or a precursor therefore from solution, the infiltration of a colloidal solution of a metal or conducting polymer, or the melt infiltration of a metal). Conducting organic polymers that are suitable for infiltration into nanofiber secondary assemblies include substituted and unsubstituted polyanilines, polypyrroles, polythiophenes, polyphenylenes, and polyarylvinylenes. The synthesis of such suitable conducting polymers is well known and is described, for example, in the Handbook of Conducting Polymers, Second Edition, Eds. T. A. Skotheim, et al. (Marcel Dekker, New York, 1998). Diamond, diamond-like carbon, and other insulating forms of carbon containing sp3 hybridized carbons (possibly mixed with sp2 hydridized carbons and sp hybridized carbons) are usefully employed herein since they can all serve to insulate nanofiber secondary assemblies, especially conducting fibers, and substantially contribute to the mechanical properties of the product assembly. Infiltration or coating of the electronically conducting nanofiber secondary assemblies with these insulating forms of carbon can be done by CVD processes or by solid-state reaction of infiltrated precursors using thermal and/or pressure treatments. Typical methods that can be employed for formation of such forms of carbon on the surface or interior of nanofiber secondary assemblies are described in A. E. Ringwood, Australian Patent 601561 (1988); Y. S. Ko et al., J. Mat. Sci., 36, No. 2, 469-475 (2001); and J. Qian et al., J. Mat. Sci., 17, 2153-2160 (2002). For carbon nanofibers, palladium and palladium alloy deposition (chemically, electrochemically, or by evaporation or sputtering) is especially useful for making low resistance ohmic interconnection between nanofibers and between nanofibers and other materials. The use of this metal for minimizing electronic contacts in nanosized electronic devices is described by A. Javey, J. Guo, Q. Wang, M. Lunstrom, and H. J. Dai in Nature 424, 654-657 (2003). Palladium hydride formation by the absorption of hydrogen can be employed for tuning work function(s) so as to minimize contact resistances to and between conducting nanofibers like carbon nanotubes. Depending on the embodiment(s), the concentration of nanofibers in the fibers and other nanofiber assemblies of the present invention can be varied over a wide range, depending upon the composition of- the nanofiber dispersion used for spinning, the composition of the flocculation solution, and the composition of other fluid media employed in fabricating the secondary nanofiber assembly. For applications where additives are not useful or are harmful, the concentration of nanofibers in the secondary nanofiber assembly is typically at least 90% of the weight of the nanofiber assembly. More typically for these applications, this weight fraction of nanofibers (together with impurities introduced during nanofiber synthesis) is 98% of the weight of the nanofiber assembly (such as a fiber, rope, ribbon, or film). The nanofiber weight for filled nanotubes includes the weight of materials that are optionally used for partial or complete nanotube filling. The reason for including the weight of impurities introduced during nanofiber synthesis is that many nanofiber types are synthesized as impure materials, and there are potential cost benefits of using the as-synthesized nanofibers or partially purified nanofibers. Also, there can be performance benefits of using as-synthesized or partially purified nanotubes, since purification processes can degrade nanofiber length and potentially cause undesired chemical derivatization of the nanofibers. The preparation of the dispersions used for nanofiber spinning is optionally conducted using additives in the dispersion (dispersion aids) that are surfactants or materials that function as surfactants. Examples of suitable aids for facilitating nanofiber dispersion include, but are not limited to, sodium or lithium dodecylsulfate, octylphenol ethoxylate, sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate, sodium dodecylsulfonate, sodium n-lauroylsarcosinate, a sodium alkyl allyl sulfosuccinate, the sodium salt of poly(styrene sulfonate), charged colloidal particles, and combinations thereof. The use of charged colloidal nanoparticles for carbon nanotube dispersal is described by J. Zhu et al. in J. Phys. Chem. (2004). As an example, especially for embodiments involving spinning nanotubes, HiPco single walled nanotubes in the amount of about 0.6 wt % are dispersed in an aqueous solution comprising about 1.2 wt % lithium dodecyl sulfate (LDS) surfactant using a horn-type ultra-sonicator. The present invention is drawn, in part, to processes of making dispersions comprising long nanofibers (such as carbon nanotubes) that are suitable for spinning, since they do not contain large nanofiber aggregates. Said processes may comprise one of the steps of separating nanofibers (that are poorly dispersed or undispersed nanofibers in their unseparated form) by centrifugation of the nanofiber dispersion followed by removal of the nanofibers that are poorly dispersed or undispersed, and separating the liquid region containing primarily the undispersed or poorly dispersed nanofibers from the liquid region containing better dispersed nanofibers; a step of densification of the fraction comprising long bundles by evaporating the solvent; separating large nanofiber aggregated from better dispersed nanofibers by using filtration, wherein only the better dispersed nanofibers are able to pass readily through the chosen filter pore size; and a step of filtrating the suspension to remove nanotube aggregates that were not dispersed. The suitability of flocculants for the present spinning processes can be initially evaluated using a simple sedimentation test. In the course of the tests, various acids or bases can be added to small amounts of nanofiber dispersion for evaluation or their ability to serve as flocculation liquids. For example, Applicants find that hydrochloric, sulfuric, nitric, and phosphoric acids, and NaOH and KOH bases, cause almost instantaneous aggregation of carbon nanotube dispersions that use lithium dodecylsulfate as surfactant. The density and texture of the sediment upon visual inspection reveals some dependence on the type and concentration of the flocculating agent. Also, the type of surfactant used in dispersing the carbon nanotubes has some importance; good results for LDS suspensions were obtained using concentrated hydrochloric acid. In an embodiment of the present invention (e.g., a PFFS process), a round glass container can be filled with flocculating agent, e.g., 37% hydrochloric acid, set on a turntable and rotated at a constant speed (e.g., 33 rpm). Using a syringe and a needle with a clean cylindrical opening, a narrow jet of nanotube dispersion can be injected into a flow of the acid solution, which at close to the point of injection causes aggregation and partial alignment of nanotubes into a polymer-free nanotube fiber gel. The acid, acting as the flocculant aid, efficiently suppresses the dispersing action of the surfactant, promoting aggregation and providing support for a gel fiber forming in the liquid flow. The concentration of the agent needs to be high enough to suitably satisfy the requirement of fast surfactant neutralization. In some embodiments, the nanotube gel fiber is collected in a receiving bath or transferred directly into a wash vessel where the flocculating solution is completely removed by washing the fiber in aqueous solutions of methanol, ethanol or other solvents. Finally, the fiber is pulled out of the wash bath, stretched over a sturdy frame, and dried under tension so that gel forms a fiber having a strength that is improved relative to the case where the gel fiber is dried while not under tension. Drying under tension typically increases the alignment of nanotubes in the fiber and in other secondary nanofiber assemblies. In order to improve the degree of alignment of nanotubes, and as a consequence mechanical properties of the fiber, the fiber can be drawn in a wet state, dried, and re-drawn in a dry state. The conditions for the drawing procedure are not particularly limited, although the use of the highest degree of elongation compatible with reliable processing (free of unintended gel fiber or dried fiber rupture) is generally desirable in order to optimize the degree of nanofiber orientation, and thereby the mechanical strength and modulus of the fiber. Optionally, the dry fiber can be subjected to a steam treatment in order to be re-drawn in a wet state. In order to obtain increased mechanical strength, via the enabled higher draw in the dried state, the primary nanofiber assembly is preferably infiltrated with a polymer like poly(vinyl alcohol) prior to drying. This polymer can optionally be removed after stretching, such as by pyrolysis. A solution process can also be used for removal of polymer, but such processes alone typically result in incomplete polymer removal. In some embodiments, the secondary nanofiber assembly is subjected to a post spinning treatment. One example of a post spinning treatment is treatment of the secondary nanofiber assembly at an elevated temperature, typically between 100° C. and 2000° C., although higher temperatures can sometimes be usefully employed (especially when the nanofibers are multi-walled carbon nanofibers). For nanofibers that are reactive in the atmosphere at high temperatures, vacuum or inert atmosphere protection at these temperatures can be usefully employed. For some nanofibers (such as single wall carbon nanotubes) and some nanofiber applications, this annealing is carried out at a temperature between about 100° C. and 1500° C. For carbon nanotubes, this annealing provides for graphitization of any organic constituents that may be present in the fiber, development of carbon-carbon contacts in nanotube junctions, and perhaps cross-linking between individual bundles. At optimum conditions, annealing of the fiber can result in improvement of electrical, mechanical, and electrochemical properties of the secondary nanofiber array. Significant improvement of mechanical properties of the material can be achieved by introducing (e.g., infusing) various polymer or epoxy binders into the spun nanofiber arrays (fibers, ropes, sheets, ribbons, or films) during a post-spinning treatment. In one type of such embodiment, the primary nanofiber assembly is soaked in solutions of various polymers such as poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), polystyrene, poly(phenylene tetrapthalamide) type resins (examples Kevlar® and Twaron®); poly(p-phenylene benzobisoxazole) (PBO); poly(p-phenylene benzobisthiozole); polyaciylonitrile, and/or different epoxy precursors at room or elevated temperature. Polymer and/or epoxy precursors thereby infiltrated, such as epoxy resins, are optionally reacted to form the polymer or set epoxy. The binders can penetrate the nanofiber network and can couple the nanofibers into a composite matrix. The composite fiber can optionally be subjected to drawing in a wet and/or dry state, which can further increase nanofiber alignment and mechanical strength. For an epoxy resin, this drawing is typically done before the epoxy is fully cured. The present invention is drawn, in part, to an apparatus for preparing structures (nanofiber assemblies) comprising aligned nanofibers, said apparatus generally comprising a spinneret built from one or a number of spinning orifices (such as capillaries) with small inner diameter arranged in such a manner as to create a high shear force on the dispersion to optionally align the carbon nanotubes in the general direction of the flow. FIG. 5 illustrates a multi-tube spinneret suitable for use with some embodiments of the present invention. The following description of the apparatus refers to FIG. 8, which shows a simplified design of a single capillary spinning machine with a vertical spinning tube 805; however, the apparatus can have multiple capillaries, e.g., well over a thousand capillaries, and a horizontal or tilted spinning tube. Such apparatus (800) comprise a nanotube dispersion flocculating agent feed 803 and a flocculation solution collector 807 that provide spinning solution flow through the spinning tube 805 at a desired rate. Various means known in the art can be used to control the injection rate of the dispersion into the flocculation solution, as well as the flow rate of the flocculation solution, and the flocculation solution is typically cycled between the flocculation solution collector (807) and the flocculation solution feed (803) and optional purification means can be provided between the flocculation solution collector and the flocculation solution feed. In some embodiments, the dispersion of carbon nanotubes is introduced into the spinning tube through a needle-like spinneret 813 with an injector 801 producing a gel fiber 814. The gel fiber is then removed from the spinning tube with the aid of rollers 809, washed in an optional wash bath 811, dried, and drawn with drawing rollers 809 and wound on a spool 810 using a winding device (not shown). Heating means can be provided to accelerate the drying of the gel fiber. By tuning the relative flow rate of the flocculating agent and the carbon nanotube dispersion, the degree of alignment of the carbon nanotubes in the direction of the flow can be adjusted. Variation of the shape and dimensions of the spinneret outlet can be used to alter the shape of the gel fiber and the substantially liquid-free fiber obtained by drying the gel fiber. A rope can be optionally assembled by collecting the output from multiple spinning orifices in one article. A ribbon-like texture is typical for gel fibers spun by the PFFS process, even when the capillary diameter is largely cylindrical. Depending upon orifice diameter and cross-section geometry, as well as spinning rate and spinning solution and flocculation solution composition, the dried gel fiber takes one of the following forms: a hollow fiber with at least an approximately cylindrical cross-section, a laterally folded ribbon, a rod with an approximately rectangular cross-section, a rod with an approximately round cross-section, or any combination thereof. The present invention is drawn, in part, to largely liquid free fibers that are hollow with an approximately cylindrical cross-section, a folded ribbon, a rod with an approximately rectangular cross-section, and a rod with an approximately round cross-section, and combinations thereof, wherein the fibers comprise carbon nanotubes that are partially oriented in the fiber direction. Hollow fibers can be optionally filled with different constituents such as ionic liquid containing compositions that can be chemically or electrochemically polymerized to form an electrolyte that is useful for electrochemical application, such as for supercapacitors. The present invention is drawn, in part, to carbon nanotube ribbons that are produced by PFPS process using apparatus similar to the one schematically shown in FIG. 8. In order to preserve ribbon-like texture of the material, compression rollers depictured in FIG. 9 can be employed. Referring to FIG. 9, an as-spun gel carbon nanotube fiber 901 passes between cylinders 902 that rotate in opposite directions and are separated by the distance that is substantially less than the initial thickness of the primary fiber assembly. The rollers squeeze the gel fiber into a thin sheet-like layer 903 that is optionally washed, dried and drawn so that continuous ribbon can be collected on winding device 904. The rollers may operate at room or elevated temperature in an atmosphere that contains vapors of water and organic solvents aimed at maintaining integrity. A number of ribbons can be combined in a composite multilayer structure that may be reinforced and optionally laminated with polymer films. Alternatively several narrow ribbons can be joined in a wide continuous nanotube sheet resembling in functionally sheets of “bucky paper.” The present invention is drawn, in part, to a material of carbon nanotube assemblies exhibiting high electrical conductivity, high specific capacitance in electrolytes, and excellent electromechanical response. A substantial degree of alignment of carbon nanotubes in such produced material is observed using polarized Raman measurements. The advances disclosed herein enable the carbon nanotube (and generally other nanofiber) assemblies to be used in electronic textiles, actuators, supercapacitors, friction materials, high-temperature heaters, heat exchangers, sensors, and fiber-reinforced composites. Carbon nanotube films and ribbons prepared by similar PPFS procedures can be considered to be alternatives to carbon nanotube sheets. Because of their extremely large surface area, these films can be utilized in gas storage equipment and gas sensors and are promising for biomedical applications, such as tissue scaffolds. Also, fibers, woven textiles, ribbons, and films can work as components of various composites, such as epoxy/carbon nanotube composites. Such materials (fibers, ropes, ribbons, and films) comprising carbon nanotubes have properties needed for multifunctional applications where significant mechanical strength is combined with other functional properties, such as actuation, mechanical energy harvesting, mechanical dampening, thermal energy harvesting, and energy storage. The nanotube structures of the present invention can be utilized for the concentration and storage of gases. The fiber or ribbon geometry is useful for this application because it keeps the nanotubes in place (i.e., the nanotubes won't leave with the gas when the condensed gas converted to non-condensed gas and withdrawn from the concentration or storage vessel or means). The gas storage system can be an annular nanotube body made by winding the nanotube fiber or ribbon on a mandrel. This annular body would be contained in a cylindrical pressure vessel with a gas inlet/outlet port. An external or internal heater would be used for desorbing the stored gas. Electrical desorption of a stored gas is possible by electrical means using, for example, the resistive heating of fibers comprising conducting nanofibers (such as carbon nanotubes). The actuators enabled by the fibers, ribbons, sheets, and films of this invention may be used for the conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy, as well as the conversion of mechanical energy to electrical energy. The applications for these mechanical actuators are diverse and include, for example, robotic devices, high temperature air flow valves for aircraft engines, optical switches for optical fiber interconnects, adjustable structures for vibration suppression and failure avoidance, phase shifters for optical gyroscopes, precision electronic gyroscopes, and artificial muscles for space suits. These electromechanical actuators, made possible by the nanotube assemblies of the present invention, can provide (a) high stress-generation capabilities, (b) high gravimetric and volumetric work capabilities per cycle, and (c) high volumetric and gravimetric power generation capabilities. Additionally, such actuators can operate at low voltages that provide savings in device electronics, avoid potential safety hazards, and minimize electromagnetic interference effects. The carbon nanotube fibers of the present invention can also be used for carrying high currents. This capacity to carry high currents results from the combination of their reasonably high electrical conductivities and from their high thermal conductivity and stability (enabling substantial heating and conduction of produced heat from the fibers). The present invention provides carbon nanotube-containing fibers for use as windings on a mandrel (with optional heat set on the mandrel), enabling an exemplary use of the carbon nanotubes as motor windings, electromagnet windings, and the winding for transformers. By adjusting the injection rate of the nanotube dispersion into the flocculating solution, the diameter of the spinneret opening, and the velocity of the coagulating liquid, the shear force imposed on the nanotubes can be adjusted. Typically, the inner diameter of the spinneret tube is less than 0.0195″ (21G), and more typically less than 0.0095″ (25G). This diameter and shear flow of the nanotube dispersion into the flocculating (coagulating) solution is operable for aligning the carbon nanotubes in the direction of the flow. The following discussion more fully elaborates on the applications of the nanofiber assemblies, and of processes for the modification of these nanofiber assemblies for these applications. Electronically conducting fibers of invention embodiments (comprised of conducting nanofibers, such as carbon nanotubes) are especially useful as the conducting fibers for electronic textiles. These fibers can be used both to provide a mechanical function and an electronic function. For example, these fibers can be configured as antennas that can be woven or otherwise incorporated into textiles employed for clothing. These antennas can be used to transmit voice communications and other data, such as information on the health status, location of the wearer, and her/his body motions, as well as information collected by the wearer or by sensor devices in the clothing. The configurations employed by such antennas can be essentially the same as for conventional antennas, except that the PFFS fiber antennas can be woven or sown into the clothing textile. Replacing metal wires in electronic textiles with PFFS fibers can provide important new fainctionalities, like the ability to actuate as artificial muscles and to store energy as a fiber supercapacitor or battery. Also, for example, conducting fibers of some embodiments of this invention can be used as wires for sensors and for clothing that contains liquid crystal displays or light emitting elements (such as light emitting diodes). Similar methods can be employed for creating device structures from conventional wires and from these PPFS fibers, and guidance as to the application modes of these conventional wires is provided by E. R. Post et al. in IBM Systems Journal 39, 840-860 (2000). PPFS fibers made of superconductors, like nanofibers having the approximate composition MoS9-xIx (where x between about 4.5 and 6) can be used as superconducting cables and as superconducting wires for magnets. Nanofibers of the Nb3Sn superconductor, the MgB2 superconductor (which has a superconducting transition temperature of about 39 K), and the carbon doped MgB2 superconductor are especially suitable for use as component nanofibers for the fibers of invention embodiments that superconduct. See Y. Wu et al., Advanced Materials 13, 1487 (2001), where the growth of superconducting MgB2 nanowires by the reaction of single crystal B nanowires with the vapor of Mg is described. If desired, for applications like electron field emission, the density of these stray nanofibers can be selectively increased in different regions of the fiber by mechanical treatments or chemical treatments, including chemical treatments that result in nanofiber rupture. Examples of such mechanical treatments are, for example, abrasion between fibers and a rough surface or orifice and the ultrasonication of a PFIFS fiber (optimally while tension is applied to the fiber). Examples of such chemical processes are treatment in oxidizing acids, plasma oxidation, oxidation in air, and surface fluorination (which can be later reversed by thermal annealing). The PFFS fibers can be used as wires, and wires capable of carrying high currents. These fibers, and especially these fibers containing a conductivity enhancement aid, are especially useful for the transport of electrical currents. Advantages obtained for PFPS fibers spun from carbon nanotubes are high current carrying capacity, high temperature stability, and freedom from electro-migration effects that cause failure in small diameter copper wires. Other potential applications are, for example, as power cables and as the windings of magnets, transformers, solenoids, and motors. Because of the high porosity achievable in the PFFS fibers that are substantially polymer free, and the high electrical conductivity demonstrated herein for particular fibers (those based on carbon nanotubes), these fibers are useful as electrodes for electrochemical devices that use either electrochemical double-layer charge injection, faradaic charge injection, or a combination thereof. These devices could utilize either electrolytes that are liquid, solid-state, or a combination thereof (see above discussion of electrolytes). Examples of PFPS fiber-based electrochemical devices of this invention include supercapacitors, which have giant capacitances in comparison with those of ordinary dielectric-based capacitors, and electromechanical actuators that could be used as artificial muscles for robots. Like ordinary capacitors, carbon nanotube supercapacitors [A. B. Dalton et al., Nature 423, 703 (2003)], and electromechanical actuators [R. H. Baughman et al., Science 284, 1340 (1999)] comprise at least two electrodes separated by an electronically insulating material that is ionically conducting in electrochemical devices. The capacitance for an ordinary planar sheet capacitor inversely depends on the inter-electrode separation. In contrast, the capacitance for an electrochemical device depends on the separation between the charge on the electrode and the countercharge in the electrolyte. Because this separation is about a nanometer for nanotubes in electrodes, as compared with the micrometer or larger separations in ordinary dielectric capacitors, very large capacitances result from the high nanotube surface area accessible to the electrolyte. These capacitances (typically between 15 and 200 F/g, depending on the surface area of the nanotube array) result in large amounts of charge injection when only a few volts are applied. This charge injection is used for energy storage in nanotube supercapacitors and to provide electrode expansions and contractions that can do mechanical work in electromechanical actuators. Supercapacitors with carbon nanotube electrodes can be used for applications that require much higher power capabilities than batteries and much higher storage capacities than ordinary capacitors, such as hybrid electric vehicles that can provide rapid acceleration and store braking energy electrically. Various methods can be employed for effectively employing the PFFS fibers of invention embodiments in thermochromic devices, including those that are woven or otherwise arrayed in electronic textiles. One method is to use the PFFS fibers as heating elements to cause the color change of a thermochromic material that is overcoated or otherwise incorporated into the fiber. Another method is to utilize electrochemically-induced color changes of an electronically conducting PFFS fiber working electrode that is infiltrated or coated with an electrolyte. For this method, the counter-electrode can be another PPPS fiber that contacts the same electrolyte as does the working electrode, but other useful possibilities exist. For example, the counter-electrode can be an electronically-conducting coating on the textile that is separated from the PFFS fiber by the ionically-conducting electrolyte that is required both in order to avoid inter-electrode shorting and to provide an ion path. The electrochemically-induced chromatic change of the PFFS fiber in either the infrared, visible, or ultraviolet regions can involve either faradaic processes or non-faradaic charge injection, or any combination thereof. Electronically conducting PFFS fibers overcoated or infiltrated with a conducting organic polymer are especially useful for color change applications, and especially as fiber electrodes that provide color changes in electronic textiles. The FFFS fibers are optionally used as electrodes that change color when electrochemically charged either faradaically or non-faradaically. These chromatic changes occur for the carbon nanotube fibers in the useful region in the infrared where the atmosphere is transparent. Using these chromic materials, electronic textiles that provide pixilated chromatic changes can be obtained. Methods for electronically addressing individual pixels are widely used for liquid crystal displays and are well known, and the same methods can be used here. For example, applying a suitable potential between the ends of different PFFS fibers in a textile will selectively heat a thermochromic material which separates these fibers (and has a much lower electrical conductivity than the PFFS fibers). Conducting PFFS fibers are especially useful as fuel cell electrodes that are filled with electrolyte and contain catalyst. Because of their strength, toughness, high electrical and thermal conductivities, and porosity, the PFFS fibers are included among the suitable compositions for fuel cell applications. A fuel cell electrode can comprise a PFFS fiber (together with a penetrating electrolyte and a catalyst such as Pt), or it can comprise an array of PPFS fibers, especially including those that have been woven (or otherwise configured) into a textile. PFFS fibers wrapped on a mandrel are especially suitable for many of the above applications. This mandrel can be one that is part of the final device or can be one that is used for arraying the PPFS fiber, and then removed in following fabrication steps. The PFFS fibers of invention embodiments have special utility as chemical and mechanical sensors that can be optionally woven into textiles. These fibers can also be incorporated into composite structures to sense mechanical deformation of these structures and the occurrence of damage-causing events (before they result in catastrophic structure failure). The mechanical sensor application can use the change in fiber electrical conductivity that occurs when the fiber is deformed, or the interruption in electronic transport that occurs when the fiber is broken. For example, PFFS fibers in a soldier's uniform could provide an electronically transmissible signal indicating that a soldier has been wounded at a particular location, thereby enabling effective triage. Also, the toughness of the PFFS fibers that have been subsequently filled with polymer could provide some degree of protection against injury. Chemical sensor applications of the PPFS fibers can utilize the sensitivity of electronic transport and thermopower to sense the absorption of chemical species on the nanofibers, as well as the reaction of chemicals or biological agents with derivatized or non-derivatized surfaces. This sensitivity of carbon nanotube electrical conductivity and thermal power is well known. See P. G. Collins, K. Bradley, M. Ishigami, and A. Zettl, Science 287, 1801 (2000) and J. Kong et al., Science 287, 622 (2000). The benefit that the PFFS fibers provide is retention of the high surface area of the nanofibers and obtainable mechanical properties suitable for being incorporated in a variety of configurations, including as chemical sensors in electronic textiles. Functionalization of carbon nanotubes used for fiber spinning and incorporation of some additives into such fibers that selectively react with chemicals can make the sensor response specific in respect to particular agents. In particular, carboxylation of SWNT ends and inclusion of metal particles that are known to possess strong catalytic activity (platinum, palladium, ruthenium, their alloys, biological catalysts, etc.) provide enhancement of sensitivity and selectivity of PPFS sensors. Nanofibers, and in particular carbon nanofibers, are well known to be useful as field emission electron sources for flat panel displays, lamps, gas discharge tubes providing surge protection, and x-ray and microwave generators. See W. A. de Heer, A. Chactelain, D. Ugarte, Science 270, 1179 (1995); A. G. Rinzler et al., Science 269, 1550 (1995); N. S. Lee et al., Diamond and Related Materials 10, 265 (2001); Y. Saito, S. Uemura, Carbon 38, 169 (2000); R. Rosen et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 76, 1668 (2000); and H. Sugie et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 78, 2578 (2001). A potential applied between a carbon nanotube-containing electrode and an anode produces high local fields as a result of the small radius of the nanofiber tip and the length of the nanofiber. These local fields cause electrons to tunnel from the nanotube tip into the vacuum. Electric fields direct the field-emitted electrons toward the anode, where a phosphor produces light for flat panel display applications and (for higher applied voltages) collision with a metal target produces x-rays for x-ray tube applications. In order to increase the number of nanotube fibers on the PFFS fiber surface that are available for field-enhanced electron emission, the fiber surface can be intentionally abraded by mechanical processes, chemical processes or combinations thereof. As another example of an application mode in the electron emission source area, the PFFS fibers can be usefully employed as electron-emitting elements for an x-ray endoscope for medical exploration, or as a central electron emission element for a cylindrically-shaped high-intensity light source, where the emission phosphor is on a cylinder that is external to, and optionally approximately coaxial with, the central PFFS fiber. Carbon nanotubes are especially suitable for inclusion in PFFS fibers used in field emission applications. It is well known that carbon nanotube fibers can be used as incandescent light sources. See K. Jiang et al. in Nature 419, 801 (2002) and in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2004/0051432 A1 (Mar. 18, 2004); P. Li et al. in Applied Physics Letters 82, 1763-1765 (2003); and J. Wei et al in Applied Physics Letters 84, 4869-4871 (2004). However, the achievable mechanical properties of the PPFS fibers of the present invention can translate into increases in the lifetime of the incandescent filament and to the degree of repeated mechanical shock that the incandescent filament can withstand without failure. Catalyst particles such as metal or metal alloy particles can be incorporated in the volume (or on the surface) of an electronically conducting PFFS fiber (either by incorporating these particles in the nanofiber dispersion, the flocculation liquid, a liquid that displaces the flocculation liquid, or by other means). Well known chemical vapor deposition (CVD) methods can be used to grow nanofibers from these catalyst particles (see references below) that extend from the PFFS fiber, so as to provide field emitting nanofibers. These nanofibers are typically carbon nanotubes. Growth of nanofibers within or on the PPFS fibers of invention embodiments is likely to be more generically useful than for the purpose of fabricating an electron field emission element. These methods can be used for such purposes as (a) mechanical reinforcement of the fiber, (b) enhancing the electronic or thermal conductivity of the fiber, and (c) providing nanofibers that extend from the PFFS fiber to thereby electronically, thermally, or mechanically interconnect this fiber with surrounding elements (such as other PPFS fibers, other fibers or yarns, or a matrix material). These processes involve the steps of (1) incorporating active catalyst particles in a PFFS fiber, and (2) synthesizing nanofibers in a PFFS fiber or on the surface of a PFFS fiber by reaction catalyzed by the introduced catalyst particles. If this PFFS fiber is incorporated into a textile, this particle-catalyzed growth of nanofibers within or on the PFFS fiber can be either before or after this PPFS fiber is incorporated into a textile or other fiber array. This synthesis of nanofibers using catalyst particles can be by CVD, liquid phase synthesis, or other known means. Useful catalysts and carbon nanotube growth methods that can be employed are described, for instance, in R. G. Ding et al., Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 1, 7 (2001); J. Liu et al., MRS Bulletin 29, 244 (2004); and S. M. Bachilo et al. Journal of the American Chemical Society 125, 11186 (2003). Catalysts and growth methods for other nanofibers are described, for instance, by Y. Wu et al., in Advanced Materials 13, 1487 (2001); R. Tenne in Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 42, 5124-5132 (2003); and X. Duan and C. M. Lieber in Advanced Materials 12, 298-302 (2000), where semiconductor nanofibers having high purity are made using laser-assisted catalytic growth. The PFFS fibers, sheets, ropes, and ribbons of invention embodiments can also be used as scaffolds for the growth of tissue in either culture media or in organisms, including humans. Examples of possible application include use of the PFFS fibers, sheets, ropes, and ribbons as scaffolds for neuron growth after brain or spinal cord injury. Recent work has shown [H. Hu, Y. Ni, V. Montana, R. C. Haddon, V. Parpura, Nano Letters 4, 507 (2004); J. L. McKenzie et al., Biomaterials 25, 1309 (2004); and M. P. Mattson et al, J. of Molecular Neuroscience 14, 175 (2000)] that functioning neurons readily grow from carbon nanotubes, and that carbon fibers having diameters of about 100 nm or less retard scar growth and facilitate desired cell growth. For the purposes of modifying biocompatibility, the spun nanotubes in PFFS fibers, sheets, ropes, and ribbons can optionally be chemically derivatized or non-chemically derivatized, such as by wrapping with DNA, polypeptides, aptamers, other polymers, or with specific growth factors like 4-hydroxynonenal. The PFFS fibers, sheets, ropes, and ribbons of invention embodiments can be produced free of any additives (but desired additives can be incorporated and the component nanofibers can be derivatized) and can be obtained in highly electrically-conducting forms (like the illustrated case in the examples for carbon-nanotube-based PFFS fibers), and can be usefully strong. These PFFS fibers can be woven into either two or three dimensional textiles that could serve as frameworks for the growth of blood vessels and nerves, such frameworks being, for example, tubular structures. One major problem in using scaffolds for tissue growth is in insuring appropriate elasticity of the scaffold both during tissue growth, and after such growth has been largely accomplished. The situation is like the case of a broken bone—immobilization is desirable during the healing process, but it is desirable that normal mobility and elasticity returns after the healing process has satisfactorily progressed. The PFFS fibers, ropes, and sheets provide this tunability of elasticity if the initial scaffold material is impregnated with a host material (such as a relatively rigid bioabsorbable polymer), whose bio-regulated absorption enables the PFFS nanofiber assembly to have the elasticity associated with normal body function and mobility. The porosity, high surface area, small achieved diameters, and useful mechanical strength of PFFS fibers of invention embodiments made them ideal absorptive materials for concentrating and storing gas and liquid components. For this application the PFFS fibers are typically uninfiltrated with polymer or other materials, since such infiltration can possibly interfere with the infiltration and absorption desired during this type of application. The high electrical conductivity for substantially polymer free PFFS fibers made of such materials as carbon nanofibers facilitates their use as a material for gas component separation, concentration, and analysis. In a typical process using these conducting materials for this purpose, the PPFS fiber of fiber assembly is exposed to the analyte for a time enabling separation and concentration by absorption on the giant surface area of small diameter nanofibers and nanofiber bundles. This absorbed material can then be released by heating the PFFS fiber electrically, by radiofrequency or microwave absorption, or by the absorption of radiation at ultraviolet, visible, or infrared wavelengths. The porosity of substantially polymer-free PFFS fibers can be usefully employed for using these fibers as channels in microfluidic circuits. These microfluidic circuits can be employed, for example, to make centimeter scale or smaller “fiber laboratories” for chemical and biochemical analysis or, more exclusively, for chemical synthesis. The novelty in the above case is to use the wicking capability of substantially polymer-free PFFS fibers for the transport of chemicals for subsequent possible mixing and chemical reaction, separation (optionally along fiber lengths), and chemical analysis. These and many other types of microfluidic circuits based on substantially polymer-free PFFS fibers can optionally be arrayed on a curved or linear surface to make the final device configuration. As another exemplary configuration, these microfluidic fibers can be optionally woven, sewn, embroidered, or otherwise configured in a textile. To better define the microfluidic circuit, a fraction of the PFFS fibers can be made substantially non-interacting with the rnicrofluidic circuit, such as by appropriately choosing (or modifying) their hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity and/or porosity. These PFFS fibers used in microfluidic circuits can optionally comprise more than one textile layer, and microfluidic PFFS fibers in one textile layer can optionally transverse between textile layers. Such microfluidic circuits can be used for various purposes as, for example, in textiles in clothing that analyze biological products for health monitoring purposes. Also, microfluidic circuits based on PFFS fibers can be used for mixing fuel and oxidant for miniature fuel cells and combustion engines, so these microfluidic circuits could be used for miniature robots or micro-air vehicles. The following examples are provided to more fully illustrate some of the embodiments of the present invention, and to show by way of illustration how the inventive structure comprising polymer-free carbon nanotube assemblies can be prepared and utilized and should not be construed as limiting the invention in any way. It should be appreciated by those of skill in the art that the techniques disclosed in the examples which follow represent techniques discovered by the inventors to function well in the practice of the invention, and thus can be considered to constitute exemplary modes for its practice. However, those of skill in the art should, in light of the present disclosure, appreciate that many changes can be made in the specific embodiments that are disclosed and still obtain a like or similar result without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. EXAMPLE 1 This Example illustrates the production of polymer-free carbon nanotube fibers that have variously shaped cross-sections, including hollow nanotube fibers, in accordance with some embodiments of the present invention. Single-walled carbon nanotubes produced by high pressure carbon monoxide reaction (HiPco nanotubes from Carbon Nanotechnologies Inc., 16200 Park Row, Houston, Tex. 77084-5195) were used. These SWNTs, in the amount of 0.6 wt % were dispersed in 15 ml of aqueous 1.2 wt % lithium dodecyl sulfate (LDS) surfactant with the aid of a horn-type ultra-sonicator (Branson Sonifier 250) at a power level of 50 W applied for 18 minutes. Immediately after sonication, the dispersion was loaded into a syringe; the syringe was attached to a syringe pump (KD Scientific) and coupled to a 20 gauge needle having a cylindrical inner diameter of 0.0230 inches. A round glass container was filled with flocculating agent comprising 37% hydrochloric acid (EMD), and the filled container was set on a turntable and rotated at a constant speed of 33 rpm. The prepared dispersion was slowly injected into the flocculating agent using the 20 gauge needle, thereby producing a gel fiber. The spun fibers were transferred to a wash bath and washed several times in methanol in order to remove surfactant species and flocculating agent. Finally, the gel fiber was pulled out of the wash bath, stretched over a sturdy frame, and dried under tension so that the gel dried to produce a solid nanotube fiber. Novel hollow fibers (FIGS. 2A and 2B) can be obtained when using an injection rate of about 0.70 ml/minute. Under similar spinning conditions, fibers having the appearance of a partially collapsed ribbon fiber can also result (FIG. 2C). Solid fibers with diameters of about 15 μm or less can be obtained using a lower injection rate (e.g., ˜0.25 ml/minute), and these narrow fibers appear to result from the complete collapse of the gel fiber, which is typically initially ribbon-shaped. EXAMPLE 2 This Example describes measurements of mechanical properties for the polymer-free flocculation spun fibers of EXAMPLE 1. Measurements of fiber tensile stress vs. strain measurements were typically carried out on 15 mm lengths of the fiber in an Instron 5848 Micro Tester. Fiber weight was determined with a microbalance. Recorded force was normalized by weight per fiber length (g/cm) so that specific values for stress and Young's modulus are reported in units of MPa/(g/cm3) and GPa/(g/cm3), respectively. This density normalization was used to eliminate uncertainties in fiber cross-sectional area, which can be quite large when this cross-section is irregular. Such density-normalized mechanical properties are especially important when the weight of structural elements is important, such as for aerospace applications. This approach provides a lower limit on the tensile strength at the location of fiber failure. The obtained specific strength and specific Young's modulus for the polymer-free nanotube fibers were 30-65 MPa/g/cm3 and 6-12 GPa/g/cm3, respectively, and the elongation-to-break was in the range of about 0.8-4%. EXAMPLE 3 This Example illustrates the production of polymer-free nanotube fibers that comprise mixtures of carbon single wall and multi-wall nanotubes. Hybrid SWNT/MWNT polymer-free carbon nanotube fibers were prepared as follows. A mixture of single-walled HiPco carbon nanotubes (Carbon Nanotechnologies Inc.) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (Sunnano Co., 339 East Beijing Road, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330029, P.R. China) were used. These SWNTs and MWNTs were mixed in a ratio of 25:75 and dispersed in an amount of 0.6 wt % in 15 ml of aqueous 1 wt % lithium dodecyl sulfate (LDS) surfactant with the aid of a horn sonicator (Branson Sonifier 250) at a power level of 50 W applied for 18 minutes. Like in EXAMPLE 1, the prepared dispersion was injected into a flow of 37% hydrochloric acid, thus forming a gel fiber that was washed, drawn, and dried by a procedure essentially identical to the one described in EXAMPLE 1. EXAMPLE 4 This Example illustrates the production of polymer-free nanotube fibers that comprise mixtures of carbon nanotube fibers with imogolite nanofibers. Hybrid SWNT/imogolite polymer-free carbon nanotube fibers were prepared as follows. Single-walled carbon nanotubes HiPco nanotubes (from Carbon Nanotechnologies Inc., 16200 Park Row, Houston, Tex. 77084-5195) were used. These SWNTs, in an amount of 0.5 wt %, were dispersed in 14.9 grams of aqueous 1.2 wt % lithium dodecyl sulfate (LDS) surfactant with the aid of a bath ultra-sonicator for 20 minutes, and then a horn ultra-sonicator (Branson Sonifier 250), at power level of 50 W, was applied for 18 minutes. Approximately 0.075 grams of imogolite was weighed and added to the solution to bring the total weight of the solution to 15.0 g. The mixture was then bath-sonicated again for an additional 20 minutes. Immediately after sonication, the dispersion was put into a syringe for use as a spinning solution; the syringe was attached to a syringe pump (KD Scientific) and supplied with a 20 gauge needle as a spinneret. A round glass container was filled with a solution of flocculating (coagulating) agent comprising 37% hydrochloric acid, set on a turntable and rotated at a constant speed of 33 rpm. The prepared dispersion was slowly injected into the flocculating solution, which resulted in the formation of a gel fiber. The gel fiber was transferred to a wash bath and washed for 2 hours in HPLC-grade methanol in order to remove surfactant and coagulating agent. Finally, the gel fiber was pulled out of the wash bath, stretched over a sturdy frame, and dried under tension to produce a solid nanotube fiber. EXAMPLE 5 This Example illustrates the production of polymer-free nanotube fibers that comprise mixtures of single walled carbon nanotubes and platinum particles. Hybrid SWNT/Pt polymer-free carbon nanotube fibers were prepared as follows. Single-walled carbon nanotubes HiPco nanotubes (from Carbon Nanotechnologies Inc., 16200 Park Row, Houston, Tex. 77084-5195) and platinum black (HiSPEC 1000 from Alfa Aesar, 26 Parkridge Road, Ward Hill, Mass. 01835) were used. The platinum black in an amount of 0.1 wt % was dispersed in 14.9 grams of aqueous 1.2 wt % lithium dodecyl sulfate (LDS) surfactant with the aid of a bath ultra-sonicator for 20 minutes, and then a horn ultra-sonicator (Branson Sonifier 250), at power level of 50 W, was applied for 18 minutes. Then SWNTs in an amount of 0.3 wt % were weighed and added to the dispersion. The mixture was then bath-sonicated again for an additional 20 minutes and a horn sonicated for 42 minutes. Immediately after sonication, the dispersion was put into a syringe for use as a spinning solution; the syringe was attached to a syringe pump (KD Scientific) and supplied with a 22 gauge needle as a spinneret. A round glass container was filled with a solution of flocculating (coagulating) agent comprising 37% hydrochloric acid, set on a turntable and rotated at a constant speed of 33 rpm. The prepared dispersion was slowly injected into the flocculating solution, which resulted in the formation of a gel fiber. The gel fiber was transferred to a wash bath and washed for 2 hours in HPLC-grade methanol in order to remove surfactant and coagulating agent. Finally, the gel fiber was pulled out of the wash bath, stretched over a sturdy frame, and dried under tension to produce a solid SWNT/Pt fiber. A high magnification SEM image of the fiber and EDX spectrum of the investigated area are shown in FIG. 12. The SEM image reveals small particles incorporated into fiber body that according to microprobe analysis can be associated with Pt black. The hybrid SWNT/Pt fiber is to be used in electrical sensor applications. EXAMPLE 6 This Example illustrates the filling of the hollow polymer-free fibers of EXAMPLE 1 with a polymer, and, in particular, cylindrically-shaped hollow fibers with O-ring-like cross-sections of EXAMPLE 1, as pictured in FIG. 2A. This hollow fiber was dipped in a mixture containing 1 M methylmethacrylate, 0.75 M ethylmethylimidazolium imide ionic liquid, 0.02 M benzoyl peroxide (initiator) and 0.02 M tetraethylene glycol diacrylate (cross-linker). After dipping, the fiber was left at room temperature until the methylmethacrylate had polymerized. This hollow fiber structure, comprising hollow carbon nanotubes fibers filled with solid electrolyte, is useful for fiber-shaped carbon nanotube artificial muscles (i.e., electromechanical actuators), supercapacitors, and batteries, wherein the wall of the hollow fiber can serve as one electrode and a central wire can serve as the opposite electrode. Related devices that do not use hollow fibers are described by Baughman et al. in Science 284, 1340-1344(1999) and by Tennent et al. in U.S. Pat. No. 6,031,711. EXAMPLE 7 This Example describes an evaluation of the polymer-free nanotube fibers of EXAMPLE 1 as an electromechanical actuator for the generation of a mechanical force from a potential applied between the polymer-free nanotube fiber and a platinum mesh counter-electrode. The measured force generation was isometric, meaning that the polymer-free nanotube fiber was mechanically constrained to have constant length. In order to minimize the occurrence of creep, the polymer-free fiber of this Example was annealed at 1000° C. in argon for one hour. The electrolyte used was 1 M aqueous NaCl, and a potential applied between the nanotube fiber and the counter electrode provided the device response. The total cross-sectional area of the investigated fiber was determined by optical microscopy to be equal to about 0.00037 mm2. The electrochemically-generated force in these fibers was measured using a sensitive force transducer similar to the one used in a high precision analytical balance. The measured force change was normalized by the cross-sectional area of fiber to provide the actuator-generated stress. The fiber (attached to an arm of the force transducer) was placed in an aqueous 1 M NaCl solution, stretched under a constant stress of 64 MPa, and subjected to a periodically varied potential at a frequency of 0.03 Hz. The applied potential (measured versus saturated calomel (SCE) reference electrode) was a square wave potential, which was applied using a Gamry Instruments PC4 potentiostat. The nanotube fiber and a Pt mesh acted as the working and counter electrodes, respectively. The actuator generated stress arising from a nanotube fiber potential change (versus SCE) of from 0V to −1V was 7.0 MPa, which is about 20 times higher than for natural muscle. This result contrasts with the unusable actuator behavior of polymer-containing nanotube fibers made by the polymer coagulation spinning process, which lose their mechanical strength and swell unless the poly(vinyl alcohol) coagulation polymer is removed by pyrolysis. EXAMPLE 8 This Example illustrates improvement of mechanical properties of nanotube fibers, when gel fibers made by the method of EXAMPLE 1 are infiltrated with polymer, and then dried. The mechanical properties were measured in air. A polymer-free carbon nanotube gel fibers was spun in 37% hydrochloric acid, as described in EXAMPLE 1. Subsequent to spinning the gel fiber, but before drying the gel fiber, the gel fiber was transferred from the acid bath (the flocculating solution) into a 5% aqueous solution of poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) where it soaked for 24 hours. After rinsing in water and drying in air, the two PVA-infiltrated fibers were manually drawn by 500%. Thereafter, these fibers were drawn to break with a Instron 5848 Micro Tester. Measurements of fiber tensile stress vs. strain measurements were carried out on 15 mm lengths of the fiber in the Instron 5848 Micro Tester. Fiber weight after the manual pre-draw was determined with a microbalance. Recorded force was normalized by weight per fiber length (g/cm) so that specific values for stress and Young's modulus are reported in units of MPa/(g/cm3) and GPa/(g/cm3), respectively. These specific mechanical properties are those that are most useful for applications where fiber weight is important, such as in aircraft and space applications. The specific stress data for two identically-prepared polymer-infiltrated fibers made by polymer-free spinning process is shown in FIG. 7 and collected in Table 1. It can be seen that the specific Young's modulus (at the beginning of the stress-strain curve where the fiber is drawn to break) and specific tensile strength are 8.9 GPa/g/cm3 and 770 MPa/g/cm3, respectively. For comparison, typical specific strength and Young's modulus values for the fibers before infiltration with polymer are 30-65 MPa/g/cm3 and 6-12 GPa/g/cm3. Also, polymer infiltration increases the strain-to-break from about 0.8-4% for the polymer free fibers to about 30% or more after polymer infiltration. This example shows that polymer infiltration, followed by fiber drawing, improves the mechanical strength of the resulting fibers by a factor of 6-10. Note also, that the herein reported modulii are initial values before enhancement by final mechanical draw to rupture, and that polymer incorporation substantially increases the modulus of the drawn fiber. TABLE 1 Stress versus strain measurements for polymer infiltrated fibers produced by the method of EXAMPLE 8. Data shown here corresponds to the plots shown in FIG. 7. Fiber Number Fiber 1 Fiber 2 Specific Young Modulus (GPa/g/cm3) 8.9 4.7 Specific Tensile Strength (MPa/g/cm3) 770 600 Elongation to Break (%) 30 26 EXAMPLE 9 This Example shows that extraordinarily high fiber toughness can be obtained by infiltrating with the polymer infiltration process of EXAMPLE 8. As shown in EXAMPLE 8, the maximum achieved true tensile strength was 770 MPa/(g/cm3), and the maximum strain-to-failure was 38 %. By integration of the measured applied force versus displacement, and knowing the weight per fiber length, the toughness of this fiber was determined to be 137 J/g. This toughness exceeds that of commercial fibers used for anti-ballistic protection and is close to the maximum toughness observed for spider silk. EXAMPLE 10 This Example illustrates improvement of mechanical properties of polymer-free flocculation spun fibers as a result of post-spinning heat treatment, as well as the application of polymer-free flocculation spun fibers as an incandescent light source. Polymer-free carbon nanotube fiber was spun, washed, and dried as described in EXAMPLE 1. A section of the fiber (about 30 mm in length) was attached to two pins of an electrical connector with a conductive epoxy (Epoxy Technology Inc) and placed in glovebox with an Ar atmosphere, so that electrical current could be passed through the fiber in an oxygen-free environment. Upon applying dc voltage, the fiber was heated to a temperature of about 2000 K, which caused intense radiation (incandescence) of the material (FIG. 11), which was recorded and analyzed using a Spectroradiometer PR-650 (Photoresearch Inc). After keeping the fiber at high temperature for 10 minutes, the fiber was cooled down and removed from the glovebox. The mechanical properties of both as-spun and heat-treated fibers were tested with an Instron 5848 Micro Tester; their weight was determined with a microbalance. FIG. 10 depicts stress vs. strain plots for both the heat-treated and as-spun fibers. Specific values for failure stress and Young's modulus for as-spun and heat-treated fibers are shown in Table 2. It can be seen that the specific Young's modulus and specific tensile strength increase by 29% and 113%, respectively, as a result of this heat treatment using an applied electrical current. TABLE 2 Stress vs strain measurements for as-spun and heat treated fibers made by the polymer-free flocculation spinning process. Fiber As-spun Heat-treated Specific Young Modulus (GPa/g/cm3) 8.2 10.6 Specific Tensile Strength (MPa/g/cm3) 37.6 80.3 Elongation to Break (%) 0.8 1.0 EXAMPLE 11 This Example illustrates a preparation of carbon nanotube fibers with the aid of poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) within the acid flocculation bath. An aqueous 37% hydrochloric acid solution was mixed with 1.0% by weight PVA, heated to 90° C., and constantly stirred until the PVA was completely dissolved. HiPco single-walled carbon nanotubes, in the amount of 0.5 wt %, were dispersed in 15 ml of aqueous 1.2 wt % lithium dodecyl sulfate (LDS) with the aid of a horn-type ultra-sonicator (Branson Sonifier 250) at power level of 50 W applied for 30 minutes. Immediately after sonication, the dispersion was loaded into a syringe; the syringe was attached to a syringe pump (KD Scientific) and supplied with a needle having an inner diameter of 0.0230 inches (20 gauge). A round glass container was filled with the PVA-containing hydrochloric acid solution, set on a turntable, and rotated at a constant speed of 33 rpm The prepared dispersion was slowly injected into the flocculating agent, thereby producing a gel fiber. The gel fiber was pulled out of the wash bath and washed with methanol. The washed gel fiber was then stretched over a sturdy frame and dried under tension so that the gel fiber transformed into a solid nanotube-containing fiber that also contained PVA. EXAMPLE 12 This Example illustrates preparation of carbon nanotube ribbon using a gel fiber as a precursor. Polymer-free carbon nanotube fiber was spun as described in EXAMPLE 1 using a needle with inner diameter of 0.0540 inches (15 gauge) and washed in methanol. Subsequent to the spinning step, but before drying, the fiber was transferred to a flat Teflon-coated glass plate. A second Teflon-coated plate was put on top so that the fiber was sandwiched between two flat surfaces and formed a ribbon. After drying, the top plate was removed and the ribbon was pealed off the bottom plate. The prepared ribbon had an average thickness of about 20 μm and a width of about 6 mm. EXAMPLE 13 This Example shows that the polymer-free flocculation spun fibers of EXAMPLE 1 can have high thermal stability in an ambient atmosphere, as indicated by a high thermal stability even in a pure oxygen atmosphere. This high thermal stability, even higher than for the iron-catalyst-containing HiPco nanotube fibers used for spinning, indicates that the spinning process has not introduced a significant amount of volatile or readily pyrolizable impurities. Thermogravimetric data (TGA) for the polymer-free flocculation spun nanotube fibers were collected using a Perkin-Elmer Thermogravimetric Analyzer Pyris1 TGA using a scan rate of 5° C./minute in an oxygen flow. FIG. 4 illustrates TGA profiles for both pristine HiPco nanotubes (● and ◯) and polymer-free flocculation spun fiber derived therefrom (▪ and □), along with corresponding derivative profiles for weight loss versus temperature (dW/dT). It is seen that both samples exhibit an initial weight increase at low temperatures, which is due to oxidation of the iron catalyst, likely to Fe2O3. It is clearly evident in FIG. 4 that polymer-free flocculation spun fiber is more resistant to oxidative reaction (burning) than are the HiPco nanotubes used for the polymer-free coagulation spinning. This increased stability for the polymer-free flocculation spun fiber is likely due to partial extraction of the iron by the acid in the flocculation bath, since this catalyst and catalyst-derived iron oxide, catalyzes nanotube combustion. This high oxidative stability is one advantage of the polymer-free flocculation spun nanotube fibers over polymer coagulation spun nanotube fibers. EXAMPLE 14 This Example illustrates the use of Raman scattering measurements to probe nanotube alignment for the polymer-free flocculation spun fibers of EXAMPLE 1. Polarized Raman measurements were performed using a Jobin Yvon LabRam HR800 Raman microscope equipped with a He-Ne laser (λ=632.8 nm). It is known that the Raman intensity in the VV configuration (excitation and detection in the same polarization plane) for the tangential mode (G-line at ˜1580 cm−1 for HiPco nanotubes) decreases continuously when the angle between the nanotube axis and light polarization increases [A. Jorio et al., Phys. Rev. B, 65, 121402/1 (2002)]. The intensity ratio for polarizations of light parallel and perpendicular to the fiber axis, which is large if nanotubes in the fiber are aligned, was obtained by sampling multiple locations on the fiber and calculating an average of the G-band intensity. The Raman spectra of polymer-free flocculation spun fibers closely resemble that of HiPco nanotubes used for spinning, which is not the case for unannealed fibers spun by the super acid coagulation method of the prior art-which causes derivatization and a high degree of acid intercalation (insertion) into the nanotube bundles. Significant dependence of the intensity of Raman peaks was observed in polarized measurements as evidenced by FIG. 3 for spectra of fiber taken in the VV geometry. It can be seen from the figure that the intensity ratio for polarizations of light parallel (curve A) and perpendicular (curve B) to the fiber axis in the vicinity of the G line was equal to 5.2, which corresponds to a fairly high degree of nanotube alignment. Orientation of carbon nanotubes within the fibers of the present invention is at least partly attributed to extensional flow in the cylindrical needle and to post-spinning drying of the gel fiber under tension. As a result, the nanotubes generally assume a preferential orientation along the axis of the fiber and form aligned assemblies having walls comprised of oriented carbon nanotubes as shown in FIG. 1A. FIG. 1B is a cross-sectional SEM image of a fracture surface of the fiber. EXAMPLE 15 This Example shows that the polymer-free flocculation spun nanotube fibers of EXAMPLE 1 are capable of providing high electrical conductivities. The nanotube fibers spun in this Example are HiPco nanotubes, which are normally much less conducting than other nanotube types (e.g., laser-ablation-produced nanotubes). Cross-sectional area was determined using an optical microscope. The measured electrical conductivity is 15 S/cm for the as-produced polymer-free flocculation spun nanotube fibers and 140 S/cm for these fibers after annealing in an inert atmosphere at 1000° C. for one hour, as compared with 2 S/cm or less for the super-tough polymer coagulation spun fibers described in the literature [A. B. Dalton et al. Nature 423, 703 (2003)]. EXAMPLE 16 This Example shows that the polymer-free flocculation spun nanotube fibers of EXAMPLE 1 can provide the high specific capacitances needed for electrochemical devices such as electromechanical actuators (artificial muscles) and carbon nanotube supercapacitors. Also, this Example shows that the specific capacitance of these polymer-free flocculation spun nanotube fibers can increase upon annealing in inert atmosphere for one hour, rather than dramatically decreasing as in the case of fibers produced by the super-acid coagulation spinning method (where the high initial capacitance is due to intercalation and derivatization resulting from exposure to super acids). The capacitances of the initially produced polymer-free flocculation spun nanotube fibers and these fibers after annealing was measured using a 3-electrode cell with carbon felt as a counter electrode and Ag/Ag+ (0.01M AgNO3) as a reference electrode. The fiber was cycled in an ethylmethylimidazolium imide (EMIIm) ionic liquid electrolyte at different scan rates (50, 25, 10, and 5 mV/s) and potential windows (±1V and 2V to −1.5V). Referring to FIG. 6, cycles a, b, c, and d correspond to 50, 25, 10, and 5 mV/s, respectively. The current at a specific scan rate (where no redox processes are occurring) was taken and divided by the scan rate to obtain the capacitance (Farad, F). The specific capacitance was calculated by dividing the capacitance by the weight of the fiber. The specific capacitance of the initially produced polymer-free flocculation spun nanotube fibers was about 48 F/g and increased to about 100 F/g after annealing at 1000° C. for one hour in an inert atmosphere. This specific capacitance is much higher than the capacitance that is typically obtained for either as-produced or similarly annealed nanotube sheets (about 10-30 F/g). EXAMPLE 17 This Example describes using the nanofibers of EXAMPLE 1 (whose capacitance is characterized in EXAMPLE 16) for making an all solid-state packaged fiber supercapacitor. The polymer-free, flocculation spun, carbon nanotube-based fibers were used to fabricate fiber supercapacitors by first separately coating the electrode fiber and the counter electrode fiber with a polymer ionic liquid solid electrolyte system (methylmethacrylate polymerized in the presence of ethylmethylimidazolium imide ionic liquid electrolyte). The fibers were then placed in close proximity and re-coated with the same electrolyte. The fiber supercapacitors are seen to give a specific capacitance of 7 F/g (based on the total device weight) when cycled in the ±1.5V potential window at 5 mV/s. Furthermore, the fibers show double-layer charging, as evidenced by the “box-like” cyclic voltammograms that are characteristic of double-layer capacitors. All patents and publications referenced herein are hereby incorporated by reference. It will be understood that certain of the above-described structures, functions, and operations of the above-described embodiments are not necessary to practice the present invention and are included in the description simply for completeness of an exemplary embodiment or embodiments. In addition, it will be understood that specific structures, functions, and operations set forth in the above-described referenced patents and publications can be practiced in conjunction with the present invention, but they are not essential to its practice. It is therefore to be understood that the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described without actually departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims.	C	C01	C01B	31	02
11884905	US20080156439A1-20080703	Apparatus and Method for Removing a Temporary Substrate from an Optical Disk	ACCEPTED	20080619	20080703		[]	B32B3810	["B32B3810"]	8029643	20070822	20111004	156	344000	61755.0	OSELE	MARK	[{"inventor_name_last": "Sanocki", "inventor_name_first": "Dan Jay", "inventor_city": "Camarillo", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Dinh", "inventor_name_first": "Bang Thai", "inventor_city": "Simi Valley", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Lu", "inventor_name_first": "Brandon", "inventor_city": "Alhambra", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]	An apparatus and method for removing a temporary substrate from an optical disk is disclosed. A holding fixture (102) provides an optical disk supporting surface. A force imparting tool (118) imparts a force against an optical disk wherein a reaction force to the force imparting tool is provided by the supporting surface. The optical disk is flexed to break away and remove a temporary substrate of the optical disk.	1. An apparatus for removing a temporary substrate from an optical disk, comprising: a holding fixture for providing an optical disk supporting surface; and a force imparting tool for imparting a force against an optical disk, a reaction force to the force imparting tool being provided by the supporting surface such that the optical disk is flexed to break away and remove a temporary substrate of the optical disk. 2. The apparatus as recited in claim 1, wherein the holding fixture includes suction cups for securing an optical disk. 3. The apparatus as recited in claim 1, wherein the force imparting tool includes at least one rod. 4. The apparatus as recited in claim 1, wherein the force imparting tool includes a plate. 5. The apparatus as recited in claim 1, wherein the supporting surface includes arcuate surfaces which provide an appropriate deflection of an optical disk to break away and remove a temporary substrate of the optical disk holding fixture includes suction cups for securing an optical disk. 6. The apparatus as recited in claim 1, wherein the force imparting tool acts substantially at a center of an optical disk and the holding fixture includes two securing mechanisms connected to a side of the disk opposite the force imparting tool and diametrical opposed to each other. 7. The apparatus as recited in claim 1, wherein the supporting surface includes arcuate surfaces, which provide an appropriate deflection of an optical disk to break away and remove a temporary substrate of the optical disk. 8. An apparatus for removing a temporary substrate from an optical disk preassembly, comprising: a holding fixture for providing an optical disk supporting surface, the holding fixture including anvil portions for supporting diametrically opposing end portions on a same side of the optical disk preassembly, the anvil portions each including a pivot; and a force imparting tool for imparting a force against an optical disk preassembly such that the anvil portions rotate about their respective pivot to cause the optical disk preassembly to be flexed to break away and remove a temporary substrate of the optical disk. 9. The apparatus as recited in claim 8, wherein the holding fixture includes suction cups for securing an optical disk. 10. The apparatus as recited in claim 8, wherein the force imparting tool includes at least one rod. 11. The apparatus as recited in claim 8, wherein the force imparting tool includes a plate. 12. The apparatus as recited in claim 8, wherein the supporting surface includes recesses to alignment of an optical disk preassembly. 13. The apparatus as recited in claim 8, wherein the force imparting tool acts substantially at a center of an optical disk preassembly and the holding fixture includes two securing mechanisms connected to a side of the disk opposite the force imparting tool and diametrical opposed to each other. 14. A method for removing a temporary substrate from an optical disk preassembly, comprising the step of: imparting a force to a side of the disk opposite from a temporary substrate which is to be removed to flex and break the temporary substrate without permanent damage to other portions of the preassembly. 15. The method as recited in claim 14, wherein the step of imparting a force includes imparting the force at a center-most portion of the preassembly. 16. The method as recited in claim 14, wherein the preassembly is held in a holding fixture using suction cups prior to imparting the force. 17. The method as recited in claim 14, wherein a force imparting tool includes a rod or plate to accomplish the step of imparting a force which further comprises imparting a force that acts substantially at a center of an optical disk preassembly with a holding fixture that includes two securing mechanisms connected to a side of the disk opposite the force imparting tool and diametrical opposed to each other. 18. The method as recited in claim 14, wherein the step of imparting includes the step of pivoting portion of a holding fixture to assist in breaking and removing the temporary substrate.	<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Digital disks such as compact disks (CDs) or digital versatile disks (DVDs) may include a multiple layer process for manufacture. The disk may include a substrate having a pattern of microscopic pits or readout information applied thereto. The pattern of pits includes the digital readout information for the disk. The substrate may have one or more layers applied to it. The readout surface may have a metal applied to the surface using a surface transfer process (STP). The surface transfer process includes producing a single or dual-layer readout surface that includes a sputtered-on reflective (e.g., aluminum) layer on a temporary substrate. The temporary substrate may include polymethylmethacralate (PMMA). The metallized layer portion, which includes the metal and the temporary substrate, is transferred to the already-molded readout layer (with the readout information) having a lacquer layer formed thereon. The PMMA temporary substrate is bonded to the lacquer then, the PMMA temporary substrate is removed from the metallized portion. Removal of the temporary substrate may be performed by a stripping procedure that typically includes three steps. In the first step, a mechanical device with a knife-edge is inserted between the two half disks at the inside diameter to force separation between the two disks. Next, air pressure is applied in the separation area to propagate the separation. Finally suction cups are employed on the top and bottom surfaces of the disk to pull the halves apart. The temporary substrate is then discarded. This technique has several significant drawbacks. In the conventional mechanical stripping process, alignment of the knife edge to the inside diameter is critical. The mechanical stripping process described above also creates dust and debris, which may result in reduced product quality. Disks with lacquer or other materials in their moat (edge) area are difficult to separate using the conventional mechanical stripping technique. In addition, the reliability of the temporary substrate removal process often suffers from reliability problems due to surface defects in the metalization layer as a result of the stripping process.	<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An apparatus and method for removing a temporary substrate from an optical disk is disclosed. A holding fixture provides an optical disk supporting surface. A force-imparting tool imparts a force against an optical disk wherein a reaction force to the force-imparting tool is provided by the supporting surface. A scoring device, which allows for easier breakage of the temporary substrate may be employed. The optical disk is flexed to break away and remove a temporary substrate of the optical disk.	FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention generally relates to manufacturing optical disks such as compact disks (CDs) and digital video disks (DVDs) and, more particularly, to an apparatus and method for removing a temporary substrate from an optical disk to improve manufacturing yield and operating conditions. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Digital disks such as compact disks (CDs) or digital versatile disks (DVDs) may include a multiple layer process for manufacture. The disk may include a substrate having a pattern of microscopic pits or readout information applied thereto. The pattern of pits includes the digital readout information for the disk. The substrate may have one or more layers applied to it. The readout surface may have a metal applied to the surface using a surface transfer process (STP). The surface transfer process includes producing a single or dual-layer readout surface that includes a sputtered-on reflective (e.g., aluminum) layer on a temporary substrate. The temporary substrate may include polymethylmethacralate (PMMA). The metallized layer portion, which includes the metal and the temporary substrate, is transferred to the already-molded readout layer (with the readout information) having a lacquer layer formed thereon. The PMMA temporary substrate is bonded to the lacquer then, the PMMA temporary substrate is removed from the metallized portion. Removal of the temporary substrate may be performed by a stripping procedure that typically includes three steps. In the first step, a mechanical device with a knife-edge is inserted between the two half disks at the inside diameter to force separation between the two disks. Next, air pressure is applied in the separation area to propagate the separation. Finally suction cups are employed on the top and bottom surfaces of the disk to pull the halves apart. The temporary substrate is then discarded. This technique has several significant drawbacks. In the conventional mechanical stripping process, alignment of the knife edge to the inside diameter is critical. The mechanical stripping process described above also creates dust and debris, which may result in reduced product quality. Disks with lacquer or other materials in their moat (edge) area are difficult to separate using the conventional mechanical stripping technique. In addition, the reliability of the temporary substrate removal process often suffers from reliability problems due to surface defects in the metalization layer as a result of the stripping process. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An apparatus and method for removing a temporary substrate from an optical disk is disclosed. A holding fixture provides an optical disk supporting surface. A force-imparting tool imparts a force against an optical disk wherein a reaction force to the force-imparting tool is provided by the supporting surface. A scoring device, which allows for easier breakage of the temporary substrate may be employed. The optical disk is flexed to break away and remove a temporary substrate of the optical disk. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The advantages, nature, and various additional features of the invention will appear more fully upon consideration of the illustrative embodiments now to be described in detail in connection with accompanying drawings wherein: FIG. 1 is a flow diagram showing a method for removing a temporary substrate from an optical disk in accordance with an illustrative embodiment; FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view of a preassembly having a temporary substrate to be removed; FIGS. 3 and 4 are diagrams showing positions for bending a preassembly in the apparatus for removing a temporary substrate from an optical disk in accordance with one illustrative embodiment; FIGS. 5, 6 and 7 are diagrams showing different force imparting tool configurations in accordance with illustrative embodiments; and FIGS. 8 and 9 are diagrams showing positions for bending a preassembly in the apparatus for removing a temporary substrate from an optical disk in accordance with another illustrative embodiment. It should be understood that the drawings are for purposes of illustrating the concepts of the invention and are not necessarily the only possible configuration for illustrating the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a method and apparatus for removing a temporary substrate from a disk during a surface transfer process. An assembled disk having a temporary substrate attached thereon is flexed with pressure being applied on an opposite side of the temporary substrate. The pressure is preferably applied along a centerline of the disk until the temporary substrate breaks into two pieces. After breaking the temporary substrate, the temporary substrate can easily be removed and discarded. It is to be understood that the present invention is described in terms of a DVD manufacturing process and system; however, the present invention is much broader and may include any optical disk manufacturing process including compact disks, laser disks, etc. In addition, the present invention is applicable to any surface transfer process that employs a temporary substrate. It should be understood that the elements shown in the FIGS. may be implemented in various forms of hardware, software or combinations thereof. Preferably, these elements are implemented in hardware controlled manually or by one or more appropriately programmed general-purpose devices, which may include a processor, memory and input/output interfaces. One skilled in the art with knowledge of the present disclosure would understand that different mechanical configurations/setups and variations may be employed for achieving the desired results. Referring now in specific detail to the drawings in which like reference numerals identify similar or identical elements throughout the several views, and initially to FIG. 1, a flow diagram is presented describing method steps for removing a temporary substrate for a surface transfer process in optical disk manufacturing. In block 10, upstream manufacturing provides a first half disk, which includes pits or data thereon or therein. In one embodiment, the first half disk includes a semi-reflective coating over the pits. The first half-disk may include polycarbonate or other plastic material. In block 12, a second half disk includes a temporary substrate, which may include a fully-reflective coating over pits of data. The fully reflective coating may include a metallic layer, such as, for example, aluminum. In block 14, the first and second halves are brought together and bonded. The semi-reflective layer side of the first half and the reflective layer of the second half are bonded through use of an adhesive or bonding layer, such as, for example, lacquer. In one embodiment, the lacquer includes a thickness of between about 40 and 70 microns. The adhesive of lacquer forms a spacer layer between the reflective and semi-reflective layers. The spacer layer holds the first and second halves together and forms an optical path that permits data at the fully reflective layer to be read through the semi-reflective layer. The first and second halves bonded together will be referred to as a preassembly. FIG. 2 shows an illustrative layer stack in accordance with one useful embodiment. Preassembly 70 includes a first half layer 72 formed from a plastic, such as polycarbonate. Layer 72 includes a semi-reflective coating 74 over pits 76. A lacquer coating 78 is formed over the semi-reflective coating 74. Lacquer 78 bonds coating 74 to a fully reflective coating 80. Fully reflective coating 80 may include aluminum formed on a temporary substrate 82. Referring again to FIG. 1, in block 16, the preassembly is placed in a fixture or anvil for the removal of the temporary substrate portion of the second half. The fixture may include a plurality of different features, which provide for a clean and predictable flexure of the preassembly. In one embodiment, the preassembly is held at an exterior periphery using suction cups of other non-marring securing devices. These securing devices are preferably located on a same side of the preassembly and diametrically opposed. A force-imparting tool may include one or more end rods, or a rounded or pointed end plate that imparts a force against a portion of the preassembly, preferably along a line where a break is desired. The force-imparting tool is preferably made of a material that includes the same or softer hardness than the disk material. Force imparting tool may include polycarbonate, polytetraflouroethylene (PTFE) or other plastic material. Alternately, the force-imparting tool may include a more rigid material (e.g., aluminum) and be configured to include a lining or end portion having a same or softer material. The force-imparting tool should be free from dirt or debris, as should the surface of the preassembly to prevent damage in block 18. In block 20, the force-imparting tool is aligned along the desired break line of the temporary substrate to be removed. In block 22, the force-imparting tool is advanced to cause a controlled bending in the preassembly. The force-imparting tool engages the first half disk side and forces the temporary substrate of the second half disk to break. To enhance the controlled bending, portions of the holding fixture or anvil, which secure the preassembly, rotate in accordance with the bending force applied to the preassembly by the force-imparting tool. In one embodiment, portions of the anvil, which connect to the second half provide a motion that advances the temporary substrate toward the break line of the temporary substrate. This assists in the efficiency of the break, the transfer of the reflective surface to the lacquer and the removal of the temporary substrate from the remaining portions of the preassembly. It is to be understood that the flexure of the preassembly creates sufficient bending stress in the temporary substrate to crack it and break adhesion with the fully reflective layer, but is within the elastic range of flexure for the lacquer and first half disk layers (e.g., no plastic deformation or permanent damage to these layers). In block 24, a cap layer or another preassembly (with the temporary substrate removed) may be applied to the fully reflective surface of the preassembly. The cap layer provides a one layer data readout disk. When two preassemblies are combined a two layered data readout disk is provided, which may be the same size as the single layer disk. Rebonding of the disk portions is then performed. Referring to FIG. 3, an apparatus 100 for removing a temporary substrate carrying a layer to be transferred by a surface transfer process is illustratively shown. Apparatus 100 includes anvil portions 102, each including at least one securing mechanism 104. Securing mechanisms 104 are illustratively shown having suctions cups 104 (see locations 124 and 126 in FIGS. 5-7), which may include vacuum holes (not shown) to maintain suction therein. Mechanisms 104 may include non-marring clamps or other devices as well. If suction cups are employed for mechanisms 104, the vacuum holes may communicate with vacuum lines, which are in turn in communication with a vacuum pump (not shown). Alternately, the suction cups may be employed without a vacuum connection. Securing mechanisms 104 are preferably positioned on a same diametrical line on opposite sides of a centerline of a disk preassembly 108 or opposite sides of a center hole of a disk preassembly 108. Securing mechanisms 104 may be arranged in other operational configurations as well. Anvil portions 102 may include a recess 112, which receives the thickness of a disk preassembly 108 and assists in proper alignment of the disk preassembly 108 on anvil 102. Referring to FIGS. 3 and 4, anvil portions 102 preferably include a pivot 114 about which rotation of the anvil portion 102 is permitted. During the flexure of the preassembly 108, these anvil portions 102 will accommodate flexure to provide a more severe bending, which in turn increases the amount of stress on a temporary substrate to ensure a crack forms and propagates across the preassembly 108. In addition, by pivoting anvil portions 102 a shear force/stress is developed between layers of preassembly 108. This shearing assists in the removal of the temporary substrate of the preassembly 108. A force-imparting tool 118 includes a rod, plate or other structure for imparting a force against preassembly 108. The force is applied to a surface opposite the temporary substrate layer to be removed. Tool 118 preferably includes a material that is softer than a surface material 119 of preassembly to which it contacts. Pads or other protective coverings may be employed between the tool 118 and the surface 119. Anvil portions 102 are biased against the motion caused by tool 118. This may be provided by a spring or other biasing means (not shown). The horizontal position (disk laying flat) is the default position for the anvil portions 102. In another embodiment, the temporary substrate (82) may be scored by a cutting tool or knife to provide a predetermined break line for the temporary substrate. One or more rods having a diameter of, e.g., between about 4 mm to 10 mm in diameter and radiused at the end may be employed for tool 118. FIGS. 5, 6 and 7 show different configurations for tool 118. FIG. 4 shows tool 118 contacting preassembly 108 (or preassembly 70 in FIG. 2) at or near the center hole 110. Suction cup locations 124 and 126 are shown. FIG. 5 provides for a plurality of tools 118 which are disposed along a break line 128. FIG. 6 shows tool 118 as a plate disposed along break line 128. The suction cup positions 124 and 126 may be disposed at different locations than those depicted. For example, the suction cup positions 124 and 126 may be located further from the center hole 110. Referring again to FIG. 4, tool 118 is moved to engage and bend preassembly 108 as indicated. In one embodiment, pressurized gas 120 may be provided by a nozzle 122 to cause delamination and move the temporary substrate out of the way. Once the temporary substrate 82 is broken away, tool 118 is retracted and the preassembly returns to its flat state for further processing. Tool 118 may be coupled to an actuator or other device, which provides an advancing and retracting motion for tool 118. Referring to FIGS. 8 and 9, an alternate apparatus 200 includes a fixture 205, which provides arcuate surfaces 202. These surfaces 202 replace the need to include pivots 114. Instead, fixture 205 remains stationary during the removal of the temporary substrate 82. Surfaces 202 may be provided by cylindrical rods or include elliptical cross-sections or the like. As preassembly 108 flexes, the preassembly engages a different portion of surface 202 until a crack develops and the temporary substrate 82 breaks away. Surface 202 preferably provides a low coefficient of friction against the temporary substrate 82. Surfaces 202 may include a material such as PTFE or other materials. Having described preferred embodiments for an apparatus and method for removing a temporary substrate from an optical disk (which are intended to be illustrative and not limiting), it is noted that modifications and variations can be made by persons skilled in the art in light of the above teachings. It is therefore to be understood that changes may be made in the particular embodiments of the invention disclosed which are within the scope and spirit of the invention as outlined by the appended claims. Having thus described the invention with the details and particularity required by the patent laws, what is claimed and desired protected by Letters Patent is set forth in the appended claims.	B	B32	B32B	38	10

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